. Res'arc-h Note 85-59

BASIC SKILLS RESOURCE CENTER:

Final Report, Part 2

Rocco P. Russo, Editor

with contributions from

(. Donald F. Dansereau, J.D. Fletcher, John J. Hedl,Jr., Beau Fly Jones

Barbara L. McCombs, J. Michael O'Malley, and M.C. Wittrock

for

U Contracting Officer's Representative

Richard P. Kern

Instructional Technology Systems Technical Area

Zita M. Simutis, Chief

TRAINING RESEARCH LABORATORY

Harold F. O'Neil,Jr., Director

czm

U. S. Army

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

May 1985

ApDroved for Public release; distribution unlimoited.

8 1 2.27 2 007
BLANK PAGES 

IN THIS 

DOCUMENT 

WERE NOT 

FILMED 
U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

L. NEALE COSBY

EDGAR M. JOHNSON Colonel, IN

Technical Dircctor Comumandcr

). 4,.! [

.' .. . .

'op

I This report, as submitted by the contractor, has been cleared for release to Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) to comply with regulatory requirements. It has been given no primary distribution other than to DTIC

and will be available only through DTIC or other reference services such as the National Technical Information

Service (NTIS). The vicws, opinio.ns, and/or findings contained in this report are those of the author(st and should not be construej as an officia Depattmeri of the Army position, policy, or decision, unless so designated by other official documentation.
L . ....- .. . .. 7- 

UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Does Entered)

REPORT DOCUMENITATIOI PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS DOCUM O P E BEFORE COMPLETING FORM

1. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

ARI Research Note 85-59 ,______ A 5_ ___. 

4. TITLE (and Subtitle) 1. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED

Basic Skills Resource Center: Final Report

Final Report, Part 2 Feb. 1982 - Dec. 1984 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

7. AUTHOR(e) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)

Rocco P. Russo, editor MDA-903-82-C-0169

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK

InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc. AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS

1555 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 508, 2Q162722A791

Rosslyn, VA 22209

11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral May 1985

and Social Sciences, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, 13. NUMBER OF PAGES

Alexandria, VA 22333-5600 80 vages

t4. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & AODRESS(If different from Controlling Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of this report)

Unclassified

15a. DECL ASSI FICATION/DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE

16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)

Approved for public release, distribution unlimited.

17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abstract entered In Block 20, It different from Report)

IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Dr. Richard P. Kern, contracting officer's representative and technical monitor

This note presents the final report on one of the two basic components of the

Basic Skills Resource Center contract (tasks 1-5, 7, 9, and 11). Tasks 6, 8,

and 10 are reported in RN 85-55.

19. KEY WORDS (Continue on revere, side if neceseary and Identify by block number)

Basic Skills Education Curriculum Development

Learning Strategies

Reading Comprehension

Motivational Skills

English as a Second Language

20. ABSTRACT (Cohmkue m ,ewewm side N neeeeary nd Identity by block number)

-.. The Basic Skills Resource Center undertook the design and operation of an

information service entitled the "Military Educators Resource NETWORK" and a

2"'V> research agenda focused on learning strategies training. This final report

provides:a) a brief summary of project activities and references to related

technical project reports,b) a series of project summaries and/or abstracts

which synthesize the research activities completed through the BSRC project,

and c) a set of research implications that should be considered in planning

future learning strategy research efforts.

~~ DD DO nOM 1473 j ED9TION n OF INOV 6S IS OBSOLETE UNCLASSIFIED UCASFE

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAIIE (iPwNm Date Entered)
FORWARD

p.

The Instructional Technology Systems Technical Area of the U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences directs research in learning

strategies applications with a special focus on educational technology and

links to military education and training. This program of research is aimed

at the overall improvement of the Army's Basic Skills Education Programs.

ha

This report serves as the final project report related to the Basic Skills

Resource Center (BSRC) which included the completion of a research agenda

focused on learning strategies training. The report provides a brief description of the research activities completed through the BSRC project and a

summary of the results of these activities. Special attention is extended

to the identification of implications that should be considered in undertaking

additional research in the learning strategy field in view of the Army's

needs. These implications also highlight directions for the learning strategy , research field.

a'

99

.. aii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i

INTRODUCTION 1

PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT 1

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT 2

BACKGROUND 2

Computer-Based Learning Strategy Training Modules:

A Project Summary ....... Donald F. Dansereau 7

Overview and Purpose 9

Approach 10

Summary of Findings 11

Recommendations 14

References 15

Project-Related Reports 15 4.-

Content-Driven Comprehension Instruction: A Model

for Army Training Literature ...... Beau Fly Jones 17

Description 19

Purpose 19

Development 20

Implications/Recommendations 22

Project-Related Reports 23

V

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

Enhancements to Motivational Skills Training for Military

Technical Training Students ...... Barbara L. McCombs 25

Problem 27

Purpose 27

Approach 28

- Phase 1 28

- Phase II 29

Findings 31

- Phase I 31

- Phase 1I 31

Summary and Research Recommendations 33

Project-Related Reports 34

Description and Analyses of Learning Strategies Used by

Students of English as a Second Language ......

J. Michael O'Malley 35

Background and Purpose 37

App roach 38

- Descriptive Phase 38 - Training Phase 38

Major Findings 40

- Public School Setting 40

- Military ESL Setting 42

Implications 43

Research Recommendations 45

Project-Related Reports 45

vi

A'.' *.
I,.

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

Teaching Reading Comprehension to Adults in Basic Skills

Courses ...... M.C. Wittrock (with Richard Kelly) 47

Purpose 49

Approach and Results 49

Recommendations 50

Project-Related Reports 51

Contemporary Issues and Research in Anxiety and Learning

...... John J. Hedl , Jr. 53

Purpose of Project 55

Description of Work 55 V

Products 56

Virtual Videodisc Software Requirements ...... J.D. Fletcher 57

Purpose 59

Description of Work 59

Products 60

SUMMARY 61

Strategy Identification, Definitions, and Parameters 61

Learning Strategy Training Process 63

Research Methodology 66

Documentation and Measurement Validation 68

REFERENCES 71

vii

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Basic Skills Resource Center: Final Report

The Basic Skills Resource Center was developed and operated by InterAmerica

Research Associates, Inc. under contract with the U.S. Army Research

Institute. The BSRC project included two interfacing components: the

implementation and monitoring of applied research in the area of adult

basic skills and continuing education; and the design, implementation, and

operation of an information service. Throughout the BSRC project cycle, a

learning strategies research agenda was successfully completed that

advanced the learning strategies training research and explored the

application of technologies to this research area. In addition, the BSRC

project successfully undertook the development and operation of the

Military Educators Resource NETWORK, an information service which provided

military educators with current information relevant to basic skills and

continuing education activities. The activities associated with the

information component have been summarized in a previously prepared report

entitled "Basic Skills Resource Center: Final Report of the Military

Educators Resource NETWORK." This final report provides a summary of all

project activities completed through the BSRC research component and thus

serves as the final report of the BSRC research project.

The purposes of this report are to provide a summary of the major project

*activities undertaken through the BSRC project and to provide a reference

to the numerous project reports that have stemmed from the successful

completion of project activities. The focus of this report is the BSRC

research component which included the design and completion of a learning

strategies research agenda. Thus, this report addresses the individual

research projects completed through the BSRC research component.

ix .
Synthesis of the numerous research activities is accomplished through the

presentation of a series of papers and/or abstracts prepared by the

Principal Investigators associated with each study. Each paper provides an

overview of the research project in terms of its purpose, objectives,

results, and recommendations.

Based on the research results and recommendations, a set of implications is

identified and discussed an order to provide direction to future learning

strategies research to be undertaken by the Army Research Institute. The

following considerations are identified:

o Consideration and documentation of the learner's backiround prior to the development of learning strategies

training materials.

o Documentation of "process variables"-'(e.g., learning

environment, materials, tasks) that influence strategy

selection and effectiveness.

o C3cumentation of learner characteristics that impact on

the effectiveness and efficiency of learning strategy

use.

o Delineation of the learner's interaction with the

learning strategy training process/construction.

o Expansion of learning strategy research approaches to

incorporate qualitative and/or quantitative measures of

cognitive variables and structures.

o Acquisition of measures necessary to validate the

development and application of instruments utilized in

the research process.,-,-

A review of these special considerations should ensure that future learning

strategies research will contribute and enhance learning strategies

training efforts. In addition, a focus on these implications in future

research agendas should lead to advancements in learning strategies

training research.

""X
BASIC SKILLS RESOURCE CENTER i2'-

Final Report

Ni I

INTRODUCTION

The Basic Skills Resource Center (BSRC) has been in operation since April

1982. Operated by InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc., the BSRC assists

the Department of the Army in addressing its research and information needs

relative to its basic skills educational activities. The specific purposes

of the BSRC are: to undertake a research agenda that advances the

application of learning strategies to the basic skills educational arena

and to establish an information service that provides current information

about basic skills education to military educators asso..iated with ad'ilt

and continuing educational programs.

* PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT

This report is intended to serve as the Final Report of the tasks

undertaken and completed through the BSRC project. It is not intended to

provide an extensive summary of the numerous activities and efforts

completed throughout the project cycle, since this would result in an

unnecessary duplication of the many reports prepared by staff associated

with this project effort. Rather, this report will provide a brief

-. synthesis of the major BSRC activities and identify the detailed reports

associated with these activities. In addition, the report will highlight

several implications and/or recommendations that should be considered in

the implementation of future activities intended to advance and build upon

the extensive work completed through the BSRC project.

'.I.

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ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

The following section of this report provides a summary of the background

to the BSRC project and identifies the major project tasks completed

throughout the project cycle. In association with these tasks references

are made to specific reports that provide detailed documentation of these

project efforts. Following this overview, a series of papers are presented

which highlight the individual research activities undertaken through the

BSRC project. Each paper, prepared by the Principal Investigator

associated with the research study, briefly summarizes the study's purpose,

objectives, and results. In addition, each paper provides a reference list

to the detailed reports associated with its respective research activity.

BACKGROUND

In an effort to expand and improve its basic skills educational programs,

the Department of the Army contracted with InterAmerica Research

Associates, Inc. to develop and operate the Basic Skills Resource Center

(BSRC) project. Funded through the U.S. Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI), Contract Number MDA 903-82-C-0169,

the BSRC project has been conceptualized to assist the Army in meeting its

information and research needs relative to basic skills educational

activities. This goal was accomplished through the completion of tasks

undertaken through two interfacing components: an information and a

research component.

The information component included activities that were structured to

develop and operate an information service whose purpose was to provide

2
practitioners, administrators, and researchers within the Department of the

Army with information responsive to their educational, training, and

research needs. Initially, project staff completed a needs assessment in

order to identify the type and scope of services to be provided by the

information component (see Russo, Rivera, DeCarme, and French, in press).

Following the completion of the needs assessment, a design plan was

identified for the operation of an information service entitled "The

Military Educators Resource NETWORK" (see Rivera, Russo, and DeCarme, in

press) .

The NETWORK offered its users an variety of services. These services

included: an inquiry response service, a current awareness service, a

referral service, and a publications development and distribution service.

The NETWORK was operated for an initial pilot test period during which time

evaluative data were maintained relative to the operational status of the

NETWORK and user satisfaction with and perceptions of the NETWORK's

services. The results of the pilot test and related evaluative data were

summarized and discussed in a final report specifically related to the BSRC

information component (Russo and Foster, in press).

The BSRC research component included activities that were structured to

develop and implement a plan of related research activities relevant to

basic skills education in the Army. BSRC project staff, working closely

with ARI personnel, developed a research agenda that included the conduct

of five research studies designed to contribute to research findings

pertinent to basic skills education, learning strategies, and, when

feasible, to investigate applications of educational technology.

3
Following the development of the research plan, project staff identified

professionals whose expertise related directly to the 8SRC research goals. V

Potential principal investigators were identified based on their past and

on-going research activities and their professional publications, as well

as the review of concept papers outlining and describing suggested research

activities relevant to the project goals. These candidates were then

contacted and asked to submit a detailed research proposal related to their

specific area of expertise. Upon submission of these proposals, BSRC and

ARI staff reviewed and critiqued the proposed research studies. As part of

the review process, a research symposium was held to formally refine the

proposed studies prior to their initiation. The symposium, conducted in

May 1982, provided an opportunity for each study to be reviewed and

critiqued by researchers from various federal agencies as well as the

education community (see Russo and Shaw, 1982).

The individual research studies were initiated in June and July 1982. As "

planned, four of the research studies were completed through subcontracts

with leading professionals and institutions in the related research field.

The fifth study was undertaken by InterAmerica, capitalizing on its

expertise in the area of second language acquisition, specifically English

as a second language. Each of the studies was continually monitored by

BSRC staff based on the guidelines established through a Monitoring and

Communication System for the research agenda (see Russo, 1982).

In order to foster the awareness of each research activity as well as

promote the use of research findings and results stemming from the BSRC

research efforts, BSRC staff developed a Dissemination Plan targeted for

the research component (see Russo, 1984a). This plan encouraged each of

"4
the Principal Investigators and their staff to prepare articles for

publication in professional journals, prepare papers for presentation at

annual meetings of professional associations and organizations, and

participate in specially organized symposiums and conferences. A variety

of publications and papers were successfully completed throughout the

operational cycle of the BSRC research component (see Russo, 1984b).

The research staff associated with the individual research studies

participated in two major conferences. The first conference included the

organization and conduct of a research symposium included as part of the

annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. The

symposium was held in New Orleans, Louisiana in April 1984. Each Principal

Investigator presented a paper which outlined their research efforts and

results, as well as findings to date (see Russo (Ed.), in press).

A second conference was conducted in October 1984. The conference,

entitled the BSRC Learning Strategies Research Conference, was undertaken

to provide a forum for the BSRC staff to summarize the BSRC learning

strategies research activities and to identify recommendations for a

continuing research agenda which builds upon and advances the research

efforts accomplished through the BSRC project. The results of this

conferences are presented in the following sections of this report through

the provision of summary papers prepared by each of the Principal

Investigators of the research studies conducted through the BSRC research

component.

The remaining sections of this report include a series of five brief papers

that summarize the purpose, objectives, results, and recommendations

5 "

l. "
associated with the five BSRC research studies. In addition, two project

abstracts provide overviews of two research activities currently being

completed within the BSRC project cycle. The reports stemming from these

activities will be available concurrently with this final report of the

BSRC project.

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; Computer-Based Learning Strategy Training Modules: ~A Project Summary

Donald F. Dansereau '

~Texas Christian University

: 1I

!7
Computer-Based Learning Strategy Training Modules:

A Project Summary

Overview and Purpose

In recent years there have been a number of research and development

efforts oriented toward the direct improvement of cognitive strategies

employed by learners (see Dansereau, in press; Holley & Dansereau, 1984;

O'Neil, 1978; O'Neil & Spielberger, 1979). Although this work is in its

infancy there is substantial evidence that an individual's capacity for

acquiring and using information can be enhanced by direct training on

appropriate information processing strategies (e.g., Dansereau, Collins, et

al., 1979; Dansereau, McDonald, et al., 1979; Holley, Dansereau, McDonald,

Garland, & Collins, 1979; Dansereau, in press). More specifically,

*metacognitive strategies which encourage students to monitor their learning

activities, and cognitive strategies which require the transformation of

text into alternative forms (e.g., verbal summaries and networks) appear to

be particularly promising.

In a recent leview of the status of learning strategy research and

development, we have emphasized the need for improved strategy training

methodologies (Dansereau, in press). Although there appear to be a number

of effective cognitive and metacognitive strategies emerging from basic

research efforts, their utility is severely limited by difficulties in

communicating them to learners. Training adults to incorporate new

learning strategies into their repertoires is plagued with all of the

problems present in complex motor skills re-training (e.g., Singer, 1978),

plus additional complexities arising from the covert nature of cognitive

9
and metacognitive activity. Before effective and efficient learning

strategy training can become a practical reality, improved training

methodologies must be developed.

To remedy this situation, the present project was designed to develop

strategy training modules that combine the strengths of two promising

instructional techniques: computer-assisted instruction and cooperative

learning (peer tutoring). In overview, pairs of cooperating college

students interact with a microcomputer and each other in learning

metacognitive and cognitive strategies for processing complex, scientific

information. The microcomputer provides strategy instructions, initiates

training tasks, monitors the training activities, and provides expert

content and process feedback and reinforcement to the learner. The

students serve as models for one another, and in cooperation with the

computer, assist each other in analyzing and diagnosing the productions

that emerge from applying the strategies.

Approach

'.,* This combined methodology, which is labeled Computer-Assisted Cooperative

Learning (CACL), capitalizes on the economical source of content and

process expertise and management capabilities that can be programmed into

the computer, and the interpretive capabilities and potential for social

modeling available in human interactions. Two metastrategies are used to

guide the flow of activities during the CACL training (Dansereau, McDonald,

et al., 1979; Dansereau, in press). The input strategy, 1st degree MURDER,

includes six steps for learning text materials: (1) setting a proper Mood

for learning, (2) reading for Understanding, (3) Recalling the information

10 .
by creating summaries or networks, (4) Detecting errors or omissions in the

recall, (5) Elaborating to make the material more easily remembered, and

(6) a final Review.

The 2nd degree MURDER strategy includes six steps for using the acquired

information during task performance (1) getting into a proper Mood for the

task, (2) Understanding the goals and conditions of the task, (3) Recalling

the information relevant to the task, (4) Detecting omissions, errors, and

ways of organizing the information, (5) Elaborating the information into a

proper response, and (6) Reviewing the response to modify it if necessary.

The most important step within these metastrategies is the "Recall" step.

As a consequence we have developed a number of alternate recall activities

varying in familiarity, complexity, and structure. These variants form the

basis for the three CACL training modules that will be briefly described in

the next section.

Summary of Findings

Over the course of this project we have developed and formally evaluated

three modules designed to improve cognitive strategies during text

processing. Each of these modules is based on the MURDER metastrategies

described earlier. The primary differences in the modules involve the

recall (1st R) sub-strategy. The first module developed used summarization

as the recall sub-strategy. In this module the student is trained by

successive approximation to capture and elaborate the main ideas and

supporting details of a body of text in his or her own words and images.

The second module focused on networking, a transformation strategy that

. ' Ii
requires the student to identify important concepts or ideas in the

material and represent their interrelationships in the form of a network

map. The third module used structured summarization as the recall

sub-strategy. In this module the student is taught to use a structural

schema as a mechanism for organizing the intermittent summaries. This

schema, given the acronym DICEOX, has six major categories into which the

student places the information gained during reading: Description of the

major concept or idea, Lnventor/historical background of the idea,

Consequences of the idea, Evidence for or against the idea, Other competing

or complementary ideas, X-tra information that does not easily fit into one

of the above categories.

Three experiments were used to evaluate these modules. In each experiment

a group of students was given instructions and practice via the CACL

methodology on using 1st and 2nd degree MURDER in learning and recalling

medically related text excerpts. To evaluate effectiveness, the students

trained in this fashion were compared with students given the same

instructions and practice individually via written materials, and with

students who studied the practice materials using their regular study and

test-taking methods. Following training, all students, regardless of group

affiliation, individually studied and took free recall tests over two

passages. The first passage, which was medically related, was included to

assess direct (near) transfer of training, and the second, which contained

technical but non-medical content, was included to assess indirect (far)

transfer.

Within the pragmatic constraints that governed these three experiments

(e.g., 2 hours of training, marginally motivated college student

12
volunteers, relatively short dependent measure passages) it appears that

CACL is an effective training vehicle for simple and somewhat familiar

strategies (i.e., the MURDER metastrategies using summarization). However,

N with more complex and unfamiliar strategies such as networking and

structured summarization (DICEOX), the CACL approach is not very effective

under the experimental conditions that were imposed. Explanations based on

an overload hypothesis appear to account for these findings. It should be

noted that the negative findings with networking and structured

summarization strengthen the idea that the results of the summarization

(paraphrase/imagery) evaluation were not merely placebo (Hawthorne) effects

arising from the novelty of the CACL environment. Rather, it appears that

the summarization strategy results are sufficient to warrant the

implementation of this module in field settings.

In addition to the major training modules described previously, we have

also developed and informally evaluated a mood management module designed

to enhance the participants' affective strategies. This module, which is

based on our prior work with self-coaching and self-directed relaxation

(Collins, Dansereau, Holley, Garland, & McDonald, 1981), is designed to

improve concentration and motivation. Its primary purpose is to facilitate

the participant's progress through the modules described earlier.

In order to preliminarily evaluate this module, nine undergraduate college

students were exposed to the module and then given a two-item open-ended

questionnaire as well as an 11-item scaled questionnaire designed to assess

their reactions to the experience. Based on the results of this

questionnaire and informal observations of the participants, it appears

that the module was well received and was viewed as providing valuable

information.

13

p .'.
Recommendations

Based on our experiences during this project we recommend the following:

A. The summarization module should be implemented and tested in a field

setting.

B. The networking and structured summarization module should be improved

by:

1. Extending the training time for each module and increasing the

number of practice opportunities

2. Integrating all of the modules into a single, 15-hour training

' program. If the -summarization (paraphrase/imagery) strategy were

taught first the participants would presumably adapt to the CACL

environment and not suffer overload problems during the training of

networking and structured summarization. Further, if the "mood

management" module were provided at the "front end" of this program

it might serve to reduce motivation and concentration problems.

3. Tailoring the training approach to characteristics of the learner.

For example, there is some evidence from the structured

*summarization evaluation that field independent students should be

given CACL training while field dependent students should be given

some other form of instruction.

C. The mood component should be formally evaluated.

0. The relative contributions of cooperative learning and computerassisted instruction to the effectiveness of CACL should be assessed.

* 14

S1
References

Collins, K.W., Dansereau, D.F., Holley, C.D., Garland, J.C., & McDonald,

B.A. (1981). Control of concentration during academic tasks. Journal

of Educational Psychology, 73, 122-128.

Dansereau, D.F. (in press). Learning strategy research. In J. Segal, S.

Chipman, & R. Glaser (eds.), Thinking and learning skills: Relating

instruction to basic research. Vol. 1. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates:

Hillsdale, NJ.

Dansereau, D.F., Collins, K.W., McDonald, B.A., Holley, C.D., Garland,

J.C., Diekhoff, G., & Evans, S.H. (1979). Development and evaluation of an effective learning strategy program. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 71, 64-73.

Dansereau, D.F., McDonald, B.A., Collins, K.W., Garland, J.C., Holley,

D.C., Diekhoff, G.M., & Evans, S.H. (1979). Evaluation of a learning

strategy system. In H.F. O'Neil, Jr., & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.),

Cognitive and affective learning strategies. New York: Academic

Press.

Holley, C.D., Dansereau, D.F., McDonald, B.A., Garland, J.C., & Collins,

K.W. (1979). Evaluation of a hierarchical mapning technique as an aid

to prose processing. Contemporary Education Psychology, 4, 227-237.

O'Neil, H.F. (Ed.) (1978). Learning strategies. New York: Academic

Press.

O'Neil, H.F., & Spielberger, C.D. (Eds.) (1979). Cognitive and affective

learning strategies. New York: Academic Press.

Singer, R.N. (1978). Motor skills and learner strategies. In H.F. O'Neil,

Jr., (Ed.), Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press.

Project-Related Reports

Dansereau, D.F. (1983, February). Development and evaluation of computerbased learning strategy training modules: Interim report #1.

Unpublished manuscript.

Dansereau, D.F. (1983, September). Development and evaluation of

computer-based learning strategy training modules: Interim report #2.

Unpublished manuscript.

Dansereau, D.F., Rocklin, T.R., O'Donnell, A.M., Hythecker, V.I., Larson,

C.O., Lambiotte, J.G., Young, M.D., and Flowers, L.E. (in press).

Development and evaluation of computer-based learning strategy

training modules. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for

the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

15

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Content-Driven Comprehension Instruction:

A Model for Army Training Literature

A Summary of Research

Beau Fly Jones

Chicago Public Schools

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Content-Driven Comprehension Instruction:

A Model for Army Training Literature

A Summary of Research

Description

Over a two year period the authors developed a comprehensive manual for

o' curriculum designers, developers, teachers, publishers, and those who

manage or supervise the development of instructional materials. The manual

is divided into four parts. Part 1 provides the theoretical foundation for

L,.

the principals generated in later chapters. Specifically, these chapters

outline our assumptions about the process of comprehension and learning,

representation of information, the relationship between instruction and

. , learning, and the design and development of instructional materials. Part

2 provides guidelines for developing various types of considerate,

well-written texts: considerate prose texts, considerate graphics text,

and considerate vocabulary texts. Part 3 gives guidelines for embedding

explicit learning strategy instruction into instructional materials. There

0are guidelines for three types of learning strategies: text learning

strategies, vocabulary learning strategies, *and metacognitive learning

strategies. Part 4 provides two summary chapters: one on mastery learning

that shows how to integrate learning strategy instruction into mastery

learning units, and a summary of all of the key principles presented

throughout the manual.

A-. Purpose

In 1980, Cavert, Jones, Shtogren, Wager, Weinstein, & Whitmore (1980)

conducted a study to determine the various ways in which learning strategy

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instruction may be implemented into Army curricula. Initially, the

substance or content of the various curricula was not an issue. However,

as the study progressed, it became clear that many of the field manuals and

instructional materials were so poorly written that even efficient learners !,

would have difficulty in comprehending them. As a result, Cavert et al.

decided to include the content materials as part of the study. Among other

things, they recommended embedded learning strategies instruction into the

instructional texts for students and ove-haul of the curriculum.

Curriculum overhaul referred to reconceptuaoizing and rewriting the

subject matter texts in Field Manuals and Technical Reports as well as

providing all of the components needed to implement mastery learning.

The manual developed by Jones, Friedman, Tinzmann, and Cox was devised to

, address those two recommendations. Our overall goal was to provide a

K- research-based, comprehensive, readable guide for developing considerate

content and instructional texts that provided explicit learning strategy

instruction. Toward this end, it was' necessary to integrate research from

text analysis, graphics, instructional design, learning, reading in the

content areas, mastery learning, and assessment. The manual had several

target audiences: to policymakers who make decisions about instructional

design and development, to curriculum designers and developers, to managers

and evaluators, and to the research community.

* Development

Initially, the manual was to be addressed specifically to Army curricula

and instruction. However, as we planned the manual and wrote some initial

chapters, it became evident that there were several problems. First, we

20

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had not anticipated how much of the instructional materials involved

graphics. All of the text analysis research and considerate text

guidelines involved the substance or display of prose texts. How could

all of the rules about developing considerate text have much meaning when

so much of the instruction was contained in graphics? Our solution was to

conceptualize graphics as text and then extrapolate the rules for prose

texts to apply to graphic texts. Thus, the manual is a pioneer effort in

developing guidelines for considerate graphics texts.

Second, we discovered that the definitions for vocabulary terms were very

poorly written. Given the importance of vocabulary, it was important to

provide guidelines for developing glossaries and definitions of terms in

context. Again, there was no relevant research literature. Again, it was

necessary to extrapolate from research on prose and text display.

Third, and the biggest problem we had, was that the manual had no overall

cohesion. To explain: It was possible to provide effective and cohesive *,

guidelines for the section on different types of text because all three

chapters in considerate text were derived from research on prose texts.

Additionally, the three chapters on learning strategies were cohesive

because they were all derived from related strands of research. What was

unclear was the relationship between the section on learning strategies

instruction and the section on learning the content contained in prose,

graphic, and vocabulary texts. Essentially, learning strategies

instruction was conceptualized as an end in itself. This is not a problem

in an adjunct course when the developer can control the content of the

selections so that their length and text structures are appropriate for

each segment of learning strategies instruction.

21
In contrast, conceptualizing strategy instruction as an end in itself

fragments instruction in content courses because the rules for sequencing

learning strategy instruction are inconsistent with the need to instruct

students about the content. That is, the rules for developing learning

strategy instruction indicate that instruction for comprehending

descriptive text structures should precede instruction for comprehending

compare/contrast structures because the latter are more complex. However,

chapter 1 in the content text may begin with a compare/contrast structure.

Obviously, instruction for descriptive structures is not appropriate in

such a situation.

We solved the problem by conceptualizing learning strategy instruction as a

means to learning the content. The conceptualization radically altered

our entire approach. Instead of developing a manual that was specific for

developing Army criteria, as we had expected to do, we argued that it was

necessary to conceptualize Army curricula as a content area subject;

therefore, guidelines for instruction should apply to all content courses.

This insight gave the manual the overall cohesion it needed, but it meant

reorganizing the manual to provide general rules and examples, not ones

that were just specific to the Army. Hence, the name of the manual:

content-driven comprehension instruction.

Implications/Recommendations

V

The manual that was developed provides guidelines that are comprehensive

and robust in that they can be applied to any curriculum. However, in

spite of numerous examples to illustrate each point, it is difficult to

22

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apply general principles to specific subjects. The problem here is not in

the manual. Rather, it is that applying general rules to specific problems

is an inherently difficult process, requiring both models and opportunities

for practice, i.e., training. This could be accomplished in several ways.

First, it would be useful to develop whole sample lessons/units that were

specific to Army curricula. Second, it would be important to develop

instructional texts with practice exercises for Army instructors. This

could be done within a print or multi-media orientation. Third, it would

be useful to provide on-site training for cadres of developers/instructors

who could then be responsible for implementing the guidelines at the

various schools. Clearly, all three types of training are needed at some

point for effective implementation.

Project-Related Reports

J. Jones, B.F., Friedman, L.B., Tinzmann, M. & Cox, B.E. (in press).

" Content-driven comprehension instruction and assessment: A model for

Army training literature. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

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Enhancements to Motivational Skills Training

for Military Technical Training Students

Barbara L. McCombs

Denver Research Institute

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ENHANCEMENTS TO MOTIVATIONAL SKILLS TRAINING

FOR MILITARY TECHNICAL TRAINING STUDENTS

Problem

A skills training program for remedying motivational deficiencies related

to unsatisfactory performance in military technical training was found to

improve the subsequent test scores, test failure rates, and eliminations

from technical training in a study conducted with Air Force trainees

, (McCombs & Dobrovolny, 1982). In this study, the seven printed,

self-instructional modules of the Motivational Skills Training Program were

augmented by instructor introductions and small group discussion and

practice sessions. Given this implementation format, it was not possible

to determine if part of the success of the program--in addition to the

content of the motivational program--was due to the group experiences or to

*the presence of trained instructors who facilitated trainee acquisition and

maintenance of motivational strategies and skills. The present research

was, therefore, undertaken by the Army Research Institute to address these

issues and explore whether microcomputer-based technologies might be used

to offset or reduce instructor and group requirements for this motivational

training, thereby increasing the practical utility.of the training for

large scale implementation within Army technical training.

Purpose

,~-

This research program was divided into two phases. The goals of Phase I

were to determine the separate contribution of instructor augmentation and

group experiences to program effectiveness and to identify specific

computer-assisted instruction (CAI) enhancements for those skill training

2.

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components wh.ich benefited from instructor augmentation and group

experiences. The goals of Phase II were to design and evaluate the

effectiveness of CAI enhanced versions of the Motivational Skills Training

program and to make recommendations for future implementations of the

program within Army technical training.

Approach r

Phase I - The approach for achieving Phase I goals consisted of both an

experimental study and conceptual analysis of the motivational program.

The design for the experimental study consisted of four conditions: a

printed modules only (MO) condition, a modules plus instructor

introductions (MI) condition, a modules plus instructor introductions and

group discussions (MID) condition, and a no training control (C) condition.

Participants in the study were a total of 120 male and female students

scheduled to begin the Weapons and Armament School at Lowry Air Force Base

during the period of 21 January through 1 July 1983. When the study was

completed, data were available on 28 students in the MO condition, 17

students in the MI condition, 23 students in the MID condition, and 52

students in the C condition. Data available for analysis at the conclusion

of the experimental study included (a) pretreatment student differences by

condition in ASVAB scores, education level, self-efficacy scores, and

stress profile scores on eight subscales; and (b) posttreatment student

differences by condition in block test scores for Blocks 1 through 6,

percentage of students eliminated from the course, and percentage of

students who had failed and been retested at the end of Blocks 2 and 6 of

the course. 28

*28'!
The purpose of the Phase I conceptual analysis was to supplement the.

results of the experimental study by (a) identifying general roles and

functions of the instructor and group experiences in facilitating student I

acquisition of concepts and skills in the motivational program, (b)

selecting those roles and functions which lent themselves to a CAI format

or could easily be simulated in this format, and (c) extending the general

roles and functions identified into specific design guidelines for each of

the seven modules in the program. Procedures used to accomplish these

goals were to (1) interview the two graduate research assistants

responsible for conducting the motivational training to obtain their

comments on aspects of the introductions and group sessions that were

particularly helpful, (2) integrate interview results with the results of

the project staff's analysis of instructor and group experiences that were

* facilitative, and (3) produce design guidelines for CAI introduction and

practice segments which included general descriptions of content and

strategies to be used and estimates of lengths for each of the CAI

segments.

Phase II - A simple computer-controlled audio capability which interfaces

with the Apple lie microcomputer was developed to achieve the

personalization desired in the simulation of defined instructor and group

functions. The character "PC," created to simulate instructor functions,

was designed to enact three primary roles: facilitator, modeler, and

motivator. To provide the identified group functions of peer

identification, opportunities for shared problem solving, and peer modeling

and feedback, a set of military characters was defined. The characters

were designed to "grow" as a result of their skill training from an initial

inability to solve particular problems to competent problem solvers and

29
self-managers. This transition occurred between PC's guided CAI

introductions and CAI practice sessions for each module. Much of the

modeling provided in the CAI segments is accomplished via the

computer-controlled audio capability, while most of the actual skill

practice is provided through the CAI exercises.

The design for the experimental study consisted of six conditions: an

historical control group (HC), a current control group (CC), a CAI

introduction and practice group (CAI), a CAI introduction and instructor

practice group (CAll), an instructor introduction and CAI practice group ,

(ICAI), and an instructor introduction and practice group (11).

Participants in the study were a total of 532 students scheduled to begin

V the Electronic Communication course at Ft. Sill during the period of 25

October 1983 through 17 February 1984. The number of students in each

condition was: 53 in the HC condition, 253 in the CC condition, 55 in the

CAI condition, 61 in the CAll condition, 53 in the ICAI condition, and 57

in the II condition. Data available for analysis included (a) pretreatment

student differences by condition in ASVAB scores, Army component, sex,

initial critical thinking skills, initial judgments of self-efficacy,

initial indices of anxiety and ability to cope with stress; and (b)

,.1

posttreatment differences in critical thinking skills, judgments of

self-efficacy, indices of anxiety and ability to cope with stress,

instructor ratings to student's self-management skills, times to complete

the first and second course segments, test failures in the first and second

course segments, progress indices for the entire course, and whether

students attrited or graduated.

30
K '-Findings

Phase I- Primary findings in the experimental study were that students

in the control group did not differ from students in the experimental

groups on pretreatment measures and on end-of-block test scores for the

first six blocks of the Weapons and Armament course. The number of

students eliminated from the course, however, was highest for the control

and MO conditions, with no students eliminated in the MI and MID

conditions. In addition, test failure rates by the end of Block 6 were

lowest for students in the MID condition. These findings suggest that

instructor and group experiences enhance the subsequent effectiveness of

the Motivational Skills Training Program, with implications for student

. performance and attrition in technical training. The conceptual analysis

led to the definition of instructor and group roles and functions as well

as CAI guidelines. In addition, findings from both the experimental study

.* and contractor analysis suggested the importance of personalization and the

need for simulation of instructor and group functions within a "rich"

training media. Thus, the decision was made at the end of Phase I to

interface a computer-controlled audio capability with the Apple lie

microcomputer to provide the personalization and human simulation of

portions of the instructor and group functions.

* Phase II - Study results indicated thac students who received the

motivational training with instructor introducing/group practice sessions

(11 condition) performed better during subsequent technical training than

either students who received no motivational skills training (CC condition)

or students who received the motivational skills training via CAI with no

31?

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instructor practice (CAI and ICAI conditions). This better performance was

manifested in terms of both significantly fewer test failures and less

training time. In addition, as compared to the CC condition, students

receiving either the CAI or II conditions tended to have lower attrition

rates. Although these differences were not statistically significant, the

8.2 percent reduction for the CAI condition and the 4.4 percent reduction

for the II condition may have some practical significance in terms of

training costs. For similar students going through the EC course a year

earlier (the HC condition) attrition rates were 5.2 percent higher than for

students in the current study and progress indices for the HC as compared

with current groups was at least in part a function of new procedures being

implemented in the student battery (housing area) to improve the

performance of students not progressing through the course at a

satisfactory rate. Thus, it is likely that findings with the Motivation

Skills Training Program were attenuated in the present study.

Since study findings indicated no overall superiority of the CAI vs. II

conditions, some exploratory analyses of potential individual differences

in subsequent study performance as a function of treatment condition were

conducted. These analyses generally indicated that the CAI condition is at

least equally effective for approximately half of the students (i.e., those

students of high general ASVAB ability and those students with low

perceptions of competence or self-esteem). These findings imply that the-e

*." may be systematic and reliable individual differences that could be used in

differential treatment format assignments, thereby reducing some of the

instructor support requirements for the motivational program as well as

capitalizing on the use of microcomputer technology for this type of skill

training.

32
Summary and Research Recommendations

In general, the Motivational Skills Training Program appears to have

achieved the goal of providing needed and relevant training and to have

contributed to improvements in students' subsequent technical training

performance. The Phase II evaluation findings generally support those

found in Phase I, i.e., they substantiate the importance of instructor and

group experiences for this type of skills training. In addition, Phase II

findings indicate that CAl combined with a computer-controlled audio

capability provides an effective alternative format for motivational

training, at least for some types of students.

To further substantiate and extend present findings regarding the value of

the Motivational Skills Training Program for Army technical training

students, a number of additional research areas needs to be explored.

These include:

1. an analysis of what is learned in the motivational

program, a development of well defined measures of the

identified knowledges and skills, and an exploration of

relationships between these measures of what is learned

and subsequent student performance in technical

training;

2. investigations of individual differences predictive of

what types of students need the motivational program in

order to improve their course performance and/or reduce

their chances of attrition, and of those who would

benefit from this training, investigations of

individual differences predictive of CAI vs.

instructor/group versions of the training; and

3. an analysis, identification, and evaluation of a set of

skill maintenance strategies that can operate within

the total context of an individualized Motivational

Skills Training Program, and thereby enhance the

long-term effectiveness of this program.

33 "
Project-Related Reports

McCombs, B.L., Bruce K.L. and Lockhart, K.A. (in press). Enhancements to

motivational skill training for military technical training students:

Phase I evaluation study report. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

McCombs, B.L., Lockhart, K.A., Bruce, K.L. and Smith, G.P. (in press).

Enhancement to motivational class training for military technical

training students: Phase II evaluation study report. Alexandria, VA:

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

34
Description and Analyses of Learning Strategies

Used by Students of English as a Second Language

J. Michael O'Malley

InterAmerica Research Associates

35
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DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF LEARNING STRATEGIES

USED BY STUDENTS OF ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

- Background and Purpose

*Prior research indicates that good language learners use a variety of

strategies to develop receptive and productive skills in a second language.

However, the literature on learning strategies in second language learning

leaves unanswered a number of questions related to strategy use and

training. For example, more information is needed on the range, type, ana

frequency of strategy use with language learning tasks at different levels

of complexity by students with beginning and intermediate proficiency in

* the second language. Information is also required on the effects of

strategy training with alternative types of second language tasks, such as

vocabulary, listening, and speaking. Applied information is needed

, specifically on the potential for performing ESL learning strategy training

at Army installations, the characteristics of military ESL students, and

the setting characteristics that may influence the success of ESL strategy

training.

-The purposes of this study were (a) to describe learning strategy uses and .4.

the effects of strategy training with listening and speaking tasks for

secondary level ESL students; and (b) to determine the feasibility of

embedding learning strategy training in the Defense Language Institute

(DLI) curriculum for ESL classes at Army installations.

37

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Approach

The study was performed in two settings where ESL instruction was provided:

public secondary schools presenting ESL instruction to students from varied

foreign language backgrounds; and Army ESL classes providing instruction

largely to Hispanic Puerto Rican students and to a small percentage of

Asian students. In each setting, two phases of data collection were used

to address the purposes of the study: a descriptive phase and a training

phase.

Descriptive Phase. The descriptive phase was designed to conduct a series

of interviews regarding the use of learning strategies. Essentially the

same procedures were followed in the secondary school and Army ESL

settings. Beginning and intermediate level ESL students (70 at the

secondary level, 37 in the Army) were interviewed in order to describe the

range, type and frequency of strategy use with a variety of language

learning tasks. The tasks were as follows: pronunciation, oral drills,

vocabulary, following directions, listening to a lecture, making a brief

presentation, social communication, and operational communication (e.g.,

applying for a job). In addition, teachers of ESL students (19 in

secondary schools, 4 in the Army) were interviewed to determine if they

were aware of learning strategy approaches used by students and if they

introduced strategy training in their classrooms.

p~°.

Training Phase. The overall design of this phase of the study addressed

the feasibility and effects of strategy training. However, the specific

purposes of the training phase varied depending on whether the study was

38

.- . - - .*-. - .
'2. performed in a public school or military setting. In secondary school ESL

programs, the purpose was to evaluate the effectiveness of learni ng

strategies training among intermediate level ESL students for vocabulary,

listening, and speaking tasks. Students were randomly assigned to one of

three treatment conditions proportionate to ethnicity and sex: a

metacognitive group (n = 27), which received traiging on both metacognitive

and cognitive strategies; a cognitive group (n = 26), which received

training only on cognitive strategies; and a control group (n = 22), which

was instructed to work on the language tasks using whatever procedures they

ordinarily preferred. Strategy training for vocabulary, listening, and

speaking tasks was provided one hour daily for eight successive days with

m an additional hour devoted each to a pretest and a posttest. Cues for

strategy use were faded on successive days of training.

In Army ESL programs, the purpose of the training phase was to pilot test a

learning strategies instructional approach that was embedded in the Army's

ESL program. Students were 21 enlistees with beginning and intermediate

level proficiency in English. Seventy-five percent of the group were

Puerto Ricans; and the remaining twenty-five percent were Asians. Strategy

. training was presented 6 hours daily for 5 days using instructional

materials from the Army's ESL program that were adapted to incorporate

learning strategies for listening and speaking. The strategy training was

designed by project staff and applied to 5 lessons selected from the full

set of 42 individual DLI/ESL lesson booklets. A formative evaluation of

the strategy training procedures was conducted based on student test

performance, student reaction, and the judgment of regular Army ESL

teachers.

39
Major Findings

Public School Setting. Findings from the descriptive study in the public

school setting indicated that strategies used by students to learn English

as a second language could be classified into three broad categories: (a)

metacognitive strategies, or strategies that students use to plan, monitor,

or evaluate a learning activity; (b) cognitive strategies, or strategies

students use to manipulate new information, to organize or conceptualize

new ideas, or to relate new information to ideas already stored in memory;

and (c) social mediating strategies, or approaches used by students to

learn in cooperative-interactive settings. There were 9 metacognitive

strategies, (e.g., selective attention and self-evaluation), 16 cognitive -

strategies (e.g., inferencing and elaboration), and a single social

mediating strategy (cooperation). The frequency with which these

strategies were used varied considerably, with the most frequent uses

associated with relatively simple strategies (e.g., repetition, questions -*

for clarification), and less frequent uses for strategies requiring greater

conceptual manipulation of information (e.g., elaboration and

recombination). Further, the frequency of strategy use varied by task,

with the most extensive strategy use occurring for relatively simple tasks

(pronunciation and vocabulary), and the least extensive use occurring for

more complex tasks (listening and speaking). An additional finding from

the descriptive study was that teachers were generally unaware of students'

strategies and rarely introduced strategies while teaching, although they

expressed strong interest in gaining familiarity with learning strategy

applications.

40

i U- - V . -
Results of the training study in public school ESL classrooms indicated

g that strategy training significantly improved speaking skills for making a

brief oral presentation relative to a control group. Listening skills

significantly improved on some tests, depending on the difficulty of the

task and the strength of cues for strategy use. *When the listening task

was more difficult, and the cues for strategy use less structured,

performance on listening tasks was not significantly affected by strategy

training. Process analyses of both listening and speaking strategies

indicated that students in the treatment groups were using the strategies

on which training had occurred, except when cues were too rapidly faded on

the listening task. Based on observation and analysis of work sheets, it

was found that the control group generally failed to use any visible

strategies at all. Difficulties were encountered in implementing

vocabulary strategies which required mid-treatment modifications in the

instructional approach; nevertheless some of the findings for vocabulary

instruction were meaningful. Although no significant differences were

found overall between treatment and control conditions in vocabulary

learning, subsequent analysis revealed differences between ethnic groups.

Hispanic students in the metacognitive treatment group performed much

better than their corresponding controls on the vocabulary task, whereas

Asian students in the control group outperformed the Asian treatment group

students. These findings confirmed informal observations by instructors

which suggested that Asian students used rote repetition effectively and

resisted attempts to modify this preferred strategy, while Hispanic

• students seemed to accept applying the new strategies to vocabulary

learning.

41

V .. * . . . . . . . . . - . . *
Military ESL Setting. The results of the deicriptive study did not

differ by setting. As in the public school setting, the frequency with

'- . which individual strategies were used varied considerably, with the most

frequent uses associated with relatively simple strategies, and less

frequent uses with strategies requiring greater manipulation of

-v information. Further, the most extensive strategy use was associated with -.'

relatively simple as opposed to more complex language learning tasks.

Analyses of the total context for learning English in the Army revealed a

number of conditions which appeared to limit effective acquisition of

English. First, the students have few opportunities to speak English to

native English speakers outside the ESL classroom since they are assigned a

common barracks and rarely interact with other soldiers except to follow

direct commands. Second, the teachers may not be trained in ESL

methodology, except for inservice training on the presentation of the

DLI/ESL curriculum, and have little incentive for acquiring new skills

independent of their job due to low salaries and benefits and the absence

of opportunities for advancement. These conditions are generally conducive

to a high rate of teacher turnover. Third, the DLI/ESL instructional

approach relies upon structured methods that tend to constrain listening

skills to a limited range of phrases, generally with an accompanying

written text, delivered at a pace that is slower than authentic dialogue

required during performance of military duties. Speaking skills tend to be H, limited to repetition and choral responses to questions read by the teacher

from the DLI/ESL text, leaving little time for attention to communication Mskills required for military life.

42

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.

, The pilot test of the learning strategies instructional approach in the

Army ESL setting indicated that students responded positively to the

Ucombined learning strategies/ESL instruction and appeared to learn more

active language strategies for listening and speaking than they might have

in the standard curriculum approach. However, because all instruction for

strategy use was in English, less proficient students sometimes experienced

difficulty in learning the strategies and the language skills the

. strategies were designed to facilitate. Regular ESL teachers who observed

the training were concerned that they might have difficulty implementing

special learning strategy applications of the full 6-week ESL curriculum

due to the lack of time for planning during their regular teaching day.

Implications

U Findings from this study generally suggest that strategies can be taught

for a variety of language skills, such as listening and speaking, but that

, learning strategies are underutilized by both students and their teachers,

especially with more complex tasks. Additional descriptive research is

needed to broaden our understanding of the strategies students use and

their rationale for approaching language tasks with the strategies they

seem to prefer. Although strategy training was effective with speaking and

selected listening tasks for secondary school ESL students, additional

research is needed to explore the types of tasks, students, and settings

for which learning strategies are effective. An analysis of strategies for

receptive tasks in both reading and listening would enable hypotheses

derived from reading research to be tested with parallel listening tasks.

This should contribute to an overall improved understanding of the

conditions under which listening strategy training is effective, and

43
provide new information on reading strategies that are effective with ESL

students. Further research exploring the differential effectiveness of

vocabulary strategy training with Hispanic as contrasted with Asian

populations is also warranted, although modifications in the approach seem

appropriate given difficulties in implementation with the training. Some

of these implementationdifficulties might be resolved by combining

vocabulary instruction with training on inferencing strategies for words

presented in either written or oral text.

The results of this study also indicate that the Army setting for ESL

instruction has some severe limitations that may counteract future efforts

to enhance English language proficiency through inservice teacher training

on strategy applications alone. Additional research on learning strategies

with ESL students should be developed with consideration of the types of

students for whom the findings will eventually be applied and the context

f actors that can be expected to influence the results. With soldiers who

have few opportunities to receive sufficient English language input that is

authentic in the context of performing military duties, simulated listening

experiences may be necessary as could be obtained using a computer-assisted

random access audio device. Computer-assisted instructional support

modules teaching learning strategies to students may be a useful complement

to the structured emphasis of the DLI/ESL curriculum, and may help to

offset the difficulty of providing extensive inservice support to teachers

who are unfamiliar with learning strategies, who have limited time for

planning, and who may be subject to high turnover. Soldiers could be

taught learning strategies such as note-taking and inferencing for

following directions and for information presented either in written or

oral text. Preliminary experimentation and hypothesis testing in

44

L'1
non-military settings should provide important background leading "

eventually to applications in military environments.

Research Recommendations

A summary of additional research that needs to be explored in learning

strategies with students learning English as a second Ianguage includes the

following topics:

1. analyze the strategies students use and their rationale

for approaching language tasks with those strategies;

2. analyze the parallel between learning strategies used

with receptive skills in both reading and listening,

such as note-taking and inferencing;

3. analyze the effectiveness of learning strategy training

for different types of students, tasks, and settings;

and

4. determine the effects of computer-assisted instruction

with random-access audio to enhance listening

comprehension through the use of learning strategies.

Project-Related Reports

O'Malley, J.M., Russo, R.P., and Chamot, A.U. (in press). A review of

literature on learning strategies in the acquisition of English as a

second language: The potential for research applications.

Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and

Social Sciences.

O'Malley, J.M., Russo, R.P., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G.,

and Kupper, L. (in press-a). Learning strategies used by high school

students learning English as a second language. Alexandria, VA: U.S.

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

O'Malley, J.M., Russo, R.P., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G.,

and Kupper, L. (in press-b). The effects of learning strategies

training on the development of skills in English as a second language.

Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and

Social Sciences.

45

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Stewner-Manzanares, G., Chamot, A.U., O'Malley, J.M., Kupper, L.,

and Russo, R.P. (in press). A teacher's guide for using learning

strategies in English as a second language instruction. Alexandria,

VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences.

O'Malley, J.M., Kupper, L., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., and

Russo, R.P. (in press). A descriptive study of learning strategy

applications by English as a second language students and teachers in

the Army. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Stewner-Manzanares, G., Kupper, L., O'Malley, J.M., and Russo, R.P. (in

press). A pilot study of learning strategies training with students

* of English as a second language in the Army. Alexandria, VA: U.S. I

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

-.-4

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Teaching Reading Comprehension to

Adults in Basic Skills Courses

M.C. Wittrock

University of California, Los Angeles

with the assistance of

Richard Kelly

University of California, Los Angeles

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Teaching Reading Comprehension to

Adults in Basic Skills Courses

Purpose

In a series of three studies conducted in Basic Skills classes taught at

Ford Ord, Fort Irwin, Fort Hunter-Liggett, and Schofield Barracks, low

reading ability soldiers regularly enrolled in Basic Skills classes learned

in nine hours to increase their reading comprehension of Army manuals and

texts as well as non-technical materials. The teaching procedures and

curr;culum materials developed and presented in this research project were

based on the principles of generative learning developed by the author,

which are that low ability readers need to learn (1) to relate sentences in

Army manuals and texts to one another in an organized way, and (2) how to

relate sentences in Army manuals and non-technical materials to their

" experience and knowledge.

Approach and Results

In the first and second of the three studies, five different curricula,

each using paragraphs from Army manuals and from magazines and newspapers,

were used in Basic Skills classes. A comparable control group of soldiers

given customary Army Basic Skills instruction, taught by regular Basic

Skills teachers, and also offered on the same Army bases in the same

classrooms for the same amount of time, was used to evaluate the

effectiveness of new materials and teaching procedures. Pretests and

posttests were also given to all experimental and control classes to

49
- - -2-.

provide a second measure of effectiveness of the experimental curricula and

*the generative teaching methods.

The soldiers in each of the experimental groups showed statistically

significantly greater improvement in reading comprehension than did the

soldiers in the control group.* The second measure of effectiveness, the

gains from the pretest to the posttest, also showed the same statistically

significant increase in reading comprehension only in the experimental

treatments. The control treatment showed no gain.

In the third study in the series, the curricula and teaching procedures

developed in the first and second studies were rewritten for use with

microcomputers. The rewritten materials were presented in microcomputers

to regularly enrolled Basic Skills (BSEP) students at Fort Ord and Fort

Irwin. Statistically significant gains in improvement in reading

comprehension again occurred. In addition, the time needed for the

instruction dropped sizably, from an average of 450 minutes (nine 50-minute

class hours) to an average of 251 minutes (about five 50-minute class

hours).

Recommendations

The research indicates that reading comprehension can be sizably increased

with some soldiers at no added cost using written materials in typical

Basic Skills classes offered on Army bases by regularly emqployed BSEP

teachers working with normally enrolled BSEP soldiers. Under these

realistic and typical conditions, the reading comprehension instruction and

curricula should teach soldiers how to generate meaning by relating their

50

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I.°

knowledge and background to the manuals and other texts they read, and by

generating relations among the sentences in the text. These two basic

principles can lead to inexpensive but useful modifications in teaching and

to increases in ability to read with comprehension. The research also

implies that with microcomputers and appropriate curricula, reading

comprehension can be increased and training time can be markedly reduced,

at least with some soldiers.

Project-Related Reports

Wittrock, M.C. (in press). Teaching reading comprehension to adults in

basic skills courses--Volume I. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Wittrock, M.C. (in press). Teaching reading comprehension to adults in

basic skills courses--Volume II. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Wittrock, M.C. (in press). Teaching reading comprehension to adults in

basic skills courses--Volume Ill. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

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Contemporary Issues and Research in Anxiety and Learning

Project Abstract

John J. Hedl, Jr.

University of Texas

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Contemporary Issues and Research in Anxiety and Learning

Purpose of Project

The purpose of this project was to develop a thematic review of central

topics, theory, and research in the stress, anxiety, and performance areas

S.to identify contemporary issues and trends. The primary focus of the

project efforts centered on theory and research in the 1980-1984 period.

The project was designed to supplement prior work in the cognitive and

learning strategies domain.

Description of Work

To accomplish the primary task of developing the review, the major subtasks

of the project involved the development of a detailed outline for the

review through analysis and synthesis of related research. Based upon the

outline, a technical report was written that includes historical,

theoretical, and methodological issues and concerns, summaries of research

in the areas of attention, arousal, anxiety, and performance, and research

examples representing clinical and educational research. The report also

examines collateral areas of research that have potential for expanding our

conceptualization of the affect and cognitive areas. For example, research

on the effects of other mood states such as depression on learning and

memory, learned helplessness and cognition, attribution theory and affect,

stress and coping were reviewed for their implications for understanding

performance functioning. In addition, developmental aspects and

neuropsychological and neurobiological areas of affect research were

reviewed for major findings to date and implications for education.

55 "p
Products

A detailed Technical Report which documents the results of the review

process is being completed. The report includes a reference list and

copies of all major journal citations are provided.

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56

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Virtual Videodisc Software Requirements

J.O. Fletcher

University of Oregon

57
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Virtual Videodisc Software Requirements

Purpose

This project involved the preparation of software documentation that will

allow videodiscs prepared for different configuratibns of videodisc players

and computer interfaces to be played on a single configuration of computer,

videodisc interface, and videodisc player.

Description of Work

The Army Research Institute and other training research and development

organizations in the Army have exercised considerable leadership in the

development and evaluation of videodisc technology applied to training.

Because of the innovat;ve and original nature of this work, a variety of

videodiscs have been prepared in accordance with a variety of technical

standards for interface and control of videodiscs and their players by

computer. In order to review the varieties of videodiscs now available to

the Army, it is currently necessary to possess an equivalent variety of

computers, videodisc interface, and videodisc player hardware and software.

4 The work completed through this project allows present and future

videodiscs prepared for Army research and development efforts to be

displayed and reviewed on a single configuration of computer, videodisc

interface, and videodisc player.

50

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Products

The major product developed through this project effort is an assembler

language software documentation package. This package allows a single

computer, videodisc interface, and videodisc player to control display of a

videodisc, regardless of which videodisc player the original videodisc was

prepared for. The software documentation is written so that videodiscs

prepared for later models and/or manufacturers can be easily included. In

addition, the documentation includes a description of the features and

functional characteristics of the package and describes calling sequences,

param~eters, and software interfaces needed to use the package at the

programmer level.

60

4.
SUMMARY

Each of the research activities undertaken through the BSRC research

component incorporated a unique focus on learning strategies training as

well as considerations and/or applications of technological approaches to

strategy training. This section of the BSRC Final Report identifies

several considerations that have implications for future learning

strategies research of the type successfully completed through this

project. Four research implications are identified and discussed in the

following sections. These are:

o Strategy Identification, Definitions and Parameters

o Learning Strategy Training Process

o Research Methodology

o Documentation and Measurement Validation

Each implication is briefly discussed in terms of specific research

approaches that should be considered in addressing the basic skills

learning strategies research needs for the Army Research Institute.

Throughout this discussion, major research recommendations suggested by the

BSRC Principal Investigators are referenced, when appropriate, to emphasize

considerations for future research to be undertaken by ARI.

Strategy Identification, Definitions, and Parameters. The BSRC research

agenda included activities that were designed to identify and define

learning strategies. Although several of the studies relied upon

previously established definitions and strategy parameters, one exception

was the ESL learning strategies study (O'Malley, et al., in press-a) which

61

r- Z-e N
initiated a catalog or inventory of strategies that were relevant to the

acquisition of second languages. Activities related to the identification

and establishment of definitions for learning strategies tend to rely upon

self-reports provided by learners, direct observations, professional

beliefs and judgements and/or experimental application and review. The

lists and inventories generated through such activities attempt to

represent the entire learning strategies field, particular components, or

particular content areas. Although this is a logical first step,

additional channels need to be explored in order to answer a finer set of

operational questions. A series of such questions have been posed by

MacKeachie (1984). Included are:

o In what learning situations are particular strategies

most appropriate?

o Are particular strategies more appropriate for certain

tasks, certain materials, certain learners?

o When are particular strategies more effective or

efficient? S1

o Why are particular strategies more effective or

efficient for particular learners, different learning ,.

environments, or various learning materials?

o Are particular strategies more effective and efficient

for particular learner characteristics?

Answers to these questions can be pursued through more detailed interviews

with learners, teachers, and program managers. In addition, documentation

of the training process must be included in future research efforts focused

on strategy training. Both approaches must document the characteristics of

the learner, the learning environment and the training materials and tasks.

These considerations are supported by the research recommendations

identified through the ESL learning strategies study (O'Malley et al., in

62
press-b). Following the initial development of a catalog of strategies

relevant to ESL, expanded research activities were suggested to build upon

the initial definitions and parameters proposed. It was noted that the

individual strategies should be analyzed in terms of their use by students

and the rationale behind the learner's selection of strategies in

undertaking language tasks. In addition, further information is required

to understand the relationships between strategies and language skills such

as the receptive skills of reading and listening.

The recommendations stemming from the study of the motivational skills

training (McCombs, in press) also substantiates the need to identify the

learner characteristics or differences that would predict the need for

motivational skills training. Dansereau (in press) also notes that

- knowledge of learner characteristics would assist in tailoring the learning

strategies training approach. That is, if the characteristics of the

learner suggested motivational problems, the training approach could be

. tailored to include "mood management" techniques.

Learning Strategy Training Process. One of the central themes present in

the BSRC research agenda is the consideration that individual students are

different in their approach to learning. This implies that learning

. strategies can be trained in order to provide learners with alternate

approaches to succeed in various learning environments. Much of the

learning strategies research, including efforts completed through the BSRC

research component, tend to show positive effects for various strategies

and training approaches.

63
In the study of learning strategies training, it might be expected that "

training would pass through several stages as the learner acquires and

applies the strategies being taught. First, as the learner approaches a

task, he/she may rely upon an approach or strategy already familiar to the

learner. Thus, application of the new strategy being taught could be

hindered by the learner's normal approach to the task, thereby imposing

restrictions and delays on the "effect" of the new strategy.

*Second, as the learner becomes more skilled or practiced in the use of the

strategy being taught, the "true effects" of the strategy would begin to

surface. The learner's use of and practice with the strategy permits the

learner to become confident in its use, allowing the learner to recognize

and judge the potential of the strategy. It may be at this stage that the

learner begins to decide to accept, reject, or modify the strategy. That

is, if the learner determines that the new strategy is not as effective or

efficient as his/her current strategies, then the new strategy could be

rejected or possibly modified by the learner in order to maintain or

contribute to an individual's learning process. The final stage in

training is reached when the new strategy becomes familiar to the learner,

allowing the "true effects" of the strategy to be determined.

There are several implications to be considered in undertaking future

learning strategies training research in consideration of the above

mentioned training stages. First, each of the individual -tages should be

studied in order to determine their duration and relationship to the

learning strategy. This would help to define the time frame for training

so that the "true effects" of the strategy can be identified once the new

64
strategy becomes familiar to the learner, rather than concluding the study

during an earlier phase of the training process when minor, if any, effects

can be demonstrated. w

Second, during the training process procedures should be established to

determine if learners are truly using the strategy as taught, have modified

the strategy, or have rejected the strategy and are relo/ing upon other more

familiar strategies. Therefore, when "effects" or "no effects" are noted,

the reasons for failure and/or success can be attributed appropriately.

Finally, these training stages should be reviewed and defined in order to

determine if the duration of each stage is dependent upon the

characteristics of the new strategy (e.g., complexity) being taught or upon

.. the characteristics of the individual learner, such as the learner's

familiarity with the strategy. Information about these concerns would

provide direction to the identification of training parameters, such as

-- length of training.

These considerations are supported by the BSRC research findings and have

lead to several related recommendations. The study of computer-based

learning strategy training modules (Dansereau et al., in press) has

suggested that computer-assisted cooperative learning (CACL) was not as

effective for more complex and unfamiliar strategies (i.e., structured

summarization and networking). Thus, extended training time was

recommended for future investigations of such strategies when linked to the

CACL approach. In addition, the study of reading comprehension (Wittrock,

in press) suggests that the complexity of the strategy and task interferes

with the learner's ability to complete tasks effectively. It was noted

G5

0.2

. 05 '
that developing written representations of relationships between the text

and the learner's experiences is successful, but uncommon and difficult

for learners who are considered poor writers. Thus, additional

training/practice time and/or alternative but related tasks (e.g.,

developing graphic or verbal representations) should be considered.

The research on learning strategies relevant to English as a second

language (O'Malley et al., in press-b) provides an indication that the

vocabulary learning strategies taught to students of Asian ethnic

backgrounds may have been met with some rejection since these learners at

posttest appeared not to rely upon the strategies that had been taught

during eight hours of training/practice. In addition, the strategy

training incorporated as part of the ESL study included training on

multiple strategies. It was noted that for students with low English

proficiency, training should be quite simple and straighforward, and should

initially include instructions on one strategy at a time. 4

Research Methodology. As previously noted, the BSRC research agenda

provided an opportunity to review and rethink current definitions of

learning strategies, goals established for strategy training and the

conditions under which strategies are successful. As suggested by Mayer

(1984), a review of research assumptions associated with learning

* strategies may lead to the consideration of definitions of strategies in

l terms of learner techniques used to influence targeted cognitive processes

or the possibility of referencing learning strategies in terms of the

goal(s) or learning conditions the strategies affect.

-
Given these considerations, it may be valuable to expand the approaches to

research on learning strategies. Mayer (1984) has identified three

approaches to research on learning strategies. These include: (a) a

Behavioral Approach Model, (b) a Cognitive Approach/Quantitative Model and

(c) a Cognitive Approach/Qualitative Model.

The Behavioral Approach Model considers whether or not instructional

variables influence a change in related performance variables. Research

under this model considers only the effects strategies have on particular

performance outcomes. The Cognitive Approach/Quantitative Model examines

whether or not instructional variables affect how much processing occurs

and how much knowledge is acquired. This model incorporates a focus on

cognitive process variables and cognitive structure variables. These

variables are described in terms of how much processing is influenced and

how much knowledge is acquired. Quantification of these variables assist

in defining performance in terms of a total overall amount learned.

Finally, the Cognitive Approach/Qualitative Model examines instructional

variables and their effect on the kind of processing and the structure of

knowledge that is acquired. The focus of this model also incorporates

cognitive process and structure variables. However, these variibles are

described in terms of the kinds of processing that occurs and how the

knowledge acquired is organized. Thus, patterns of performance can be

identified.

These themes are not directly apparent in the research implications and

recommendations noted by the BSRC Principal Investigators. However, the

67
overriding tone of the recommendations established for future efforts to be

initiated by ARI does provide a concern and focus for "process-related"

information. Overall, several recommendations noted the need to understand

and study the training process in terms of (a) tailoring the training

approach and strategy selection to learner characteristics; (b) gathering

* information during training in order to determine if the strategies being

taught are being used, modified, or rejected by the learner; and (c)

- determining the individual contributions of strategies and training

approaches when treatments consist of multiple strategies and/or

approaches.

Documentation and Measurement Validation. The consideration discussed

above moves the learning strategies inquiry process into new areas that

impose special problems. For example, implementation of a research agenda

that takes into consideration cognitive process and structure variables

most likely would require the development of unique instruments that would

provide the necessary qualitative and/or quantitative variable measures.

In addition, appropriate measures would need to be identified to properly

document performance effects. These concerns are not new to researchers in

the learning strategies research field. Such issues are currently

prevalent. These include: development of procedures and instruments to

ascertain learning strategy transfer following instruction and training,

validation of questionnaires and inventories designed to identify learning

and/or study strategies, and identification of process measures which

reflect strategy use during training.

Many of the BSRC research studies undertook tasks that were unique to

particular settings, content areas, and/or student groups. These unique

68
features often required that new techniques, instruments and applications

[II of research procedures be implemented. Thus, several of the recommendations stemming from the BSRC research agenda suggest additional and similar

testing of the strategies and procedures prior to their full acceptance.

For example, McCombs (in press) suggests the development of defined

measures of the knowledges and skills acquired through the motivational

skills training, and O'Malley et al. (in press-b) recommend further

development and validation of the Learning Strategies Inventory utilized in

the ESL learning strategies study.

In summary, learning strategies research to be undertaken by the Army

Research Institute should include, when appropriate, a focus on the

following items:

0 Consideration and documentation of the learner's

background prior to the development of learning Wstrategies training materials.

o Documentation of "process variables" (e.g., learning

environment, materials, tasks) that influence strategy

selection and effectiveness.

o Documentation of learner characteristics that impact on

the effectiveness and efficiency of learning strategy

use.

o Delineation of the learner's interaction with the

learning strategy training process/construction.

o Expansion of learning strategy research approaches to

incorporate qualitative and/or quantitative measures of

cognitive variables and structures.

o Acquisition of measures necessary to validate the

development and application of instruments utilized in

the research process.

The pursuit of new research that considers the implications discussed in

this section of the BSRC Final Report will enhance the knowledge

acquisition process related to the application of learning strategies to

69roes
Army training and educational activities. Such research endeavors should

prove to be key steps to the advancement of the learning strategies

research field.

2 70. ,

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REFERENCES

Dansereau,. D.F., Rocklin, T.R., O'Donnell, A.M., Hythecker, V.I., Larson,

C.O., Lambiotte, J.G., Young, M.D., & Flowers, L.E. (in press).

Development and evaluation of computer-based learning strategy

training modules. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for

the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Mayer, R.E. (1984, October). Learning strategies: An overview. Paper

presented at the Texas A&M University Learning and Study Strategies

Conference, College Station, Texas.

McCombs, B.L., Lockhart, K.A., Bruce, K.L., & Smith, G.P. (in press).

Enhancements to motivational skills training for military training

students: Phase II evaluation study report. Alexandria, VA: U.S.

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

McKeachie, W.J. (1984, October). The need for strategy training. Paper

presented at the Texas A&M University Learning and Study Strategies

Conference, College Station, Texas.

O'Malley, J.M., Russo, R.P., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., &

Kupper, L. (in press-a). Learning strategies used by high school

students learning English as a second language. Alexandria, VA: U.S.

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

O'Malley, J.I., Russo, R.P., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., &

Kupper, L. (in press-b). The effects of learning strategies training

on the development of skills in English as a second language.

Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and

Social Sciences.

Rivera, C., Russo, R.P., & DeCarme, J. (in press). Basic skills resource

center: Military educators resource NETWORK. Alexandria, VA: U.S.

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Russo, R.P., & Shaw, E. (1982). Basic skills resource center project:

Research symposium proceedings. Unpublished manuscript. Rosslyn, VA:

InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc.

Russo, R.P. (1982). Basic skills resource center project: A monitoring

and communication system for the field-based research studies.

Unpublished manuscript. Rosslyn, VA: InterAmerica Research

Associates, Inc.

Russo, R.P. (198 4a). Basic skills resource center: Dissemination plan

for the research findings. Unpublished manuscript. Rosslyn, VA:

InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc.

Russo, R.P. (1984b). Report on the basic skills resource center dissemination activities. Unpublished manuscript. Rosslyn, VA:

InterAmerica Research Associates, Inc.

71

i i l 'o Ir. o . .
Russo, R.P. (Ed.) (in press). Basic skills resource center: Report on the

preliminary research findings. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Russo, R.P., & Foster, J.A. (in press). Basic skills resource center:

Final report of the Military Educators Resource NETWORK. Alexandria,

VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences.

Russo, R.P., Rivera, C., DeCarme, J., & French, A. (in press). Basic

skills resource center: Information component needs assessment

report. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Wittrock, M.C. (in press). Teaching reading comprehension to adults in

basic skills courses--Volume II. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

-

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