2012 Annual Report

Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce
1 

M. Boyle

R. Ritson-Williams

Introduction ����������������������������������������������������������7

Research Activities ������������������������������������������������9

Education and Outreach �������������������������������������25

Appendices����������������������������������������������������������30

Resident Scientist Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

• Chemical Ecology Lab

• Life Histories Lab

• Benthic Ecology Lab

Research Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Contents

On the cover... Free-swimming larva of a sipunculan worm from the 

Florida Current of the Gulf Stream, collected ~ 20 

miles east of the Fort Pierce Inlet. This individual is 

approximately 1.2 millimeters in length. These creatures 

are part of an ongoing and comprehensive study on the 

evolution and development of life history diversity within 

Sipuncula. For more information, see page 14.

“...discovering and 

understanding life’s 

diversity...”
The characteristic 

prop roots of the 

red mangrove, 

Rhizophora mangle

R. Ritson-Williams

Introduction

The Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce (SMSFP) is 

a center for research and education in the marine sciences, 

specializing in studies of biodiversity and ecology of the 

marine and estuarine ecosystems of central and south 

Florida. The facility is a field station of the Smithsonian 

Institution, administered by the National Museum of 

Natural History (NMNH). The Station provides unique 

opportunities to conduct marine field research, with the 

availability of excellent laboratory facilities, in a region of 

the continental United States with high marine biodiversity.

The Smithsonian Marine Station hosts Smithsonian 

scientists and their colleagues from around the world, with 

over 100 scientific visitors annually.
 4 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 5 T. Smoyer T. Smoyer T. Smoyer T. Smoyer L. Diederick

Introduction

The Smithsonian Marine Station is 

located on the Indian River Lagoon (IRL), an 

estuary extending along one third the length 

of the east coast of Florida that is widely 

recognized as one of the most diverse estuaries 

in North America and has been designated by 

the Environmental Protection Agency as an 

estuary of national significance. This region of 

Florida’s coast, characterized as a transitional 

zone where temperate and tropical waters 

overlap, offers access to a great variety of 

habitats and an extraordinary diversity of both 

temperate and tropical species. In the Indian 

River Lagoon the variety of habitats ranges 

from mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrass 

beds to sand and mud flats, and intertidal 

oyster beds. Along the coastal shores of the 

barrier islands, which separate the lagoon 

from the Atlantic Ocean, are long stretches of 

sandy beaches, and in the nearshore waters, 

paralleling the shoreline, are a series of ridges 

formed by coquina outcrops, which in shallow 

waters provide a substratum for sabellariid 

worm reefs. The broad continental shelf with 

its sandy plains and shoals extends offshore 

to the Florida Current, a component of the 

Gulf Stream System. Along the edge of the 

continental shelf just to the north of Fort 

Pierce and continuing northward for 167 

km is a unique Oculina coral reef formation.

Located at depths from 70-100 m and 

consisting of pinnacles from 3-35 m in height, 

this unusual deep water ahermatypic (lacking 

zooxanthellae) Oculina reef formation has been 

recognized by the National Oceanographic 

Atmospheric Administration as a Habitat 

of Particular Concern. To the south of Fort 

Pierce, within a few hours of travel, are Florida 

Bay and the Florida Keys, the only living 

tropical coral reefs in the continental United 

States.

The facilities at the Smithsonian 

Marine Station include an 8,000 square foot 

building containing laboratories for histology, 

chemistry, electron microscopy, electrophoresis, 

DNA studies, and offices and laboratories 

for use by resident staff, visiting scientists, 

and postdoctoral and pre-doctoral fellowship 

recipients. Specialized equipment in these 

laboratories includes recirculating seawater 

systems, temperature-controlled aquaria and 

incubators, equipment for preparing tissues 

for light and electron microscopy, an ultracold freezer, equipment for electrophoresis, a 

thermocycler for DNA amplification, highperformance liquid chromatographs, a gas 

chromatograph/mass spectrometer, and a UVvisual spectrophotometer. For microscopic 

studies, equipment is available for light, 

epifluorescent, and Nomarski microscopy, 

time lapse and normal speed cinematography, 

photomicrography, macro photography, video 

recording and editing, inverted microscopy, 

scanning confocal laser microscopy with 

enhanced computer operated image analysis 

system. A 2,400 sq. ft. storage building 

includes an expanded shop with new power 

tools including a commercial quality vertical 

band saw, horizontal band saw, and drill press. 

An outside shade house is also available for 

experiments in growth studies of vascular 

plants. A wet laboratory with flow-through 

seawater system piped from the Ft. Pierce Inlet 

greatly enhances the ability to maintain marine 

organisms and conduct experiments. 

Donated by Peter and Jeanne Tyson, the 

Tyson House provides temporary lodging 

for visiting scientists.

NMNH Director Cristián Samper, with SMSFP 

Director Emeritus Mary Rice, and Head 

Scientist Valerie Paul (left to right).

RESEARCH CHEMIST SARATH GUNASEKARA DISCUSSES 

MARINE NATURAL PRODUCTS DURING A TOUR OF SMSFP.

THE MAIN LAB AND ADMINISTRATION BUILDING OF THE 

SMITHSONIAN MARINE STATION AT FORT PIERCE.

A young visitor to SMS Open House peers 

at plankton under a dissecting scope.
 6 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 7 

The Marine Station owns four boats for use in field studies: a 17’ Boston Whaler and 

21-foot Carolina Skiff for research within the Indian River Lagoon, a 21’ center-console boat to 

access nearshore waters, and a 39’ vessel, the R/V Sunburst, which is used in the offshore waters 

of the continental shelf and Florida Current for dredging, trawling, coring, and plankton tows. 

This year marked the 42nd year of the Smithsonian’s research program in Fort Pierce 

and the 13th year of operation at its location on Causeway Island along the Fort Pierce Inlet. 

The campus on Causeway Island has allowed the Smithsonian Marine Station to increase and 

strengthen the breadth and diversity of its research and to attract new collaborative interactions. 

The Station has also been able to expand its educational mission, initiating new cooperative 

ventures in education and public outreach, such as working as a partner with the National Science 

Foundation-funded Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence (COSEE), and enriching 

existing efforts, including the school and public programming available through the Smithsonian 

Marine Ecosystems Exhibit.

L. Diederick

This 21’ center console boat is used to 

access nearshore waters and for diving 

operations

Research Activities

R. Ritson-Williams

Introduction

A researcher sorts plankton samples taken 

off of Fort Pierce on the R/V Sunburst.

For working in the shallow waters of the IRL, 

the station uses smaller skiffs such as this 17’ 

Boston Whaler.
R. Ritson-Williams

Research Activities

The Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce is a central 

participant in marine research at the National Museum of 

Natural History. It provides a vital link between tropical 

and temperate ecosystems in the Smithsonian’s coastal 

network of marine research stations, which includes an 

array of laboratories and research vessels spanning the 

western Atlantic coastal zone and across the Isthmus 

of Panama. The Smithsonian facilitates long-term, 

interdisciplinary comparative research among these sites, 

including the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center 

in Maryland, Carrie Bow Cay Field Station in Belize, and 

the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama.
 10 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 11 A. Wood R. Ritson-Williams A. Wood

Two-day-old elkhorn coral larvae are used 

in settlement experiments. 

A. Wood

Five-to-seven-day-old elkhorn coral larvae 

are counted and distributed into settlement 

chambers. 

J. Sneed

Newly settled elkhorn corals on a surface 

covered in crustose coralline algae (CCA).

Research Activites

Research at the Smithsonian Marine 

Station at Fort Pierce (SMSFP) is carried 

out by resident scientists, postdoctoral 

fellows, graduate students, and visiting 

scientists from various Smithsonian 

research units and their colleagues 

from other national and international 

institutions. Smithsonian units frequently 

represented include the National Museum 

of Natural History and the National 

Zoological Park in Washington D.C., the 

Smithsonian Environmental Research 

Center in Edgewater, Maryland, and the 

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute 

in Panama. 

Chemical Ecology

Chemical Cues from Marine Bacteria

Coral reefs are declining worldwide and 

one key to the survival of endangered 

coral species is their ability to recruit to 

appropriate surfaces during the larval 

settlement stage of their life cycle. Coral 

RESEARCH BIOLOGIST JENNIFER SNEED PREPARES 

SPECIMENS FOR AN EXPERIMENT.

ACROPORA PALMATA SPAWNING AT NIGHT IN BELIZE.

larvae often exhibit a preference for crustose 

coralline algae (CCA) when choosing 

suitable substrata for settlement and 

metamorphosis. However, the mechanism 

by which they identify these surfaces is 

unknown. 

Bacterial biofilms provide important 

settlement cues for a variety of invertebrate 

larvae, and recent studies suggest that they 

also play a role in the selection of sites for 

settlement by some coral species. Scientists 

in the SMS Chemical Ecology Lab have 

been examining the role that biofilm 

bacteria play in the selection of settlement 

surfaces for a variety of Caribbean corals 

in Belize and the Florida Keys including 

the endangered corals Acropora palmata and 

Acropora cervicornis.

Previously they determined that some 

coral species require a bacterial biofilm 

in order to attach and metamorphose. In 

order to understand whether corals are 

responding to general constituents of the 

biofilm or to individual bacterial strains 

within the biofilm they isolated bacterial 

strains from the surfaces of CCA in the 

Florida Keys and Belize and examined their 

effects on coral larval settlement. Of 22 

strains isolated from the Florida Keys, one 

strain (Pseudoalteromonas sp. PS5) induced 

settlement of larvae of mustard hill coral 

(Porites astreoides). To understand whether 

the larvae of P. astreoides are responding 

to chemical or physical properties of 

Pseudoalteromonas sp. PS5 they extracted 

the organic compounds from the bacterial 

strain and exposed the larvae to these 

extracts. The extracts induced as much 

larval settlement as CCA itself indicating 

that the facilitation of larval settlement 

demonstrated by some species of CCA may 

be related to the production of chemical 

cues by surface bacteria. The researchers also 

tested the Pseudoalteromonas sp. PS5 extracts 

with larvae from the endangered staghorn 

(A. cervicornis) and elkhorn (A. palmata) 

corals and found similar results indicating 

that these bacterial compounds may act 
 12 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 13 

as settlement cues for a wide variety of 

Caribbean coral species. 

In order to identify other bacterial 

strains that induce coral larval settlement, 

they examined the settlement response of A. 

palmata to biofilms of 27 individual bacterial 

strains isolated from the surfaces of CCA 

in Belize. Several of these bacterial strains 

increased larval settlement while others did 

not, indicating that like the P. astreoides

larvae, A. palmata larvae only respond to cues 

from specific bacteria within the biofilm.

The response of coral larvae to specific 

bacterial strains may provide a mechanism 

for corals to choose an appropriate 

settlement surface. The scientists used nextgeneration sequencing to profile the bacterial 

communities on four different CCA species 

and found that each species harbors a unique 

bacterial community on its surface. Previous 

work in their lab and others has determined 

that corals are able to differentiate between 

species of CCA and settle preferentially on 

certain CCA species. This study indicates 

that coral larvae may be using bacteria 

to recognize their preferred settlement 

substrata. 

This work highlights the importance 

of microbial biofilms to the survival and 

propagation of corals. As scientists and 

resource management agencies work together 

to preserve coral reefs, it is important to 

understand the roles that bacteria play 

in the recruitment of juvenile corals and 

incorporate microbial communities into 

future management strategies.

Chemically Defended Cyanobacteria

The Indian River Lagoon (IRL) lies along 

the east coast of Florida and as one of the 

most biologically diverse estuaries in the 

United States it is home to over a thousand 

ecologically and economically important 

species. In recent years the lagoon has 

experienced consistent seasonal increases 

in the populations of benthic cyanobacteria 

(blue-green algae). Such increases in 

cyanobacterial abundance, often called 

cyanobacterial blooms, can be detrimental 

to organisms living within the vicinity of 

the cyanobacteria and they are increasing 

worldwide as a result of increased seawater 

temperatures and nutrient enrichment in 

coastal waters. In order to gain a better 

understanding of the seasonal dynamics 

of cyanobacterial blooms in the IRL 

and how these blooms affect the ecology 

of this important estuary, scientists at 

SMS monitored four sites within the 

lagoon. Within each site they measured 

the density of the bloom throughout the 

summer (April to September), identified 

the species of cyanobacteria present, identified the major secondary metabolites produced by 

the cyanobacteria present, and examined the effects of the secondary metabolites on fungal 

growth and herbivory. They found that the densities of the blooms were highly variable 

among different sites and also fluctuated throughout the summer. Three of the four sites 

monitored had over 50% cyanobacterial coverage at some point during the summer, with 

densities above 80% at one site lasting for several weeks. The cyanobacterial strains isolated 

from the four sites contained a diverse array of secondary metabolites that were tested for 

their potential impacts on lagoon organisms in order to understand how cyanobacterial 

blooms may be affecting the ecosystem and to identify factors that may contribute to their 

persistence throughout the summer. Three of the four cyanobacterial strains present at 

our study sites deterred feeding by the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus. This effect could 

be related back to the major secondary metabolites found in these strains, microcolin A 

and lyngbyoic acid. Two of the four strains also produced compounds (lyngbyoic acid and 

malyngolide) that inhibited the growth of a fungus that is a known pathogen of marine 

plants, Lindra thallasiae. These results indicate that the bloom forming cyanobacteria in the 

IRL protect themselves from herbivory and pathogen attack by producing potent secondary 

metabolites. In addition to the increased water temperatures and nutrient loads found in 

coastal waters, these defensive compounds may provide cyanobacteria with a competitive edge 

that allows large blooms to persist in areas like the IRL. 

ACRONYMS: (NMNH) National Museum of Natural History (SERC) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SMSFP) Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce

Cyanobacteria blooms often 

form floating mats such as this 

one in the Indian River Lagoon.

J. SneedJ. Sneed

S. Reed 

N. Engene

Research Activities Research Activities

A microscopic image of hair-like 

cyanobacteria filaments.

A bloom of cyanobacteria forms among 

seagrasses in shallow water in the Indian 

River Lagoon.

A scanning electron microscope image of a 

single filament of cyanobacteria, revealing 

individual cells stacked on top of one 

another. 
 14 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 15 

Life Histories

The Life Histories program of Dr. Mary Rice 

has been a productive contributor to the natural 

sciences for the past 40 years. During that period, 

30 postdoctoral research fellows and numerous 

visiting scientists have been engaged in studies on 

the reproduction, development, systematics and the 

evolution of life history diversity in a broad range of 

marine invertebrate animals. Within this research 

program, Mary Rice has focused many of her field 

and laboratory investigations on a distinct phylum of 

invertebrates: a group of non-segmented, exclusively 

marine worms with a worldwide distribution known 

as Sipuncula.

During the past two years, Mary Rice, 

Research Scientist Emeritus, and Michael Boyle, 

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, have initiated 

several advanced studies on a variety of sub-tropical 

sipunculan species. They are applying the technology 

of a confocal laser scanning microscope to compare 

the development of different tissues and organ 

systems. They have also begun to visualize when 

and where different genes are being expressed 

during development, and they are examining DNA 

sequences in different forms of oceanic sipunculan 

larvae to determine their adult affiliations and their 

roles in species dispersal and distribution. The 

overall goals of the SMS Life Histories Program are 

to study how biological diversity is generated during 

animal development, and how that biodiversity may 

be influenced and maintained by the dispersal of 

different life history patterns throughout the world’s 

ocean.

Over the past year, Mary Rice and Michael 

Boyle have presented highlights of their research 

at international and national science conferences 

in Boston, MA, Charleston, SC, in Fort Pierce, 

FL at the Indian River Lagoon Symposium, and 

through comprehensive seminars at the NMNH 

in Washington DC, the University of Miami and 

Humboldt State University in California. At the 

annual Society for Integrative and Comparative 

Biology (SICB) meeting in Charleston, members 

of the American Microscopical Society (AMS) 

honored Dr. Rice as an “extraordinary scientist and 

dedicated mentor” in recognition of her tireless career 

of research on the development and larval biology of 

sipunculan worms and other marine invertebrates. 

The AMS keynote lecture was delivered by Kevin 

Ecklebarger, “A Tribute to Dr. Mary E. Rice: From 

Neanderthals to Naples – A Brief History of Marine 

Biology from Antiquity to 1900.” At that same 

meeting, the AMS awarded Dr. Boyle with the 1st 

prize for Excellence in Photomicrography in the color 

division, distinguishing the efforts of a Smithsonian 

Scientist. 

In June, Dr. Boyle “took the torch” from 

Mary Rice and organized the 2nd International 

Symposium on the Biology of the Sipuncula, which 

was held in Fort Pierce in association with the 

Smithsonian Marine Station. During this “longawaited” meeting, sixteen dedicated sipunculan 

biologists representing twelve nations gathered for an intensive week of formal presentations and workshops to 

critique the current state of knowledge and plot the course of future studies on Sipuncula. Dr. Michael Boyle 

has recently been awarded the Earl S. Tupper 3-Year Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Smithsonian Tropical 

Research Institute (STRI) in Panama, where he will build upon and extend the SMS Life Histories Program 

with his next project beginning in spring, 2013. Mary Rice is also nearing the completion of a long-term 

morphological and molecular investigation about the taxonomic identities of oceanic sipunculan larvae, in 

collaboration with Dr. Anja Schulze from Texas A&M University at Galveston. This work will be published 

in the Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Biology of the Sipuncula, edited by Dr. Boyle, 

with original papers by each of the symposium participants.

Following the symposium, during June-July 2012, Dr. Rice and Dr. Boyle hosted a Smithsonian 

Short-term Visiting Scientist, Dr. Néva Meyer from Clark University, for an intensive 3-week study on 

comparative development of the nervous system in different sipunculan species. This neurogenesis project is 

ongoing, and will be an important indicator of whether non-segmented sipunculan worms share particular 

developmental features that are common to a related group of segmented worms, the annelids. Dr. Rice 

and Dr. Boyle have recently submitted a research proposal to the Smithsonian Institution as part of a larger 

collaboration with Smithsonian scientists from the NMNH and STRI, along with external investigators, 

to look at genomic signatures of biodiversity within a closely-related group of morphologically distinct 

invertebrate animals, the Spiralia, which includes Mollusca, Annelida, Nemertea and Sipuncula. This project 

would integrate comparative genome sciences into the SMS Life Histories Program, and directly support the 

Smithsonian’s Grand Challenge for Understanding and Sustaining a Biodiverse Planet.

ACRONYMS: (NMNH) National Museum of Natural History (SERC) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SMSFP) Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce

Sixteen researchers from twelve 

countries around the world 

gathered in Fort Pierce for the 

2nd International Symposium on 

the Biology of Sipuncula.

L. DiederickM. Boyle

J. Piraino

M. Boyle

Research Activities Research Activities

The sipunculan worm Phascolosoma 

perlucens is a common inhabitant of 

intertidal zones and can be found in the 

crevices of rocks. 

Confocal laser scanning micrograph of 

the larval stage of Phascolion cryptum. 

Certain cell types are labeled and will emit 

different colors when excited by a laser.

An adult sipunculan worm, Themiste 

alutacea.
 16 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 17 

Benthic Ecology

Estuaries around the world are approaching 

critical levels of degradation, and Florida’s 

Indian River Lagoon (IRL) watershed is no 

exception. Large-scale, collaborative efforts are 

underway to restore biodiversity and the vital 

ecological functions these ecosystems provide.

The staff in the Benthic Ecology Lab at the 

Smithsonian Marine Station (SMS) is involved 

in one of the most ambitious of these projects, 

the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration 

Plan (CERP). The many dimensions of CERP, 

under the direction of South Florida Water 

Management District and the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers, include restoring wetlands and 

building flood control structures, water treatment 

areas, and storage basins.

Historically, the slow, downslope flow 

of freshwater across the IRL watershed meant it 

was available during both dry and wet seasons, 

thus providing stability to the ecosystem despite 

South Florida’s variable rainfall patterns. This 

natural flow also allowed for stable salinity 

gradients, with salinity increasing as water moved 

towards the coasts and decreasing throughout 

the watershed during the heavy rains of the wet 

season.

The extensive modification to the 

southern IRL watershed over the past 100 years, 

most notably the drainage canals created in an 

effort to convert wetlands and watercourses for 

urban and agricultural uses, has decreased the 

system’s ability to store water and has increased 

nutrient-rich stormwater runoff. Additionally, 

large episodic freshwater canal flows now occur 

in the wet seasons while there is very low flow 

during dry seasons. These changes have led 

to a less diverse, increasingly compromised 

benthic community – all the life found in or on 

the sediment bottoms of water bodies like the 

St. Lucie Estuary (SLE) and the Indian River 

Lagoon.

Benthic organisms, such as clams, snails, 

polychaete worms, amphipod crustaceans and 

shrimp, are critical components of a healthy 

estuary. Because their responses to various 

environmental changes such as an increase 

or decrease in salinity, low dissolved oxygen, 

and sedimentation are so predictable, benthic 

organisms are reliable indicators of habitat quality 

and can reflect environmental conditions over 

time.

The benthic lab set up a monitoring 

program in the early phases of CERP, which 

provides a baseline data set. This information will 

allow them to detect and predict changes systemwide. Their efforts have resulted in an impressive 

body of work: The lab has collected over 2700 

benthic samples at 29 sites within the Indian 

River Lagoon, St. Lucie Estuary, and Sebastian River since 2004. More than 500,000 individual 

animals and over 500 species have been counted within these diverse systems. As the different phases 

of the hydrology projects come online, the benthic data will reflect changes in discrete areas of the 

estuary. Such feedback is crucial for water managers to confirm that their efforts are having the desired 

effects.

Mangroves and Climate Change

The potential effects of the changing global climate have been headline news for a number of years 

with the threats of melting polar ice caps, rising sea level, and increasingly catastrophic weather events.

But the implications of climate change may be much farther-reaching and infinitely more subtle.

Resource managers have noted a slow northward movement of Florida’s mangrove forests over the last 

several decades as average temperatures have increased, which is one reason Dr. Candy Feller, senior 

research scientist at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center in Edgewater, Maryland, has 

recently expanded her studies on these vital ecosystems.

The more than 50 species of mangroves found worldwide are not necessarily closely related, 

but are grouped together because of several common characteristics, including adaptations to growing 

in saltwater. Mangroves are able to grow in freshwater, but can out-compete most other plants for 

space and resources in salt and brackish water environments. As such, mangroves tend to dominate 

the landscape along tropical and subtropical estuaries, including, historically, the southern portion 

of the Indian River Lagoon. Dr. Feller and her research associates are using both historical aerial 

photographs and current satellite images of Florida’s east coast to document the encroachment of 

ACRONYMS: (NMNH) National Museum of Natural History (SERC) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SMSFP) Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce

Biologists studying mangrove 

ecology go to great lengths to 

complete their field experiments.

S. ReedM. JonesM. Stephens

 M. Riley

Research Activities Research Activities

Research technicians take a bottom sample 

from a site in the Indian River Lagoon. 

A pre-sorted sample of invertebrates from 

the benthos.

Polychaetes such as this one are a common 

inhabitant of the sediments of the Indian 

River Lagoon.
 18 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 19 

mangroves into areas that until recent decades 

have been dominated by salt marshes.

Salt marshes and mangroves offer similar 

ecosystem services, such as providing habitat 

for both aquatic and terrestrial organisms and 

transforming nutrients into a form that animals 

can use. But not all plants cycle nutrients in the 

same way. As large woody plants, mangroves 

have greater ability to store carbon absorbed 

from the atmosphere than herbaceous plants 

like salt marsh grasses. As mangroves die and 

decompose, the carbon stored in their tissues 

becomes available to other organisms. A major 

shift in the dominant plant type can also mean a 

major shift in the nutrients available to millions 

of plants, animals and microbes that rely on 

them to survive. As mangroves expand their 

range and displace grasses and other herbaceous 

plants, there is the potential for the change in 

nutrient availability to lead to ecosystem-wide 

transformations.

Dr. Feller and a team of researchers 

are conducting a number of studies to better 

understand the effects a changing environment 

might have on mangroves. So far, she has learned 

that the nutrients that limit mangrove growth 

are site-specific, therefore uniform management 

measures might not be appropriate. Further 

experiments are slated to explore factors that 

influence recruitment of juvenile mangroves 

and the effects of rising sea level on nutrient 

cycling in mangrove ecosystems. By comparing 

current and future findings with collaborators 

across both the country and the globe, Dr. Feller 

hopes to provide the scientific and management 

communities a broader sense of the challenges 

and changes that mangroves face in the future.

Kinorhynchs

Graduate student Maria Herranz from the 

Universidad Complutense of Madrid (Spain), 

is working on characterizing the biodiversity 

of a group of microscopic marine invertebrates 

known as kinorhynchs (“kine-oh-rinks”). The 

Kinorhyncha live in between the grains of 

sand on the bottom of the ocean, from the 

intertidal zone to abyssal depths. Working at 

the Smithsonian Marine Station, Maria has 

access to many different species of kinorhynchs 

along the coast of Florida. She uses many of 

these species to study different organ systems, 

such as the nervous and muscular systems. By 

utilizing the confocal laser scanning microscope 

and scanning electron microscope at SMS, she 

is able to label and describe several characters of 

kinorhynch organ systems that have never been 

described before. She has recently published 

her work in the Journal of Morphology and is 

preparing a new manuscript for submission.

The Indian River Lagoon and near shore waters of Florida have proven to contain a rich kinorhynch 

community, suggesting there is still a great amount of undiscovered diversity.

Invasive Species

Invasive species are an important global threat to the world’s oceans. Introductions of exotic 

plants and animals into new environments have devastating effects on marine ecosystems that are 

presently exceeded only by global climate change. Each year, the United States spends over 120 

billion dollars to prevent and manage invasive species, which crowd out native organisms, destroy 

fragile food webs, and even lead to extinctions of certain species. The majority of invasions are in 

marine environments, where organisms are transported on boat hulls and in ballast tanks of ships. 

These organisms usually require biofilms in order to become established. As a result, invasions are 

largely controlled by biofilms, a fundamental yet currently overlooked piece of the invasive species 

picture. 

Biofilms are present in all wet environments on this Earth. They include the coatings 

that grow on our teeth in between brushings, and the slimes that coat boat hulls after a couple 

of days in the water. These hull-coating biofilms consist of bacteria and microorganisms that act 

as magnets for the microscopic drifting larvae that are produced by the vast majority of marine 

species. A nearly invisible film on a boat hull can promote the growth of barnacles, sponges, 

mussels, and many other organisms – both native and invasive. The United States Navy and 

private industries spend millions of dollars each year to develop specialized paints and hull 

cleaning programs targeting barnacles and other encrusting animals that increase drag and lead 

to higher fuel costs. However, no current technologies focus on removing the biofilms, which 

remain even when the ship travels thousands of miles between ports! Holly Sweat, a Link 

ACRONYMS: (NMNH) National Museum of Natural History (SERC) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SMSFP) Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce

Scanning electron micrograph 

of the diatom Odontella sp., 

an important member of the 

biofilm community.

M. HerranzS. Reed

H. Sweat

J. Piraino

Research Activities Research Activities

SMS/Link Fellow Holly Sweat disassembles 

one of her fouling plate experiments so 

that she can assess them back at the lab.

Graduate fellow Maria Herranz works at 

the confocal scanning laser microscope to 

capture images of her specimens.

A confocal microscope image showing the 

expression of a green fluorescent protein in 

a kinorhynch specimen.
 20 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 21 

Foundation / Smithsonian Graduate Research 

Fellow, is exploring the potential for these 

biofilms to facilitate invasions around the 

world. Her current work focuses on examining 

how biofilms change when they are transported 

from one location to another, and how these 

changes influence which animals and algae 

settle and grow on the biofilms.

Acroporid Demographics

Smithsonian postdoctoral fellow Nicole Fogarty 

and CCRE staff made significant progress on 

their multi-year project aimed at modeling the 

population demographics of threatened reefbuilding coral species. Acropora palmata and A. 

cervicornis were the dominant shallow-water 

corals in the Caribbean for millions of years, yet 

over the past 30 years losses exceeding 97% of 

the population have led to the listing of these 

species as threatened under the U.S. Endangered 

Species Act. The loss of these species could 

have devastating effects on shallow Caribbean 

reef ecosystems and their associated biodiversity 

because of their rapid growth and the three 

dimensional structure they create for other reef 

organisms. Despite the tremendous ecological 

importance of Caribbean acroporids, their 

demographic processes are not well understood.

The recent development of Caribbean acroporid 

microsatellite markers provides a technique 

to genotype individual coral colonies and to 

distinguish between genetically unique and clonal 

individuals. The specific objectives of this study 

are to (1) tag, map, and measure all acroporid 

colonies at the field site at Carrie Bow Cay, (2) 

genotype all mapped colonies, (3) monitor colonies 

to examine incidence of disease, predation, and 

bleaching and to identify new sexual recruits 

or asexually produced ramets, (4) determine if 

specific genotypes are more susceptible to disease 

and bleaching and how disease spreads through 

the population, and (5) create a matrix model to 

determine the population growth at this site and 

its future trajectory. The first phase of mapping, 

tagging, and genotyping was completed in the 

summer of 2011. Five quarterly assessments have 

been completed, with the sixth scheduled for 

January 2013. Already, considerable progress has 

been made and several important observations 

include:

• The Carrie Bow Acroporid Demographics 

(CBAD) project is the only acroporid demographic 

project Caribbean-wide that examines both 

threatened species and their hybrid, and the only 

acroporid demographic project in the western 

Caribbean.

• Over 500 corals have been tagged, mapped, 

genotyped, photographed, and measured. Every 

4 months each tagged coral is given a health 

assessment, measured, and photographed. In 

addition, new fragments and new juvenile corals (recruits) are tagged and mapped. 

•At least 3 potential new recruits have been recorded, which is extremely exciting because in recent 

decades there has been a complete failure of acroporid recruitment Caribbean-wide.

•Disease is the primary culprit that has led to the unprecedented declines in acroporids since the 1980s.

In the first year of this study, a baseline was created 3 months prior to a major disease outbreak and coral 

bleaching event. During this event, the reef saw substantial mortality and the loss of entire genotypes. 

The recovery of individual colonies with resistant genotypes to this mortality event is now being followed.

•No other monitored acroporid site in the Caribbean is as reliable for the annual spawning reproductive 

event as Carrie Bow Cay. During the first two spawning seasons, over 100 observations of setting (when 

the gamete bundle becomes visible) and/or spawning of tagged acroporid colonies in the CBAD project 

were made.

•Currently, this population has very few acroporid-eating snails, which is one of the primary causes of 

mortality in the Florida Keys population. Anecdotal evidence from other sites in Belize suggests that the 

snails are becoming more prevalent. This site will be closely monitored in the coming sampling periods 

to determine if snails are increasing in number.

ACRONYMS: (NMNH) National Museum of Natural History (SERC) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SMSFP) Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce

The elkhorn coral, Acropora 

palmata, is threatened 

throughout the Caribbean and 

is the subject of a demographics 

study at the Smithsonian.

H. Sweat

R. Ritson-Williams

A. WoodR. Rtison-Williams

Research Activities Research Activities

SMS Postdoctoral Fellow Nicole Fogarty 

surveys the shallow reef of Belize.

White band disease on Staghorn Coral 

(Acropora cervicornis). This disease can have 

major impacts on populations of this vital 

Caribbean coral.

A plate that is used for experiments testing 

how fouling communities develop.
 22 

Z. Foltz

Education and Outreach

In the service of the Smithsonian’s ongoing mission for both 

the increase and diffusion of knowledge, the Smithsonian 

Marine Station at Fort Pierce supports a robust education 

and outreach program. Central among these efforts is the 

Smithsonian Marine Ecosystems Exhibit, housed at the St. 

Lucie County Aquarium. In 2012 the Exhibit saw its highest 

attendance since opening, welcoming more than 25,000 

visitors to peruse its live ecosystem displays and interpretive 

exhibitry. Smithsonian staff and researchers were also actively 

engaged in community outreach, offering a monthly tour 

of SMS, hosting three large-scale events, and attending 

numerous community festivals.
 24 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 25 T. Smoyer T. Smoyer Smithsonian Channel C. King T. Smoyer

Education and Outreach

THE SMITHSONIAN MARINE ECOSYSTEMS EXHIBIT AT THE 

ST. LUCIE COUNTY AQUARIUM

THE QUEEN ANGEL IS A LONG-TIME RESIDENT OF THE 

CARIBBEAN CORAL REEF MODEL ECOSYSTEM.

Marine Ecosystems Exhibit

The Smithsonian Marine Ecosystems Exhibit 

(SMEE) is a different kind of aquarium. The 

live displays are more than just fish tanks, they 

are functioning model ecosystems. Located in 

the St. Lucie County Aquarium, the Exhibit is 

a joint venture of the Smithsonian and St. Lucie 

County. The centerpiece is the 3,300-gallon 

Coral Reef Ecosystem. Initially on display at 

the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural 

History, the reef was moved to Fort Pierce in 

2001 to become the focal point of a new outreach 

facility. Visitors to SMEE can also explore five 

other local habitats of the Indian River Lagoon 

and the Florida coast, interact with horseshoe 

crabs and other invertebrates in a touch tank, and 

investigate preserved marine specimens and play 

hands-on activities in the Aquarium’s classroom.

The dynamic quality of natural ecosystems 

is captured not only in the model ecosystem 

displays, it is also reflected in the constant 

modification and improvement of the Exhibit’s 

interpretive elements. Permanent and temporary 

signage is an important component in providing 

a high quality visitor experience. Education staff 

developed several graphic and interpretive elements 

for the Aquarium galleries to complement living 

displays, highlight important ecological concepts, 

and showcase Smithsonian research. A permanent 

graphic element was installed to accompany the 

sargassum tank and more than 40 new species 

identification labels were researched, developed 

and produced in order to reflect the specimen 

diversity in the Model Ecosystems. In an effort to 

disseminate SMS research to the public, education 

staff designed and installed the first in a series of 

“Meet the Smithsonian Scientist” posters in the 

classroom at SMEE. Interactive elements produced 

by staff and interns over the course of the year 

include the fabrication of “Closer Look” flip signs 

at each Model Ecosystem, a hands-on “What 

Does the Ocean Feel Like?” activity, a bilingual felt 

board activity “Habitat Matching/Habitát Juego”, a 

magnetic board game called “Build a Fish”, a largescale, wall-mounted word search, a tabletop display 

on sharks, a hands-on sea shell matching activity, 

and the addition of several microscope displays.

The Aquarium also set a new record 

for attendance in 2012 with more than 25,000 

on-site visitors. Due to consistently increasing 

attendance, public hours were also expanded to 

reintroduce Sunday hours from 12:00-4:00pm.

The number of SMEE volunteers continues to 

increase as well, with nearly 5,000 hours of service 

contributed from more than 50 volunteers in 2012.

Volunteer opportunities were also diversified in 

order to expand the number of activities available 

to volunteers and to increase the number of 

volunteers who interact with the public.

Marine Education at the Exhibit

Approximately one quarter of SMEE’s visitorship 

consists of school-age students that visit SMEE 

for staff-facilitated education programs. SMEE 

continues to offer on-site and field-based marine 

science programming that is educational and 

entertaining for children and meets science 

education standards as set forth by the Next 

Generation Sunshine State Standards and Ocean 

Literacy Principles. Activities are available for 

students in grades K-12, with the content varying 

based on appropriate grade bands. In accordance 

with the strategic goals of SMEE, the education 

staff continues to broaden the scope of our offerings 

by working to diversify education programs, 

especially those geared towards the K-12 audience.

SMEE’s 3,300-gallon Coral Reef Ecosystem 

display is a visitor favorite.

Exhibit Manager Bill Hoffman (center) 

is interviewed during the taping of a 

Smithsonian Channel production.

SMEE volunteers, like Hannah Power 

pictured here, are vital to providing quality 

visitor experiences at the aquarium.
 26 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 27 

Staff also provided professional 

development opportunities to more than 60 

local classroom educators over the course of the 

year. In January, SMEE hosted 15 teachers from 

Dan McCarty Middle school as part of a School 

District in-service training day. In early August, 

education staff conducted the Smithsonian Teacher 

Institute, a four-day workshop for St. Lucie County 

public school teachers. The workshop was made 

possible by a grant from the South Florida Water 

Management District Indian River Lagoon license 

plate program. It engaged teachers in both fieldbased activities, as well as classroom lectures from 

local scientists. In addition to enjoying a kayak 

trip on the Indian River Lagoon and a snorkeling 

excursion at the Fort Pierce Inlet State Park, the 15 

workshop participants worked to create 400 bags of 

oyster shell, which they later deployed in the IRL 

to form three new oyster reefs near downtown Fort 

Pierce. Permitting and assistance with the oyster 

reef creation and deployment was provided by the 

St. Lucie County Coastal Resources program and 

Florida Sea Grant. In addition to the field-based 

activities, teachers attended a lecture given by 

technicians in the Smithsonian Marine Station 

Benthic Ecology Lab about assessing the health 

of estuarine organisms, and another lecture by 

Dr. Vincent Encomio of Florida Oceanographic 

Society about the benefits of oyster reefs. Later in 

August, and again in November, education staff 

offered the Aquatic Species Collection Workshop, 

a joint-program between Florida Fish and Wildlife 

Conservation Commission and the Florida Marine 

Science Educators Association that provides 

participants with a three-year permit to collect 

and maintain aquatic specimens for educational 

purposes.

After an extended absence due to the 

downward shifting economy, education staff has 

gradually reintroduced fee-based programming 

to the Aquarium. These programs target our 

traditional audience in new ways, providing a 

more focused and in-depth learning experience for 

those interested in taking advantage of the many 

resources the Smithsonian has to offer. Aquarium 

After Dark is a prime example. This popular afterhours program that provides a glimpse into the 

nightlife of the Model Ecosystems was offered 

several times during the year with attendance at 

capacity each time. One fee-based program that has 

only grown since its inception is summer camp. In 

response to an overwhelming waitlist, staff added a 

sixth week of camp in 2012 and will maintain that 

schedule for the coming year.

The staff at SMEE recognizes that 

visitor programs, activities and opportunities 

that are included with the price of admission are 

an important facet in providing a high quality 

experience. As such, a number of these activities 

are offered on a regular basis, including two daily 

guided tours, a weekly Behind-the-Scenes tour, 

and a six-week morning lecture series sponsored 

by the Florida Center for Ocean Sciences 

Education Excellence (COSEE Florida). It is a 

high priority for SMEE staff to engage in face-toface interaction with visitors and provide access to 

knowledgeable volunteers in order to enhance the 

visitor experience. As staffing levels have remained 

constant while public attendance has surged, 

SMEE staff created a new volunteer opportunity 

for Aquarium Interpreters. These volunteers assist 

with visitor interaction and lead daily tours and 

have been a much-needed addition to the Touch 

Tank interpreters who staff the touch tank in the 

gallery.

Large-scale events are a mission-driven 

activity that draw large crowds to the Aquarium 

throughout the year. SMEE’s seventh annual World 

Ocean Day Celebration was held on Saturday, June 

9, 2012 and was attended by over 400 people. The 

national event theme was “Youth: the Next Wave 

for Change” and the family friendly event featured 

learning stations, crafts, face painting, seining 

demonstrations in the Indian River Lagoon, and a 

variety of other activities centered around Earth’s 

indispensable marine resources. On Saturday, 

September 29, SMEE hosted its second annual 

National Estuaries Day Festival. The free Festival 

took place in the public park located directly behind 

SMEE and featured environmental exhibitors 

from area non-profit agencies, governmental 

organizations and conservation groups. The outdoor 

space also included educational stations on SMS 

research, live entertainment and family-friendly 

activities, such as a bounce house and face painting.

Additionally, visitors enjoyed reduced-priced boat 

Research Assistant Woody Lee set up a 

touch tank and spoke about SMS research 

at the Fort Pierce Oyster Festival. 

St. Lucie County Commissioner Frannie 

Hutchinson stopped by SMS and SMEE to 

learn about the research and education 

programs.

Visitors to the SMS Open House have the 

opportunity to engage with scientists 

and participate in hands-on learning, like 

preserving algae specimens.

C. KingL. Diederick

L. Diederick

C. KingL. Diederick

trips on the Lagoon and free admission to the St.

Lucie County Regional History Center and the 

Aquarium. The Festival drew almost 40 outside 

exhibitors and vendors, as well as over 2000 visitors, 

both a significant increase over the prior year’s 

event.

Taking the Smithsonian to the 

Community

Exhibit and Marine Station staff are regularly 

called upon by community organizations to 

participate in outreach events, classroom visits, and 

public lectures. SMS was represented at numerous 

events throughout the year, including Indian River 

Lagoon Day in Melbourne, Florida, the Manatee 

Center’s NatureFest, St. Lucie County School 

District’s annual Science and Engineering Fair, 

Pelican Island Preserve’s Wildlife Festival, the 

Fort Pierce Downtown Farmer’s Market, the Fort 

Pierce Oyster Festival, the Coast Guard Open 

House, Party in the Park at Fort Pierce Inlet State 

Park, the Manatee Center’s Brown Bag Lunch 

Series, Service Learning Day at Indian River State 

College and United Way of St. Lucie County 

Volunteer Fair.

SMS continued the now-annual tradition 

of partnering with the Pelican Yacht Club to host 

two “Smithsonian Science Lectures” On February 

16, Drs. Valerie Paul and Nicole Fogarty shared 

their coral research with a crowd of approximately 

150 in a talk titled, “Romance on the Reef: The 

T. Smoyer

SMEE’s classroom provides hands-on 

opportunities for visitors and supports 

school and family programming.

The touch tank at the Aquarium is a 

popular exhibit and volunteers are always 

prepared to interpret to visitors.

Exhibit Manager Bill Hoffman gives BBC 

Reporter Helen Scales a behind-the-scenes 

look at SMEE.

Education and Outreach Education and Outreach
Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 29 28 

Field-based education is a 

offered as part of SMEE’s menu 

of school programs, as well as 

a part of public programs and 

special events. SMEE summer 

campers spend a significant part 

of each day exploring Florida’s 

ecosystems using a “hands-on, 

feet-wet” approach.

C. King

untold story of coral sex”. That was followed up on March 8 with a “farewell” lecture by the departing 

Director of the National Museum of Natural History, Dr. Cristián Samper. Dr. Samper spoke about his 

work on and passion for conservation biology in a talk titled “Biodiversity in a Changing World,” also for 

an audience of around 150 people.

Bringing the Community to the Smithsonian

Monthly tours of the research station were first offered several years ago and continue to grow more 

popular each year. Most tours average 8-10 adults, though children and teenagers occasionally attend 

with their parents or grandparents. Each tour begins with a brief introduction on the history of SMS and 

the types of research being conducted and then continues through the station, making brief stops at three 

to four labs to chat with our researchers about their work. In addition to the monthly tours, we provided 

similar programs by special request to community groups, including several Upward Bound programs.

The annual SMS Open House has already become an anticipated community event along the 

Treasure Coast since the inaugural event just four years ago. The primary goal of the Open House is to 

increase awareness within the community about the research areas and aims of SMS. Activities were 

available for both children and adults, including self-guided tours, a touch tank, algae pressing, face 

painting, simulated watershed table, a “survival maze”, ROV demonstrations, and a simulated benthic 

sampling game. An estimated 700 people took advantage of the opportunity and the verbal feedback was 

overwhelmingly positive.

IRL Species Inventory

With continued support from St. Johns River Water Management District, SMSFP has been annually 

expanding The Indian River Lagoon (IRL) Species Inventory since its inception in 1997. The inventory 

documents the unsurpassed biodiversity of the IRL with taxonomic information on over 3,500 species 

and more than 440 complete species narratives. It is used extensively by the scientific community as 

Education and Outreach

well as educational and resource managerial groups. Informational content focuses on ecologically 

and economically significant groups of IRL animals, plants and micro-algae including commercial, 

recreational, special status and invasive species, as well as extensive habitat descriptions. Supervised by 

Research Associate Joseph Dineen, and managed by Link Fellow Holly Sweat, recent work focused 

on several invertebrate groups and also included information on improving IRL water quality at the 

individual level. Incorporated within the species inventory and hosted on its website are the Field Guide 

to the Indian River Lagoon and the IRL Photo Gallery. These image-rich components attract many 

novice and first time visitors to the site.

The Indian River Lagoon website continues to become an increasingly popular informational 

and educational resource. In 2011, the website received over 572,500 visits from users seeking current, 

informative and scientifically accurate information on all aspects of the Indian River Lagoon.

COSEE Florida

The Florida Center for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence (COSEE Florida) is a National Science 

Foundation-funded program that is part of the national COSEE network. The COSEE mission is to 

spark and nurture collaborations among scientists and educators to promote ocean discovery and literacy 

and to enhance the public’s understanding, appreciation, and stewardship of the ocean. COSEE Florida 

is a collaborative partnership between four institutions – Indian River State College, Ocean Research & 

Education Association, Florida Institute of Technology, and the Smithsonian Marine Station. The four 

partner institutions work together to carry out COSEE Florida’s three strategic initiatives – engaging ocean 

scientists in professional development and the dissemination of their research, developing an Ocean Sciences 

Concentration for pre-service educators in the state college system, and building a statewide Ocean Sciences 

Learning Network. The Smithsonian Marine Station leads this initiative within the collaboration, though 

works closely with the other COSEE Florida partners.

The Ocean Science Learning Network is COSEE Florida’s informal education initiative tasked 

with fostering meaningful collaborations between ocean scientists and science centers, aquariums, museums, 

university outreach programs and other informal entities looking to increase and/or enhance their marine 

science-based activities for the public. These collaborations are developed through the mutual coordination 

and implementation of a variety of activities under the umbrella theme, Water as Habitat (WaH). We have 

taken a deliberate, regional approach to establishing the network, dividing the state into eight regions and 

progressing across them incrementally so that by the end of the five years of funding, multiple WaH events 

will have been held in each region. At the end of our second year of funding, we had held WaH events in 

five of the eight regions with multiple events occurring in four regions.

Activities to date have included single public lectures, multi-lecture series, science film screenings 

with follow-up panel discussions, and science cafes. Between August 2011 and December 2012, we 

organized 21 events that actively engaged 53 ocean scientists and reached more than 1,100 participants.

These numbers far exceed the projected goals for the initiative, but quantity has not come at the expense of 

quality. WaH events are intended to provide audience participants with the opportunity to increase their 

ocean science literacy by exposing them to current research and helping them make connections between 

ocean science and their lives. Post-event evaluations from participants show that we have surpassed our 

stated goals, with 99% reporting that event topics are relevant to their lives, 98% reporting that their 

participation increased their knowledge or understanding of the marine science topic and 99% reporting 

that they would recommend a COSEE Florida event to others.

Education and Outreach
 30 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 31 

Visiting Scientists

Anna Armitage

University of Houston

Sarah Atherton

University of Massachusetts

Antonio Baeza

Old Dominion University

Andrew Baldwin

University of Maryland

Uta Berger

University of Dresden, Germany

Jake Bodart

University of Maryland

Steve Box

Center for Marine Ecology, Honduras

Damien Burrows

James Cook University, Australian Centre for Tropical 

Freshwater Research

Jeremy Calini

University of Connecticut

Celia Churchill

University of California, Santa Barbara

Sermin Cinar

Dokuz Eylul University Insitute of Marine Sciences and 

Technology, Turkey

Rachel Collin

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Bocas del Toro 

Research Station

Anabell Cornejo

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Bocas del Toro 

Research Station

Shannon Crabtree

University of North Florida

Jonathan Craft

College of Charleston

Timothy Davidson

Smithonian Tropical Research Institute

Lisa Duckett

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Paige Duffin

University of North Florida

Kevin Eckelbarger

Darling Marine Center, Maine

Emily Ellis

University of California, Santa Barbara

Darryl Felder

University of Louisiana

Candy Feller

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Alexander Ford

University of Maryland

Andrew Gillis

Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia

Blaine Griffen

University of South Carolina

Administration and Staff

G. Wayne Clough - Secretary, Smithsonian 

Institution

Eva Pell - Undersecretary for Science, 

Smithsonian Institution

Cristián Samper - Director, National Museum 

of Natural History

Jonathan A. Coddington - Associate Director 

for Science, National Museum of Natural History

Valerie J. Paul – Head Scientist, Smithsonian 

Marine Station at Fort Pierce

Mary E. Rice - Emeritus Senior Research 

Scientist

Neal Asthana - Marine Technician

Stephen Box - Program Coordinator, Caribbean 

Marine Protected Areas

Laura Diederick - Education Specialist

Joseph Dineen - Research Associate

Kelsey Doyle - Research Assistant

Zachary Foltz - Station Manager, Carrie Bow 

Cay Field Station

Erin Fryauff - Research Assistant

Sarath Gunasekara - Research Chemist

William F. Hoffman - Manager, Smithsonian 

Marine Ecosystems Exhibit

M. Scott Jones - Program Coordinator, 

Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems

Joan L. Kaminski - Administrative Officer

Chelle King - Marine Biology Educator

Mike Lehmann - Biological Science Technician

William D. Lee - Research Technician

Julianne Piraino - Laboratory Manager

Sherry A. Reed - Research Assistant and Dive 

Safety Officer

Hugh F. Reichardt - Station Manager

Cristin Ryan - Marine Biology Educator & 

Volunteer Coordinator

Lorae Simpson - Biological Science Technician

Jennifer Sneed - Biologist

Michelle Stephens - Research Assistant

Post-doctoral Fellows

Michael Boyle

Justin Campbell

Niclas Engene

Nicole Fogarty

C. Seabird McKeon

Jennifer Sneed

Link Fellows

Kevin Olsen

Megan Riley

Holly Sweat
 32 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 33 

Visiting Scientists

Daniel Gruner

University of Maryland

Jerry Harasewych

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution

Dean Harland

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University

Maria Herranz

Complutense University of Madrid, Spain

Kiflu Henok

University of South Florida

Richard Hochberg

University of Massachusetts

Adele Hochberg

University of Massachusetts

Jeff Hunt

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution

Chuck Jacoby 

St. John’s River Water Management District

William Jaeckle

Illinois Wesleyan University

Dean Janiak

Smithonian Environmental Research Center

Cora Johnston

University of Maryland

Gisele Kawauchi

Yale University

Monika Kedra

University of Maryland, Chesapeake Biological 

Laboratory

Roos Keijzer

Netherlands Institute of Ecology

Jim Kelner

University of Maryland

Nathan Kirk

Auburn University

Alen Kristof

University of Vienna

Sarah Kruse

University of South Florida

Riks Laanbroek

Netherlands Institute of Ecology

Nicole Leung

University of California, Santa Barbara

Joshua Lord

University of Connecticut

Simin Lui

University of Pennsylvania

Anastassya Maiorova

A.V. Zhirmunsky Institute of Marine Biology, Russia

Daniel McCarthy

Jacksonville University

Christine McNiff

University of South Florida

Neva Pilar Meyer

Clark University

Nibedita Mekherjee

University of Brussels

Carsten Muller

Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald

Galyna Murina

Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas, Ukraine

Rad Murphy

Jacksonville University

Mayda Nathan

University of Maryland

Todd Oakley

University of California, Santa Barbara

Edgardo Ochoa

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute

Kevin O’Donnell

University of North Florida

Kevin Olsen

University of North Florida

Tom Opishinski

Interactive Oceanographics

Karen Osborn

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution

Rick Osman

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Alexander Paradis

Jacksonville University

John Parker

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Bruno Pernet

California State University, Long Beach

Jessica Pilarczyk

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution

John Pilgar

Agnes Scott College

Melany Puglisi-Weening

Chicago State University

Mark Rains

University of South Florida

Kate Rawlinson

Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia

Megan Riley

University of South Carolina

Wilfred Rodriguez

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Cliff Ross

University of North Florida

Jose Salina

University of the Basque Country, Spain

Cristián Samper

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution
 34 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 35 

Anja Schultz

Texas A&M University, Galveston

Eduardo Silva

University of Concepcion, Chile

Nancy Smith

Eckerd College

Jan Sorensen

Kaldbak Marine Biological Laboratory, Faroe Islands

Holly Sweat

Florida Technological University

Davide Tagliapetra

National Research Council Marine Sciences Institute, 

Venice, Italy

Julie Taricksa

University of North Florida

Brian Thompson

University of Maryland

Marguerite Toscano

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution

Sarita Uribe

Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico

Jos Verhoeven 

Utrecht University

Gross Vladimir

University of Massachusetts

Carolyn Weaver

University of Houston, Texas

Dennis Whigham

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Judy Winston

Virginia Museum of Natural History

Lin Yuan

University of Dresden, Germany

Interns

Emily Dark

Antioch University

Heather Granger

Indian River State College

Lisa Kelly 

Indian River State College

Monika LaPlante

Northeastern University

Nancy Shipley

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Justin Speaks

University of West Florida

Wyatt Martin

St. Andrew’s Episcopal Academy

Scientific Publications

Anker, Arthur, and J. Antonio Baeza. 2012. Molecular 

and morphological phylogeny of hooded shrimps, genera 

Betaeopsis (Decapoda, Alphaedae): Testing the center of 

origin biogeographic model and evolution of life history 

traits. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 64: 401-

415.

Atherton, Sarah and Rick Hochberg. 2012. Acanthodasys 

paurocactus sp. n., a new species of Thaumastodermatidae 

(Gastrotricha, Macrodasyida) with multiple scale types 

from Capron Shoal, Florida. Zookeys, 290: 81-94.

 

Atherton, Sarah and Rick Hochberg. 2012. 

Tetranchyroderma bronchostylus sp. nov., the first known 

gastrotrich (Gastrotricha) with a sclerotic caudal in the 

caudal organ. Marine Biology Research, 8: 885-892.

Baeza, J. Antonio and Cynthia M. Asorey. 2012. Testing 

the role of male-male competition in the evolution of 

sexual dimorphism: a comparison between two species of 

porcelain crabs. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 

105: 548-558.

Baeza, J. Antonio, Juan A. Bolanos, Jesus E. Hernandez, 

Carlos Lira, Regulo Lopez. 2011. Monogamy does 

not last long in Pontonia mexicana, a symbiotic shrimp of 

the amber pen-shell Pinna carnea from the southeastern 

Caribbean Sea. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology 

and Ecology, 407: 41-47.

Baldwin, Carole C., Balam J. Brito, David G. Smith, Lee 

A. Weigt & Elva Escobar-Briones. 2011. Identification 

of early life-history stages of Caribbean Apogon

(Perciformes: Apogonidae) through DNA Barcoding. 

Zootaxa, 3133: 1-36.

Baldwin, Carole C. and Lee A. Weigt. 2012 A new 

species of soapfish (Teleostei: Serranidae: Rypticus), with 

redescription of R. subbifrenatus and comments on the use 

of DNA barcoding in systematic studies. Copeia, 1: 23-36.

Burke, Sarah K. 2012. Biogeographic variability in 

ecosystems engineering: patterns in the abundance and 

behavior of the tube-building polychaete Diopatra cuprea. 

Marine Ecology Progress Series, 447: 1-13.

Chapman, Samantha K. and Ilka C. Feller. 2011. Awayfield advantage: mangrove seedlings grow best in litter from 

other mangrove species. Oikos, 120: 1880-1888.

Coats, D. Wayne, Tsvetan R. Bachvaroff and Charles F. 

Delwiche. 2012. Revision of the family Duboscquellidae 

with description of Euduboscquella crenulata n. sp.

(Dinoflagellata, Syndinea), an intracellular parasite of the 

ciliate Favella panamensis Kofoid & Campbell, 1929. The 

Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 59(1): 1-11.

Dobretsov, Sergey, Max Teplitski, Mirko Bayer, Sarath 

Gunasekera, Peter Proksch and Valerie Paul. 2011. 

Inhibition of marine biofouling by bacterial quorum 

sensing inhibitors. Biofouling, 27(8): 893-905.

Harasewych, M. G. 2012. The Fossil Record and 

Phylogeography of the family Cerionidae (Gastropoda: 

Pulmonata), with the description of a new species from the 

Pleistocene of Florida. The Nautilus, 126: 119-126.

Kuffner, Ilsa B., T. Don Hickey, Valerie J. Paul, Jennifer 

M. Morrison, Linda J. Walters, Katie R. Grablow, 

Teresa Turner, and Edward R. Parish. 2011. Half-dead 

colonies of Montastraea annularis release viable gametes 

on a degraded reef in the U. S. Virgin Islands. Bulletin of 

Marine Science, 87(4): 855-856.

Laanbroek, Hendrikus J., Rosalinde M. Keijzer, Jos 

T. A. Verhoeven, and Dennis F. Whigham. 2012. The 

distribution of ammonia-oxidizing betaproteobacteria 

in stands of Black mangroves (Avicennia germanans). 

Frontiers in Microbiology, Volume 3, Article 153, 1-11.

Visiting Scientists
 36 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 37 

Meickle, Theresa, Sarath P. Gunasekara, Yanxia 

Liu, Hendrik Luesch, and Valerie J. Paul. 2011. 

Porpoisamides A and B, two novel epimeric cyclic 

depsipeptides from a Florida Keys collection of Lyngbya sp. 

Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 19: 6576-6580.

Morrow, Kathleen M., Raphael Ritson-Williams, 

Cliff Ross, Mark R. Liles, and Valerie J. Paul. 2012. 

Macroalgal extracts induce bacterial assemblage shifts and 

sublethal tissue stress in Caribbean corals. PLoS One, 

7(9): 1-12 e44859.

Ocampo, Emiliano H., Jesús D. Nuñez, Maximiliano 

Cledón, J. Antonio Baeza. 2012. Host-specific 

reproductive benefits, host selection behavior and host use 

pattern of the pinnotherid crab Calyptraeotheres garthi. 

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 429: 

36-46.

Onaga, Hitoshi, G. Curt Fiedler, and J. Antonio Baeza. 

2012. Protandric simultaneous hermaphroditism in 

Parhippolyte Misticia (Clark, 1989) (Caridea: Hippolytidae): 

implications for the evolution of mixed sexual systems in 

shrimp. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 32(3): 383-394.

Paerl, Hans W., Valerie Paul. 2012. Climate change: 

Links to global expansion of harmful cyanobacteria. Water 

Research, 46: 1349-1363.

Prasad, Akshinthala K.S.K., James A. Nienow and Paul 

E. Hargraves. 2011. Plicate species of the diatom genes 

Thalassiosira (Bacillariophyta) from the Atlantic and Gulf 

coasts of southeastern United States, with the description 

of T. livingstoniorum sp. nov. Proceedings of the Academy 

of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 161: 1-34.

Rawlinson, K. A., J. A. Gillis, R. E. Billlings, Jr., and E. 

H. Borneman. 2011. Taxonomy and life history of the 

Acropora-eating flatworm Amakusaplana acroporae nov. sp.

(Polycladida: Prosthiostomidae). Coral Reefs, 30: 693-705.

Rice, Mary E., Hugh F. Reichardt, Julianne Piraino, and 

Craig Young. 2012. Reproduction, development, growth 

and the length of larval life Phascolosoma turnerae, a wooddwelling deep-sea sipuncula. Invertebrate Biology: 1-12.

Santagata, Scott. 2012. Evaluating neurophylogenetic 

patterns in the larval nervous systems of brachiopods and 

their evolutionary significance to other bilaterian phyla. 

Journal of Morphology, 272: 1153-1169.

Sharp, Koty H., Dan Distel and Valerie J. Paul. 2012. 

Diversity and dynamics of bacterial communities in early 

life stages of the Caribbean coral Porites astreoides. The 

ISME Journal, 6: 790-801.

Schulze, Anja, Anastassya Maiorova, Laura E. Timm 

and Mary E. Rice. 2012. Sipunculan larvae and 

“cosmopolitan” species. Integrative and Comparative 

Biology, 52(4): 497-510.

Tulchinsky, Alexander Y. Jon L. Norenburg, and 

James M. Turbeville. 2012. Phylogeography of the 

marine interstitial nemertean Ototyphlonemertes parmula

(Nemertea, Hoplonemertea) reveals cryptic diversity and 

high dispersal potential. Marine Biology, 159: 661-674. 

Vaslet, Amandine, Christine France, Carole C. Baldwin, 

and Ilka C. Feller. 2012. Dietary habits of juveniles of 

the Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus, in mangrove 

ponds of an offshore islet in Belize, Central America. 

Neotropical Ichthyology, 10(3): 667-674.

Vaslet, A., D. L. Phillips, C. France, I. C. Feller, C. C. 

Baldwin. 2012. The relative importance of mangroves and 

seagrass beds as feeding areas for resident and transient 

fishes among different mangrove habitats in Florida and 

Belize: Evidence from dietary and stable-isotope analyses. 

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 434-

435: 81-93.

Winston, Judith E. 2012. Dispersal in marine 

organisms without a pelagic larval phase. Integrative and 

Comparative Biology, 52(4): 447-457.

Young, Craig M., Ruoying He, Richard B. Emlet, Yizhen 

Li, Hui Qian, Shawn D. Arellano, Ahna Van Gaest, 

Kathleen C. Bennett, Maya Wolf-Watts, Tracey I. Smart, 

and Mary E. Rice. 2012. Dispersal of deep-sea larvae 

from the Intra-American seas: Simulations and trajectories 

using ocean models. Integrative Comparative Biology, 

52(4): 483-496.

Scientific Publications
 38 Smithsonian Marine Station 2012 Annual Report 39 

Charles & Janet Alford

Robert & Frances Bangert

Hugh & Carolyn Benninger

David & Ursula Blackburn

William & Clare Bohnett 

Jack & Sally Chapman

Anne Covert

Ashton & Margo DePeyster 

Eugene Detmer

Richard G. Jennings, IV

William Jaeckle

Mark & Linda Kaiser

Kenny & Debbie Langley

Marilyn Link

Alma Lee Loy

Whitney & Elizabeth MacMillan

John & Marilyn McConnell

Eleanor Sexton

Sumner Gerard Foundation

Randy & Mimi Swaringen

Peter & Jeanne Tyson

Lace Vitunac

Margaret Wisniewski

Joel & Amy Zwemer

Carolyn Baskeyfield, 48, died November 23, 2012 at Martin Memorial Cancer Center in 

Stuart, Florida. Carolyn was a life-long resident of Port St. Lucie, Florida. Carolyn began 

volunteering at the Smithsonian Marine Ecosystems Exhibit (SMEE) in May 2006. Her 

passion for all things living and commitment to the Exhibit led to her becoming a part-time 

employee in May 2008. Over the years, Carolyn’s dedication to the Exhibit went above and 

beyond her part-time position. She and her family volunteered many hours assisting with 

special events, collecting specimens for display and helping to maintain the saltwater aquaria at 

SMEE. Carolyn was devoted to the animals under her care, always had a positive outlook and 

will be missed by all who knew her, particularly her favorite animals, our seahorses. The staff 

and volunteers of the Smithsonian Marine Station and the Ecosystems Exhibit will be forever 

grateful for her hard work, dedication, and friendship.

2012 Friends of SMS In Memoriam 

The Friends of the Smithsonian Marine 

Station is the sponsor organization devoted 

to promoting and supporting the research 

and education efforts of SMS. Annual membership provides financial support for student 

and postdoctoral researchers, large-scale 

outreach events like the Annual Open House 

and National Estuaries Day, programs and 

displays at the Smithsonian Marine Ecosystems Exhibit, and a number of other missiondriven initiatives. Special events provide 

participants opportunities to interact with 

scientific and education staff while learning 

about current research. All donations to the 

Friends of the Smithsonian Marine Station are 

tax-deductible. For more information about 

becoming a Friend, visit our website at 

www.sms.si.edu/GetInvolved.
The Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce

A Facility of the National Museum of Natural History

701 Seaway Drive | Fort Pierce, Florida 34949 USA

772.462.6220 | 772.461.8154 (fax)

www.sms.si.edu