DOE/EIA-0383(2011) | April 2011

with Projections to 2035

Annual Energy

Outlook 2011
For further information . . .

The Annual Energy Outlook 2011 was prepared by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), under the direction of John J. 

Conti (john.conti@eia.gov, 202-586-2222), Assistant Administrator of Energy Analysis; Paul D. Holtberg (paul.holtberg@eia.gov, 

202/586-1284), Co-Acting Director, Office of Integrated and International Energy Analysis, and Team Leader, Analysis Integration 

Team; Joseph A. Beamon (joseph.beamon@eia.gov, 202/586-2025), Director, Office of Electricity, Coal, Nuclear, and Renewables 

Analysis; A. Michael Schaal (michael.schaal@eia.gov, 202/586-5590), Director, Office of Petroleum, Gas, and Biofuel Analysis; 

Joseph C. Ayoub (joseph.ayoub@eia.gov, 202-586-8994), Co-Acting Director, Office of Integrated and International Energy Analysis, 

and James T. Turnure (james.turnure@eia.gov, 202/586-1762), Director, Office of Energy Consumption and Efficiency Analysis.

For ordering information and questions on other energy statistics available from EIA, please contact the EIA Energy Information 

Center at:

EIA Energy Information Center, EI-30

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Forrestal Building

Washington, DC 20585

Telephone: 202/586-8800 E-mail: infoctr@eia.gov

FAX: 202/586-0727 Website: www.eia.gov/

Specific questions about the information in this report may be directed to:

General questions ..................................................... Paul D. Holtberg (paul.holtberg@eia.gov, 202-586-1284)

National energy modeling system ........................ Dan H. Skelly (daniel.skelly@eia.gov, 202-586-2222)

Executive summary .................................................. Paul D. Holtberg (paul.holtberg@eia.gov, 202/586-1284)

Economic activity ...................................................... Kay A. Smith (kay.smith@eia.gov, 202/586-1132)

World oil prices .......................................................... John L. Staub (john.staub@eia.gov, 202-586-3005)

International oil production .................................... Emre M. Yucel (emre.yucel@eia.gov, 202/586-3005)

International oil demand ......................................... Linda E. Doman (linda.doman@eia.gov, 202/586-1041)

Residential demand .................................................. Owen Comstock (owen.comstock@eia.gov, 202/586-4752)

Commercial demand ................................................ Erin E. Boedecker (erin.boedecker@eia.gov, 202/586-4791)

Industrial demand ..................................................... Elizabeth D. Sendich (elizabeth.sendich@eia.gov, 202/586-7145)

Transportation demand ........................................... John D. Maples (john.maples@eia.gov, 202/586-1757)

Electricity generation, capacity ............................. Jeff S. Jones (jeffrey.jones@eia.gov, 202/586-2038)

Electricity generation, emissions .......................... Michael T. Leff (michael.leff@eia.gov, 202/586-1297)

Electricity prices ........................................................ Lori B. Aniti (lori.aniti@eia.gov, 202/586-2867)

Nuclear energy ........................................................... Laura K. Martin (laura.martin@eia.gov, 202/586-1494)

Renewable energy ..................................................... Chris R. Namovicz (chris.namovicz@eia.gov, 202/586-7120)

Oil and natural gas production .............................. Dana Van Wagener (dana.vanwagener@eia.gov, 202/586-4725)

Liquefied natural gas markets ................................ Phyllis D. Martin (phyllis.martin@eia.gov, 202-586-9592)

Oil refining and markets .......................................... William S. Brown (william.brown@eia.gov, 202/586-8181)

Ethanol and biodiesel ............................................... Mac J. Statton (mac.statton@eia.gov, 202-586-7105)

Coal supply and prices ............................................. Michael L. Mellish (michael.mellish@eia.gov, 202/586-2136)

Carbon dioxide emissions ....................................... Diane R. Kearney (diane.kearney@eia.gov, 202/586-2415)

The Annual Energy Outlook 2011 is available on the EIA website at www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/. Assumptions underlying the 

projections, tables of regional results, and other detailed results will also be available, at www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/. 

Model documentation reports for the National Energy Modeling System are available at website www.eia.gov/analysis/modeldocumentation.cfm and will be updated for the Annual Energy Outlook 2011 during 2011.

Other contributors to the report include Justine Barden, Joseph Benneche, Tina Bowers, Phillip Budzik, Stephen Calopedis, Nicholas 

Chase, John Cochener, Michael Cole, Margie Daymude, Robert Eynon, Adrian Geagla, Peter Gross, James Hewlett, Behjat Hojjati, 

Sean Hill, Kevin Jarzomski, Stephanie Kette, Paul Kondis, Andy Kydes, Marie LaRiviere, Thomas Lee, Perry Lindstrom, Lauren Mayne, 

David Peterson, Chetha Phang, Eugene Reiser, Mark Schipper, Joanne Shore, Robert Smith, John Staub, Russell Tarver, Diwakar 

Vashishat, Steven Wade, and Peggy Wells.
Annual Energy Outlook 2011

With Projections to 2035

April 2011

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Office of Integrated and International Energy Analysis

U.S. Department of Energy

Washington, DC 20585

This report was prepared by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the statistical and 

analytical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. By law, EIA’s data, analyses, and forecasts 

are independent of approval by any other officer or employee of the United States Government. The 

views in this report therefore should not be construed as representing those of the Department of 

Energy or other Federal agencies.

This publication is on the WEB at:

www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/
ii U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Projections by EIA are not statements of what will happen but of what might happen, given the assumptions and 

methodologies used for any particular scenario. The Reference case projection is a business-as-usual trend estimate, given 

known technology and technological and demographic trends. EIA explores the impacts of alternative assumptions in 

other scenarios with different macroeconomic growth rates, world oil prices, and rates of technology progress. The main 

cases in AEO2011 generally assume that current laws and regulations are maintained throughout the projections. Thus, the 

projections provide policy-neutral baselines that can be used to analyze policy initiatives.

While energy markets are complex, energy models are simplified representations of energy production and consumption, 

regulations, and producer and consumer behavior. Projections are highly dependent on the data, methodologies, model 

structures, and assumptions used in their development. Behavioral characteristics are indicative of real-world tendencies 

rather than representations of specific outcomes.

Energy market projections are subject to much uncertainty. Many of the events that shape energy markets are random and 

cannot be anticipated. In addition, future developments in technologies, demographics, and resources cannot be foreseen 

with certainty. Many key uncertainties in the AEO2011 projections are addressed through alternative cases.

EIA has endeavored to make these projections as objective, reliable, and useful as possible; however, they should serve as 

an adjunct to, not a substitute for, a complete and focused analysis of public policy initiatives.

Preface

The Annual Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011), prepared by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), presents long-term 

projections of energy supply, demand, and prices through 2035, based on results from EIA’s National Energy Modeling System 

(NEMS). EIA published an “early release” version of the AEO2011 Reference case in December 2010.

The report begins with an Executive summary that highlights key aspects of the projections. It is followed by a Legislation and regulations 

section that discusses evolving legislative and regulatory issues, including a summary of recently enacted legislation and regulations, 

such as a recently announced (October 13, 2010) EPA waiver, which allows the use of motor gasoline blends containing 15 percent 

ethanol in newer vehicles (model year 2007 or later), or the 7-year moratorium on offshore drilling in the Atlantic and Pacific that 

was announced by the U.S. Department of the Interior on December 1, 2010. The Issues in focus section contains discussions of 

selected energy topics, including a discussion of the results in two cases that adopt different assumptions about the future course 

of existing policies: one case assumes the extension of a selected group of existing public policies—corporate average fuel economy 

standards, appliance standards, production tax credits, and the elimination of sunset provisions in existing energy policies; the other 

case assumes only the elimination of sunset provisions. Other discussions include: a look at evolving environmental regulations that 

affect the power sector; the economics of carbon capture and storage; prospects for shale gas production, including cost uncertainty 

and its impact on decisions for new power plant builds, fuel use, and emissions; and the basis for world oil price and production 

trends in AEO2011.

The Market trends section summarizes the projections for energy markets. The analysis in AEO2011 focuses primarily on a Reference 

case, Low and High Economic Growth cases, and Low and High Oil Price cases. Results from a number of other alternative cases 

also are presented, illustrating uncertainties associated with the Reference case projections for energy demand, supply, and prices. 

Complete tables for the five primary cases are provided in Appendixes A through C. Major results from many of the alternative cases 

are provided in Appendix D. Complete tables for all the alternative cases are available on EIA’s website in a table browser at www.

eia.gov/oiaf/aeo/tablebrowser/.

AEO2011 projections are based generally on Federal, State, and local laws and regulations in effect as of the end of January 2011. The 

potential impacts of pending or proposed legislation, regulations, and standards (and sections of existing legislation that require 

implementing regulations or funds that have not been appropriated) are not reflected in the projections. In certain situations, however, 

where it is clear that a law or regulation will take effect shortly after the AEO is completed, it may be considered in the projection.

AEO2011 is published in accordance with Section 205c of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Organization Act of 1977 (Public 

Law 95-91), which requires the EIA Administrator to prepare annual reports on trends and projections for energy use and supply.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 iii

Updated Annual Energy Outlook 2011 Reference case (April 2011)

The AEO2011 Reference case included in the final published report released in April 2011 is updated from the Reference case that was 

used in the AEO2011 Early Release Overview (December 2010). The Reference case was updated to incorporate modeling changes and 

reflect changes based on recent legislation and regulations that were not available when the Early Release Overview was published. 

Major changes made for the updated Reference include:

•	 Added a 30-percent investment tax credit for fuel cells, with a 2016 expiration date

•	 Retired the Oyster Creek nuclear power plant at the end of 2019

•	 Revised the amount of new wind capacity built in 2012 (7 rather than 10 gigawatts)

•	 Benchmarked oil production to EIA’s January Short-Term Energy Outlook (including revision of undiscovered oil drilling schedules)

•	 Delayed additional deepwater offshore projects

•	 Forced economic life to be 43 years for coalbed methane play that was deciding on a 16-year life

•	 Updated carbon-dioxide-enhanced oil recovery

•	 Updated natural gas reserve reporting

•	 Updated 2011 cellulosic ethanol subsidy

•	 Updated ethanol tax credit, biodiesel tax credit, and ethanol tariff through 2011

•	 Allowed E15 use in 2001-2006 model year light-duty vehicles (in addition to 2007-present)

•	 Updated battery cost curve

•	 Updated sales of electric, hybrid electric, microhybrid, and plug-in electric vehicles

•	 Updated High Technology case assumptions

•	 Updated historical data for energy-related carbon dioxide emissions and updated carbon dioxide emissions factors for biomass, 

based on upcoming EIA data reports.

Future analyses using the AEO2011 Reference case will start from the version released with this complete report.
This page intentionally left blank
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 v

Contents

Executive summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Legislation and regulations ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

1. Updated State air emissions regulations..................................................................................................................................... 6

2. State renewable energy requirements and goals: Update through 2010 .............................................................................. 7

3. Updates on liquid fuels taxes and tax credits ............................................................................................................................. 10

4. California Low Carbon Fuel Standard.......................................................................................................................................... 10

5. Representing impacts of the U.S. EPA’s interim permit review guidelines for surface coal mining operations............... 11

6. EPA approval of E15 waiver .......................................................................................................................................................... 12

7. Mandates for low-sulfur heating oil in the Northeast ................................................................................................................. 13

Issues in focus................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18

1. No Sunset and Extended Policies cases..................................................................................................................................... 18

2. World oil price and production trends in AEO2011.................................................................................................................... 23

3. Increasing light-duty vehicle greenhouse gas and fuel economy standards for model years 2017 to 2025 ................... 25

4. Fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions standards for heavy-duty vehicles ...................................................... 29

	 5.	Potential efficiency improvements in alternative cases for appliance standards and building codes............................... 32

6. Potential of offshore crude oil and natural gas resources ........................................................................................................ 35

7. Prospects for shale gas.................................................................................................................................................................. 37

8. Cost uncertainties for new electric power plants........................................................................................................................ 40

9. Carbon capture and storage: Economics and issues................................................................................................................ 42

10. Power sector environmental regulations on the horizon........................................................................................................... 45

Market trends ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57

Trends in economic activity.................................................................................................................................................................. 58

Energy trends in the economy............................................................................................................................................................. 59

International energy............................................................................................................................................................................... 60

International oil markets........................................................................................................................................................................ 61

U.S. energy demand ............................................................................................................................................................................. 62

Residential sector energy demand ..................................................................................................................................................... 64

Commercial sector energy demand.................................................................................................................................................... 66

Industrial sector energy demand......................................................................................................................................................... 68

Transportation sector energy demand ............................................................................................................................................... 70

Electricity demand.................................................................................................................................................................................. 73

Electricity generation............................................................................................................................................................................. 74

Renewable generation .......................................................................................................................................................................... 76

Renewable capacity .............................................................................................................................................................................. 77

Natural gas prices.................................................................................................................................................................................. 78

Natural gas supply ................................................................................................................................................................................. 79

Liquid fuels demand .............................................................................................................................................................................. 81

Crude oil supply...................................................................................................................................................................................... 82

Liquid fuels supply ................................................................................................................................................................................. 83

Coal production ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 85

Coal prices .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 86

Emissions from energy use.................................................................................................................................................................. 87

Comparison with other projections ............................................................................................................................................................... 91

1. Economic growth ............................................................................................................................................................................. 92

2. World oil prices................................................................................................................................................................................. 92

3. Total energy consumption .............................................................................................................................................................. 93

4. Electricity........................................................................................................................................................................................... 93

5. Natural gas ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 97

6. Liquid fuels........................................................................................................................................................................................ 100

7. Coal.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 100

List of acronyms ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 105

Notes and sources............................................................................................................................................................................................ 106
vi U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Contents

Tables

Executive summary

1.	Coal-fired plant retirements in alternative cases, 2010-2035 .................................................................................................. 4

Legislation and regulations

 2. Renewable portfolio standards in the 30 States with current mandates................................................................................ 8

Issues in focus

 3. Key analyses of interest from “Issues in focus” in recent AEOs.............................................................................................. 18

 4. Unconventional light-duty vehicle types ...................................................................................................................................... 26

 5. Vehicle categories for the HDV standards ................................................................................................................................. 30

 6. Technically recoverable undiscovered U.S. offshore oil and natural gas resources assumed in two cases .................. 36

 7. First year of available offshore leasing in two cases ................................................................................................................. 37

8.	Natural gas prices, production, imports, and consumption in five cases, 2035.................................................................... 39

 9. Commercial-scale CCS projects operating in 2010................................................................................................................... 43

10.	Transport Rule emissions targets, 2012 and 2014.................................................................................................................... 46

11.	Coal-fired plant retirements in nine cases, 2010-2035 ............................................................................................................. 50

Comparison with other projections

12.	Projections of average annual economic growth, 2009-2035.................................................................................................. 92

Appendixes

A. Reference case................................................................................................................................................................................ 115

B. Economic growth case comparisons............................................................................................................................................ 157

C. Price case comparisons ................................................................................................................................................................. 167

D. Results from side cases ................................................................................................................................................................. 182

E. NEMS overview and brief description of cases.......................................................................................................................... 209

F. Regional Maps ................................................................................................................................................................................. 227

G. Conversion factors .......................................................................................................................................................................... 235

Figures

Executive summary

	 1.	U.S. liquids fuel consumption, 1970-2035 .................................................................................................................................. 2

	 2.	U.S. natural gas production, 1990-2035 ..................................................................................................................................... 3

	 3.	U.S. nonhydropower renewable electricity generation, 1990-2035 ....................................................................................... 3

	 4.	U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by sector and fuel, 2005 and 2035 ....................................................................................... 4

Legislation and regulations

	 5.	Surface coal mining productivity in Central Appalachia, 1980-2035....................................................................................... 12

Issues in focus

	 6.	Total energy consumption in three cases, 2005-2035 ............................................................................................................. 20

	 7.	Total liquid fuels consumption for transportation in three cases, 2005-2035 ....................................................................... 20

	 8.	Renewable electricity generation in three cases, 2005-2035 ................................................................................................. 21

	 9.	Electricity generation from natural gas in three cases, 2005-2035 ........................................................................................ 21

	 10.	Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions in three cases, 2005-2035 ................................................................................... 22

	 11.	Natural gas wellhead prices in three cases, 2005-2035........................................................................................................... 22

	 12.	Average electricity prices in three cases, 2005-2035................................................................................................................ 22

	 13.	Average annual world oil prices in three cases, 1980-2035..................................................................................................... 23

	 14.	Total liquids production by source in the Reference case, 2000-2035 .................................................................................. 24

	 15.	Differences from Reference case liquids production in four Oil Price cases, 2035 ............................................................ 24

	 16.	Combined CAFE standards for light-duty vehicles in three cases, 2005-2035..................................................................... 25

17. Model year 2025 light-duty vehicle market shares by technology type in three cases........................................................ 27

	 19.	On-road fuel economy of the light-duty vehicle stock in three cases, 2005-2035................................................................ 27

18. Distribution of new light-duty vehicle sales by vehicle price in 2025 in the CAFE3 and CAFE6 cases............................ 27

	 20.	Total liquid fuels consumption by light‐duty vehicles in three cases, 2005-2035 ................................................................ 27

21. Total transportation carbon dioxide emissions............................................................................................................................ 28

	 22.	Total annual fuel consumption for consumers driving 14,000 miles per year

and annual fuel expenditures at a $4.00 per gallon fuel price ................................................................................................. 29

	 23.	On-road fuel economy of new medium and heavy heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035 .................................. 31
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 vii

Contents

Figures (continued)

	 24.	Average on-road fuel economy of medium and heavy heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035 ........................... 31

	 25.	Total liquid fuels consumed by the transportation sector in two cases, 2005-2035 ............................................................ 31

26. CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035 ...................................................................................... 31

	 27.	Residential and commercial delivered energy consumption in four cases, 2005-2035 ...................................................... 32

	 28.	Residential delivered energy savings in three cases, 2010-2035........................................................................................... 34

	 29.	Commercial delivered energy savings in three cases, 2010-2035 ......................................................................................... 34

	 30.	Offshore crude oil production in four cases, 2009-2035 .......................................................................................................... 37

	 31.	Offshore natural gas production in four cases, 2009-2035 ..................................................................................................... 37

	 32.	Additions to U.S. generating capacity by fuel type in five cases, 2009-2035 ....................................................................... 41

	 33.	U.S. electricity generation by fuel in five cases, 2009 and 2035 ............................................................................................ 41

	 34.	U.S. electricity prices in five cases, 2005‐2035.......................................................................................................................... 42

35. CO2 injection volumes in the Reference case, 2005‐2035 ...................................................................................................... 44

	 36.	CCS capacity additions in the U.S. electric power sector in the GHG Price Economywide case, 2015-2035 ............... 44

37. CO2 injection volumes in the GHG Price Economywide case, 2005-2035 ........................................................................... 45

38. CO2-EOR oil production in four cases, 2005‐2035 ................................................................................................................... 45

	 39.	Natural gas prices in the Reference and High Ultimate Shale Recovery cases, 2005-2035 ............................................. 49

	 40.	Electricity generation by fuel in nine cases, 2009 and 2035 ................................................................................................... 51

	 41.	Electricity generation by fuel in nine cases, 2009 and 2025 ................................................................................................... 51

	 42.	Natural gas consumption in the power sector in nine cases, 2009, 2025, and 2035 ......................................................... 51

	 43.	Cumulative capacity additions in the Reference and GHG Price Economywide cases, 2010‐2035 ............................... 52

	 44.	Carbon dioxide emissions from the electric power sector in nine cases, 2009, 2025, and 2035 ..................................... 52

Market trends

	 45.	Average annual growth rates of real GDP, labor force, and productivity in three cases, 2009-2035................................ 58

	 46.	Average annual inflation, interest, and unemployment rates in three cases, 2009-2035 .................................................. 58

	 47.	Sectoral composition of industrial output growth rates in three cases, 2009-2035 ............................................................. 59

	 48.	Energy expenditures in the U.S. economy in three cases, 1990-2035 .................................................................................. 59

	 49.	Energy end-use expenditures as a share of gross domestic product, 1970-2035............................................................... 59

	 50.	World energy consumption by region, 1990‐2035 .................................................................................................................... 60

	 51.	North American natural gas trade, 2009-2035 .......................................................................................................................... 60

	 52.	Average annual world oil prices in three cases, 1980-2035..................................................................................................... 61

	 53.	World liquids supply and demand by region in three cases, 2009 and 2035 ....................................................................... 61

	 54.	Unconventional resources as a share of total world liquids production in three cases, 2009 and 2035.......................... 62

	 55.	Energy use per capita and per dollar of gross domestic product, 1980-2035....................................................................... 62

	 56.	Primary energy use by end-use sector, 2009-2035 .................................................................................................................. 63

	 57.	Primary energy use by fuel, 1980-2035 ...................................................................................................................................... 63

	 58.	Residential delivered energy consumption per capita in four cases, 1990-2035 ................................................................. 64

	 59.	Change in residential electricity consumption for selected end uses in the Reference case, 2009-2035 ...................... 64

	 60.	Efficiency gains for selected residential equipment in three cases, 2035 ............................................................................. 65

	 61.	Residential market saturation by renewable technologies in two cases, 2009, 2020, and 2035 ..................................... 65

	 62.	Commercial delivered energy consumption per capita in four cases, 1990-2035................................................................ 66

	 63.	Average annual growth rates for selected electricity end uses in the commercial sector, 2009-2035 ............................. 66

	 64.	Efficiency gains for selected commercial equipment in three cases, 2035 ........................................................................... 67

	 65.	Additions to electricity generation capacity in the commercial sector in two cases, 2009-2035 ....................................... 67

	 66.	Industrial delivered energy consumption by application, 2009-2035 ..................................................................................... 68

	 67.	Industrial energy consumption by fuel, 2007, 2009, 2025 and 2035 ..................................................................................... 68

	 68.	Cumulative growth in value of shipments by industrial subsector in three cases, 2009-2035........................................... 69

	 69.	Change in delivered energy consumption for industrial subsectors in three cases, 2009-2035 ....................................... 69

	 70.	Industrial consumption of fuels for use as feedstocks by fuel type, 2009-2035 .................................................................. 70

	 71.	Delivered energy consumption for transportation by mode, 2009 and 2035 ....................................................................... 70

	 72.	Average fuel economy of new light-duty vehicles in five cases, 1980-2035 ......................................................................... 71

	 73.	Vehicle miles traveled per licensed driver, 1970-2035.............................................................................................................. 71

	 74.	Market penetration of new technologies for light-duty vehicles, 2035.................................................................................... 72

	 75.	Sales of unconventional light-duty vehicles by fuel type, 2009, 2020, and 2035 ................................................................. 72

	 76.	U.S. electricity demand growth, 1950-2035................................................................................................................................ 73

	 77.	Electricity generation by fuel, 2007, 2009, and 2035 ............................................................................................................... 73

	 78.	Electricity generation capacity additions by fuel type, 2010-2035 ......................................................................................... 74

	 79.	Additions to electricity generation capacity, 1985-2035 ........................................................................................................... 74

	 80.	Electricity sales and power sector generating capacity, 1949-2035 ....................................................................................... 75

	 81.	Levelized electricity costs for new power plants, 2020 and 2035 ........................................................................................... 75

	 82.	Electricity generating capacity at U.S. nuclear power plants in two cases, 2009, 2020, and 2035 ................................. 76
viii U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Contents

Figures (continued)

	 83.	Nonhydropower renewable electricity generation by energy source, 2009-2035 ............................................................... 76

	 84.	Nonhydropower renewable electricity generation capacity by source, 2009-2035.............................................................. 77

	 85.	Regional growth in nonhydroelectric renewable electricity generation capacity,

including end-use capacity, 2009-2035 ...................................................................................................................................... 77

	 86.	Annual average lower 48 wellhead and Henry Hub spot market prices for natural gas, 1990-2035................................ 78

87. Ratio of low-sulfur light crude oil price to Henry Hub natural gas price 

on an energy equivalent basis, 1990-2035 ................................................................................................................................. 78

	 88.	Annual average lower 48 wellhead prices for natural gas in seven cases, 1990-2035 ...................................................... 78

	 89.	Natural gas production by source, 1990-2035 .......................................................................................................................... 79

	 90.	Total U.S. natural gas production in five cases, 1990-2035 .................................................................................................... 79

	 91.	Lower 48 onshore natural gas production by region, 2009 and 2035 ................................................................................... 80

	 92.	U.S. net imports of natural gas by source, 1990-2035 ............................................................................................................. 80

	 93.	Liquid fuels consumption by sector, 1990‐2035 ........................................................................................................................ 81

	 94.	U.S. domestic liquids production by source, 2009-2035 ......................................................................................................... 81

	 95.	Domestic crude oil production by source, 1990-2035 .............................................................................................................. 82

	 96.	Total U.S. crude oil production in five cases, 1990-2035 ......................................................................................................... 82

	 97.	Net import share of U.S. liquid fuels consumption in three cases, 1990-2035 ..................................................................... 83

	 98.	EISA2007 renewable fuels standard, 2010‐2035 ...................................................................................................................... 83

	 99.	U.S. motor gasoline and diesel fuel consumption, 2000-2035 ............................................................................................... 84

	 100.	U.S. ethanol use in gasoline and E85, 2000‐2035 .................................................................................................................... 84

	 101.	Coal production by region, 1970-2035 ........................................................................................................................................ 85

	 102.	U.S. coal production in six cases, 2007, 2009, 2020, and 2035 ............................................................................................ 85

	 103.	Average annual minemouth coal prices by region, 1990-2035 ............................................................................................... 86

	 104.	Average annual delivered coal prices in four cases, 1990-2035............................................................................................. 86

	 105.	Change in annual U.S. coal consumption by end use in two cases, 2009-2035 ................................................................ 87

	 106.	U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by sector and fuel, 2005 and 2035 ....................................................................................... 87

	 107.	Sulfur dioxide emissions from electricity generation, 2000-2035............................................................................................ 88

	 108.	Nitrogen oxide emissions from electricity generation, 2000-2035 .......................................................................................... 88
Executive summary
2 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Executive summary

The projections in the Energy Information Administration’s (EIA) Annual Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011) focus on the factors that shape 

the U.S. energy system over the long term. Under the assumption that current laws and regulations remain unchanged throughout 

the projections, the AEO2011 Reference case provides the basis for examination and discussion of energy production, consumption, 

technology, and market trends and the direction they may take in the future. It also serves as a starting point for analysis of potential 

changes in energy policies. But AEO2011 is not limited to the Reference case. It also includes 57 sensitivity cases (see Appendix E, 

Table E1), which explore important areas of uncertainty for markets, technologies, and policies in the U.S. energy economy.

Key results highlighted in AEO2011 include strong growth in shale gas production, growing use of natural gas and renewables in 

electric power generation, declining reliance on imported liquid fuels, and projected slow growth in energy-related carbon dioxide 

(CO2) emissions even in the absence of new policies designed to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

AEO2011 also includes in-depth discussions on topics of special interest that may affect the energy outlook. They include: impacts 

of the continuing renewal and updating of Federal and State laws and regulations; discussion of world oil supply and price trends 

shaped by changes in demand from countries outside the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development or in supply 

available from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries; an examination of the potential impacts of proposed revisions 

to Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards for light-duty vehicles and proposed new standards for heavy-duty vehicles; the 

impact of a series of updates to appliance standard alone or in combination with revised building codes; the potential impact on 

natural gas and crude oil production of an expanded offshore resource base; prospects for shale gas; the impact of cost uncertainty 

on construction of new electric power plants; the economics of carbon capture and storage; and the possible impact of regulations 

on the electric power sector under consideration by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Some of the highlights from 

those discussions are mentioned in this Executive Summary. Readers interested in more detailed analyses and discussions should 

refer to the “Issues in focus” section of this report.

Imports meet a major but declining share of total U.S. energy demand

Real gross domestic product grows by 2.7 percent per year from 2009 to 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference case, and oil prices grow 

to about $125 per barrel (2009 dollars) in 2035. In this environment, net imports of energy meet a major, but declining, share of 

total U.S. energy demand in the Reference case. The need for energy imports is offset by the increased use of biofuels (much of 

which are produced domestically), demand reductions resulting from the adoption of new vehicle fuel economy standards, and rising 

energy prices. Rising fuel prices also spur domestic energy production across all fuels—particularly, natural gas from plentiful shale gas 

resources—and temper the growth of energy imports. The net import share of total U.S. energy consumption in 2035 is 17 percent, 

compared with 24 percent in 2009. (The share was 29 percent in 2007, but it dropped considerably during the 2008-2009 recession.)

Much of the projected decline in the net import share of energy supply is accounted for by liquids. Although U.S. consumption 

of liquid fuels continues to grow through 2035 in the Reference case, reliance on petroleum imports as a share of total liquids 

consumption decreases. Total U.S. consumption of liquid fuels, including both fossil fuels and biofuels, rises from about 18.8 million 

barrels per day in 2009 to 21.9 million barrels per day in 2035 in the Reference case. The import share, which reached 60 percent 

in 2005 and 2006 before falling to 51 percent in 2009, falls to 42 percent in 2035 (Figure 1).

Domestic shale gas resources support increased natural gas production with moderate prices

Shale gas production in the United States grew at an average annual rate of 17 percent between 2000 and 2006. Early success in shale 

gas production was achieved primarily in the Barnett Shale in Texas. By 2006, the success in the Barnett shale, coupled with high natural 

gas prices and technological improvements, turned the industry 

focus to other shale plays. The combination of horizontal drilling 

and hydraulic fracturing technologies has made it possible to 

produce shale gas economically, leading to an average annual 

growth rate of 48 percent over the 2006-2010 period.

Shale gas production continues to increase strongly through 

2035 in the AEO2011 Reference case, growing almost 

fourfold from 2009 to 2035. While total domestic natural 

gas production grows from 21.0 trillion cubic feet in 2009 to 

26.3 trillion cubic feet in 2035, shale gas production grows to 

12.2 trillion cubic feet in 2035, when it makes up 47 percent 

of total U.S. production—up considerably from the 16-percent 

share in 2009 (Figure 2).

The estimate for technically recoverable unproved shale gas 

resources in the Reference case is 827 trillion cubic feet. 

Although more information has become available as a result 

of increased drilling activity in developing shale gas plays, 

estimates of technically recoverable resources and well 

productivity remain highly uncertain. Estimates of technically 0

5

10

15

20

25

1970 1985 2000 2009 2020 2035

4%

History 2009 Projections

Liquids from coal

Biofuels including imports

Net petroleum imports

Petroleum supply

Natural gas plant liquids

10%

34%

52%

11%

13%

3%

32%

41%

Figure 1. U.S. liquids fuel consumption, 1970-2035 

(million barrels per day)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 3

Executive summary

recoverable shale gas are certain to change over time as new information is gained through drilling, production, and technological 

and managerial development. Over the past decade, as more shale formations have gone into commercial production, the 

estimate of technically and economically recoverable shale gas resources has skyrocketed. However, the increases in recoverable 

shale gas resources embody many assumptions that might prove to be incorrect over the long term.

Alternative cases in AEO2011 examine the potential impacts of variation in the estimated ultimate recovery per shale gas well and 

the assumed recoverability factor used to estimate how much of the play acreage contains recoverable shale gas. In those cases, 

overall domestic natural gas production varies from 22.4 trillion cubic feet to 30.1 trillion cubic feet in 2035, compared with 26.3 

trillion cubic feet in the Reference case. The Henry Hub spot price for natural gas in 2035 (in 2009 dollars) ranges from $5.35 

per thousand cubic feet to $9.26 per thousand cubic feet in the alternative cases, compared with $7.07 per thousand cubic feet 

in the Reference case.

Despite rapid growth in generation from natural gas and nonhydropower renewable energy sources, 

coal continues to account for the largest share of electricity generation

Assuming no additional constraints on CO2 emissions, coal remains the largest source of electricity generation in the AEO2011

Reference case because of continued reliance on existing coal-fired plants. EIA projects few new central-station coal-fired 

power plants, however, beyond those already under construction or supported by clean coal incentives. Generation from coal 

increases by 25 percent from 2009 to 2035, largely as a result of increased use of existing capacity; however, its share of the 

total generation mix falls from 45 percent to 43 percent as a result of more rapid increases in generation from natural gas 

and renewables over the same period. The role of natural gas grows due to low natural gas prices and relatively low capital 

construction costs that make it more attractive than coal. The share of generation from natural gas increases from 23 percent 

in 2009 to 25 percent in 2035.

Electricity generation from renewable sources grows by 72 percent in the Reference case, raising its share of total generation 

from 11 percent in 2009 to 14 percent in 2035. Most of the growth in renewable electricity generation in the power sector 

consists of generation from wind and biomass facilities (Figure 3). The growth in generation from wind plants is driven 

primarily by State renewable portfolio standard (RPS) requirements and Federal tax credits. Generation from biomass comes 

from both dedicated biomass plants and co-firing in coal plants. Its growth is driven by State RPS programs, the availability of 

low-cost feedstocks, and the Federal renewable fuels standard, which results in significant cogeneration of electricity at plants 

producing biofuels.

Proposed environmental regulations could alter the power generation fuel mix

The EPA is expected to enact several key regulations in the coming decade that will have an impact on the U.S. power sector, 

particularly the fleet of coal-fired power plants. Because the rules have not yet been finalized, their impacts cannot be fully 

analyzed, and they are not included in the Reference case. However, AEO2011 does include several alternative cases that examine 

the sensitivity of power generation markets to various assumed requirements for environmental retrofits.

The range of coal plant retirements varies considerably across the cases (Table 1), with a low of 9 gigawatts (3 percent of the coal 

fleet) in the Reference case and a high of 73 gigawatts (over 20 percent of the coal fleet). The higher end of this range is driven by 

the somewhat extreme assumptions that all plants must have scrubbers to remove sulfur dioxide and selective catalytic reduction 

to remove nitrogen oxides, that natural gas wellhead prices remain at or below about $5 through 2035, and that environmental 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History 2009 Projections

Lower 48 onshore conventional

Shale gas

Coalbed methane

Alaska Lower 48 offshore

Tight gas

Figure 2. U.S. natural gas production, 1990-2035 

(trillion cubic feet per year)

0

100

200

300

400

500

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Solar

Advanced biofuels cogeneration

Geothermal

Wind

History 2009 Projections

Power sector

Biomass

Industrial (combined heat and power)

Waste

Figure 3. U.S. nonhydropower renewable electricity 

generation, 1990-2035 (billion kilowatts per year)
4 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Executive summary

retrofit decisions are based on an assumption that retrofits occur only if plant owners can recover their costs within 5 years. The 

latter quick cost recovery assumption is meant to represent the possibility of future environmental regulation, including for GHGs.

In all these cases, coal continues to account for the largest share of electricity generation through 2035. Many of the coal plants 

projected to be retired in these cases had relatively low utilization factors and high heat rates historically, and their contribution to 

overall coal-fired generation was relatively modest.

Electricity generation from natural gas is higher in 2035 in all the environmental regulation sensitivity cases than in the Reference 

case. The faster growth in electricity generation with natural gas is supported by low natural gas prices and relatively low capital 

costs for new natural gas plants, which improve the relative economics of gas when regulatory pressure is placed on the existing coal 

fleet. In the alternative cases, natural gas generation in 2035 varies from 1,323 billion kilowatthours to 1,797 billion kilowatthours, 

compared with 1,288 billion kilowatthours in the Reference case.

Assuming no changes in policy related to greenhouse gas emissions, carbon dioxide emissions grow slowly 

and do not return to 2005 levels until 2027

After falling by 3 percent in 2008 and 7 percent in 2009, largely as a result of the economic downturn, energy-related CO2

emissions grow slowly in the AEO2011 Reference case due to a combination of modest economic growth, growing use of renewable 

technologies and fuels, efficiency improvements, slower growth in electricity demand (in part because of the recent recession), 

and more use of natural gas, which is less carbon-intensive than other fossil fuels. In the Reference case, which assumes no explicit 

regulations to limit GHG emissions beyond vehicle GHG standards, energy-related CO2 emissions do not return to 2005 levels 

(5,996 million metric tons) until 2027, growing by an average of 0.6 percent per year from 2009 to 2027, or a total of 10.6 percent. 

CO2 emissions then rise by an additional 5 percent from 2027 to 2035, to 6,311 million metric tons in 2035 (Figure 4).

To put the numbers in perspective, population growth is 

projected to average 0.9 percent per year, overall economic 

growth 2.7 percent per year, and growth in energy use 0.7 

percent per year over the same period. Although total energyrelated CO2 emissions increase from 5,996 million metric tons 

in 2005 to 6,311 million metric tons in 2035 in the Reference 

case, emissions per capita fall by 0.7 percent per year over 

the same period. Most of the growth in CO2 emissions in the 

AEO2011 Reference case is accounted for by the electric power 

and transportation sectors.

The projections for CO2 emissions are sensitive to many factors, 

including economic growth, policies aimed at stimulating 

renewable fuel use or low-carbon power sources, and any 

policies that may be enacted to reduce GHG emissions. In the 

AEO2011 Low and High Economic Growth cases, projections 

for total primary energy consumption in 2035 are 106.4 

quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) (6.9 percent below the 

Reference case) and 122.6 quadrillion Btu (7.4 percent above 

the Reference case), and projections for energy-related CO2

emissions in 2035 are 5,864 million metric tons (7.1 percent 

below the Reference case) and 6,795 million metric tons (7.7 

percent above the Reference case), respectively.

Residential Commercial Industrial Transportation Electricity

generation

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

2005 2035

Petroleum

Natural gas

Coal

Electricity

6,311 5,996

Total carbon dioxide emissions

4,770

1980 2005 2035

Figure 4. U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by sector 

and fuel, 2005 and 2035 (million metric tons)

Table 1. Coal-fired plant retirements in alternative cases, 2010-2035

Analysis case

Coal-fired capacity retired 

(gigawatts)

Average size 

of plants retired 

(megawatts)

Average heat rate 

of plants retired 

(million Btu per kilowatthour)

Reference 8.8 93.0 12,338

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 13.5 91.4 12,053

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5 17.8 83.3 12,102

Retrofit Required 20 19.2 84.5 12,034

Retrofit Required 5 44.8 91.2 11,579

Low Gas Price 15.6 104 12,098

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 39.5 97.8 11,576

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5 72.6 109.6 11,363
Legislation

and regulations
6 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Legislation and regulations

Introduction

The Annual Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011) Reference case generally assumes that current laws and regulations affecting the energy 

sector remain unchanged throughout the projection (including the implication that laws which include sunset dates do, in fact, 

become ineffective at the time of those sunset dates). Currently, there are many pieces of legislation and regulation that appear 

to have some probability of being enacted in the not-too-distant future, and some laws include sunset provisions that may be 

extended. However, it is difficult to discern the exact forms that the final provisions of pending legislation or regulations will take, 

and sunset provisions may or may not be extended. Even in situations where existing legislation contains provisions to allow 

revision of implementing regulations, those provisions may not be exercised consistently. In certain situations, however, where it 

is clear that a law or regulation will take effect shortly after the Annual Energy Outlook (AEO) modeling work is completed, it may 

be considered in the projection. Sensitivity cases that incorporate alternative assumptions about proposed policies or existing 

policies subject to periodic updates are also included among the many alternative cases completed as part of the AEO. The Federal 

and State laws and regulations included in AEO2011 are based on those in effect as of the end of January 2011. In addition, at 

the request of the Administration and Congress, the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has regularly examined the 

potential implications of proposed legislation in Service Reports. Those reports, and others that were completed before 2010, can 

be found on the EIA website at www.eia.gov/oiaf/service_rpts.htm.

Examples of recently enacted State and Federal legislation incorporated in AEO2011 include:

•	 State provisions passed in 2010 in Connecticut [1], Maine [2], New Jersey [3], and New York [4] that reduced the maximum 

allowable sulfur content of heating oil sold, as well as some plans to include mandated percentages of biodiesel content.

•	 Final regulations promulgated by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) in January 2010 to implement a Low Carbon Fuel 

Standard (LCFS) [5]. The LCFS program aims to reduce the carbon intensity of motor gasoline and diesel fuel sold in California 

by 10 percent over the years 2012 through 2020 by increasing the volumes of alternative low-carbon fuels being introduced 

into the marketplace.

•	 The Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010, enacted in December 2010 [6]. This 

law includes an extension of the Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit at $0.45 per gallon through 2011, a retroactive extension 

of the $1.00 per gallon biodiesel excise tax credit through 2011, and an extension of the $0.54 per gallon tariff on imported 

ethanol through 2011.

•	 Updates to State renewable portfolio standard (RPS) programs, representing laws and regulations of 30 States and the District 

of Columbia that require renewable electricity generation.

Examples of recent Federal and State regulations, as well as provisions considered in earlier AEOs that have been affected by 

subsequent court decisions, include the following:

•	 Approval of a waiver allowing the use of motor gasoline blends containing up to 15 percent ethanol for vehicles of model year 

(MY) 2001 and newer by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in January 2011 [7].

•	 Issuance of new guidelines by the EPA in April 2010 regarding the compliance of surface coal mining operations in Appalachia 

with the provisions of the Clean Water Act, the National Environmental Policy Act, and the environmental justice Executive 

Order (E.O. 12898) [8]. The guidance explains the approach that the EPA will be following in permit reviews and instructs 

Regional offices to use clear, consistent, and science-based standards in reviewing the permits.

Detailed information on several Federal and State legislative and regulatory developments considered in AEO2011 is provided below.

1. Updated State air emissions regulations

Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative

The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) is a program that includes 10 Northeast States that have agreed to curtail and 

reverse growth in their carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The RGGI program includes all electricity generating units with a capacity 

of at least 25 megawatts and requires an allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted [9]. The first year of mandatory compliance was 

in 2009.

Each participating State was provided a CO2 budget consisting of a history-based baseline with a cushion for emissions growth, 

so that meeting the cap would be relatively easy initially and become more stringent in subsequent years. The requirements 

cover 95 percent of CO2 emissions from the region’s electric power sector. Overall, the RGGI States as a whole must maintain 

covered emissions at or below a level of 188 million tons CO2 through 2012, after which a mandatory 2.5-percent annual 

decrease in CO2 emissions through 2018 reduces the total for covered CO2 emissions in the RGGI States to 10 percent below 

the initial calculated budget. Although each State was given its own emissions budget, allowances are auctioned at a uniform 

price across the entire region.

At the most recent RGGI auction in March 2011, 42 million allowances were offered and sold at a clearing price of $1.89 per ton of 

CO2 [10], just above the price floor. The previous auction in December 2010 also cleared at the price floor, because total emissions 

from electricity generators did not grow as anticipated. 
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 7

Legislation and regulations

RGGI’s impact on electricity markets is included in the AEO2011 Reference case. Its impact on actual emissions, especially in the 

early years, is minimal because of its relatively modest reduction targets. Also, it is difficult to capture the nuances of initiatives 

that cover only single States or groups of States that do not correspond to the regions used in the National Energy Modeling 

System (NEMS). Therefore, EIA estimated generation for the Mid-Atlantic region and capped emissions from those facilities. 

Pennsylvania’s emissions were not restricted, because Pennsylvania is an observing member and is not participating in the capand-trade program or subject to any mandatory emission reductions.

California greenhouse gas reduction program

California is moving forward with its plans to cap and then reverse the growth of State greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. After 

surviving a challenge on the ballot in November 2010, the mandatory restrictions begin to take effect in January 2012. After the 

law was passed and signed, a scoping plan was written that outlines the major components of the regulations [11]. In all, there are 

21 programs in the law that will mitigate GHG emissions through a variety of mechanisms—from landfill methane control to proper 

tire pressurization programs [12]. While AEO2011 incorporates programs from the law, such as the LCFS and 33-percent RPS—

where rules are sufficiently specified to allow modeling in the AEO—other programs, such as the carbon cap-and-trade provisions, 

are not included either because they do not include sufficient specification of implementing regulations or because they include 

provisions that cannot be modeled in NEMS.

The programs that are expected to generate the highest level of emission reductions are the cap-and-trade system (which is not 

included in AEO2011) and the 33-percent RPS [13]. The RPS requires investor-owned electricity providers to meet this mandate 

by 2020. CARB is in charge of the program, although other agencies still have roles in the implementation. The cap-and-trade 

program is scheduled to begin its first phase in 2012, covering GHG emissions from electricity (including imports) and large 

industrial facilities emitting more than 25,000 metric tons CO2 annually [14]. Allowances are given away initially, but it is assumed 

that a market will develop in which allowances will trade for a price as demand grows and the number of available allowances 

shrinks. (The number of available allowances is scheduled to decline by 2 percent per year, starting from 165.8 million metric 

tons in 2012.) In 2015, distributors of fossil fuels will be added to the program, and the cap will increase to 394.5 metric tons. In 

the subsequent 5-year period, the cap will decrease by 3 percent annually. In addition to CO2, the six other most common GHGs 

emitted (methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, nitrogen trifluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons) will also fall 

under the program’s jurisdiction.

Several issues remain to be resolved, including finalization of the allowance allocation system, implementation of an auction 

system, and the possibility of a price cap. The exact distribution of the allowance revenue has not been determined nor has the 

treatment of natural gas as a fuel. This is all information that needs to be defined before the program can be incorporated in the 

AEO. A goal of the program is to link to other State trading programs, although the status of neighboring States’ programs is 

uncertain. A San Francisco superior court judge also recently ruled that CARB did not conduct adequate environmental reviews 

or thoroughly explore cap-and-trade alternatives for meeting the reduction goal in Assembly Bill (AB) 32. This may also delay the 

program’s implementation [15].

2. State renewable energy requirements and goals: Update through 2010

To the extent possible, AEO2011 incorporates the impacts of State laws requiring the addition of renewable generation or capacity 

by utilities doing business in the States. Currently, 30 States and the District of Columbia have enforceable RPS or similar laws 

(Table 2). Under such standards, each State determines its own levels of renewable generation, eligible technologies, and 

noncompliance penalties. AEO2011 includes the impacts of all laws in effect in 2010 (with the exception of Hawaii, because NEMS 

provides electricity market projections for the continental United States only).

In the AEO2011 Reference case, States generally meet their ultimate RPS targets. RPS compliance in most regions is 

approximated, because NEMS is not a State-level model, and each State generally represents only a portion of one of the 

NEMS electricity regions. Compliance costs in each region are tracked, and the projection for total renewable generation 

is checked for consistency with any State-level cost-control provisions, such as caps on renewable credit prices, limits on 

State compliance funding, or impacts on consumer electricity prices. In general, EIA has confirmed each State’s requirements 

through original documentation, although the Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) also assisted 

EIA’s efforts [16].

No States that did not previously have RPS programs have enacted new renewable generation laws over the past year. States that 

have made significant modifications to existing laws include the following:

California

Through several executive orders, CARB is now charged with implementing a 33-percent RPS by 2020 as part of the carbonreduction guidelines originally laid out in AB 32 [17] (see previous section). This standard is a significant increase from the previous 

20-percent version administered by the California Energy Commission and Public Utility Commission. More information can be 

found in the subsequent section on airborne emission regulations.
8 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Legislation and regulations

Table 2. Renewable portfolio standards in the 30 States with current mandates

State Program mandate

AZ Arizona Corporate Commission Decision No. 69127 requires 15 percent of electricity sales to be renewable by 2025, with 

interim goals increasing annually. A specific percentage of the target must be from distributed generation. Multiple credits may 

be provided to solar generation and systems manufactured in-State.

CA As a follow-up from AB 32 and Executive Order S-21-09, the CARB now administers a new RPS that requires 33-percent 

renewable generation by 2020.

CO Enacted in March 2010, House Bill (HB) 1001 strengthens the State’s existing RPS program by requiring 20 percent of 

electricity generated by investor-owned utilities in 2015 to be renewable, increasing to 30 percent by 2020. There is also a 

distributed generation requirement. In-State generation receives a 25-percent credit premium.

CT Public Act 07-242 mandates a 27-percent renewable sales requirement by 2020, including a 4-percent requirement for sales 

from higher efficiency or combined heat and power systems. Of the overall total, 3 percent may be met by waste-to-energy 

and conventional biomass facilities.

DE Senate Substitute 1 amended Senate Bill 119 to extend the increasing RPS targets to 2025; 25 percent of generation is now 

required to come from renewable sources in 2025. There is a separate requirement for solar generation (3.5 percent of the total 

in 2025) and penalty payments for compliance failure. Offshore wind receives 3.5 times the standard credit amount.

HI HB 1464 sets the renewable mandate at 40 percent by 2030. All existing renewable facilities are eligible to meet the target, 

which has two interim milestones.

IL Public Act 095-0481 created an agency responsible for overseeing the mandate of 25 percent renewable sales by 2025, with 

escalating annual targets. In addtion, 75 percent of the required sales must be generated from wind and 6 percent from solar. 

The plan also includes a cap on incremental costs resulting from the penetration of renewable generation. In 2009, the rule was 

modified to cover sales outside a utility’s home territory.

IA In 1983, an RPS mandating 105 megawatts of renewable energy capacity was adopted. 

KS In 2009, HB 2369 established a requirement that 20 percent of installed capacity must use renewable resources by 2020.

ME In 2007, Public Law 403 was added to the State’s RPS requirements. The law requires a 10-percent increase from the 2006 

level of renewable capacity by 2017, and that level must be maintained in subsequent years. The years leading up to 2017 also 

have new capacity milestones. Generation from eligible community-owned facilities receives a 10-percent credit premium.

MD In April 2008, HB 375 revised the preceding RPS to include a target of 20 percent renewable generation by 2022, including 

a 2-percent solar target. HB 375 also raised penalty payments for “Tier 1” compliance shortfalls to 4 cents per kilowatthour. 

Senate Bill 277, while preserving 2022 target of 2 percent solar, made the interim solar requirements and penalty payments 

slightly less stringent.

MA The State RPS has a goal of a 15-percent renewable share of total sales by 2020 and includes necessary payments for 

compliance shortfalls. Eligible biomass is restricted to low-carbon life cycle emission sources. A Solar Carve-Out Program was 

also added, which seeks to establish 400 megawatts (DC) of solar generating capacity.

MI Public Act 295 established an RPS that will require 10 percent renewable generation by 2015. Bonus credits are given to 

solar energy.

MN Senate Bill 4 created a 30-percent renewable requirement by 2020 for Xcel, the State’s largest supplier, and a 25-percent 

requirement by 2025 for other suppliers. The 30-percent requirement for Xcel consists of 24 percent that must be from wind, 1 

percent that can be from wind or solar, and 5 percent that can be from other resources.

MO In November 2008, Missouri voters approved Proposition C, which mandates a 2-percent renewable energy requirement in 

2011, increasing incrementally to 15 percent of generation in 2021. Bonus credits are given to renewable generation within 

the State.

MT HB 681, approved in April 2008, expanded the State RPS provisions to all suppliers. Initially the law covered only public utilities. 

A 15-percent share of sales must be renewable by 2015. The State operates a renewable energy credit market.

NV The State has an escalating renewable target, established in 1997 and revised in 2005 and again in 2009 by Senate Bill 358. 

The most recent requirement mandates a 25-percent renewable generation share of sales by 2025. Up to one-fourth of the 

25-percent share may be met through efficiency measures. There is also a minimum requirement for PV systems, which 

receive bonus credits.

NH HB 873, passed in May 2007, legislated that 23.8 percent of electricity sales must be met by renewables in 2025. Compliance 

penalties vary by generation type.

NJ In 2006, the State RPS was revised to increase renewable energy targets. Renewable generation is to provide 22.5 percent of 

sales by 2021, with interim targets. AB 3520 requires 5,316 gigawatthours of solar generation by 2026. SB 2036 has a specific 

offshore wind target of 1,100 megawatts of capacity.

(continued on page 9)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 9

Legislation and regulations

Colorado

The State strengthened its existing RPS by requiring that 30 percent of sales be generated from renewable sources by 2020 [18]. 

Investor-owned qualifying utilities must also provide appropriate incentives so that renewable distributed generation makes up 

3 percent of total sales [19].

Delaware

Although Delaware’s RPS structure remains largely unchanged, Senate Substitute No. 1 for Senate Bill 119 extended the targets 

by an additional 5 years, to 2025. In 2025, 25 percent of sales must be from renewable sources. The solar provisions also are 

extended, and 3.5 percent of sales must come from electricity generated by solar photovoltaic cells [20].

Massachusetts

After temporarily suspending biomass eligibility on the basis of a study of life-cycle carbon emissions from biomass feedstocks, 

the Commonwealth changed its RPS to clarify and restrict the sources of biomass that will be eligible to meet its standard [21]. 

Although the changes attempt to prevent excess CO2 emissions from biomass generation, there still is much uncertainty about the 

true carbon footprints of various biomass feedstocks, as well as the future of eligible materials. Also, a Solar Carve-Out Program 

was added to the State’s RPS, requiring additional installations to bring total installed photovoltaic capacity to 400 megawatts 

[22].

New Jersey

The State enacted two pieces of legislation affecting its RPS. AB 3520 [23] changed and extended its solar target to require a 

fixed amount of renewable generation rather than a percentage of renewable capacity: 5,316 gigawatthours of generation will be 

required in 2026. Senate Bill 2036 [24] established an offshore wind target of 1,100 megawatts. However, considerable regulatory 

uncertainties remain to be resolved.

Table 2. Renewable portfolio standards in the 30 States with current mandates (continued)

State Program mandate

NM Senate Bill 418, passed in March 2007, directs investor-owned utilities to derive 20 percent of their sales from renewable 

generation by 2020. The renewable portfolio must consist of diversified technologies, with wind and solar each accounting for 

20 percent of the target. There is a separate standard of 10 percent by 2020 for cooperatives.

NY The Public Service Commission issued updated RPS rules in January of 2010, expanding the program to a 29-percent 

requirement by 2015. There is also a separate end-use standard. The program is administered and funded by the State.

NC In 2007, Senate Bill 3 created an RPS of 12.5 percent by 2021 for investor-owned utilities. There is also a 10-percent 

requirement by 2018 for cooperatives and municipals. Through 2018, 25 percent of the target may be met through efficiency 

standards, increasing to 40 percent in later years.

OH Senate Bill 221, passed in May 2008, requires 25 percent of electricity sales to be produced from alternative energy resources 

by 2025, including low-carbon and renewable technologies. One-half of the target must come from renewable sources. 

Municipals and cooperatives are exempt.

OR Senate Bill 838, signed into law in June 2007, required renewable targets of 25 percent by 2025 for large utilities and 5 to 10 

percent by 2025 for smaller utilities. Renewable electricity on line after 1995 is considered eligible. 

PA The Alternative Energy Portfolio Standard, signed into law in November 2004, has an 18-percent requirement by 2020. Most 

of the qualifying generation must be renewable, but there is also a provision that allows waste coal resources to receive credits.

RI The Renewable Energy Standard was signed into law in 2004. The program requires that 16 percent of total sales be renewable 

by 2019. The interim program targets escalate more rapidly in later years. If the target is not met, a generator must pay an 

alternative compliance penalty. State utilities must also procure 90 megawatts of new renewable capacity, including 

3 megawatts of solar, by 2014.

TX Senate Bill 20, passed in August 2005, strengthened the State RPS by mandating 5,880 megawatts of renewable capacity by 

2015. There is also a target of 500 megawatts of renewable capacity other than wind.

WA In November 2006, Washington voters approved Initiative 937, which specifies that 15 percent of sales from the State’s largest 

generators must come from renewable sources by 2020. There is an administrative penalty of 5 cents per kilowatthour for 

noncompliance. Generation from any facility that came on line after 1999 is eligible.

WV HB 103, passed in June 2009, established a requirement that 25 percent of sales must come from alternative energy resources 

by 2025. Alternative energy was defined to include various renewables, along with several different fossil energy technologies.

WI Senate Bill 459, passed in March 2006, strengthened the State RPS with a requirement that, by 2015, each utility must generate 

10 percent of its electricity from renewable resources, up from the previous requirement of 2.2 percent in 2011. The renewable 

share of total generation must be at least 6 percentage points above the average renewable share from 2001 to 2003.
10 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Legislation and regulations

New York

In January 2010, the New York Public Service Commission issued new orders expanding the State-funded RPS program [25]. The 

main-tier program seeks to establish 29 percent renewable generation by 2015, including existing capacity that already meets 

more than two-thirds of the new mandate. The program will be funded through a limited State fund of $2 billion. Moreover, a 

supplemental customer-sited tier will increase installations of end-use solar, wind, and anaerobic digester capacity.

3. Updates on liquid fuels taxes and tax credits

Excise taxes on highway fuels

The handling of Federal highway fuel taxes in AEO2011 is unchanged from AEO2010. Gasoline is taxed at 18.4 cents per gallon, 

diesel fuel is taxed at 24.4 cents per gallon, and jet fuel for use in commercial aviation is taxed at 4.4 cents per gallon, as specified 

in the 2005 Transportation Equity Act [26]. The taxes are not adjusted for inflation and remain at the same nominal values 

through 2035. Although the highway fuel taxes expire in 2011 under current law, their assumed extension is consistent with 

Federal budgeting procedures which dictate that excise taxes dedicated to a trust fund, if expiring, are assumed to be extended 

at current rates [27].

Federal fuel taxes are the primary source of funding for the Highway Trust Fund, which is used to maintain the interstate highway 

system as well as mass transit systems. Recent vehicle efficiency improvements and lower consumer demand have led to shortfalls 

in the Trust Fund’s revenues over the past few years.

State fuel taxes are calculated and allocated by Census Region, based on a volume-weighted average of diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel 

sales. State fuel taxes in AEO2011 are updated to their most recent values (as of June 2010) [28].

Tax credits and tariffs for biofuels

In December 2010, the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 became law [29]. 

The law includes an extension through 2011 of the $0.45 per gallon Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit, which was previously 

set to expire at the end of 2010 as specified in the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 [30]. The cellulosic biofuels [31] 

production tax credit, also specified in the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, remains set to expire in January 2013. The 

credit is $1.01 per gallon, but if applied to cellulosic ethanol it is reduced by the amount of the excise tax credit available to ethanol 

blends (assumed to be $0.45 per gallon through 2011).

In addition, the law includes a retroactive extension (through 2011) of the $1.00 per gallon biodiesel excise tax credit, which had 

been set to expire in December 2009. The credit applies to biodiesel made from recycled vegetable oils or animals fats and to 

renewable diesel. The tax package also includes an extension through 2011 of the $0.54 per gallon tariff on imported ethanol, 

which had been set to expire at the end of 2010. Both extensions are included in the AEO2011 Reference case.

4. California Low Carbon Fuel Standard

California’s LCFS will be administered by CARB [32]. In general, the regulated parties under the LCFS legislation are fuel producers 

or importers who sell motor gasoline or diesel fuel in California. The legislation is designed to reduce the carbon intensity of motor 

gasoline and diesel fuels sold in California by 10 percent between 2012 and 2020 through the increased sale of alternative lowcarbon fuels. Each low-carbon fuel has its own carbon intensity, based on life-cycle analyses conducted under the guidance of 

CARB for a number of approved fuel pathways. The carbon intensities are calculated on an energy-equivalent basis, measured in 

grams of CO2-equivalent emissions per megajoule.

The AEO2011 Reference case incorporates the California LCFS, using CARB’s mandated carbon intensities and approved fuel 

pathways [33]. Although NEMS is not a State-level model, CARB-mandated gasoline and diesel are modeled separately from 

other gasoline and diesel sold in the Pacific Census Division 9 (which also includes Washington, Oregon, Alaska, and Hawaii). 

In cases where data for California are not available, information from Census Division 9 is used as a proxy. Because CARB has 

not yet officially quantified penalties for LCFS noncompliance, the Reference case incorporates a monetary penalty estimated to 

encourage compliance, based on relevant provisions in the California Health and Safety Code [34].

Carbon intensities provide a measure of complete well-to-wheels or life-cycle emissions of each fuel pathway, including indirect 

land-use change (ILUC) penalties where applicable [35]. The ILUC penalty is used to account for potential changes in land use as 

the production of biofuels increases. Because the science behind the ILUC penalty is relatively new and still controversial, potential 

revisions and updates are expected as the LCFS evolves. For example, AEO2011 assumes that corn ethanol is treated as having 20 

percent lower GHG emissions than gasoline.

The fuel pathways used in EIA’s analysis include existing technologies—such as Midwestern corn ethanol, imported sugarcane 

ethanol, and soy-based biodiesel—as well as a number of “next-generation” technologies, including cellulosic ethanol and biomassto-liquid (BTL) fuels. Other provisions in the LCFS legislation also allow nonregulated parties, such as electricity and hydrogen 

producers, to contribute. With the exception of efforts to streamline the development and installation of home charging stations, 

there does not appear to be any significant effort at present to promote plug-in vehicles or to enhance public charging stations and 

other infrastructure.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 11

Legislation and regulations

The LCFS results in the transportation into California of additional renewable fuels produced in other regions or countries. To meet 

the LCFS gasoline mandate, consumption of motor fuel containing up to 85 percent ethanol (E85) in Census Division 9 increases 

to more than 2.4 billion gallons in 2020, allowing a larger share of ethanol consumption to contribute to lowering the gasoline 

carbon intensity. For the diesel mandate, every gallon of CARB diesel contains 20 percent biodiesel (the maximum generally 

recommended by original equipment manufacturers) by 2017.

The largest source of compliant fuel is sugarcane ethanol, imported primarily from Brazil, and biodiesel. Imported sugarcane 

ethanol has a much lower carbon intensity than domestically produced corn ethanol, primarily as a result of production methods 

that use fewer fossil fuel inputs. It is assumed that, in the last years of the LCFS program, such next-generation technologies as 

cellulosic ethanol and BTL will begin to reach the market and make a larger contribution toward meeting the LCFS. The same can 

be said for LCFS-compliant diesel, which requires the blending of more costly biomass-based diesel fuels.

In the later years of the LCFS, gasoline blends with ethanol content greater than E10, such as E85, will be needed for the gasoline 

mandate to be met. Even if ethanol with the lowest carbon footprint is used in E10 blends, it will not lower the carbon intensity of 

gasoline sufficiently for the LCFS to be met. Consequently, the amount of E85 available in California is a key factor in determining 

the mix of fuels with low carbon pathways, such as sugarcane ethanol and cellulosic ethanol, that can be used in meeting the 

gasoline mandate. For the diesel mandate, a blend of 20 percent biodiesel is already common today, and with the addition of such 

next-generation technologies as BTL fuels that are potentially “drop-in” fuels usable in existing distribution channels, the mandate 

can be met without new infrastructure.

5. Representing impacts of the U.S. EPA’s interim permit review guidelines for surface coal mining operations

In April 2010, the EPA issued a set of new guidelines to several of its regional offices for monitoring the compliance of surface coal 

mining operations in Appalachia with the provisions of the Clean Water Act (CWA), the National Environmental Policy Act, and 

the environmental justice Executive Order (E.O. 12898) [36]. The stated purpose of the guidance was to explain more fully the 

approach that the EPA will be following in permit reviews and to provide additional assurance that its regional offices use clear, 

consistent, and science-based standards in reviewing the permits. Although the new guidelines went into effect immediately, they 

were subjected to review both by the public and by the EPA’s Science Advisory Board, with a set of final guidelines to be issued in 

the spring of 2011.

Issuance of the new EPA guidelines is related primarily to the ongoing controversy over use of the mountaintop removal method 

at a number of surface coal mining operations in Central Appalachia—primarily in southern West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. 

Although the guidelines propose a more rigorous review for all new surface coal mines in Appalachia, the EPA indicates that the 

practice of valley fills, primarily associated with the mountaintop removal method, is the aspect of Appalachian coal mining that 

will be most scrutinized. In particular, the EPA points to new scientific evidence that dissolved solids in drainage from existing 

valley fills in Central Appalachia are adversely affecting downstream aquatic systems.

Although the proposed use of valley fills at mining sites will not necessarily preclude the issuance of permits for surface mines 

under Sections 402 and 404 of the CWA, the EPA guidelines recommend that all practicable efforts be made to minimize their use. 

Section 402 of the CWA pertains to the issuance of National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permits. Section 404 relates 

to the issuance of permits for the discharge of dredge or fill material into the waters of the United States, including wetlands. 

Issuance of Section 404 permits comes under the authority of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers but is subject to EPA oversight.

Two recent actions by the EPA related to its review of Section 404 permits for proposed mountaintop mining operations in West Virginia 

indicate the Agency’s heightened concern with regard to valley fills. In January 2010, the EPA announced its approval for the issuance 

of a Section 404 permit for Patriot Coal’s proposed Hobet 45 mountaintop mining operation. The EPA indicated that the company was 

able to eliminate the need for any valley fills and, as a result, reduce the estimated adverse downstream impact by 50 percent.

In contrast, in January 2011, the EPA issued a final determination effectively denying a Section 404 permit for Arch Coal Company’s 

Spruce No. 1 mountaintop mining operation, which would have resulted in the burial of 6.6 miles of headwater streams under 

the spoil of four separate valley fills [37]. Although a Section 404 permit for the mine was approved by the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers in January 2007, the EPA indicated that additional information had been obtained since then about its earlier concerns 

related to the project. The EPA indicated that its action to deny four of the six valley fills proposed for the Spruce No. 1 mine would 

protect not only wildlife in the parts of streams directly affected by the proposed mining operation but also the aquatic wildlife 

communities downstream from the project site. As was the case with the Hobet 45 mine, the EPA requested that Arch Coal submit 

possible corrective actions to the Spruce No. 1 mine plan to mitigate environmental impacts. Primarily on the basis of economic 

considerations, Arch Coal declined to offer additional changes to the proposed plan for the mine.

In AEO2011, the impact of the EPA’s April 2010 guidelines for surface coal mining operations is represented by downward adjustments 

to the coal mining productivity assumptions for Central Appalachian surface mines (Figure 5), resulting in slightly higher estimated 

production costs for the region and mine type. The assumed productivity levels for Central Appalachian surface mines are roughly 

15 to 20 percent lower than those that would have been used for a case without the EPA’s new permit review guidelines. The revised 

productivity levels are based on the assumption that large surface mining operations will decline gradually toward the productivity 

levels for smaller surface mines in the region as a result of the more restrictive guidelines for overburden management at large 
12 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Legislation and regulations

mountaintop mining operations. No adjustments were made to the productivity assumptions for other Appalachian supply regions 

in response to the new EPA permit review guidelines, because few if any surface mining operations in other regions employ the 

mountaintop removal method.

6. EPA approval of E15 waiver

In October 2010, the EPA approved a waiver for the use of motor gasoline blends containing up to 15 percent ethanol (E15) in MY 

2007 and newer vehicles—an increase over the 10 percent ethanol limit (E10) set in 1978 [38]. In January 2011, the EPA extended 

the waiver to vehicles manufactured in years 2001-2006 [39]. That change was incorporated in the modeling for AEO2011.

Although the EPA’s January 2011 ruling will allow the use of E15 blend in approximately 60 percent of the current vehicle fleet, there 

are issues that may limit its widespread adoption:

•	 Retailers must justify the significant costs of upgrading pumps and storage tanks while weighing the prospects for increased 

liability and uncertain consumer acceptance. Because the majority of U.S. service stations are “pay at the pump,” there is 

concern about potential liability for engine damage resulting from consumer misfueling in motor vehicles not approved for E15 

use, as well as in small engine applications. In addition, much of the retail outlet infrastructure for blends containing more than 

10 percent ethanol lacks Underwriter Laboratory certification, creating concerns about the costs of any equipment malfunctions.

•	 In addition to liability issues, infrastructure costs in the form of blender pumps and additional storage tanks could deter retailers 

from choosing to offer a higher ethanol blend. Most service stations use two storage tanks, one containing a regular E10 blend 

and the other a premium blend. Adding a higher E15 blend could force service station owners either to add an additional tank 

and modified pumps or to stop offering E10 gasoline blends or profitable premium-grade fuels.

•	 Retailers may be unwilling to commit to E15 in the short term, because consumer acceptance is uncertain. Warning labels about 

possible engine damage could dampen consumer demand, despite educational efforts.

To examine the potential impacts of high and low penetration of E15 fuel in retail markets, two sensitivity cases were compared with 

the AEO2011 Reference case. In the High E15 case, ethanol blending above 10 percent occurs earlier in the projection and increases 

more rapidly than in the Reference case. The High E15 case also assumes that any State which currently has laws or regulations 

prohibiting ethanol blends above 10 percent or oxygenate content in excess of 3.5 percent will remove those restrictions by 2015. 

As a result, ethanol use for gasoline blending increases to 18.1 billion gallons in 2015, compared with 15.8 billion gallons in the 

Reference case, and to 21.2 billion gallons in 2020, compared with 17.8 billion gallons in the Reference case.

Most of the additional ethanol needed to meet increased demand in the High E15 case is corn ethanol produced domestically,with 

cellulosic ethanol and imported ethanol beginning to make larger contributions after 2020. Ethanol blending increases to 14.5 

percent of the motor gasoline pool in 2020—compared with 12.4 percent in the Reference case—and to 14.8 percent in 2035.

In the Low E15 case, the results are similar to those in the Reference case, and many of the infrastructure and regulatory barriers 

reflected in the Reference case govern the dynamics in the Low E15 case. Ethanol blending in the Low E15 case never rises above 

11.5 percent of the motor gasoline pool and is 11.4 percent in 2035. Total ethanol supply in 2020 is almost 2 billion gallons less 

than in the Reference case, but with E85 consumption increasing at a faster rate after 2020, it reaches levels similar to those in the 

Reference case. In 2035, E85 use in the Low E15 case totals about 12 billion gallons, or 2 billion gallons more than in the Reference 

case. In both cases, total ethanol supply in 2035 is approximately 28 billion gallons.

Rapid increases in E85 consumption in the Reference, High 

E15, and Low E15 cases indicate the importance for ethanol 

producers of E85 availability after the motor gasoline blending 

pool has been saturated, even with an increase to a 15-percent 

limit for ethanol blends. Growth in E85 consumption is 

affected by the level of demand for ethanol in gasoline blends, 

particularly in the High E15 case. Because most of the growth 

in ethanol use for blending occurs in the near term in the High 

E15 case, growth in E85 use begins later (in 2024) than in the 

Reference and Low E15 cases (2016).

While more ethanol blended into gasoline reduces its energy 

content and often the miles per gallon of the vehicle using it, 

AEO2011 assumes that only E85 will be priced at a discount 

for its lower energy content. E10 and E15 are assumed to 

compete for demand on price alone. Nevertheless, the ability 

to switch out volumes of E85 with E15 can be expected 

to affect gasoline pricing. When E15 penetration is high, 

gasoline prices are lower, because more of the less expensive 

blend stock (ethanol) is used. In addition, there is less need 

to encourage E85 demand by subsidizing infrastructure cost 

0

2

4

6

1980 1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

AEO2011

AEO2010

History 2009 Projections

Figure 5. Surface coal mining productivity in Central 

Appalachia, 1980-2035 (short tons per miner per hour)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 13

Legislation and regulations

and E85 prices with higher gasoline prices. With low penetration the opposite is true: gasoline prices are higher, because more 

cost recovery is needed for E85 marketing and infrastructure, and less ethanol is available for blending.

7. Mandates for low-sulfur heating oil in the Northeast

During 2010, Connecticut [40], Maine [41], New Jersey [42], and New York [43] passed legislation to reduce the maximum 

allowable sulfur content of heating oil sold in their markets. Pennsylvania proposed a similar law, but it was not approved. 

Connecticut and Maine will begin regulating maximum sulfur content by mid-2011, with Connecticut reducing the maximum to 50 

parts per million (ppm) and Maine reducing the maximum to 15 ppm. The Connecticut law includes a second reduction to 15 ppm 

in 2014. Connecticut and Maine also put in place requirements for 2-percent biodiesel content in heating oil, starting in mid-2011. 

The New Jersey legislation reduces the maximum sulfur content to 500 ppm in 2014 and includes a second reduction to 15 ppm 

in 2016. New York reduced the maximum sulfur content to 15 ppm starting in 2012. The new laws in each of the four States are 

included in AEO2011.

On February 1, 2011, the U.S. Department of Energy also announced plans to convert the inventory of almost 2 million barrels in 

the Northeast Heating Oil Reserve to cleaner burning ultra-low-sulfur distillate. The first phase of this transition was the sale of the 

2 million barrels of heating oil in February 2011. The receipts from those sales will be used to purchase ultra-low-sulfur heating oil 

to refill the reserve before the 2011-2012 heating oil season begins.
14 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Legislation and regulations

Links current as of April 2011

1. Connecticut State Senate, Bill 382, “An Act Requiring Biodiesel Blended Heating Oil and Lowering the Sulfur Content of Heating 

Oil Sold in the State,” website www.cga.ct.gov/2010/TOB/S/2010SB-00382-R00-SB.htm.

2. Maine State Legislature, “An Act To Establish Biofuel and Ultra-low Sulfur Requirements for Number 2 Home Heating Oil,” 

website www.mainelegislature.org/legis/bills/bills_124th/billtexts/HP116001.asp.

3. New Jersey State Department of Environmental Protection, Amendment N.J.A.C. 7:27-9.2, “Sulfur in Fuels,” website www.nj.gov/

dep/rules/adoptions/adopt_100920a.pdf.

4. New York State Senate, Bill S1145C, “S1145C-2009: Requires a Reduction in Sulfur Emissions for All Heating Oil Used in NonAttainment Areas,” website http://open.nysenate.gov/legislation/bill/S1145C-2009#.

5. California Air Resources Board, LCFS Final Regulation Order, “Low Carbon Fuel Standard,” website www.arb.ca.gov/regact/2009/

lcfs09/finalfro.pdf.

6. 111th Congress, Public Law 312, “Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010,” Sections 

701, 704, and 708, website www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-111publ312/html/PLAW-111publ312.htm.

7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “E15 (A Blend of Gasoline and Ethanol),” website www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/fuels/additive/e15.

8. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “April 1, 2010 Memorandum: Improving EPA Review of Appalachian Surface Coal Mining 

Operations Under the Clean Water Act, National Environmental Policy Act, and the Environmental Justice Executive Order,” 

website http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/guidance/wetlands/mining.cfm#memo20100401.

9. Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, “Fact Sheet: The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI),” website www.rggi.org/docs/

RGGI_Fact_Sheet.pdf.

10. Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, “Auction Results,” website www.rggi.org/market/co2_auctions/results.

11. California Air Resources Board, Climate Change Scoping Plan: A Framework for Change, (Sacramento, CA: December 2008), 

website www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/document/adopted_scoping_plan.pdf.

12. California Air Resources Board, Climate Change Scoping Plan: A Framework for Change, (Sacramento, CA: December 2008), 

website www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/document/adopted_scoping_plan.pdf.

13. On April 12, 2011, California Governor Jerry Brown signed into law a 33-percent RPS that replaces the previous Executive Order. 

The new law can be viewed at http://leginfo.ca.gov/pub/11-12/bill/sen/sb_0001-0050/sbx1_2_bill_20110412_chaptered.pdf.

14. State of California Air Resources Board, “California Cap-and-Trade Program Resolution 10-42” (December 26, 2010), website 

www.arb.ca.gov/cc/capandtrade/capandtrade/draft%20resolution.pdf.

15. W. Buchanan, “Calif. Cap-Trade Plan Dealt Blow by S.F. Judge,”San Francisco Chronicle (San Francisco, CA: February 4, 2011), 

website http://articles.sfgate.com/2011-02-04/news/27100791_1_air-board-ab32-emissions-plan.

16. More information about DSIRE can be found at website www.dsireusa.org/about.

17. State of California, Air Resources Board, Resolution 10-23 (September 23, 2010), website www.arb.ca.gov/regact/2010/

res2010/res1071.pdf.

18. State of Colorado, 67th General Assembly, House Bill 10-1001 (March 2010), website www.leg.state.co.us/CLICS/CLICS2010A/

csl.nsf/BillFoldersAll?OpenFrameSet.

19. Colorado Department of Regulatory Agencies, Public Utilities Commission, “Rules Regulating Electric Utilities,” website www.

dsireusa.org/documents/Incentives/CO24R.pdf.

20. State of Delaware, 145th General Assembly, Senate Bill #119, Senate Substitute No. 1 (June 18, 2010), website www.legis.

delaware.gov/LIS/lis145.nsf/vwLegislation/SB+119/$file/legis.html?open.

21. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs, “Renewable Portfolio Standard – 

Biomass Policy Regulatory Process,” website www.mass.gov/?pageID=eoeeaterminal&L=4&L0=Home&L1=Energy%2C+Util

ities+%26+Clean+Technologies&L2=Renewable+Energy&L3=Biomass&sid=Eoeea&b=terminalcontent&f=doer_renewables_

biomass_policy-reg-process&csid=Eoeea.

22. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs, “Solar Carve-out Regulation Finalized,” 

website www.mass.gov/?pageID=eoeeaterminal&L=5&L0=Home&L1=Energy%2C+Utilities+%26+Clean+Technologies&L2=R

enewable+Energy&L3=Solar&L4=RPS+Solar+Carve-Out&sid=Eoeea&b=terminalcontent&f=doer_renewables_solar_ongoingpublic-rulemaking&csid=Eoeea.

23. State of New Jersey , Assembly Bill 3520, “The Solar Energy Advancement and Fair Competition Act” (January 12, 2010), 

website www.njleg.state.nj.us/2008/Bills/A4000/3520_R3.PDF.

Endnotes for legislation and regulations
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 15

Legislation and regulations

24. State of New Jersey , Senate Bill 2036, “Offshore Wind Economic Development Act” (June 21, 2010), website www.njleg.state.

nj.us/2010/Bills/S2500/2036_R2.PDF.

25. New York State Public Service Commission, “Retail Renewable Portfolio Standard: Case 03-E-0188,” website www3.dps.state.

ny.us/W/PSCWeb.nsf/All/1008ED2F934294AE85257687006F38BD?OpenDocument.

26. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, “SAFETEA-LU: Safe Accountable Flexible Efficient 

Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users” (July 29, 2005), website www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu/.

27. U.S. House of Representatives, Office of the Law Revision Counsel, 2 USC Chapter 20, “Emergency Powers To Eliminate Budget 

Deficits,” Subchapter 1, Section 907 , “The Baseline,” website http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/02C20.txt.

28. Defense Energy Support Center, “Compilation of United States Fuel Taxes, Inspection Fees, and Environmental Taxes and Fees,” 

Edition 2010-10 (June 5, 2010), website www.desc.dla.mil/dcm/files/tax%20compilation%202010-10.doc.

29. 111th Congress, Public Law 312, “Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010,” Sections 

701, 704, and 708, website www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-111publ312/html/PLAW-111publ312.htm.

30. 110th Congress, Public Law 110-234, “Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008,” Section 15331, website http://frwebgate.

Access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=110_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ246.110.pdf.

31. The cellulosic biofuels represented in NEMS are cellulosic ethanol, BLT diesel, and BTL naphtha.

32. California Air Resources Board, “Final Regulation Order: Subarticle 7. Low Carbon Fuel Standard,” website www.arb.ca.gov/

regact/2009/lcfs09/finalfro.pdf.

33. California Air Resources Board, “Carbon Intensity Lookup Table for Gasoline and Fuels that Substitute for Gasoline” and 

“Carbon Intensity Lookup Table for Diesel and Fuels that Substitute for Diesel,” website www.arb.ca.gov/fuels/lcfs/121409lcfs_

lutables.pdf.

34. “2009 California Health and Safety Code, Section 43025-43031.5, Chapter 1.5, Penalties for Violation of Fuel Regulations,” 

website http://law.justia.com/codes/california/2009/hsc/43025-43031.5.html.

35. ILUC penalties apply to biofuels produced from harvested biomass, which currently include corn ethanol, sugarcane ethanol, 

and soy-based biodiesel.

36. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “April 1, 2010 Memorandum: Improving EPA Review of Appalachian Surface Coal Mining 

Operations Under the Clean Water Act, National Environmental Policy Act, and the Environmental Justice Executive Order,” 

website http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/guidance/wetlands/mining.cfm#memo20100401.

37. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Clean Water Act Section 404(c): ‘Veto Authority’: Spruce No. 1 Surface Mine, Final 

Determination - January 2011 (Logan County, WV),” website http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/guidance/cwa/dredgdis/spruce.cfm.

38. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Partial Grant and Partial Denial of Clean Air Act Waiver Application Submitted by 

Growth Energy To Increase the Allowable Ethanol Content of Gasoline to 15 Percent; Decision of the Administrator; Notice,” 

Federal Register, Vol. 75, No. 213 (Washington, DC: November 4, 2010), website www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentS

treamer?objectId=0900006480b80cca&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.

39. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Partial Grant of Clean Air Act Waiver Application Submitted by Growth Energy To 

Increase the Allowable Ethanol Content of Gasoline to 15 Percent; Decision of the Administrator,” Federal Register, Vol. 76, No. 

17 (Washington, DC: January 26, 2011), website www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648

0b80cca&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.

40. State of Connecticut, General Assembly, Raised Bill No. 382, February Session 2010, “An Act Requiring Biodiesel Blended 

Heating Oil and Lowering the Sulfur Content of Heating Oil Sold in the State,” website www.cga.ct.gov/2010/TOB/S/2010SB00382-R00-SB.htm.

41. Maine State Legislature, “An Act To Establish Biofuel and Ultra-low Sulfur Requirements for Number 2 Home Heating Oil,” 

website www.mainelegislature.org/legis/bills/bills_124th/billtexts/HP116001.asp.

42. New Jersey State Department of Environmental Protection, Amendment N.J.A.C. 7:27-9.2, “Sulfur in Fuels,” website www.

nj.gov/dep/rules/adoptions/adopt_100920a.pdf.

43. New York State Senate, Bill S1145C, “S1145C-2009: Requires a Reduction in Sulfur Emissions for All Heating Oil Used in NonAttainment Areas,” website http://open.nysenate.gov/legislation/bill/S1145C-2009#.
This page intentionally left blank
Issues in focus
18 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

Introduction

The “Issues in focus” section of the Annual Energy Outlook (AEO) provides an in-depth discussion on topics of special interest, including 

significant changes in assumptions and recent developments in technologies for energy production and consumption. Detailed 

quantitative results are available in Appendix D. The first topic updates a discussion included in the Annual Energy Outlook 2010 

(AEO2010) that compared the results of two cases with different assumptions about the future course of existing energy policies. 

One case assumes the elimination of sunset provisions in existing energy policies; that is, the policies are assumed not to sunset as 

they would under current law. The other case assumes the extension of a selected group of existing policies—corporate average fuel 

economy (CAFE) standards, appliance standards, and production tax credits (PTCs)—in addition to the elimination of sunset provisions.

Other topics include (2) a discussion of projected trends in world oil supply and prices based on assumed changes in demand from 

countries outside the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) or in the availability of oil supply from 

the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC); (3) an examination of the potential impacts of proposed revisions 

to CAFE standards for light-duty vehicles (LDVs); (4) potential impacts of proposed CAFE standards for heavy-duty trucks; (5) 

potential impacts of a series of updates to efficiency standards for residential and commercial appliances, alone or in combination 

with revised building codes; (6) an analysis of potential impacts on natural gas and crude oil production of expanded drilling in U.S. 

offshore fields; (7) prospects for shale gas; (8) the impacts of cost uncertainty on the construction of new electric power plants; 

(9) the economics of carbon capture and storage; and (10) the impacts of proposed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

regulations in the electric power sector.

The topics explored in this section represent current and emerging issues in energy markets; but many of the topics discussed in 

AEOs published in recent years also remain relevant today. Table 3 provides a list of titles from the 2010, 2009, and 2008 AEOs 

that are likely to be of interest to today’s readers—excluding topics that are updated in AEO2011. The articles listed in Table 3 can 

be found on the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s (EIA’s) website at www.eia.gov/analysis/reports.cfm?t=128.

1. No Sunset and Extended Policies cases

Background

The Annual Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011) Reference case is best described as a “current laws and regulations” case, because 

it generally assumes that existing laws and current regulations will remain unchanged throughout the projection period, unless 

the legislation establishing them sets a sunset date or specifies how they will change. The Reference case often serves as a 

starting point for the analysis of proposed legislative or regulatory changes. While the definition of the Reference case is relatively 

straightforward, there may be considerable interest in a variety of alternative cases that reflect the updating or extension of current 

laws and regulations. In that regard, areas of particular interest include:

•	 Laws or regulations that have a history of being extended beyond their legislated sunset dates. Examples include the various 

tax credits for renewable fuels and technologies, which have been extended with or without modifications several times since 

their initial implementation.

•	 Laws or regulations that call for the periodic updating of initial specifications. Examples include appliance efficiency standards 

issued by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and CAFE and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions standards for vehicles issued 

by National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the EPA.

•	 Laws or regulations that allow or require the appropriate regulatory agency to issue new or revised regulations under certain 

conditions. Examples include the numerous provisions of the Clean Air Act (CAA) that require the EPA to issue or revise 

regulations if it finds that an environmental quality target is not being met.

Table 3. Key analyses of interest from Issues in focus in recent AEOs

AEO2010 AEO2009 AEO2008

Energy intensity trends in AEO2010 Economics of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles Impacts of uncertainty in energy project 

costs

Natural gas as a fuel for heavy trucks: issues 

and incentives

Impact of limitations on access to oil and 

natural gas resources in the Federal Outer 

Continental Shelf

Limited Electricity Generation Supply and 

Limited Natural Gas Supply cases

Factors affecting the relationship between 

crude oil and natural gas prices

Expectations for oil shale production Trends in heating and cooling degree-days: 

Implications for energy demand

U.S. nuclear power plants: continued life or 

replacement after 60?

Bringing Alaska North Slope natural gas to 

market

Liquefied natural gas: Global challenges

Accounting for carbon dioxide emissions 

from biomass energy combustion

Tax credits and renewable generation

Greenhouse gas concerns and power sector 

planning
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 19

Issues in focus

To provide some insight into the sensitivity of results to different characterizations of baseline policies, two alternative cases are 

discussed in this section. No attempt is made to cover the full range of possible uncertainties in these areas, and readers should 

not view the cases discussed as EIA projections of how laws or regulations might or should be changed.

Analysis cases

The two cases prepared—the No Sunset case and Extended Policies case—incorporate all the assumptions from the AEO2011

Reference case, except as identified below. Changes from the Reference case assumptions in these cases include the following.

No Sunset case

•	 Extension of tax credits for renewable energy sources in the utility, industrial, and buildings sectors and for energy-efficient 

equipment in the buildings sector, including:

– The PTC of 2.1 cents per kilowatthour or the 30-percent investment tax credit (ITC) available for wind, geothermal, biomass, 

hydroelectric, and landfill gas resources, currently set to expire at the end of 2012 for wind and 2013 for the other eligible 

resources, are assumed to be extended indefinitely.

– For solar power investment, a 30-percent ITC that is scheduled to revert to a 10-percent credit in 2016 is, instead, assumed 

to be extended indefinitely at 30 percent.

– In the buildings sector, tax credits for the purchase of energy-efficient equipment, including PV in new houses, are assumed to 

be extended indefinitely, as opposed to ending in 2010 or 2016 as prescribed by current law. The business ITCs for commercialsector generation technologies and geothermal heat pumps are assumed to be extended indefinitely, as opposed to expiring in 

2016; and the business ITC for solar systems is assumed to remain at 30 percent instead of reverting to 10 percent.

– In the industrial sector, the ITC for combined heat and power (CHP) that ends in 2016 in the AEO2011 Reference case is 

assumed to be extended through 2035.

•	 Extension through 2035 of the $0.45 per gallon blender’s tax credit for ethanol (set to expire at the end of 2011).

•	 Extension through 2035 of the $1.00 per gallon biodiesel excise tax credit (set to expire at the end of 2011).

•	 Extension through 2035 of the $0.54 per gallon tariff on imported ethanol (set to expire at the end of 2011).

•	 Extension through 2035 of the PTC for cellulosic biofuels of up to $1.01 per gallon (set to expire at the end of 2012).

Extended Policies case

With the exception of the blender’s and other biofuel tax credits, the Extended Policies case adopts the same assumptions as in 

the No Sunset case, plus the following:

•	 Federal equipment efficiency standards are updated at particular intervals consistent with the provisions in the existing law, 

with the levels based on ENERGY STAR specifications, or Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) purchasing guidelines 

for Federal agencies. Standards are also introduced for products that currently are not subject to Federal efficiency standards.

•	 Updated Federal residential and commercial building energy codes reach 30-percent improvement in 2020 relative to the 2006 

International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) in the residential sector and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and 

Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Building Energy Code 90.1-2004 in the commercial sector. Two subsequent rounds in 

2023 and 2026 each add an assumed 5-percent incremental improvement to building energy codes.

The equipment standards and building codes assumed for the Extended Policies case are meant to illustrate the potential effects 

of these polices on energy consumption for buildings. No cost-benefit analysis or evaluation of impacts on consumer welfare 

was completed in developing the assumptions. Likewise, no technical feasibility analysis was conducted, although standards 

were not allowed to exceed “maximum technologically feasible” levels described in DOE’s technical support documents.

•	 The Extended Policies case modifies the Reference case by assuming a 3-percent annual increase in fuel economy standards for 

new LDVs from model year (MY) 2017 through MY 2025, with subsequent CAFE standards held constant. CAFE standards for 

LDVs increase from 34.1 miles per gallon (mpg) in MY 2016 to 46.0 mpg in MY 2025.

The AEO2011 Reference case and Extended Policies case include both the attribute-based CAFE standards for LDVs for MY 2011 

and the joint attribute-based CAFE and vehicle GHG emissions standards for MY 2012 to MY 2016. However, the Reference 

case assumes that LDV CAFE standards increase to 35 miles per gallon by MY 2020, as called for in the Energy Independence 

and Security Act of 2007 (EISA2007). CAFE standards are then held constant in subsequent model years, although the fuel 

economy of new LDVs continues to rise modestly over time.

•	 The extensions of the blender’s and all biofuels excise tax credits and import tariffs through 2035 adopted in the No Sunset 

case are not included in the Extended Policies case. The renewable fuels standard (RFS) enacted in EISA2007 is an alternative 

instrument for stimulating demand for biofuels. It already is represented in the AEO2010 Reference case, and it tends to be the 

binding driver on biofuels rather than the tax credits.
20 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

•	 In the industrial sector, CHP tax credits are extended to cover all system sizes rather than applying only to systems under 

50  megawatts, and the maximum credit (cap) is increased from $15,000 to $25,000 per system. These extensions are 

consistent with previously proposed or pending legislation.

Analysis results

The changes made to Reference case assumptions in the No Sunset and Extended Policies cases generally lead to lower 

estimates for overall energy consumption, increased use of renewable fuels, particularly for electricity generation, 

and reduced energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Because the Extended Policies case includes most of the 

assumptions in the No Sunset case but adds others, the impacts in the Extended Policies case tend to be greater than those 

in the No Sunset case. Although these cases show lower energy prices—because the tax credits and end-use efficiency 

standards lead to lower energy demand and reduce the cost of renewable fuels—consumers spend more on appliances that 

are more efficient in order to comply with the tighter appliance standards, and the Government receives lower tax revenues 

as consumers and businesses take advantage of the tax credits.

Energy consumption

Total energy consumption in the No Sunset case is close to the level in the Reference case (Figure 6). Improvements in energy 

efficiency lead to slightly reduced consumption in this case, despite somewhat lower energy prices.

Total energy consumption in the Extended Policies case, which assumes the issuance of more stringent efficiency standards for 

end-use equipment and LDVs in the future, is lower than in the Reference case. In 2035, total energy consumption in the Extended 

Policies case is nearly 7 percent below the projection in the Reference case. As an example of individual end uses, the assumed 

future standard for residential electric water heating, which requires installation of heat pumps starting in 2021, has the potential 

to reduce their electricity use by 50 percent from the Reference case level in 2035. Overall, delivered energy use in the buildings 

sector in 2035 is 8.5 percent lower in the Extended Policies case than in the Reference case.

Transportation energy consumption

The Extended Policies case modifies the Reference case by assuming a 3-percent annual increase in the stringency of CAFE 

standards for MY 2017 to MY 2025, with subsequent standards held constant. The LDV CAFE standards in the Extended Policies 

case increase from 34.1 mpg in 2016 to 46.0 mpg in 2025, as compared with 35.6 mpg in the Reference case. Sales of unconventional 

vehicles (including those that use diesel, alternative fuels, and/or hybrid electric systems) play a substantial role in meeting the 

higher fuel economy standards, growing to around 70 percent of new LDV sales in 2035, compared with about 40 percent in the 

Reference case.

As a result of more stringent CAFE standards, LDV energy consumption declines in the Extended Policies case, from 16.1 quadrillion 

British thermal units (Btu) (8.6 million barrels per day) in 2009 to 14.8 quadrillion Btu (8.3 million barrels per day) in 2025 and 

14.4 quadrillion Btu (8.1 million barrels per day) in 2035—representing a 10-percent reduction from the Reference case in 2025 and 

a 19-percent reduction in 2035 (Figure 7). Liquid fuel consumption in the transportation sector continues to grow in the Extended 

Policies case, from 13.6 million barrels per day in 2009 to 14.1 million in 2025 and 14.2 million in 2035, but at a slower rate than in 

the Reference case. Cumulative consumption of liquid fuel for transportation between 2017 and 2035 drops by 6.5 billion barrels, 

or 6 percent, in comparison with the Reference case.

0

90

100

110

120

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Extended Policies

No Sunset

Figure 6. Total energy consumption in three cases, 

2005-2035 (quadrillion Btu)

0

5

10

15

20

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference and No Sunset

Extended Policies

Figure 7. Total liquid fuels consumption for 

transportation in three cases, 2005-2035 

(million barrels per day)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 21

Issues in focus

Renewable electricity generation

The extension of tax credits for renewables through 2035 would, over the long run, lead to more rapid growth in renewable 

generation than projected in the Reference case. When the renewable tax credits are extended without extending energy 

efficiency standards, as is assumed in the No Sunset case, there is a significant increase in renewable generation in 2035 relative 

to the Reference case projection (Figure 8). Extending both renewable tax credits and energy efficiency standards results in more 

modest growth in renewable generation, because renewable generation in the near term is a significant source of new generation 

to meet load growth, and enhanced energy efficiency standards tend to reduce overall electricity consumption and the need for 

new generation resources.

In the Reference case, growth in renewable generation accounts for 26 percent of total generation growth from 2009 to 2035. 

In the No Sunset and Extended Policies cases, growth in renewable generation accounts for 36 to 38 percent of total generation 

growth. In 2035, the share of total electricity generation accounted for by renewables is 14 percent in the Reference case, as 

compared with 16 percent in the No Sunset case and the Extended Policies case.

In all three cases, the most rapid growth in renewable capacity occurs in the near term. After that, the growth slows through 

2020 before picking up again. Before 2015, ample supplies of renewable energy in relatively favorable resource areas 

(such as windy lands or accessible geothermal sites), combined with the Federal incentives, make renewable generation 

competitive with conventional sources. With slow growth in electricity demand and the addition of capacity stimulated 

by renewable incentives before 2015, little new capacity is needed between 2015 and 2020. In addition, in some regions, 

attractive low-cost renewable resources already have been exploited, leaving only less favorable sites that may require 

significant investment in transmission as well as other additional infrastructure costs. Starting around 2020, significant 

new sources of renewable generation also appear on the market as a result of cogeneration at biorefineries built primarily 

to produce renewable liquid fuels to meet the Federal RFS, where combustion of waste products to produce electricity is 

an economically attractive option.

After 2020, renewable generation in the No Sunset and Extended Policies cases increases more rapidly than in the Reference case, 

and as a result generation from nuclear and fossil fuels is reduced from the levels in the Reference case (Figure 9). Natural gas 

represents the largest source of displaced generation. In 2035, electricity generation from natural gas is 8 percent lower in the No 

Sunset case and 16 percent lower in the Extended Policies case than in the Reference case.

Energy-related CO2 emissions

In the No Sunset and Extended Policies cases, lower overall energy demand leads to lower levels of energy-related CO2 emissions 

than in the Reference case. The Extended Policies case shows much larger emissions reductions than the No Sunset and Reference 

cases, in part, due to the inclusion of a tighter CAFE policy for transportation. From 2012 to 2035, energy-related CO2 emissions 

are reduced by a cumulative total of 5.2 billion metric tons (a 3.7-percent reduction over the period) in the Extended Policies case 

from the Reference case projection, as compared with 0.7 billion metric tons (a 0.5-percent reduction over the period) in the No 

Sunset case (Figure 10). The increase in fuel economy assumed for new LDVs in the Extended Policies case leads to nearly one-half 

the total reduction in CO2 emissions in the Reference case projection by 2035. The balance of the reduction in CO2 emissions is due 

to greater efficiency improvement in appliances and increased penetration of renewable of electricity generation.

0

300

500

700

900

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Extended Policies

No Sunset

Figure 8. Renewable electricity generation 

in three cases, 2005-2035 (billion kilowatthours)

0

400

800

1,200

1,600

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Extended Policies

No Sunset

Figure 9. Electricity generation from natural gas 

in three cases, 2005-2035 (billion kilowatthours)
22 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

The majority of the emissions reductions in the No Sunset case are the result of increases in electricity generation from renewable 

fuels. By convention, emissions associated with the combustion of biomass for electricity generation are not counted, because 

they are assumed to be balanced by carbon uptake when the feedstock is grown. A small reduction in transportation sector 

emissions in the No Sunset case is counterbalanced by an increase in emissions from refineries during the production of synthetic 

fuels that receive tax credits. Relatively small incremental reductions in emissions are attributable to renewables in the Extended 

Policies case, mainly because electricity demand is lower than in the Reference case, reducing the consumption of all fuels used 

for generation, including biomass.

In the residential sector, in both the No Sunset and Extended Policies cases, water heating, space cooling, and space heating 

together account for most of the emissions reductions from Reference case levels. In the commercial sector, only the Extended 

Policies case sees substantial emission reductions in those categories.

Energy prices and tax credit payments

With lower levels of overall energy use and more consumption of renewable fuels in the No Sunset and Extended Policies 

cases, energy prices are lower than in the Reference case. In 2035, natural gas wellhead prices are $0.21 per thousand 

cubic feet (3 percent) and $0.60 per thousand cubic feet (9 percent) lower in the No Sunset and Extended Policies cases, 

respectively, than in the Reference case (Figure 11), and electricity prices are 2 percent and 6 percent lower than in the 

Reference case (Figure 12).

The reductions in energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the Extended Policies case require additional equipment costs to 

consumers and revenue reductions for the U.S. Government. From 2011 to 2035, residential and commercial consumers spend 

an additional $11 billion per year (in real 2009 dollars) 

on average for newly purchased end-use equipment, 

distributed generation systems, and residential building 

shell improvements in the Extended Policies case than in the 

Reference case. On the other hand, they save an average of 

$29 billion per year on their energy bills.

Tax credits paid to consumers in the buildings sector in the 

Extended Policies case average $14 billion (real 2009 dollars) 

more per year than in the Reference case. In comparison, 

revenue reductions as a result of tax credits in the buildings 

sector average $1 billion more per year over the same period 

than in the Reference case. However, 60 percent of the 

revenue reductions in the Reference case occur by 2016 when 

most of the tax credits are scheduled to expire.

The largest response to Federal PTC incentives for new 

renewable generation is seen in the No Sunset case, with 

extension of the PTC resulting in annual average reductions 

in Government tax revenues of approximately $730 million 

over the 2011 to 2035 period, as compared with $230 

0

2

4

6

8

10

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Extended Policies

No Sunset

Figure 11. Natural gas wellhead prices in three cases, 

2005-2035 (2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

0

8.5

9.0

9.5

10.0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Extended Policies

No Sunset

Figure 12. Average electricity prices in three cases, 

2005-2035 (2009 cents per kilowatthour)

0

5,500

5,750

6,000

6,250

6,500

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Extended Policies

No Sunset

Figure 10. Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions 

in three cases, 2005-2035 (million metric tons)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 23

Issues in focus

million per year in the Reference case. Additional reductions in Government tax revenue in the No Sunset case result from 

extensions of both the ethanol and biodiesel blenders tax credits and the cellulosic biofuels PTC, with annual average tax revenue 

reductions over the period from 2011 to 2035 of $3.1 billion per year (2009 dollars) in comparison with the Reference case.

2. World oil price and production trends in AEO2011

The world oil price is represented in AEO2011 as the price of light, low-sulfur crude oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma. Projections of 

future supply and demand are made for “liquids.” The term “liquids” refers to conventional petroleum liquids, such as conventional 

crude oil, natural gas plant liquids, and refinery gain, in addition to unconventional liquids, such as biofuels, bitumen, coal-toliquids (CTL), coal- and biomass-to-liquids, gas-to-liquids (GTL), extra-heavy oils, and oil shale (derived from kerogen).

World oil prices are influenced by a number of factors, some of which have mainly short-term impacts. Others, such as expectations 

about world oil demand and OPEC production decisions, affect prices in the longer term. Supply and demand in the world oil 

market are balanced through responses to price movements, and the factors underlying expectations for supply and demand 

are both numerous and complex. The key factors determining long-term expectations for oil supply, demand, and prices can be 

summarized in four broad categories: the economics of non-OPEC conventional liquids supply; OPEC investment and production 

decisions; the economics of unconventional liquids supply; and world demand for liquids.

In 2010, the “prompt month contract” for crude oil (the contract for the nearest month’s trading) remained relatively steady from 

January to November, at a monthly average between $74 and $84 per barrel (2009 dollars), before increasing to just over $89 per 

barrel in December [44].

Long-term prospects

In past AEOs, High Oil Price and Low Oil Price cases have been used to explore the potential impacts of changes in world liquids 

supply on world (and U.S.) oil markets as a result of either OPEC production decisions or changes in economic access to non-OPEC 

resources. In AEO2011, the High Oil Price and Low Oil Price cases have been expanded to incorporate alternative assumptions 

about liquids supply, economic developments, and liquids demand as key price determinants. The assumed price paths in the 

AEO2011 High and Low Oil Price cases bracket a broad range of possible future world oil price paths, with prices in 2035 (in real 

2009 dollars) at $200 per barrel in the High Oil Price case and $50 per barrel in the Low Oil Price case, as compared with $125 in 

the Reference case (Figure 13). This is by no means the full range of possible future oil price paths.

Reference case

The global oil market projections in the AEO2011 Reference case are based on the assumption that current practices, politics, and 

levels of access will continue in the near to mid-term. The Reference case assumes that continued robust economic growth in 

the non-OECD nations, including China, India, and Brazil, will more than offset relatively tepid growth projected for many OECD 

nations. In the Reference case, non-OECD liquids consumption is about 25 million barrels per day higher in 2035 than it was in 

2009, but OECD consumption grows by less than 3 million barrels per day over the same period. Total liquids consumption grows 

to 103 million barrels per day by 2030 and 111 million barrels per day by 2035.

The AEO2011 Reference case assumes that limitations on economic access to resources in many areas restrain the growth of 

non-OPEC conventional liquids production over the projection period and that OPEC production meets a relatively constant 

share of about 40 percent of total world liquids supply. With those constraining factors, satisfying the growing world demand 

for liquids in coming decades requires production from higher 

cost resources, particularly for non-OPEC producers with 

technically challenging supply projects. In the Reference 

case, the increased cost of non-OPEC supplies and a constant 

OPEC market share combine to support average increases in 

real world oil prices of about 5.2 percent per year from 2009 

to 2020 and 1.0 percent from 2020 to 2035. In 2035, the 

average real price of crude oil in the Reference case is $125 

per barrel in 2009 dollars.

Increases in non-OPEC production in the Reference case come 

primarily from high-cost conventional projects in areas with 

inconsistent fiscal or political regimes and from increasingly 

expensive unconventional liquids projects that are made 

economical by rising oil prices and advances in production 

technology (Figure 14). Oil sands production in Canada 

and biofuels production mostly from the United States and 

Brazil are the most important components of the world’s 

unconventional resources, accounting for nearly 70 percent of 

the projected incremental supply between 2009 and 2035 in 

the Reference case.

0

50

100

150

200

250

1980 1995

2009

2020 2035

History Projections

Reference

High Oil Price

Low Oil Price

2009

Figure 13. Average annual world oil prices 

in three cases, 1980-2035 (2009 dollars per barrel)
24 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

Low Oil Price cases

In earlier AEOs, the Low Oil Price case assumed that significantly improved access to resources and the willingness of 

OPEC members to increase their market share would result in low prices and ample supplies, leading to strong increases in 

demand over the long term. For AEO2011, the Low Oil Price case has been changed to one in which relatively low demand 

for liquids, combined with greater economic access to and production of conventional resources, results in sustained low 

oil prices. In particular, the new Low Oil Price case focuses on demand in non-OECD countries, where uncertainty about 

future growth is much higher than in the OECD nations. The AEO2011 Low Oil Price case assumes that world oil prices fall 

steadily after 2011 to about $50 per barrel in 2030 and stabilize at that level through 2035, and that relatively low gross 

domestic product (GDP) growth in the non-OECD countries, compared to the Reference case, keeps their liquids demand 

at relatively low levels. Average annual GDP growth in the non-OECD nations is assumed to be 1.5 percentage points lower 

than in the Reference case, or about 3.6 percent on average. The result is that non-OECD demand for liquids in 2035 is 15 

million barrels per day lower than would have been projected in previous AEOs, as represented in the AEO2011 Traditional 

Low Oil Price case. Total world liquids consumption rises to only 108 million barrels per day in 2035 in the AEO2011 Low 

Oil Price case.

In both the Low Oil Price case and the Traditional Low Oil Price case, low prices limit the development of relatively expensive 

unconventional supplies. Thus, the volumes of unconventional production supplied are the same in the two cases (Figure 15). 

Similarly, there is only a modest difference between the volumes of non-OPEC conventional liquids supplies in the two cases. In 

contrast, OPEC conventional liquids supplies, which increase by about 28 million barrels per day in the Traditional Low Oil Price 

case, increase by only about 15 million barrels per day in the Low Oil Price case.

High Oil Price cases

In the AEO2011 High Oil Price case, high demand for liquids, combined with more constrained supply availability, results in a sharp, 

continued increase in world oil prices. As in the Low Oil Price case, GDP growth is used as a proxy for liquids demand growth in the 

non-OECD nations. Annual GDP growth in non-OECD nations is assumed to be 1.0 percentage points higher in the High Oil Price 

case than in the Reference case, or 5.7 percent on average. Coupled with more constrained supply, oil prices increase to $200 per 

barrel in 2035 as a consequence. Despite the higher prices, however, total world liquids consumption grows to 115 million barrels 

per day in the High Oil Price case, or 4 million barrels per day higher than in the Reference case. In contrast, in the Traditional High 

Oil Price case, only world liquids supply strategies are assumed to result in higher oil prices and tight supplies, which constrain 

increases in demand over the long term.

In both the High Oil Price case and the Traditional High Oil Price case, high prices and restrictions on the production of lower cost 

conventional liquids encourage the development of relatively expensive unconventional supplies. The outlook is similar in the two 

cases, with about 20 million barrels per day of unconventional resources brought to market in 2035. Non-OPEC liquids supplies 

are slightly higher in the High Oil Price case than in the Traditional High Oil Price case, but the largest difference between the two 

cases is in conventional OPEC supplies. The High Oil Price case assumes that OPEC will increase production to maximize revenues, 

because demand in non-OECD nations is not dampened by high prices. In this case, OPEC conventional liquids supplies increase 

by almost 8 million barrels per day from 2009 to 2035, as compared with a decline of 2 million barrels per day in the Traditional 

High Oil Price case.

0

25

50

75

100

125

2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History Projections

CTL and GTL

2009

Conventional crude oil

and lease condensate

Natural gas plant liquids

Refinery gain

Unconventional oils

Biofuels

Figure 14. Total liquids production by source in the 

Reference case, 2000-2035 (million barrels per day)

-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Total liquids

Conventional liquids

Unconventional oils

Biofuels

CTL and GTL

Traditional High Oil Price

Traditional Low Oil Price

Low Oil Price

High Oil Price

Figure 15. Differences from Reference case 

liquids production in four Oil Price cases, 2035 

(million barrels per day)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 25

Issues in focus

3. Increasing light-duty vehicle greenhouse gas and fuel economy standards for model years 2017 to 2025

EPA Notice of Intent to conduct a joint rulemaking

In September 2010, the EPA and NHTSA issued a Notice of Intent to issue a proposed rule that will set GHG emissions and fuel 

economy standards for LDVs for MY 2017 through MY 2025 [45]. The LDV standards cover both passenger cars and light trucks. 

The notice provides an initial GHG emissions assessment for several potential levels of stringency, representing decreases of 3, 4, 

5, and 6 percent per year in GHG emissions and corresponding increases in mpg equivalent fuel efficiency levels from the MY 2016 

fleetwide average of 250 grams per mile. For each level of stringency, four technological pathways were analyzed, corresponding 

to different penetration mixes of advanced gasoline technologies, vehicle mass reductions, and advanced hybrid electric, plug-in 

hybrid electric, and plug-in electric vehicles.

The four technological pathways were not meant as requirements but were used to show that the potential levels of stringency 

examined by the EPA and NHTSA are technically feasible. Although the notice provided an initial evaluation of a potential range 

of increases in stringency, it recognized that much more technological and economic analysis would be needed before a specific 

standard could be released. The EPA and NHTSA expect to release a proposed rulemaking in September 2011 and to issue a final 

rulemaking by July 2012.

Sensitivity cases

Two sensitivity cases were used to analyze the impacts of more stringent GHG emissions and fuel economy standards on LDVs in 

MY 2017 through MY 2025. Fuel economy and GHG emissions standards for MY 2011 through MY 2016 have been promulgated 

already as final rulemakings, and are already represented in the Reference case; they were, therefore, not modified in these 

sensitivity cases.

The CAFE 3% Growth (CAFE3) case is a modified Reference case that assumes a 3-percent annual increase in fuel economy standards 

for MY 2017 through MY 2025 LDVs, starting from the levels for MY 2016 LDVs, with the subsequent post-MY 2025 standards 

held constant. In 2025, the combined LDV fuel economy standard, at 46.1 mpg, is 29 percent higher than the standard assumed in 

the AEO2011 Reference case. The CAFE 6% Growth (CAFE6) case assumes a 6-percent annual increase in fuel economy standards 

for new LDVs from MY 2016 levels for MY 2017 through MY 2025, with the subsequent standards held constant. In 2025, the LDV 

fuel economy standard, at 59.3 mpg, is 66 percent higher than the standard assumed in the Reference case (Figure 16). For new 

passenger cars, the fuel economy standard in 2025 is 40.4 mpg in the Reference case, 53.5 mpg in the CAFE3 case, and 75.4 mpg 

in the CAFE6 case. For new light-duty trucks, the fuel economy standard in 2025 is 29.7 mpg in the Reference case, 38.1 mpg in the 

CAFE3 case, and 45.5 mpg in the CAFE6 case.

The standards enacted for MY 2011 through 2016 are attribute-based, using vehicle footprint, and allow credits for alternative 

technologies and fuels to be applied toward compliance. The Notice of Intent for MY 2017 through 2025 does not address the 

type of attribute standard that would be employed or the structure of credits allowed toward compliance. The sensitivity cases 

examined here assume a continuation of the current footprint-based attribute standards, as well as credit banking.

Results

In view of the substantial rate of fuel economy improvement required, compliance with the more stringent CAFE standards cases 

would require a rapid increase in sales of unconventional vehicles (those that use diesel, alternative fuels, and/or hybrid electric 

systems) and significant improvement in the fuel economy of 

conventional vehicles that continue to rely solely on gasoline 

spark-ignited engines for motive power (Table 4). Such rapid 

changes are likely to challenge the financial, engineering, and 

production capabilities of the automotive industry. In addition, 

increased costs for vehicles that employ technologies 

unfamiliar to consumers could result in lower new vehicle 

sales relative to the Reference case.

Although this analysis does not address those potential 

issues, it does project the levels of market penetration by 

unconventional vehicles and advanced technologies that would 

be needed for compliance with the more stringent standards, 

and it estimates the costs of compliance given Reference 

case assumptions for technology efficiency improvement and 

cost. The resulting impacts on new LDV sales, stocks, energy 

demand, and CO2 emissions are discussed below.

Sales of unconventional vehicles, which will be critical to 

achieving the required fuel economy improvements, are 

projected to grow to 70 percent of total new LDV sales in 2025 

Reference

CAFE3

CAFE6

0

20

40

60

80

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Figure 16. Combined CAFE standards for light-duty 

vehicles in three cases, 2005-2035 (miles per gallon)
26 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

in the CAFE3 case and nearly 90 percent in the CAFE6 case, as compared with 40 percent in the Reference case. In the CAFE3 

case, the largest increases in new sales market shares are among hybrid electric, diesel, and micro hybrid systems in conventional 

gasoline vehicles (Figure 17), all of which are more fuel efficient than their conventional gasoline counterparts. The increase in hybrid 

and diesel vehicle sales displaces sales of both conventional gasoline and flex-fuel vehicles. The more stringent standards in the 

CAFE6 case cause an even greater reduction in conventional gasoline and flex-fuel vehicle sales, significantly expanding the market 

adoption of plug-in hybrid and all-electric vehicles, which are more fuel efficient than their unconventional counterparts, and even 

greater sales share for hybrid electric and diesel vehicles.

While declining as a share of total new vehicle sales, sales of conventional gasoline vehicles without micro hybrid systems still 

account for a significant percentage (30 percent) of new vehicles in the CAFE3 case and a less, but still important share (11 percent) 

in the CAFE6 case. Conventional gasoline vehicle fuel economy increases in both cases through the introduction of new fuelefficient technologies and improved vehicle designs. In order to meet the increased fuel economy requirements, conventional 

vehicle subsystems (engine, transmission, aerodynamics, vehicle weight, and horsepower) would have to be modified to ensure 

compliance. Included in conventional gasoline vehicle technologies but counted separately in the discussion above are micro 

hybrid systems, which are present in 36 percent of conventional gasoline vehicles in the CAFE3 case and 58 percent in the CAFE6 

case in 2025, compared with 12 percent in the Reference case.

The market adoption of unconventional vehicles and inclusion of additional technologies that improve the fuel economy 

of conventional gasoline vehicles results in higher average prices for new LDVs compared to the Reference case. As a result, 

while vehicle operating costs would fall (see below), consumers would need to purchase more expensive vehicles (Figure 18). A 

distribution of vehicle sales by price in 2010, derived from Ward’s Automotive data [46], shows that 31 percent of the new vehicles 

purchased by consumers were within a price range of $10,000 to $25,000, 49 percent within $25,000 to $35,000, and 19 percent 

at prices above $35,000. In the CAFE3 case, the distribution in 2025 shifts to 15 percent within $10,000 to $25,000, 61 percent 

within $25,000 to $35,000, and 24 percent above $35,000 (all 2009 dollars). The sales distribution in 2025 shifts even more 

in the CAFE6 case, with 9 percent within $10,000 to $25,000, 56 percent within $25,000 to $35,000, and 35 percent above 

$35,000 (all 2009 dollars).

The cases estimate a demand response for new vehicle sales as a result of changes in average new vehicle price by employing 

a price elasticity of demand of -1. While this measure attempts to quantify the potential impact of the increase in vehicle price 

on sales, it is not intended to be inclusive of all the potential factors that could affect new vehicle purchase decisions made by 

consumers. As a result of higher vehicle prices, total new LDV sales in 2025 are 8 percent lower in the CAFE3 case and 14 percent 

lower in the CAFE6 case than in the Reference case.

As vehicle attributes change to meet more stringent CAFE standards, such as decreased average vehicle horsepower and weight, 

some consumers switch from passenger cars to light-duty trucks, which in the CAFE3 case have average fuel economies in 2025 

comparable to those for passenger cars in 2016. The share of total new LDV sales made up by light-duty trucks is 40 percent in 

the CAFE3 case and 41 percent in the CAFE6 case in 2025, up from 38 percent in the Reference case, but still far lower than their 

share (more than 50 percent) in 2005. Note, however, that consumer incentives to switch from cars to light trucks are sensitive to 

the assumed relative stringency of cars versus light truck CAFE.

Although the CAFE sensitivity cases allow for fluctuation in new LDV sales and switching between purchases of passenger cars 

and light-duty trucks, additional impacts on fuel demand would be associated with the continued use of existing vehicle stocks. As 

consumers defer new vehicle purchases, the utilization of older, less fuel-efficient vehicles increases relative to the Reference case. 

Table 4. Unconventional light-duty vehicle types

Unconventional vehicle type Description

Micro hybrid Vehicles with gasoline engines, larger batteries, and electrically powered auxiliary 

systems that allow the engine to be turned off when the vehicle is coasting or idle 

and then quickly restarted. Regenerative braking recharges the batteries but does not 

provide power to the wheels for traction.

Hybrid electric (gasoline or diesel) Vehicles that combine internal combustion and electric propulsion but have limited allelectric range and batteries that cannot be recharged using grid power.

Diesel Vehicles that use diesel fuel in a compression-ignition internal combustion engine.

Plug-in hybrid electric (10- and 40-mile allelectric range)Vehicles that use battery power to drive for some distance, until a minimum level of 

battery power is reached, at which point they operate on a mixture of battery and 

internal combustion power. Plug-in hybrids also can be engineered to run in a “blended 

mode,” where an onboard computer determines the most efficient use of battery and 

internal combustion power. The batteries can be recharged from the grid by plugging a 

power cord into an electrical outlet.

Plug-in electric (100- and 200-mile range) Vehicles that operate by electric propulsion from batteries that are recharged either 

from the grid exclusively or through regenerative breaking.

Flex-fuel Vehicles that run on gasoline or any gasoline-ethanol blend up to 85 percent ethanol.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 27

Issues in focus

The demand for mobility and the stock of vehicles available in the Reference case are maintained over the projection period in the 

CAFE cases, but the two CAFE cases assume longer vehicle survival rates and more intensive use of older vehicles.

The United States currently has a total LDV stock of around 230 million vehicles. That number grows to over 300 million vehicles 

by 2035 in the Reference and CAFE cases. Although the introduction of more stringent fuel economy standards in the CAFE cases 

stimulates sales of more fuel-efficient new vehicles, it takes time for the new vehicles to penetrate the vehicle fleet in significant 

numbers to affect the average of fuel economy of the entire LDV stock. In the CAFE cases, the trend is even slower, as a result of 

reduced scrappage and increased travel of older vehicles. Consequently, the average on-road fuel economy of the LDV stock, which 

represents the fuel economy realized by all vehicles in use, increases from 22.4 mpg in 2016 to 28.6 mpg in 2025 in the CAFE3 case 

and 30.2 mpg in the CAFE6 case, as compared with 25.7 mpg in the Reference case. In 2035, the average on-road fuel economy 

of the LDV stock increases to 34.0 mpg in the CAFE3 case and 39.4 mpg in the CAFE6 case, 22 percent and 41 percent higher, 

respectively, than the Reference case average of 27.9 mpg (Figure 19).

In the two CAFE cases, more stringent fuel economy standards lead to reductions in total delivered energy consumption, 

including all fuels. Fuel bills fall by a similar amount. Total cumulative delivered energy consumption by LDVs from 2017 to 2035 

is 10 percent lower in the CAFE3 case than in the Reference case and 13 percent lower in the CAFE6 case. In 2025, total delivered 

energy consumption by LDVs is 19 percent lower in the CAFE3 case and 27 percent lower in the CAFE6 case than in the Reference 

case. Total liquids fuel consumption in 2035 is 1.9 million barrels per day lower in the CAFE3 case and 2.8 million barrels per day 

lower in the CAFE6 case than in the Reference case (Figure 20). Reductions in total delivered energy consumption and liquids fuel 

0

5

10

15

20

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

CAFE3

CAFE6

Figure 20. Total liquid fuels consumption 

by light-duty vehicles in three cases, 2005-2035 

(million barrels per day)

Flex-fuel

Plug-in electric

Plug-in hybrid electric

Diesel

Hybrid electric

Micro hybrid

Conventional gasoline

0 25 50 75

CAFE6

CAFE3

Reference

Figure 17. Model year 2025 light-duty vehicle 

market shares by technology type in three cases 

(percent of total sales)

0 10 20 30 40

10,000	- 15,000

15,001	- 20,000

20,001	- 25,000

25,001	- 30,000

30,001	- 35,000

35,001	- 40,000

40,001	- 45,000

45,001	- 50,000

50,001	- 55,000

55,001+

2010

2025: CAFE3

2025: CAFE6

Figure 18. Distribution of new light-duty vehicle sales 

by vehicle price (2009 dollars) in 2025 in the CAFE3 and 

CAFE6 cases (percent of total sales compared to 2010)

0

10

20

30

40

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

CAFE3

CAFE6

Figure 19. On-road fuel economy of the light-duty 

vehicle stock in three cases, 2005-2035 (miles per gallon)
28 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

consumption are more pronounced later in the projection period, when a greater percentage of the total vehicle stock consists 

of vehicles with higher fuel economy.

The declines in total LDV energy demand in the CAFE cases lead to large reductions in motor gasoline consumption—from 98 percent 

of total LDV energy use in 2016 to 84 percent in 2025 and 77 percent in 2035 in the CAFE3 case, as compared with 91 percent in 2025 

and 89 percent in 2035 in the Reference case. The more stringent fuel economy standards called for in the CAFE6 case lead to even 

greater reductions in motor gasoline consumption, to 83 percent of total LDV energy use in 2025 and 69 percent in 2035.

Despite the overall decline in energy consumption by LDVs, the changing composition of the fleet by vehicle fuel type leads to 

increased consumption of some fuels. Lower demand for motor gasoline reduces the amount of ethanol that can be blended into 

the motor gasoline pool as either E10 or E15. As a consequence, more fuel containing up to 85 percent ethanol (E85) is sold to 

meet the RFS. E85 accounts for 11 percent of total LDV energy use in 2035 in the CAFE3 case and 14 percent in the CAFE6 case, 

compared with 7 percent in the Reference case. Diesel fuel consumption increases to 11 percent and 15 percent of total LDV energy 

use in 2035 in the CAFE3 and CAFE6 cases, respectively, compared with 4 percent in the Reference case. Electricity use by LDVs 

remains less than 1 percent of total LDV energy use in both the Reference and CAFE3 cases but reaches 3 percent of the total in 

the CAFE6 case, where sales of plug-in vehicles and all-electric vehicles expand.

Reductions in LDV delivered energy consumption lead to lower GHG emissions from the transportation sector. Cumulative CO2

emissions from transportation over the period from 2009 through 2035 are 2.2 billion metric tons lower in the CAFE3 case and 

2.6 billion metric tons lower in the CAFE6 case than in the Reference case, reductions of 6 percent and 7 percent, respectively. 

CO2 emissions decline from 1,927 million metric tons in 2016 to 1,826 million metric tons in 2025 in the CAFE3 case and to 1,815 

million metric tons in the CAFE6 case, as compared with 1,940 million metric tons in the Reference case. In 2035, CO2 emissions 

from transportation fuel use total 1,859 million metric tons in the CAFE3 case and 1,788 million metric tons in the CAFE6 case, 

compared with 2,080 million metric tons in the Reference case (Figure 21).

CO2 emissions from the electric power and refinery sectors also are affected by increased electricity use for plug-in vehicles. 

Cumulative emissions from the electric power sector over the period from 2017 to 2035 are 118 million metric tons higher in 

the CAFE3 case and 416 million metric tons higher in the CAFE6 case than in the Reference case—increases that are equal to 

0.3 percent and 0.9 percent of total CO2 emissions from electricity generation, respectively, over the same period. More stringent 

fuel economy standards reduce motor gasoline demand by more than they increase demand for diesel and E85 fuels. As a result, 

cumulative CO2 emissions from refineries between 2017 and 2035 decline by 359 million metric tons in the CAFE3 case and 471 

million metric tons in the CAFE6 case from the Reference case level—declines of 8.8 percent and 11.6 percent, respectively.

Issues

Setting LDV fuel economy standards 6 to 14 years into the future is a difficult undertaking, given the uncertainties associated 

with technology availability and cost, consumer acceptance and willingness to pay for unfamiliar technology, and fuel prices. The 

availability and cost of advanced vehicle technologies are critical in determining the ability of manufacturers to meet more stringent 

standards, but there is a high degree of uncertainty regarding the cost and availability of key technologies so far into the future.

For example, battery technologies used in plug-in vehicles are important in meeting more stringent standards in the CAFE3 case and 

are critical to compliance in the CAFE6 case. The future cost and performance of battery technologies in 2025 cannot be known with 

confidence. If there are limited breakthroughs in the cost, safety, or life of batteries, then the ability to meet, for example, the levels 

of stringency called for in the CAFE6 case, which will very likely 

necessitate plug-in vehicles, will be extremely challenging. 

On the other hand, a breakthrough in battery technology 

or another known technology, or the introduction of a new 

unforeseen technology, could dramatically lessen the burden 

on manufacturers of meeting more stringent CAFE standards in 

terms of both cost and availability.

When manufacturers bring an advanced vehicle technology 

to market, consumers must be willing to buy it. There is a 

high level of uncertainty about consumer willingness to pay 

significantly higher prices for more fuel-efficient vehicles. In 

recent history, consumers have tended to value upgrades in 

performance, vehicle size, and other attributes at the expense 

of fuel economy. 

For example, assuming an annual vehicle use of 14,000 miles 

per year, a fuel price of $4 per gallon, and no discount rate, a 

consumer would save 117 gallons of fuel worth $467 each year 

by driving a vehicle with a fuel economy of 40 mpg instead 

of 30  mpg. However, purchasing a vehicle that gets 70 mpg 0

1,700

1,800

1,900

2,000

2,100

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

CAFE3

CAFE6

Figure 21. Total transportation carbon dioxide emissions 

(million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 29

Issues in focus

instead of 60 mpg would save only 33 gallons, worth $133 (Figure 22). This is important, because the cost of adding technology to an 

already fuel-efficient vehicle tends to get increasingly expensive (for example, changing a conventional gasoline vehicle to a plug-in 

hybrid electric vehicle). As manufacturers strive to improve fuel economy, the least costly technologies that reduce fuel consumption 

will be incorporated first. Employing additional technology to increase fuel economy further will require the use of more expensive 

technologies.

Consumer willingness to pay for improved fuel economy changes dramatically with different potential fuel prices, which are highly 

uncertain. If the price of fuel in 14 years is significantly higher than today’s prices, a cost-conscious consumer may be willing to pay 

much more for a vehicle with higher fuel economy, perhaps even without increases in CAFE and GHG standards. Conversely, if fuel 

prices in the future are relatively low, it may be difficult to convince consumers to pay for fuel economy improvements if the savings 

from improving fuel economy have only a small impact on their annual fuel expenditures. The willingness of consumers to purchase 

vehicles with higher fuel economy could also affect both new vehicle sales and scrappage rates.

4. Fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions standards for heavy-duty vehicles

The proposed rulemaking

The EPA and NHTSA in November 2010 jointly issued a proposed rulemaking that would, for the first time, establish 

greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption standards for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) [47].The proposed standards 

separately address three discrete vehicle categories: combination tractors, heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans, and 

vocational vehicles (Table 5). The final regulations are scheduled to be issued by July 2011.

For combination tractors, standards are proposed by cab type, roof type, and engine type. For heavy-duty pickups and vans, the 

proposed standards are categorized by diesel or gasoline engine and are set as total vehicle gallons per 100 miles, or grams 

per mile, based on a vehicle’s “work factor”—a weighted average of payload and towing capacity. For vocational vehicles, the 

standards are proposed for different chassis types, according to gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) and engine type. Standards 

for combination tractor cabs and vocational vehicles are set as gallons per 1,000 ton-miles or grams per ton-mile, and engine 

standards are set as gallons per 100 brake horsepower-hours [48] or grams per horsepower-hour.

Heavy-duty vehicle fuel economy standards

AEO2011 includes a sensitivity case that analyzes the estimated impacts of the proposed fuel consumption and GHG emissions 

standards for heavy-duty trucks. However, because of data and modeling limitations, impacts of the standards for specific 

truck types or engines could not be represented. Instead, the HDV Fuel Economy Standards case approximates the proposed fuel 

consumption and GHG emissions standards by increasing the on-road fuel economy of new heavy-duty trucks by approximately 

8.5 percent in MY 2017 from MY 2010 levels.

The increase in on-road fuel economy for heavy-duty trucks in MY 2017 in the sensitivity case is based on estimates developed from the 

U.S. Census Bureau’s 2002 Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS) [49] and from Ward’s Auto [50], which together provide data on 

vehicle body type, tractor cab type, and engine type by GVWR classification. The estimated vehicle distributions were combined with 

the EPA and NHTSA estimates of reductions in fuel consumption in MY 2017 for combination tractors and vocational vehicles and in 

MY 2018 for heavy-duty pickups and vans, compared to a MY 2010 baseline [51].

Using data from VIUS and Ward’s Automotive, fuel 

consumption reductions provided by EPA and NHTSA were 

combined and aggregated into the reported categorization 

of heavy-duty trucks used in AEO2011: medium heavy-duty 

trucks (includes Class 3 through Class 6 trucks with GVWR 

10,001 to 26,000 pounds) and heavy heavy-duty trucks (Class 

7 and Class 8 trucks with GVWR greater than 26,001 pounds), 

regardless of vehicle body or engine type. This weighting and 

aggregation showed an approximately 10 percent reduction in 

fuel consumption for both categories of heavy-duty trucks in 

MY 2017 from MY 2010 levels, relative to a simulated fuel 

economy estimate. The reduction in fuel consumption was 

modeled as an increase in on-road new vehicle fuel economy 

to account for the potential variation of simulation-tested 

fuel economy from expected on-road performance. Increases 

in fuel economy begin in MY 2014, the first year that GHG 

emissions standards are binding (Figure 23).

Between MY 2014 and MY 2017, the new heavy-duty truck 

standards lead to the adoption of technologies to improve 

fuel economy that otherwise would not have been purchased. 

Miles per gallon

Annual fuel expenditures Gallons of fuel consumed

$0

$500

$1,000

$1,500

$2,000

$2,500

$3,000

20 30 40 50 60 70 80

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Figure 22. Total annual fuel consumption (gallons) 

for consumers driving 14,000 miles per year and 

annual fuel expenditures at a $4.00 per gallon fuel 

price (2009 dollars)
30 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

For new medium heavy-duty trucks, average on-road fuel economy increases from 7.9 mpg (gasoline) in 2013 (the year before 

imposition of binding GHG emission standards) to 8.5 mpg in 2017—a 7.8-percent increase from the AEO2011 Reference case 

projection. On-road fuel economy for heavy heavy-duty trucks increases from 5.7 mpg in 2013 to 6.2 mpg in 2017, a 9.6-percent 

increase from the Reference case. After 2017 the standards are held constant, but owner-operators have the option of purchasing 

additional fuel-efficient technology according to their economic choice based on the net present value of fuel savings compared with 

the incremental cost of the technology. In 2035, the on-road fuel economy of new medium and heavy heavy-duty trucks reaches 8.4 

and 6.4 mpg, respectively, as compared with 7.8 and 6.4 mpg in the Reference case.

Results

In the HDV Fuel Economy Standards case, new medium and heavy heavy-duty trucks with higher on-road fuel economy gradually 

penetrate the market. Progress is limited, however, due to the slow turnover in the stock of heavy trucks, which have a median 

lifetime of 29 years. Between 2014 and 2035, new heavy-duty truck sales per year are equal to about 6 percent of the total heavyduty truck stock, ranging between about 600,000 and 900,000 new heavy-duty trucks sales per year out of a total stock that 

grows from 10 million in 2014 to 17 million in 2035. As new heavy-duty trucks are added to the total stock and older trucks with 

lower fuel economy are removed from service, the average on-road fuel economy for the total stock of medium and heavy heavyduty trucks increases in the HDV Fuel Economy Standards case (Figure 24).

For medium heavy-duty trucks average on-road fuel economy increases from 7.9 median mpg in 2013 to 8.0 mpg in 2017 and 

8.4 mpg in 2035, as compared with 7.9 mpg and 7.8 mpg, respectively, in the Reference case. For heavy heavy-duty trucks, onroad fuel economy increases from 5.7 mpg in 2013 to 5.9 mpg in 2017 and 6.3 mpg in 2035, as compared with 5.7 mpg and 6.2 

mpg, respectively, in the Reference case.

The higher on-road fuel economy of the heavy-duty truck stock reduces total delivered energy consumption in the Fuel Economy 

Standards case. Total cumulative delivered energy consumption by heavy-duty trucks from 2014 to 2035 is 3 percent lower in 

the Fuel Economy Standards case than in the Reference case. The difference amounts to a cumulative reduction of slightly less 

than 1 percent of total delivered transportation energy consumption from 2014 to 2035. Total delivered energy consumption is 

0.6 percent lower in 2017, the first year of complete implementation, and 0.5 percent lower in 2035 in the Fuel Economy Standards 

case than in the Reference case. Total liquids fuel consumption in 2035 is about 75 thousand barrels per day lower in the Fuel 

Economy Standards case than in the Reference case (Figure 25). However, heavy-duty truck total delivered energy and liquids fuel 

consumption climbs in both cases, as travel demand increases with growth in industrial output.

Cumulative CO2 emissions from 2014 to 2035 are lower by 276 million metric tons (about 3 percent) in the HDV Fuel Economy 

Standards case than in the Reference case, representing a reduction of less than 1 percent in total CO2 emissions from the 

transportation sector (Figure 26).

Issues

The HDV Fuel Economy Standards case approximates the proposed rulemaking by aggregating vehicle body type data from the 

2002 VIUS. (The survey has not been updated since 2002.) There may be significant differences between the heavy-duty truck 

market today and the market a decade ago. Further, there are data uncertainties associated with the 2002 VIUS, but the data 

were used because VIUS is the only source of information on vehicle body type. Also, little if any information is available on other 

metrics used in the proposed standards.

Numerous limitations in the available data on the types and numbers of heavy trucks sold according to the vehicle classifications 

specified in the proposed standards make it difficult to estimate the energy impacts that could be expected as heavy-duty trucks 

begin to comply with the new standards. Without better and more complete data, it is difficult to analyze the composition of the 

heavy-duty truck market at the level of diversity included in the proposed standards, or the efficiency and fuel economy metrics 

associated with each classification in the standards. In addition, the lack of data makes it difficult to define an accurate baseline 

from which to gauge improvement.

Table 5. Vehicle categories for the HDV standards 

Vehicle category Description Truck classes covered

Combination tractors Semi trucks that typically pull trailers. Class 7 and Class 8 

(GVWR 26,001 pounds and above)

Heavy-duty pickups and vans Pickup trucks and vans, such as 3/4-ton or 1-ton pickups used 

on construction sites or 12- to 15-person passenger vans.

Class 2b and Class 3 

(GVWR 8,501 to 14,000 pounds)

Vocational vehicles Includes a wide range of truck configurations, such 

as delivery, refuse, utility, dump, cement, school bus, 

ambulance, and tow trucks. For purposes of the rulemaking, 

vocational vehicles are defined as all heavy-duty trucks that 

are not combination tractors or heavy-duty pickups or vans.

Class 2b through Class 8 

(GVWR 8,501 pounds and above)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 31

Issues in focus

Another issue is how compliance will be measured, and how well compliance testing procedures will replicate the average realworld performance of combination tractors, heavy-duty pickups and vans, and vocational vehicles. For combination tractors, 

which tend to spend a majority of their operation under steady conditions, such as highway driving, engine manufacturers must 

demonstrate compliance by using the steady-state Supplemental Engine Test [52]. Tractor manufacturers will then be required 

to install certified engines, with tractor compliance measured by an input-based truck simulation model, the Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions Model (GEM). GEM uses fixed input values, such as payload and trailer weights. Compliance will vary with the GEM 

inputs for aerodynamics, weight, tires, and idle reduction and speed limiter technologies.

Compliance for heavy-duty pickups and vans will be determined by a vehicle test procedure similar to the national program for 

LDVs, using the highway fuel economy test and the Federal test procedure for city driving, weighted 45 percent and 55 percent, 

respectively. Heavy-duty pickups and vans are assumed to be loaded to one-half of their payload capacity.

Vocational vehicles also use the GEM simulation model to demonstrate chassis compliance, using fixed curb and payload 

weights for each vehicle category, with tires being the only manufacturer-specific technology that can be input into the 

model. The proposed rulemaking weights the test drive-cycle as 37 percent at 65 miles per hour cruise, 21 percent at 55 miles 

per hour cruise, and 42 percent in transient performance, which broadly covers urban conditions. Chassis manufacturers will 

be allowed to install only certified CO2 and fuel consumption compliant engines based on the transient Heavy-Duty Federal 

Test Procedure.

As validation, GEM results for fuel consumption and CO2 emissions were compared with three SmartWay certified tractors 

in a chassis testing procedure. The GEM results were within 4 percent of the chassis testing results. Although the testing 

Reference

Fuel Economy Standards

Heavy heavy-duty vehicles

Medium heavy-duty vehicles

0

2

4

6

8

10

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Figure 23. On-road fuel economy of new medium and 

heavy heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035 

(miles per gallon gasoline equivalent)

0

2

4

6

8

10

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Fuel Economy Standards

Heavy heavy-duty vehicles

Medium heavy-duty vehicles

Figure 24. Average on-road fuel economy of medium 

and heavy heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035 

(miles per gallon gasoline equivalent)

Reference

Fuel Economy Standards

0

13.5

14.5

15.5

16.5

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Figure 25. Total liquid fuels consumed by the transportation 

sector in two cases, 2005-2035 (million barrels per day)

0

100

200

300

400

500

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Fuel Economy Standards

Figure 26. CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles 

in two cases, 2005-2035 (million metric tons)
32 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

mechanisms may accurately reflect real-world conditions, they may either underestimate or overestimate average fuel consumption 

and CO2 emissions by vehicle category. Ultimately, fuel savings will be realized from the new standards; but given data limitations 

it is difficult to say with certainty the extent to which they will occur.

5. Potential efficiency improvements in alternative cases for appliance standards and building codes

In 2009, the residential and commercial buildings sectors used 19.6 quadrillion Btu of delivered energy, or 21 percent of total U.S. 

energy consumption. The residential sector accounted for 57 percent of that energy use and the commercial sector 43 percent. 

In the AEO2011 Reference case, delivered energy for buildings increases by 16 percent, to 22.8 quadrillion Btu in 2035, which is 

moderate relative to the rate of increase in the number of buildings and their occupants. Accordingly, energy use in the buildings 

sector on a per-capita basis declines in the projection. The decline of buildings energy use per capita in past years is attributable in 

part to improvements in the efficiencies of appliances and building shells, and efficiency improvements continue to play a key role 

in projections of buildings energy consumption.

Three alternative cases in AEO2011 illustrate the impacts of appliance standards and building codes on energy delivered to the 

residential and commercial sectors (Figure 27). The Expanded Standards case assumes multiple rounds of updates to appliance 

standards for most end uses. The Expanded Standards and Codes case includes the same updates to standards and adds several 

rounds of updates to national building codes. These cases differ from the Extended Policies case, in that they do not include the 

tax credit extensions assumed in the No Sunset case. The 2010 Technology case assumes that future equipment purchases are 

limited to the options available in 2010, and that the 2010 building codes remain unchanged through 2035. The 2010 Technology 

case includes all current Federal standards, but unlike the Reference case it does not include future efficiency levels established by 

equipment manufacturers and efficiency advocates through consensus agreements.

Without the benefits of technology improvement, buildings energy use in the 2010 Technology case grows to more than 

24 quadrillion Btu in 2035, compared to under 23 quadrillion Btu in the Reference case. In the Expanded Standards and Codes 

case, energy delivered to the buildings sectors does not exceed 21 quadrillion Btu throughout the projection period.

Background

Governments at both the State and Federal levels have used appliance standards and building codes to mandate minimum 

levels of efficiency in commercially available products and in new construction. California first established standards for selected 

appliances in the mid-1970s, and the Federal Government followed in 1987 with the National Appliance Energy Conservation 

Act. Currently, most major end-use devices are covered by Federal standards, and some States have added standards for such 

products as televisions, audio and video equipment, swimming pool pumps, commercial holding cabinets for hot food, and bottletype water dispensers.

There are no Federal building codes; rather, codes are set at the State level. For residential buildings, most State codes are some version of 

the IECC. Commercial building codes are more likely to be based on specifications developed jointly by the American National Standards 

Institute, the ASHRAE, and the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. In addition, the States have sole responsibility for 

compliance monitoring and enforcement of the codes, and efforts vary significantly across States.

Although both contribute to efficiency improvements and reduced energy consumption, building codes and appliance standards 

achieve those goals in different ways. Appliance standards set efficiency levels and require new equipment to provide a given 

level of service output (e.g., heat, light, or refrigeration) with a 

reduced level of energy input.

Building codes can reduce energy mainly for heating and 

cooling equipment by increasing insulation and decreasing 

air infiltration. Better insulation impedes heat transfer, 

and better infiltration control reduces air transfer between 

outdoor elements and indoor conditioned space. Those 

measures make the work done by heating and cooling 

equipment more effective, essentially by creating a more 

robust barrier between outdoor and indoor spaces.

Appliance standards

DOE’s thresholds for setting Federal standards include average 

energy use in excess of 150 kilowatthours (or Btu equivalent) 

per household for any 12-month period; aggregate household 

energy use in excess of 4.2 billion kilowatthours (14.3 trillion 

Btu); and technological feasibility of substantial efficiency 

improvement for the product. For example, a typical refrigerator 

under the 2001 DOE standard can use up to 510 kilowatthours 

per year, and residential refrigeration in aggregate consumed 

Reference

Expanded Standards

Expanded Standards and Codes

0

15

20

25

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

2010 Technology

Figure 27. Residential and commercial delivered 

energy consumption in four cases, 2005-2035 

(quadrillion Btu)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 33

Issues in focus

367 trillion Btu in 2009. Once a product is covered by DOE, the States must seek waivers from Federal preemption in order to 

implement their own standards.

Assumptions for future efficiency standards in the Extended Policies case and the Expanded Standards case are based on ENERGY 

STAR specifications or, for some products in the commercial sector, FEMP guidelines. The first round of standards in the Expanded 

Standards case assumes ENERGY STAR levels, but the improvements assumed for subsequent rounds are only 50 percent of 

those assumed for the first round (7.5 percent in the case of dehumidifiers). This approach is taken because, for example, an 

ENERGY STAR dehumidifier uses 15 percent less energy than required by the most recent standard, but it may be unreasonable 

to assume that future standards for dehumidifiers (or any other equipment) will always be able to achieve improvements of the 

same magnitude. In addition, the assumed future standards do exceed the “maximum technologically feasible” levels described in 

technical support documents for DOE’s rulemaking.

Future efficiency levels for several products, in addition to standards already promulgated by DOE, are included in the AEO2011

Reference case. Efficiency advocates and equipment manufacturers have developed consensus agreements on regional standards 

for electric heat pumps, central air conditioners, and furnaces, and national standards for refrigerators, freezers, clothes washers, 

clothes dryers, dishwashers, and room air conditioners. In those cases, efficiency levels in additional rounds of standards are 

limited to one-half the ENERGY STAR improvement increment.

The ENERGY STAR program provides an annual summary of market penetration by qualified products [53]. For some product 

categories with high levels of market penetration, ENERGY STAR specifications are updated more frequently, to encourage greater 

efficiency. Consequently, ENERGY STAR levels may be the most up-to-date and consistent set of efficiency levels that are plausible 

for future standards.

The Expanded Standards case includes updated standards for currently covered products as well as new standards for products 

not yet covered. Updated standards for covered products are introduced according to DOE’s rulemaking schedule, which typically 

staggers rulemakings and revisits standard levels every 6 years. Standards for products not previously covered are assumed to be 

added to the schedule, with the last standard being introduced in 2019. For most end uses, only one additional round of standards 

is applied. Exceptions in the residential sector include boilers, geothermal heat pumps, and dehumidifiers, with two rounds of 

standards. Two additional rounds of standards are also assumed for geothermal heat pumps in the commercial sector.

By law, the DOE rulemaking process requires that efficiency improvements be imposed at neutral cost to consumers. Extensive 

cost-benefit analysis in the process involves thorough engineering and market analyses of potential impacts on consumers and is 

subject to scrutiny and input from equipment manufacturers, efficiency advocates, and other stakeholders. The sensitivity cases 

described here focus on the aggregate energy impacts of additional standards and codes, but do not address the impacts on 

consumer welfare. Future efficiency levels are based solely on estimations of improvements for currently available products.

Building codes

Residential and commercial building energy codes [54] are currently applied at the State level with no consistent schedule for 

adoption, compliance, or enforcement. Current residential building codes vary widely: some States comply with 2009 IECC or better, 

while others have codes that predate the 1998 MEC / IECC or have no mandatory codes at all. On the commercial side, the most 

stringent States have adopted ASHRAE 90.1-2007 or better, while the least stringent States either have no mandatory code or have 

codes that precede ASHRAE 90.1-1999. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 required certification of building energy code updates from 

all States, so that residential codes would meet or exceed the (now obsolete) Council of American Building Officials’ 1992 Model 

Energy Code, and commercial codes would meet or exceed ASHRAE 90.1-1989. As of 2010, a State-level scorecard from efficiency 

advocates identified 12 States that still do not have mandatory energy codes for either residential or commercial buildings [55].

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) provides State Energy Program (SEP) funding, contingent on 

the updating of a State’s building codes to ASHRAE 90.1-2007 and the IECC that was most recent when ARRA was passed 

in 2009, and on the State’s providing a plan to achieve at least 90-percent compliance within 8 years. All 50 States applied 

for and received SEP funds with those conditions. The Reference case assumes that States comply with ARRA. The Expanded 

Standards and Codes case adds three rounds of building codes, the first of which mandates a 15-percent improvement over IECC 

2009 in the residential sector and a 30-percent improvement over ASHRAE 90.1-2004 in the commercial sector by 2020. Two 

subsequent rounds in 2023 and 2026 each add an assumed 5-percent incremental improvement.

Results for the residential sector

Because many of the products targeted by the appliance standards program are used in the residential sector, about 60 percent 

of the additional buildings sector efficiency gains in the Expanded Standards and Codes case are realized there. Figure 28 shows 

cumulative energy savings relative to the 2010 Technology case in three cases for various groups of residential end uses.

The Reference case includes technology improvement in every end use. Also, two consensus agreements among equipment 

manufacturers and efficiency advocates provide additional significant reductions in consumption. In 2009, a consensus agreement 

recommended regional standards for some heating and cooling equipment as an alternative to the national standards of the past. In 

2010, a consensus agreement recommended standards for refrigerators, freezers, room air conditioners, clothes washers, clothes 
34 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

dryers, and dishwashers. Those consensus agreements are included in the Reference case as de facto standards, and they contribute 

to the cumulative reduction in delivered energy use of 13.4 quadrillion Btu in the Reference case relative to the 2010 Technology case.

The Expanded Standards case shows significant improvement in miscellaneous energy loads, mostly as the result of an assumed 

standard for standby power in 2014. Standards for televisions and computer monitors are introduced in 2016, as recent 

improvements in display technology have offered room for energy savings. Products such as home audio equipment and DVD 

players that have been subject to State standards are assumed to be covered at the Federal level, further contributing to energy 

savings. Similarly, energy use for personal computers and related equipment, such as printers, modems, and routers, also are 

affected by the standards for standby power and assumed new DOE rulemakings for peripheral devices. Ultimately, the energy 

consumption associated with televisions, set-top boxes, personal computers, and related equipment is reduced by 1.8 quadrillion 

Btu in 2035 in the Expanded Standards case.

Electric water heating, with an assumed standard mandating heat pump water heaters in 2021, is reduced by 2.0 quadrillion Btu 

in 2035 in the Expanded Standards case relative to the Reference case. Electricity use for large kitchen appliances (refrigeration 

and cooking) display relatively little improvement in the Expanded Standards case. Refrigeration already is subject to stringent 

standards in the Reference case, whereas cooking equipment has less room for technological improvement. A lighting standard 

is assumed to be set in 2026, establishing an efficacy level for general-service bulbs at the level of compact fluorescent lamps; 

however, that level is not much higher than the standard that already has been promulgated and will go into effect in 2014. Energy 

use for laundry and dishwashing equipment shows little direct improvement in the Expanded Standards case, because standards 

for those products are more likely to limit water use than energy use.

The building codes in the Expanded Standards and Codes case provide an additional 2.9 quadrillion Btu of savings for space heating 

and cooling relative to those in the Expanded Standards case. Space heating accounts for most of the savings. In addition, some 

features of new building codes could focus on thermal improvements, such as reducing air infiltration or increasing the solar heat 

gain coefficients of windows, which may be beneficial in winter months but slightly detrimental in summer months.

Results for the commercial sector

Buildings in the commercial sector are less homogeneous than those in the residential sector, in terms of both form and function. 

The wider range of commercial equipment makes standard-setting more difficult, and although many products have been subject 

to Federal efficiency standards, FEMP guidelines, and ENERGY STAR specifications, coverage is not as comprehensive as in the 

residential sector. Figure 29 shows cumulative energy savings relative to the 2010 Technology case in three cases for various 

groups of commercial end uses.

Like the residential sector, commercial buildings with residential-size equipment were affected by the 2009 consensus agreement 

for heating and cooling products, which is included in the Reference case. This contributes to a cumulative reduction in delivered 

energy use for commercial heating, ventilation, and air conditioning of 1.5 quadrillion Btu (2 percent) in the Reference case relative 

to the 2010 Technology case. Office-related computer equipment sees significant energy savings, primarily because laptops gain 

market share from desktop computers.

In the Expanded Standards case, office equipment again accounts for a large share of the efficiency gains, because desktop 

computers and their monitors, laptops, copiers, fax machines, printers, and multi-function devices are assumed to be subject to 

0

5

10

15

20

25

Reference Expanded

Standards

Expanded

Standards

and Codes

Space heating and ventilation

Space cooling

Water heating

Other

Kitchen,	laundry,	lighting

TVs,	PCs,	related	equipment

Figure 28. Residential delivered energy savings 

in three cases, 2010-2035 (cumulative differences 

from the 2010 Technology case, quadrillion Btu)

0

5

10

15

Reference Expanded

Standards

Expanded

Standards

and Codes

Space heating and ventilation

Space cooling

Lighting

Other

Office equipment

Water	heating,	cooking,	refrigeration

Figure 29. Commercial delivered energy savings 

in three cases, 2010-2035 (cumulative differences 

from the 2010 Technology case, quadrillion Btu)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 35

Issues in focus

efficiency standards, ultimately saving 1.2 quadrillion Btu over the projection period. Lighting in the commercial sector is subject 

to a tighter standard in 2017, saving 0.6 quadrillion Btu in total through 2035. In addition, an assumed 2021 standard requiring the 

use of heat pump water heaters leads to a 29-percent reduction in electricity consumption for water heating in 2035.

Building codes in the Expanded Standards and Codes case have nearly as much impact as the assumed standards in the Expanded 

Standards case, because the assumed building codes are much more stringent than those in the Reference case. Ultimately, the 

new codes provide almost 3 quadrillion Btu of savings in energy consumption for space heating savings and about 1 quadrillion Btu 

of savings for space cooling, beyond the reductions attributable to equipment standards.

Summary

In comparison with a case that restricts future equipment to what was available in 2010, the alternative cases described here 

show the potential for energy savings from the technological improvement and the application of appliance standards and 

building codes. In the Reference case, assumed technology improvement in general, and consensus agreements on efficiency 

improvements for some end uses in particular, save 13.4 quadrillion Btu of residential delivered energy—equivalent to 4.4 percent 

of total residential energy use—from 2010 to 2035. In the commercial sector, 5.6 quadrillion Btu of energy—equivalent to 

2.2 percent of total commercial delivered energy—is saved from 2010 to 2035. Assumed appliance standards in the Expanded 

Standards case provide additional cumulative energy savings from 2010 to 2035 of 2.8 percent and 1.4 percent in the residential 

and commercial sectors, respectively. On top of those savings, the tighter building codes assumed in the Expanded Standards 

and Codes case provide additional cumulative reductions in energy use of 1.0 percent and 1.6 percent in the residential and 

commercial sectors, respectively. Ultimately, in the Reference case, 19.0 quadrillion Btu of delivered energy consumption is 

avoided over 25 years relative to projected consumption in the 2010 Technology case. That total is roughly equivalent to the 

energy that the buildings sectors consumed in 2006. The Expanded Standards and Codes case goes beyond the Reference case 

to save an additional 19.0 quadrillion Btu of delivered energy from 2010 to 2035.

6. Potential of offshore crude oil and natural gas resources

The 2010 Macondo oil well accident in the Gulf of Mexico heightened awareness of the risks associated with exploration and 

development of offshore crude oil and natural gas resources, particularly in deep water. In addition, there is significant uncertainty 

about the offshore resources available in the Gulf of Mexico and Alaska offshore areas. Despite the risks and uncertainties, however, 

offshore crude oil and natural gas production is expected to remain an important component of U.S. supply through 2035.

In 2009, offshore production accounted for 1.79 million barrels per day or 33 percent of the 5.36 million barrels per day of total U.S. 

crude oil production and 2.70 trillion cubic feet or 13 percent of the 20.96 trillion cubic feet of U.S. natural gas production. In the 

AEO2011 Reference case, offshore production accounts for roughly 32 percent of total domestic crude oil production and 11 percent 

of total domestic natural gas production over next 25 years.

Analysis cases

Three sensitivity cases were used to evaluate the impacts of key assumptions related to the availability of offshore crude oil and 

natural gas resources and the costs of exploring and developing them. Specific assumptions in the three cases are discussed below.

High OCS Resource case

Resource estimates for most of the U.S. outer continental shelf (OCS) are uncertain, particularly for resources in undeveloped 

regions where there has been little or no exploration and development activity, and modern seismic survey data are lacking. In 

several recent studies prepared for the DOE [56] and the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners [57], technically 

recoverable resources in undeveloped areas of the OCS have been estimated at 2 to 5 times the latest (2006) estimates from the 

U.S. Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management.

The AEO2011 High OCS Resource case assumes a technically recoverable undiscovered crude oil resource base in the Atlantic, Pacific, 

and Alaska OCS and in areas of the eastern and central Gulf of Mexico (which are currently under a statutory drilling moratorium) that 

is triple the size of the resource base assumed in the Reference case (Table 6), resulting in a total OCS level of technically recoverable 

resources of 144.0 billion barrels of crude oil, as compared with 69.3 billion barrels in the Reference case. For natural gas, the High 

OCS Resource case triples the technically recoverable undiscovered resources in some areas, with the exception of the Alaska OCS. 

Projected natural gas production from the Alaska OCS is not sensitive to the level of technically undiscovered resources, because 

natural gas prices are not high enough to support investment in a pipeline to bring natural gas from the North Slope area to market.

Reduced OCS Access case

The Reduced OCS Access case assumes leases in the Pacific, Atlantic, Eastern Gulf of Mexico, and Alaska OCS regions are not 

available until after 2035, as detailed in Table 7.

High OCS Cost case

The High OCS Cost case assumes that costs for exploration and development of offshore oil and natural gas resources are 

30 percent higher than those in the Reference case. The higher cost assumption is not intended to be an estimate of the impact of 
36 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

any new regulatory or safety requirements, but is simply used to illustrate the potential impacts of higher costs on the production 

of OCS crude oil and natural gas resources.

Analysis results

In the High OCS Resource case, the assumed increase in technically recoverable OCS resources in undeveloped areas impacts crude 

oil and natural gas production through 2035, primarily because of the long lead times required for resource development in the 

offshore, regardless of the size of the resources discovered. In most areas, depending on location and water depth, a period of 3 to 

10 years for exploration, infrastructure development, and developmental drilling is required from lease acquisition to first production. 

Because the assumed availability of leases in the Pacific, Atlantic, Eastern Gulf of Mexico, and Alaska is the same in the Reference and 

High OCS Resource cases, crude oil and natural gas production is not affected by the high resource assumption until 2025 and after.

In 2035, offshore crude oil production in the High OCS Resource case is 51 percent higher, at 3.25 million barrels per day, than 

the Reference case production level of 2.15 million barrels per day (Figure 30). The majority of the increase (65 percent) is from 

the Alaska OCS, based on the assumed discovery and development of a large field with 2 billion barrels of recoverable crude oil 

resources. As a result, total domestic crude oil production in 2035 is 1.05 million barrels per day (18 percent) higher in the High 

OCS Resource case than in the Reference case. Cumulative total domestic crude oil production from 2010 to 2035 in the High OCS 

Resource case is only 5 percent higher than in the Reference case.

Changes in domestic oil production tend to have only a modest impact on crude oil and petroleum product prices, because any 

change in domestic oil production is diluted in the world oil market. In 2009, the United States produced 5.36 million barrels 

per day of crude oil and lease condensate, or 7 percent of the world total of 72.26 million barrels per day. Unlike crude oil supply 

and prices, domestic natural gas supply and prices are determined largely by supply and demand for natural gas in the North 

American market, where the development and production of shale gas in the Lower 48 States is largely responsible for current and 

foreseeable future market conditions.

Natural gas production in U.S. offshore areas in 2035 is 0.7 trillion cubic feet higher in the High OCS Resource case than in the 

Reference case, putting some downward pressure on natural gas prices (Figure 31). In 2035, the Henry Hub spot price is about 

3 percent lower in the High OCS Resource case than in the Reference case. However, the lower price results in only a small increase in 

natural gas consumption, 0.2 trillion cubic feet. Thus, the increase in OCS natural gas production is offset by a decrease of 0.5 trillion 

cubic feet in production from onshore domestic supply sources.

In the Reduced OCS Access case, removing the Pacific, Atlantic, Eastern Gulf of Mexico, and Alaska OCS from future leasing 

consideration lowers projected domestic production of both crude oil and natural gas. The impact on domestic crude oil production 

starts after 2026 as a result of the lead time between leasing and production and the economics of projects in undeveloped areas. 

In 2035, offshore crude oil production in the Reduced OCS Access case, at 1.78 million barrels per day, is 17 percent or 0.17 million 

barrels per day lower than in the Reference case, resulting in a 6 percent decrease in total domestic crude oil production.

Offshore natural gas production in 2035 is 5 percent lower in the Reduced OCS Access case than in the Reference case (2.92 

trillion cubic feet compared with 3.05 trillion cubic feet), resulting in a decrease in total U.S. natural gas production of less than 1 

percent. Cumulatively, total domestic crude oil and natural gas production from 2010 to 2035 is less than 1 percent lower in the 

Reduced OCS Access case than in the Reference case. 

In the High OCS Cost case, exploration and development costs for crude oil and natural gas resources in all U.S. offshore regions are 

30 percent higher than in the Reference case, resulting in lower levels of offshore crude oil and natural gas production throughout 

the projection period. The largest difference in production levels between the two cases occurs in 2015, when total U.S. offshore 

crude oil production is 112,000 barrels per day (6 percent) lower and offshore natural gas production is 0.2 trillion cubic feet 

(9 percent) lower than in the Reference case.

The higher exploration and production costs in the High OCS cost case change the economics of oil and gas development projects and 

reduce the number of wells drilled annually in offshore areas. Because of the higher costs, exploration and development of some offshore 

resources occur later, when prices are higher. In 2035, lower 48 offshore crude oil production is 2 percent lower, and lower 48 offshore 

natural gas production is 3 percent lower, in the High OCS Cost case than in the Reference case. Impacts on crude oil and natural gas 

Table 6. Technically recoverable undiscovered U.S. offshore oil and natural gas resources assumed in two cases 

Crude oil (billion barrels) Natural gas (trillion cubic feet)

Reference High OCS Resource Reference High OCS Resource

Developing Gulf of Mexico 32.0 32.0 173.7 173.7

Undeveloped Gulf of Mexico 3.7 11.0 21.5 64.4

Mid- and South Atlantic 1.4 4.1 12.4 37.1

Southern Pacific 5.7 17.1 10.1 30.4

Alaska 26.6 79.8 132.1 132.1

Total undiscovered 69.3 144.0 349.8 437.7
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 37

Issues in focus

prices and consumption are small. In Alaska, however, the increase in costs deters the development of additional offshore resources that 

are economically viable in the Reference case.

7. Prospects for shale gas

Production of natural gas from large underground shale formations (shale gas) in the United States grew by an average of 17 percent 

per year from 2000 to 2006. Early successes in shale gas production occurred primarily in the Barnett Shale of north central Texas. 

By 2006, successful shale gas operations in the Barnett shale, improvements in shale gas recovery technologies, and attractive 

natural gas prices encouraged the industry to accelerate its development activity in other shale plays. The combination of two 

technologies—horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing—made it possible to produce shale gas economically, and from 2006 to 

2010 U.S. shale gas production grew by an average of 48 percent per year. Further increases in shale gas production are expected, 

with total production growing by almost threefold from 2009 to 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference case. However, there is a high 

degree of uncertainty around the projection, starting with the estimated size of the technically recoverable shale gas resource.

Estimates of technically recoverable shale gas are certain to change over time as new information is gained through drilling and 

production, and through development of shale gas recovery technology. Over the past decade, as more shale formations have been 

explored and used for commercial production, estimates of technically and economically recoverable shale gas resources have 

skyrocketed. However, the estimates embody many assumptions that might prove to be untrue in the long term.

In the AEO2011 Reference case, estimates of shale gas resources are based in part on an assumption that production rates achieved to date 

in a limited portion of a formation are representative of future production rates across the entire formation—even though experience to 

date has shown that production rates from neighboring shale gas wells can vary by as much as a factor of 3. Moreover, across a single shale 

formation, there are significant variations in depth, thickness, porosity, carbon content, pore pressure, clay content, thermal maturity, and 

water content, and as a result production rates for different wells in the same formation can vary by as much as a factor of 10.

There is also considerable uncertainty about the ultimate size of the technically and economically recoverable shale gas resource base 

in the onshore lower 48 States and about the amount of gas that can be recovered per well, on average, over the full extent of a shale 

formation. Uncertainties associated with shale gas formations include, but are not limited to, the following:

•	 Most shale gas wells are only a few years old, and their long-term productivity is untested. Consequently, reliable data on longterm production profiles and ultimate gas recovery rates for shale gas wells are lacking.

•	 In emerging shale formations, gas production has been 

confined largely to “sweet spots” that have the highest 

known production rates for the formation. When the 

production rates for the sweet spot are used to infer the 

productive potential of an entire formation, its resource 

potential may be overestimated.

•	 Many shale formations (particularly, the Marcellus shale) 

are so large that only a portion of the formation has been 

extensively production tested.

•	 Technical advances can lead to more productive and less 

costly well drilling and completion.

0

1

2

3

4

2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Reduced OCS Access

High OCS Resource

High OCS Cost

Figure 30. Offshore crude oil production 

in four cases, 2009-2035 (million barrels per day)

Table 7. First year of available offshore leasing 

in two cases

Reference Reduced OCS Access

Eastern Gulf of Mexico 2022 After 2035

North Atlantic After 2035 After 2035

Mid- and South Atlantic 2018 After 2035

Northern and Central Pacific After 2035 After 2035

Southern Pacific 2023 After 2035

Alaska 2010 After 2035

0

1

2

3

4

2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

Reduced OCS Access

High OCS Resource

High OCS Cost

Figure 31. Offshore natural gas production 

in four cases, 2009-2035 (trillion cubic feet)
38 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

•	 Currently untested shale formations, such as thin seam formations, or untested portions of existing formations, could prove to 

be highly productive.

Although public estimates of onshore lower 48 shale gas resources, as reported by private institutions, have grown over the past 

decade as more shale gas plays have been production tested, it is not known what shale formations were included in the estimates 

or what methodology and data were used to derive them. For example, an estimate relying only on publicly reported costs and 

performance profiles for shale gas wells would tend to overestimate the size of the economic resource base, because public 

information is skewed toward high-production and high-profit wells. Given the lack of information about how private institutions 

have derived their resource estimates, this analysis considers a set of alternative resource estimates that are intended to provide 

a plausible but not definitive range of potential shale gas resources.

Analysis cases

Two key determinants of the estimated technically recoverable shale gas resource base are (1) estimated ultimate recovery 

(EUR) per well and (2) an assumed recovery factor that is used to estimate how much of the acreage of shale gas plays 

contains recoverable natural gas. Four AEO2011 cases examine the impacts of higher and lower estimates of total recoverable 

shale gas resources on natural gas prices and production. The four cases are not intended to represent a confidence interval 

for the resource base, but rather to illustrate how different resource assumptions affect projections of domestic production, 

prices, and consumption.

High resource cases

Two high shale resource cases were created by increasing two different assumptions underlying the resource estimate. The 

estimated unproved technically recoverable resource base (excluding 20.1 trillion cubic feet of inferred reserves) is the same in 

both high shale resource cases and is 50 percent higher than in the Reference case (1,230 trillion cubic feet in the two high shale 

resource cases, compared with 827 trillion cubic feet in the Reference case).

•	 In the High Shale EUR case, the EUR per shale gas well is assumed to be 50 percent higher than in the Reference case. The higher 

estimate could result from, for example, better placement of the horizontal lateral within the formation; better completion 

techniques that allow more of the pore space and absorbed gas to reach the well bore; and/or determination that well 

recompletions are both productive and economic.

•	 In the High Shale Recovery case, 50 percent more natural gas is assumed to be recovered from each shale formation. The EUR per 

well is unchanged from the Reference case, and so 50 percent more wells are needed to recover the gas contained in each shale 

play. Higher recovery could result if a larger portion of each shale formation than originally estimated proves to be productive 

and economic, and/or if the drilling of more wells, more horizontal laterals, or both closer to each other proves to be productive 

and economic.

Low shale resource cases

Two low shale resource cases were created by adjusting the same factors described above for the high shale resources cases, but 

in the opposite direction. The estimated unproved technically recoverable shale gas resources is 423 trillion cubic feet in both of 

the low shale resource cases, 50 percent lower than the 827 trillion cubic feet level in the Reference case.

•	 In the Low Shale EUR case, the EUR per shale gas well is assumed to be 50 percent lower than in the Reference case. The lower 

estimate could result, for example, from faster rates of decline in gas production than expected in the Reference case, and/or 

considerably lower ultimate recovery rates than expected for wells in areas where shale formations have not yet been tested.

•	 In the Low Shale Recovery case, 50 percent less natural gas is recovered from each shale gas play, because, for example, a large 

number of formations are less productive and less economic than currently anticipated. The EUR per well is unchanged from the 

Reference case, but the number of wells required to recover the resource is 50 percent lower, because there is 50 percent less 

natural gas in each shale gas play that can be recovered economically.

The 50-percent variations in the shale gas cases approximate the range of shale gas resource estimates reported by the U.S. 

Geological Survey for 20 shale gas assessment units in 5 petroleum basins, using the Survey’s 95 percent and 5 percent probability 

resource volumes as indicative of the degree of uncertainty in shale gas resource estimates.

As discussed below, in the High Shale EUR and High Shale Recovery cases, natural gas prices are lower than in the Reference case; 

however, the energy models used for the AEO2011 projections do not allow for liquefied natural gas (LNG) exports from domestic 

facilities. Consequently, net natural gas exports in the Reference, High Shale EUR, and High Shale Recovery cases could be greater 

if domestic LNG export terminals were represented in the models.

Analysis results

The four shale gas cases illustrate the uncertainties that surround shale gas resources, which could have significant implications 

for future natural gas prices, production, and consumption (Table 8). They also illustrate that the type of uncertainty involved (EUR 

or recovery) also bears on the question of how prices, production, and consumption could unfold as uncertainties about the U.S. 

shale gas resource base are resolved over time.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 39

Issues in focus

The largest variations from the Reference case are in the High and Low Shale EUR cases, where lower and higher costs per unit of 

shale gas production have the effect of increasing and decreasing total production from U.S. shale gas wells. In the Low Shale EUR 

case, the Henry Hub natural gas price in 2035 is $2.19 per million Btu or 31 percent higher than the Reference case price of $7.07 

per million Btu (2009 dollars). Conversely, in the High Shale EUR case, the Henry Hub price in 2035 is $1.72 per million Btu or 

24 percent lower than in the Reference case.

In 2035, shale gas production is more than three times as high in the High Shale EUR case as in the Low Shale EUR case, at 

17.1 trillion cubic feet and 5.5 trillion cubic feet, respectively, as compared with 12.2 trillion cubic feet in the Reference case. 

The High and Low Shale EUR cases show the largest variation in shale gas production, as well as the greatest variation in 

natural gas prices. The High and Low Shale Recovery cases show less variation in production and natural gas prices. In the 

Low Shale Recovery case, shale gas production totals 8.2 trillion cubic feet in 2035, as compared with 15.1 trillion cubic feet 

in the High Shale Recovery case. Even in the Low Shale EUR case, however, with the lowest production projections, overall 

growth in U.S. natural gas production is still primarily the result of an increase in shale gas production from the 2009 level 

of 3.3 trillion cubic feet.

Price impacts in the High and Low Shale Recovery cases are less pronounced, because the cost per unit of production from each 

shale formation is the same as in the Reference case. Instead, the recoverable shale gas volume associated with each formation 

is varied, leading to a corresponding change in the level of drilling required to recover the gas. In the Low Shale Recovery case, 

the Henry Hub natural gas price in 2035 is $1.10 per million Btu or 16 percent higher than in the Reference case. In the High Shale 

Recovery case, the Henry Hub price is $1.04 per million Btu or 15 percent lower than in the Reference case. As discussed below, 

other types of domestic natural gas production and imports are affected by, and reflected in, changes in natural gas prices across 

the shale gas analysis cases.

In the Low Shale EUR and Low Shale Recovery cases, with higher natural gas prices, total U.S. natural gas consumption in 2035 

is 2.4 trillion cubic feet and 1.2 trillion cubic feet lower, respectively, than the Reference case projection of 26.6 trillion cubic feet. 

Conversely, in the High Shale EUR and High Shale Recovery cases, with lower natural gas prices, total U.S. natural gas consumption 

in 2035 is 3.1 trillion cubic feet and 1.7 trillion cubic feet higher, respectively, than the Reference case projection.

Natural gas consumption in the specific end-use sectors varies similarly with changes in natural gas prices: higher prices result 

in less consumption, and lower prices result in more consumption. The electric power sector shows the greatest sensitivity to 

changes in natural gas prices. In the Low Shale EUR and Low Shale Recovery cases, natural gas use for electric power generation 

in 2035 is 6.4 trillion cubic feet and 7.1 trillion cubic feet, respectively, compared with 7.9 trillion cubic feet in the Reference case in 

2035. In the High Shale EUR and High Shale Recovery cases, total natural gas use for electricity generation in 2035 is 9.6 trillion 

cubic feet and 8.9 trillion cubic feet, respectively (higher than in the Reference case).

Natural gas consumption in the electric power sector is more responsive to price changes than in the other sectors, because 

much of the electric power sector’s fuel consumption is determined by the dispatching of existing generation units based 

on the operating cost of each unit, which in turn is determined largely by the costs of competing fuels, such as coal and 

Table 8. Natural gas prices, production, imports, and consumption in five cases, 2035

Projection Low Shale EUR Low Shale Recovery Reference High Shale Recovery High Shale EUR

Henry Hub spot natural gas prices 

(2009 dollars per million Btu) 9.26 8.17 7.07 6.03 5.35

Total U.S. natural gas production 

(trillion cubic feet) 22.4 24.6 26.3 28.5 30.1

Onshore lower 48 17.2 19.6 23.1 25.5 27.2

Shale gas 5.5 8.2 12.2 15.1 17.1

Other gas 11.7 11.4 10.8 10.4 10.1

Offshore lower 48 3.5 3.2 3.1 2.8 2.7

Alaska 1.8 1.8 0.2 0.2 0.2

Total net U.S. natural gas imports 

(trillion cubic feet) 1.7 0.7 0.2 -0.3 -0.5

Total U.S. natural gas consumption 

(trillion cubic feet) 24.1 25.4 26.6 28.3 29.6

Electric power 6.4 7.1 7.9 8.9 9.6

Residential 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.9

Commercial 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1

Industrial 7.5 7.8 8.0 8.4 8.7

Other 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3
40 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

natural gas. Natural gas use in the end-use consumption sectors is generally less responsive to variations in fuel prices, because 

opportunities to switch to other fuels typically arise only when a new facility is built, or when an existing facility’s equipment is 

retired or replaced.

Other sources of natural gas supply also respond to changes in shale gas production and natural gas prices across the shale gas 

analysis cases. Higher shale gas production tends to imply lower production of other natural gas. For example, other onshore lower 

48 natural gas production in 2035 varies by 1.6 trillion cubic feet, and offshore lower 48 natural gas production varies by 0.8 trillion 

cubic feet, between the High and Low Shale EUR cases.

The volume of Alaska natural gas production is determined largely by the presence or absence of an Alaska natural gas pipeline to 

transport gas into Alberta, Canada, where the gas would be transshipped to the lower 48 States. Whether and when an Alaska gas 

pipeline is built depends on whether lower 48 natural gas prices are sufficiently high to allow recovery of the pipeline’s capital and 

operating expenses while also providing a sufficient natural gas price at the North Slope wellhead. In the Low Shale EUR and Low 

Shale Recovery cases, an Alaska gas pipeline begins operation in 2026 and in 2030, respectively, delivering 3.8 billion cubic feet 

per day into the lower 48 natural gas market.

Just as natural gas prices determine the levels of domestic gas production and consumption, they also determine the level of net 

natural gas imports, with higher gas prices resulting in higher net natural gas imports. The High Shale EUR and High Shale Recovery 

cases are particularly noteworthy, because projected natural gas prices in those cases are sufficiently low to cause increases in 

Mexico’s imports of U.S. natural gas that, in 2035, make the United States a net exporter of natural gas, with net exports totaling 

about 0.5 and 0.3 trillion cubic feet, respectively. U.S. net exports could be even greater if domestic LNG export terminals were 

developed, but this is not represented in the AEO models in the High Shale EUR and High Shale Recovery cases. Under the higher 

prices associated with the Low Shale EUR and Low Shale Recovery cases, the United States is a net importer of natural gas in 2035, 

with net imports totaling 1.7 and 0.7 trillion cubic feet year (7 percent and 3 percent of consumption), respectively.

8. Cost uncertainties for new electric power plants

Capital costs are a key consideration in decisions about the type of new generating plant or capacity addition that will be built to 

meet future demand for electricity. Capital costs for new power plants include materials, skilled labor, and generating equipment. 

For AEO2011, EIA commissioned a study of the cost components for different utility-scale electric power technologies, with the 

goal of presenting costs for different plant types in a common set of cost categories to facilitate comparison of capital costs. A 

major change from previous years in assumptions for the cost study included a significant increase in the assumed costs for coal 

and nuclear power projects [58].

There is, however, a great deal of uncertainty about future capital costs for all generating technologies. The completion of initial 

projects could yield experience that enables costs for future projects to be reduced, through a “learning by doing” process. A slow 

economic recovery could soften demand for the materials and labor used in building new power plants, which also could lower 

construction costs. Conversely, a failure to “learn” increases in the costs of labor and key commodities, or an uncertain outlook for 

the economy in general could increase the costs of future projects.

Because some plant types—coal, nuclear, and most renewables—are more capital-intensive than others (in particular, 

natural gas), the mix of future capacity installations and consequently the fuels used for power generation depends on 

both the relative and absolute level of capital costs. If construction costs increase proportionately for plants of all types, 

leaving relative costs unchanged, natural-gas-fired capacity will be more economical than the more capital-intensive coal 

and nuclear technologies. Over the longer term, higher construction costs could lead to higher electricity prices, which could 

slow the growth of electricity consumption.

Case descriptions

Several alternative cases assuming different trends in capital costs for power plant construction were used to examine the 

implications of different cost paths for new power plant construction. Because there is a correlation between rising power plant 

construction costs and rising commodity prices, construction costs in AEO2011 are tied to a producer price index for metals and 

metal products.

The nominal index is converted to a real annual cost factor, using 2013 as the base year. The resulting cost factor for the Reference 

case remains nearly flat in the early years of the projection, then declines through the end of the projection, so that the construction 

cost factors in 2035 are nearly 20 percent lower than in 2011. As a result, future capital costs are lower even before technology 

learning adjustments are applied. The cost factor remains constant across all technology types.

In the Frozen Plant Capital Cost case, base overnight construction costs for all new electricity generating technologies are assumed 

to remain constant at 2015 levels, when the cost factor peaks in the Reference case. Cost decreases can still occur as a result of 

technology learning, but overall decreases are slower than in the Reference case. In 2035, capital costs for each technology are 

roughly 25 percent higher in the Frozen Plant Capital Cost case than in the Reference case.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 41

Issues in focus

In the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, base overnight construction costs for each generating technology in 2010 is 20 percent 

lower than in the Reference case in 2010, and they decline more rapidly in the projection. In 2035, capital costs for all technologies 

are about 40 percent lower in the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case than in the Reference case.

Other alternative cost cases focus on specific technologies to examine the effects of cost reductions that could occur more rapidly 

for a given technology (for example, as a result of research and development funding or international learning experience).

In the Low Nuclear Cost case, capital and operating costs for new nuclear capacity are 20 percent lower than in the Reference case 

in 2010, and they fall to 40 percent lower in 2035.

In the Low Fossil Technology Cost case, capital and operating costs for each new fossil-fired generating technology is 20 percent 

lower than in the Reference case in 2010, and they fall to 40 percent lower in 2035.

Capacity additions

Overall capacity requirements and the mix of generating types change across the cases. In the Reference case, 223 gigawatts 

of new generating capacity are added from 2010 to 2035, as compared with 216 gigawatts in the Frozen Capital Cost case and 

272 gigawatts in the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, where higher and lower electricity prices, respectively, lead to changes in 

total electricity demand. In addition, slightly more existing capacity is retired in the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, because 

new capacity is less expensive, and some older plants are retired and replaced with new capacity.

In all the cost cases, the majority of new capacity is natural-gas-fired (Figure 32). In the Frozen Plant Capital Cost case, builds of all 

types drop slightly from the level in the Reference case, but the mix of new generating capacity is similar to that in the Reference 

case. In the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, more new capacity of all types is built than in the Reference case, with nuclear and 

renewables both capturing slightly higher shares of total capacity builds. The increase in renewable capacity builds the Decreasing 

Plant Capital Cost case consists primarily of wind capacity.

In the cases that focus on specific technologies, the mix of capacity builds changes to favor those with declining costs. In 

the Low Fossil Technology Cost case, all coal- and natural-gas fired capacity is less expensive to build than in the Reference 

case, but the costs for nuclear and renewable capacity are the same as those in the Reference case. As a result, more coal 

and natural gas capacity is built, and less renewable capacity. Similarly, in the Low Nuclear Cost case, total additions of 

new nuclear capacity increase to 25 gigawatts, from 6 gigawatts in the Reference case. The new nuclear capacity primarily 

displaces natural-gas-fired capacity.

Electricity generation and prices

The alternative capital cost cases have smaller impacts on the overall mix of generation by fuel type, because capital cost 

assumptions do not affect the operation of existing capacity. Coal maintains the largest share of total generation in 2035 in all 

the cases, varying only from 42 percent to 44 percent across all the cases (Figure 33). The renewable share of generation in 

2035 also remains fairly constant at 14 percent to 15 percent in all the cases, because the requirements of different State and 

regional RPS programs still must be met. In the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, generation from biomass co-firing is lower 

than in the Reference case, and wind generation provides more of the renewable requirement, because generating costs for new 

technologies, including wind, are lower than the costs for biomass co-firing. The nuclear share of total generation in 2035 is 

between 17 and 18 percent in all but one of the cases, increasing to 20 percent in the Low Nuclear Cost case. Natural-gas-fired 

Low Fossil Technology Cost

Low Nuclear Cost

Decreasing Plant Capital Cost

Frozen Plant Capital Cost

Reference

0 50 100 150

Coal

Nuclear

Renewables

Natural gas

Figure 32. Additions to U.S. generating capacity 

by fuel type in five cases, 2009-2035 (gigawatts)

0

2

4

6

2009 Reference Low

Fossil

Technology

Cost

Low

Nuclear

Cost

Frozen

Plant

Capital

Cost

Decreasing

Plant

Capital

Cost

2035

Coal

Nuclear

Natural gas

Renewables

Oil/other

Figure 33. U.S. electricity generation by fuel 

in five cases, 2009 and 2035 (billion kilowatthours)
42 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

generation, typically the marginal generating choice, drops in the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, where new capacity of all 

types is cheaper than in the Reference case.

Electricity prices in 2035 are 1 percent higher in the Frozen Plant Capital Cost case than in the Reference case, because construction 

costs are higher. In the Decreasing Plant Capital Cost case, electricity prices in 2035 are 4 percent lower than in the Reference case. 

In the Lower Nuclear Cost and Low Fossil Technology Cost cases, where only those two technologies are affected, price changes 

are smaller than those in the cases where all technologies were adjusted (Figure 34).

9. Carbon capture and storage: Economics and issues

Background

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a process in which CO2 is separated from emission streams and injected into geologic 

formations, avoiding its release into the atmosphere. Typically, the captured CO2 is transported by pipeline from the emissions 

source to a suitable storage site.

Capturing and storing CO2 from power plants and industrial processes adds significant capital and operating costs. In some cases, 

captured CO2 may have considerable value—for example, it may be sold to oil producers for use in CO2 -enhanced oil recovery 

(EOR). In some mature oil fields, producers can recover significantly more of the oil in place by injecting CO2 into a well. CO2-

EOR has been used in the United States for more than 30 years, providing experience in transporting and injecting CO2 as well as 

increasing petroleum production [59]. However, broad deployment of CCS technology would require additional incentives to be 

economical, beyond the value added from CO2-EOR. At present, CCS activity is limited to a few large-scale tests around the world, 

largely funded by governments.

Wide-scale adoption of CCS could allow for continued widespread use of fossil fuels in a low-carbon energy system. Significant 

barriers to the technology remain, however, such as the cost of building and operating capture-ready industrial facilities, the 

feasibility of permanently storing CO2 underground, and the difficulty of constructing significant infrastructure to transport CO2 to 

injection sites. Such challenges would have to be overcome in order to enable widespread deployment of CCS. The preponderance 

of expected costs for CCS deployment are for capturing and compressing the CO2. However, uncertainty in the cost of permanent 

storage is also significant.

Current research on CCS is focused on lowering the cost of carbon capture and validating the feasibility of permanent CO2 storage. 

The primary goal of the research is to make CCS viable for fossil fuel power plants, which are the largest potential source of CO2

for CCS and present the most difficult technical hurdles in making CCS economically feasible. A few industrial processes, such as 

ethanol and ammonia production, yield emissions that are nearly pure CO2, mitigating the technical challenge and energy intensity 

of CO2 capture.

In 2009, CO2-EOR operators injected nearly 50 million metric tons of CO2 into operating domestic oil wells, most of which was 

obtained from natural sources. However, the limited supply of natural CO2 has provided enough incentive for a few facilities to 

capture anthropogenic CO2. This activity has also financed the construction of several pipelines to transport CO2 to oil fields. There 

is potential for more early adopters of CCS to continue receiving payments from CO2-EOR operators, but the quantity of CO2 that 

potentially could be used for EOR is small in comparison with the 2.2 billion metric tons emitted in the U.S. power sector in 2009.

Table 9 lists the five commercial-scale CCS projects now in operation worldwide, according to the International Energy Agency. 

All the projects shown in Table 9 are being monitored over the long term, to ensure that the stored CO2 does not leak. This is why 

the Rangely Weber and Weyburn-Midale projects are counted 

as CCS demonstrations even though they are primarily EOR 

projects [60].

Carbon capture

In order for CO2 to be transported and stored, it must be 

isolated from emissions sources and compressed to a 

supercritical state [61]. For fossil fuel power plants, this is the 

most expensive component of CCS, because the flue gases of 

existing coal-fired power plants contain only 12 to 14 percent 

CO2, and those from existing natural-gas-fired power plants 

contain only 3 to 4 percent CO2 [62]. Existing technologies for 

capturing the CO2 from dilute flue gases are energy-intensive, 

and consequently their operating costs are high. The National 

Energy Technology Laboratory is supporting research focused 

on the development of technologies that can lower the cost 

of capture, either by developing techniques to lower the cost 

of purifying dilute CO2 streams or by increasing the purity of 

CO2 in the flue gases of fossil fuel power plants. The goal of 

8

9

10

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

0

2005

Low Fossil Technology Cost

Low Nuclear Cost

Decreasing Plant Capital Cost

Frozen Plant Capital Cost

Reference

Figure 34. U.S. electricity prices in five cases, 

2005-2035 (2009 cents per kilowatthour)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 43

Issues in focus

the research is to develop and eventually commercialize carbon capture technologies that can be used routinely by power plant 

operators while adding less than 10 percent to consumers’ electricity costs [63].

CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel power plants can be captured through pre-combustion, post-combustion, or oxy-combustion 

processes. In the near term, the most likely approach for capturing CO2 from existing coal-fired power plants is to retrofit them 

with post-combustion capture systems, in which flue gas is treated with a solvent (usually, an amine or chilled ammonia) 

to separate CO2 from the flue gas before it is released to the atmosphere. Not all existing fossil fuel power plants can be 

retrofitted for CCS, however, given the costs, space requirements, and need for access to cooling water, all of which can 

contribute to making a project infeasible.

CCS technology may be more easily integrated as part of a new fossil-fuel plant, where cost and efficiency savings could be 

realized by including CCS in the initial design. New coal-fired plants with CCS can be built with post-combustion capture systems, 

similar to retrofits, or with pre-combustion capture systems that gasify the coal and capture CO2 from the newly formed syngas 

before combustion. Retrofitting natural-gas-fired combined-cycle plants with post-combustion technology is also a possibility, as 

are new natural gas power plants with pre-combustion capture. Carbon capture technologies currently are in the early stages of 

development, and it is unclear which may be developed on a commercial scale. 

CO2 pipelines

Once captured, CO2 must be transported to a suitable site for sequestration or EOR. The most cost-effective method is to move CO2, 

compressed to a supercritical state, by pipeline. The technology for building pipelines to transport gases over long distances is mature, 

based on experience with natural gas pipelines, as well as more than 3,000 miles of CO2 pipelines currently in use to supply CO2-EOR 

fields. Large-scale adoption of CCS is likely to require significant construction of new pipelines. Interstate CO2 pipelines (unlike natural 

gas pipelines) are not regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and the lack of national eminent domain authority to 

ease construction [64] represents a possible impediment to the development of a national pipeline network.

Geologic sequestration and CO2-EOR

Several types of geologic formation have been identified as being suitable for permanent carbon sequestration. Key requirements 

for a formation that can be used for CO2 storage include being able to store CO2 cost-effectively, prevent leakage of injected 

CO2, and avoiding interference with other valuable geologic formations, such as freshwater aquifers. The largest contributors 

to the costs of sequestration are the drilling, operating, and monitoring of wells. Cost-effective storage depends largely on the 

ability of a field to store the CO2 densely so as to limit the number of injection wells required. Permanent storage capabilities 

depend on the presence of an impermeable cap rock and lack of faults or uncapped well bores to the surface. Depleted oil and gas 

fields, deep saline aquifers, and unmineable coal seams all meet these criteria, and all have been identified as good candidates for 

sequestration. Basalt formations and offshore sediments may also prove to be feasible in the future [65].

In the United States, many specific formations have been identified as suitable for sequestration; however, their potential costs and 

capacities are uncertain. With the exception of depleted oil and gas fields, the geology of sequestration opportunities is not well 

characterized, and the behavior of injected supercritical CO2 is not completely understood. It has been estimated that the cost of 

injection in a saline aquifer can vary by a factor of 3 within a single formation, depending on the geology of the aquifer. Furthermore, 

injection costs can vary between reservoirs by orders of magnitude [66]. Current research is focused on characterizing the geology 

of sequestration sites and developing methods to estimate capacities and the feasibility of permanently storing CO2 in specific 

formations accurately.

Until now, U.S. experience with injecting CO2 underground has largely been limited to CO2-EOR. Natural sources of CO2 comprise 

a majority of current supply, but some anthropogenic CO2, largely from natural gas processing plants, is captured and used for 

CO2-EOR [67]. As long as CO2 is a valuable commodity, CO2-EOR operators will maximize oil production to the extent possible 

and attempt to recover as much injected CO2 as they can, but there will be little interest in permanent storage. However, CO2-

EOR has helped to establish a market for captured CO2 and has provided a better understanding of the technical issues involved 

in injecting CO2.

Table 9. Commercial-scale CCS projects operating in 2010

Project name Country CO2 source

Quantity injected 

(million metric tons 

per year) Start year

Sleipner Norway Natural gas processing 1.0 1996

In Salah Algeria Natural gas processing 1.0 2004

Snohvit Norway Natural gas processing 0.7 2008

Rangely Weber United States Natural gas processing 1.0 1986

Weyburn-Midale United States/Canada Coal gasification plant 3.2 2000
44 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

Analysis results

Reference case

Without a cost for emitting CO2 or government support for CCS, there is no reason to add CCS capabilities to facilities other 

than when oil producers are willing to pay the entire capital and operating costs of capturing and transporting CO2 for EOR. In 

the Reference case oil producers are assumed to purchase CO2 from emitters in several industries at a price that gives emitters 

sufficient economic incentive to capture their emissions. Interregional CO2 pipelines may be constructed if oil prices and EOR 

opportunities make them economical. Pipeline construction is delayed, however, by the time required to get permits and construct 

such large projects.

In the Reference case, CO2-EOR plays an increasing role in U.S. petroleum production. Early in the projection period, most CO2 is 

obtained from natural sources (Figure 35). As demand for CO2 increases beyond the capacity of natural sources, industrial emitters 

with relatively pure streams of CO2 begin to capture and sell the CO2 to EOR operators. No anthropogenic CO2 is captured from 

power plants beyond the 2 gigawatts of advanced coal with sequestration that is assumed to be supported by Federal incentives, 

because the cost is too high for oil producers to implicitly fund the construction of a CCS-capable power plant. CO2-EOR supports 

more than 1.1 million barrels per day of domestic oil production in 2035 in the Reference case, nearly 4 times the CO2-EOR 

production level in 2009. CO2-EOR provides 19 percent of total U.S. crude oil production in 2035.

Oil prices represent a key uncertainty for future CO2-EOR projects, because they are the most significant factor in determining the 

economic feasibility of projects. Other major uncertainties are the amount of CO2 available to oil producers and the CO2 emissions 

cost required to give emitters enough incentive to capture it. In 2035, more than 125 million metric tons CO2 per year is captured 

from anthropogenic sources outside the power sector—equivalent to more than 10 percent of the 1,147 million metric tons of direct 

CO2 emissions from the industrial sector in 2035. Because not all industrial emissions are sufficiently pure to be captured cheaply, 

the Reference case results for CO2-EOR imply that a large proportion of all CO2 emissions from ethanol fermentation, CTL and BTL 

plants, hydrogen production in refineries, ammonia plants, and natural gas processing plants will be captured for sale.

GHG Price Economywide case

An additional case, which includes a CO2 price, illustrates the potential role for CCS in mitigating U.S. CO2 emissions. In the GHG 

Price Economywide case, the CO2 price (in 2009 dollars) rises from $25 per ton in 2013 to $77 per ton in 2035, encouraging the 

deployment of CCS technology in the power sector. Due to lower capital costs and relatively low natural gas prices, natural gas 

combined-cycle plants with sequestration are cheaper to build than advanced coal plants with sequestration (Figure 36), although 

a significant number of existing coal-fired power plants are retrofitted for CCS after 2030. Additional carbon capture capability 

is constructed for CTL and BTL plants in the refining sector. Commercial-scale CTL and BTL plants with CCS provide a relatively 

inexpensive source of CO2 that can be used for EOR.

One factor that could limit future CO2-EOR activity is the availability of CO2. In the GHG Price Economywide case, emitters have 

an economic incentive to capture and store CO2, given the cost of emitting CO2 into the atmosphere. In this case, oil producers 

can purchase CO2 captured from power plants, with the price to oil producers decreasing as the amount of CO2 captured increases 

due to the higher CO2 supply.

0

50

100

150

200

250

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Natural sources (EOR)

Anthropogenic sources (EOR)

Power sector (non-EOR)

Figure 35. CO2 injection volumes in the Reference 

case, 2005-2035 (million metric tons per year)

0

20

40

60

2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Coal retrofits

Advanced natural gas with

carbon capture and storage

Advanced coal with

carbon capture and storage

Figure 36. CCS capacity additions in the U.S. electric 

power sector in the GHG Price Economywide case, 

2015-2035 (gigawatts)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 45

Issues in focus

Oil producers cannot use all the CO2 that is captured in the electricity and refining sectors in the GHG Price Economywide case, 

especially in the later years of the projection period. As a result, significant quantities of CO2 are sequestered in non-EOR geologic 

fields (Figure 37). However, despite the low-cost sources of CO2 for oil producers that come on line after 2015 in the GHG Price 

Economywide case, there is only a relatively small increase (127,000 barrels per day) in domestic petroleum production, primarily 

because of the relatively late timing of CCS installations in the power sector and a limit to the number of oil fields suitable for CO2-

EOR that are not already developed in the Reference case.

An alternative viewpoint on the effect that a U.S. carbon mitigation policy could have on CO2-EOR production is provided in a 

recent report by Advanced Resources International (ARI) [68], which suggests that as much as 3.6 million barrels per day of 

incremental oil production could have been stimulated if the American Clean Energy and Security Act had passed in 2009. That 

analysis is not fully comparable with the AEO2011 projections, however, because the ARI projection was based in part on an earlier 

version of the National Energy Modeling System that did not fully incorporate a comprehensive framework for developing EOR 

fields, pipeline infrastructure, and deployment of the technology.

Other sensitivity cases

Two sensitivity cases illustrate the uncertainties in the Reference case projections for CO2-EOR production. The Low EOR case assumes 

that the amount of inexpensive, anthropogenic CO2 that can be accessed by oil producers is lower than in the Reference case. The Low 

EOR/GHG Price Economywide case adds the GHG Price Economywide case assumptions to those of the Low EOR case.

Figure 38 shows projected CO2-EOR volumes in the Reference case, GHG Price Economywide case, Low EOR case, and Low EOR/GHG 

Price Economywide case. The Low EOR case and the Low EOR/GHG Price Economywide case show a stronger response of CO2-EOR to 

the increase in availability of CO2 from carbon capture as a result of the assumed carbon policy. In the Low EOR case, there is significant 

unsatisfied demand for CO2 at fields that are suitable for EOR. The GHG price provides a means for that demand to be satisfied.

10. Power sector environmental regulations on the horizon

The EPA is expected to enact several key regulations in the coming decade—pertaining to air emissions, solid waste, and cooling 

water intake—that will affect the U.S. electric power sector, particularly the fleet of coal-fired power plants. In order to comply 

with those new regulations, existing coal-fired plants may need extensive environmental control retrofits if they are to remain 

in operation [69]. Because the final makeup of the expected rules is uncertain, AEO2011 includes alternative cases that assume 

different variations of possible retrofit requirements. They should be viewed as sensitivity cases, rather than projections of what 

is likely to happen.

Background on rules

Transport Rule

The Transport Rule, proposed by the EPA in July 2010 [70], is designed to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrous 

oxide (NOx) from electric power plants in the eastern half of the United States. The purpose of the rule is to assist States in 

complying with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ground-level ozone 

[71]. The EPA determined that a major reason many States were not meeting the NAAQS for PM2.5 and ozone was emissions from 

0

200

400

600

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Electric power sector:

non-EOR CO2 sequestration

Coal- and biomass-to-liquids:

non-EOR CO2 sequestration

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR):

CO2 from natural sources

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR):

CO2 from anthropogenic sources

Figure 37. CO2 injection volumes in the 

GHG Price Economywide case, 2005-2035 

(million metric tons per year)

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

GHG Price Economywide

Low EOR

Low EOR/GHG Price Economywide

Figure 38. CO2-EOR oil production in four cases, 

2005-2035 (million barrels per day)
46 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

power plants in upwind States. Accordingly, the Transport Rule establishes State-level emissions caps designed to limit the effects 

of power plant emissions on the air quality of neighboring States.

The Transport Rule was developed to address legal flaws in the EPA’s Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), which was vacated 

by the U.S. District Court of Appeals in 2008 [72]. First proposed in 2005, CAIR would have established an interstate capand-trade system for SO2 and NOx emissions in 28 eastern States, designed to meet the same goals as the Transport Rule. 

The court ruled that CAIR could not be implemented under the Clean Air Act, concluding that a broad regional cap-andtrade system would not guarantee improved air quality in specific local regions, as required by CAA. The court temporarily 

reinstated CAIR in December 2008, but it ordered the EPA to revise the rule to address the flaws cited. The EPA included limits 

on interstate trading in the newly proposed Transport Rule specifically for that purpose.

In June 2010, the EPA proposed three versions of the Transport Rule. The EPA’s preferred option would cap emissions in each 

participating State, allow for a limited amount of emissions trading between States, and permit unlimited intrastate trading. A 

second alternative would prohibit any interstate trading but allow intrastate trading. A third option would disallow all emissions 

trading. The EPA is expected to announce a final rule in the spring of 2011.

In designing the Transport Rule, the EPA determined that 28 States have SO2 emissions levels high enough to contribute significantly 

to PM2.5 nonattainment in downwind States, and that 26 States have NOx emissions levels high enough to contribute to ozone 

nonattainment. The Transport Rule would require each of those States to reduce emissions to a defined cap by 2012. An additional 

15 States would be required to reduce SO2 emissions further by 2014 (Table 10).

In addition, the EPA is considering lowering the NAAQS for annual ozone concentrations from the current limit of 75 parts per 

billion. If it does, additional reductions in NOx emissions from power plants probably will be required beyond the sensitivity case 

evaluated here. The EPA has hinted that this would be done by increasing the stringency of the Transport Rule for NOx at some 

point in the future.

There are several possible strategies for reducing SO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants: plant owners can use lower sulfur coal 

in their boilers, retire plants without emissions controls, or install emissions control equipment—primarily, flue gas desulfurization 

(FGD) scrubbers. There are two key types of FGD scrubbers, wet and dry. Wet scrubbers remove SO2 from post-combustion flue 

gas by using a wet alkaline solution, typically containing limestone. Dry scrubbers send the flue gas through a semi-dry alkaline 

sorbent that removes the SO2 [73]. AEO2011 assumes that all future SO2 control systems will consist of wet FGD scrubbers.

For NOx there are two basic emissions reduction technologies: combustion and post-combustion. Combustion technologies adjust 

the combustion reaction so that less NOx is produced. Post-combustion technologies remove NOx from the exhaust after it is 

produced. The choice of control technology is based on plant-specific characteristics, such as unit capacity, boiler configuration, 

and coal type. Combustion retrofits generally are accomplished by modifying existing boilers so that less NOx is produced in the 

combustion process—usually a less costly option but also less effective at removing emissions than post-combustion controls.

There are two types of post combustion NOx controls: selective catalytic converters (SCRs) and selective noncatalytic converters 

(SNCRs). Both technologies use a reagent (typically ammonia or urea) to react with the flue gas in order to reduce NOx to nitrogen 

and water. In SCRs the reaction occurs in the presence of a catalyst bed; in SNCRs the catalyst bed is not included. The catalyst 

increases the cost and scale of a retrofit project, but it also increases the efficiency of NOx removal. SCRs also are more easily 

scaled up, which makes them a more effective option for larger plants. The most stringent pollution control case in AEO2011

assumes that all plants not currently using NOx controls will be required to install SCRs.

Utility boiler MACT

In March 2011, the EPA proposed rules to regulate emissions of mercury, other metals, and acid gases from power plants. The rules 

are intended to enforce Section 112 of the Clean Air Act’s limits on emissions of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) from electric 

power plants. The rule requires that all power plants larger than 25 megawatts capacity install the MACT needed to reduce 

emissions of affected pollutants to levels that match the performance of top-performing plants of the same type. Hydrogen 

chloride (HCl) and PM2.5 were used as proxies for all acid gases and for metals other than mercury, respectively, because they 

would tend to be captured by the same control devices. The rule is intended to result in the removal of 91 percent of mercury and 

HCl from the emissions of coal-fired power plants and the installation of fabric filters at all plants in order to meet the PM limits.

Table 10. Transport Rule emissions targets, 2012 and 2014 (million metric tons)

Annual SO2

(28 States)

Annual NOx

(28 States)

Ozone season NOx 

(26 States)

Annual SO2

(15 additional States)

Actual 2005 emissions 8.9 2.7 0.9 --

Actual 2009 emissions 4.6 1.4 0.6 --

2012 emissions targets 3.4 1.3 0.6 --

2014 emissions targets 3.4 1.3 0.6 2.6
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 47

Issues in focus

The EPA has been seeking to regulate mercury emissions from power plants since they were first designated a HAP in December 

2000. In 2005, the EPA proposed a cap-and-trade system for mercury under the Clean Air Mercury Rule (CAMR). However, 

regulating with a cap-and-trade policy required that the EPA first remove mercury from the HAPs list. That action was challenged 

in court by several States and environmental organizations, and as a result the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia 

Circuit vacated CAMR in 2008 [75].

Despite the court’s ruling, the EPA still is required by the CAA to regulate mercury emissions from power plants. The utility boiler 

MACT rules are intended to fulfill that obligation. Currently, there are 189 listed HAPs. In developing the MACT standards, the 

EPA determines the emissions of each of those pollutants from power plant boilers. In its proposed rule, the EPA has designated 

certain pollutants as “proxy” pollutants, meaning that the regulation of one substance could serve to cover others. The rule 

is expected to be finalized by November 2011. After it is issued, power plant owners will have until 2015 to comply, although 

extensions of up to 2 years may be granted.

Mercury emissions from power plants can be reduced by fabric filters and activated carbon injection (ACI) systems, which work 

by injecting powdered carbon into flue gases to bind the mercury and then using particulate control equipment, such as fabric 

filters, to remove it. Mercury can also be removed by equipment designed to reduce other pollutants, such as FGD scrubbers. FGD 

scrubbers are especially effective in reducing mercury from bituminous coal emissions, due to its particular chemical makeup. ACI 

systems may be necessary to remove mercury from subbituminous and lignite coal emissions. In the sensitivity cases discussed 

here, all coal-fired plants are required to reduce mercury emissions by 90 percent.

Acid gas can be removed through the use of FGD scrubbers or direct sorbent injection (DSI). DSI has lower capital costs than FGD 

scrubbers, but the technology has not yet been widely deployed in the power sector. In its regulatory impact analysis of the Air 

Toxics Rule, the EPA assumes significant deployment of DSI [76]. Because of DSI’s relatively low capital costs, the EPA sees it as an 

attractive, low-cost way for smaller coal plants with lower utilization factors to comply with the rule and continue operating. Other 

analyses are not as optimistic on the prospect of DSI. For example, a study by the Edison Electric Institute on the impacts of several 

proposed EPA rules for the power sector shows DSI being installed on only 9 gigawatts of capacity to comply with the utility boiler 

MACT [77]. In order to represent a more stringent case, AEO2011 assumes that FGDs will be needed for compliance with the rule.

Retrofit or retire?

Several key economic factors can influence owners’ decisions as to whether older power plants should be retrofitted or retired. The 

stringency of regulations, compliance costs, remaining life of a plant, fuel prices, and expectations regarding electricity demand 

and prices all may be considered. Plant owners must determine whether expected future revenues from their plants over their 

remaining lives will be sufficient to recover the investment in new equipment needed to comply with environmental regulations. 

Key variables in the determination are the costs of retrofit equipment and future electricity prices.

Because natural gas often is the marginal fuel for electricity generation, low natural gas prices make it more likely that older coalfired plants will be retired. Low natural gas prices reduce the overall cost of generating electricity, eventually leading to reduced 

revenues from coal-fired plants. The updated estimates of capital costs for coal and nuclear power plants in AEO2011 are 25 to 37 

percent higher than those used in AEO2010, whereas capital costs for natural gas combined-cycle plants are essentially unchanged 

Potential regulation of coal combustion residuals

In June 2010, the EPA released a proposal for regulating coal combustion residuals (CCRs) from electric power plants under the 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Two options given by the EPA were to regulate CCRs under Subtitle C of the 

RCRA, which would classify CCRs as a hazardous waste pollutant, or Subtitle D, which would classify them as a nonhazardous 

waste pollutant. By defining CCRs as hazardous, Subtitle C would place more stringent regulations on the storage of coal ash, 

which probably would result in the closure of surface ash impoundments.

Subtitle D would require the EPA to establish a national criterion for permitting CCR disposal but would leave implementation of 

such a system to the States. Under Subtitle D, the EPA is considering two options for existing surface impoundments, which are 

referred to as “Subtitle D” and “Subtitle D Prime.” The primary difference between the two options is that, under Subtitle D, existing 

surface impoundments would either have to be retrofitted with composite liners or cease receiving CCRs within 5 years, while 

under the Subtitle D Prime, existing surface impoundments could continue to operate to the end of their useful lifetimes without 

the installation of composite liners. RCRA Subtitle C would require active regulation by the EPA. Under Subtitle D, the main vehicle 

for enforcement would be citizen lawsuits. As of January 2011, the EPA was reviewing comments on the proposed rule, with a final 

rule expected to be released in 2011.

In complying with the proposed regulations for CCRs, plants could face increased costs for CCR disposal, depending on specific 

plant characteristics. Plants with on-site coal ash impounds could incur costs for retrofits or replacements. Plants with wet ash 

handling systems could be required to switch to dry ash handling systems. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has already 

announced that it will replace all wet ash handling systems with dry systems across its entire coal-fired fleet (about 17 gigawatts 

total capacity). TVA estimates that the investment required for the conversion will be between $1.5 billion and $2.0 billion over the 

next 10 years [74]. However, because of uncertainty about the makeup of the final rule and the difficulty of assessing project costs, 

which are inherently site-specific, the potential CCR regulations are not included in any AEO2011 cases.
48 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

from AEO2010. In addition, projected natural gas prices in the AEO2011 Reference case are lower than those in AEO2010, reducing 

the levelized costs of generation for new natural gas power plants. Consequently, new combined-cycle plants are an attractive 

alternative for replacing capacity lost as a result of coal-fired plant retirements.

Uncertainty about future GHG regulations continues to loom in power sector investment decisions. Despite a lack of 

Congressional action, many utilities include a CO2 emissions price in their long-term investment decisions [79]. A carbon 

price would increase the cost of generation for all fossil fuel plants, but the largest impact would be on coal-fired generation. 

Thus, plant owners could be reluctant to retrofit existing coal plants, given the possibility that GHG regulations might be 

enacted in the near future. This uncertainty may influence the expectations of plant owners about the economic lives of 

particular facilities.

In the Reference case and most of the alternative cases for AEO2011, existing power plants are assumed to continue operating for 

at least 20 years, allowing the costs of environmental retrofits to be recovered over a 20-year period. In addition, AEO2011 includes 

two cases described below, which assume that investors will implement retrofits only if their costs can be recovered over a 5-year 

period, given their concern that future laws or regulations aimed at limiting GHG emissions present a significant risk to the longterm operation of the affected units.

Analysis cases

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 case

The Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 case assumes that the Transport Rule will be enacted in 2014, placing limits on SO2 and 

NOx emissions. It also assumes a 90-percent MACT for mercury starting in 2015. This case assumes a 20-year capital recovery 

period for financing FGD scrubbers and SCRs.

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5 case

This case is identical to the Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 case, except that it assumes a 5-year capital recovery period for 

financing FGD scrubbers and SCRs.

Retrofit Required 20 case

The Retrofit Required 20 case assumes more stringent regulation of air emissions from coal-fired plants and utility boilers, requiring 

the installation of FGD scrubbers and SCRs. It is based on assumptions of more stringent utility boiler MACT requirements and 

future NOx emissions limits. Utility boiler MACT regulations are scheduled to be effective in 2015, but this case assumes a lag of 

several years to account for possible delays in implementation.

Potential regulation of cooling water intakes

Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) requires facilities with cooling water intake structures to use the best technology 

available (BTA) to mitigate the environmental impacts of the systems—specifically, damage to aquatic wildlife. In 2004, the 

EPA originally proposed regulation of existing power plants under Section 316(b), which is intended to apply to all facilities that 

remove at least 50 million gallons of water per day from the environment and use at least 25 percent of the water for cooling. A 

typical 500-megawatt plant with once-through cooling uses approximately 500 million gallons of cooling water per day. However, 

determining BTA as it applies to the CWA has been the subject of extensive legal delays, culminating in a Supreme Court case, 

which has delayed implementation of the rule [78]. Because of the Court’s ruling, the EPA is able to consider both the costs and 

benefits in the design of its final rule. The EPA issued proposed standards for comment on March 28, 2011.

In a once-through system, intake structures withdraw water for use in a thermal power plant’s cooling system. Once used, the 

water is discharged back into the body of water at a higher temperature. Both the water intake and thermal discharge can cause 

significant damage to local fish populations. In a closed-cycle cooling system, heat from the power plant is removed through 

evaporation in a nearby cooling tower. Closed-cycle systems require significantly less water intake than once-through systems, 

mitigating much of the environmental damage associated with the cooling system.

The determination of BTA for cooling water in power plants could have a substantial effect on the entire power sector. New York 

State and California already have issued rules that essentially require all plants in their States to have closed-loop cooling systems. 

If the same standard were implemented nationwide, extensive retrofits would be required. The Electric Power Research Institute 

(EPRI) has estimated that 312 gigawatts of capacity currently in operation (252 gigawatts of fossil fuel capacity and 60 gigawatts 

of nuclear capacity) would be affected by such a rule. In some cases it may not be possible to install a closed-loop cooling system, 

and such a requirement could, therefore, cause some plants to be retired.

Closed-loop cooling is considered the most stringent form of compliance with Section 316(b) of the CWA. Other methods of 

reducing fish mortality, such as wedge wires, variable speed pumps, and traveling water screens, may not be as effective as cooling 

towers, but they can be installed at much lower cost. In view of that uncertainty, the AEO2011 cases do not include compliance with 

Section 316(b).
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 49

Issues in focus

Retrofit Required 5 case

This case is identical to the Retrofit Required 20 case, except that it assumes a 5-year capital recovery period for financing FGD 

scrubbers and SCRs.

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 case

This case is similar to the Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 case but uses more optimistic assumptions about future volumes of 

shale gas production, which leads to lower natural gas prices. The domestic shale gas resource assumption in this case comes from 

the AEO2011 High Shale EUR case (Figure 39).

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5 case

This case is identical to the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 case, except that it assumes a 5-year capital recovery period for 

financing FGD scrubbers and SCRs.

GHG Price Economywide case

The GHG Price Economywide case assumes a price on CO2 emissions that rises from $25 per ton (2009 dollars) in 2013 to $77 per ton in 

2035. It does not include any specific provisions of the proposed Kerry-Lieberman and Waxman-Markey bills [80], such as offsets, bonus 

allowances, targeted allowance allocations, or increased efficiency mandates. None of the EPA rules described above is included in the GHG 

Price Economywide case.

Results

Coal-fired plant retirements

Retirements of coal-fired power plants in the different analysis cases vary with the assumed stringency of environmental rules, the 

assumed cost recovery period for retrofit investments, natural gas price levels, and assumptions regarding future GHG regulations. 

Of the 316 gigawatts of coal-fired capacity currently in operation in the United States, 117 gigawatts has no FGD scrubbers installed 

or currently under construction [81]. Lacking some of the controls necessary to comply with potential future regulations, those coal 

plants may be candidates for retirement if the regulations are enacted. Generally, the poorest performing plants, with the highest 

heat rates and lowest utilization rates, are the first that might be retired. Table 11 shows the amount of capacity retired along with 

the retired plants average heat rates and capacity factors in each case.

Projected retirements of coal-fired capacity are higher in each of the analysis cases shown in Table 11 than in the Reference case. 

Because the emissions reduction requirements in CAIR and the Transport Rule are similar, increased retirements in the Transport 

Rule Mercury MACT 20 and MACT 5 cases can be attributed to restrictions on allowance trading and to the Mercury MACT. In 

the Retrofit Required 20 and Retrofit Required 5 cases, explicit mandates are assumed to require the installation of FGDs and SCRs, 

so that retirement decisions are based on the costs of retrofits. In the Retrofit Required 20 case, most coal-fired plants continue 

operating beyond 2020. In the Retrofit Required 5 case, with only 5 years to recover the costs of installing retrofits, the amount of 

coal-fired capacity retired is more than double the amount retired in the Retrofit Required 20 case.

Lower natural gas prices in the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5 cases lead to 

comparatively more retirements of coal-fired capacity—39.5 and 72.6 gigawatts, respectively. Lower natural gas prices reduce the 

price of electricity in general, lowering power plant revenues. 

For natural-gas-fired plants, revenue reductions are largely 

offset by lower fuel costs. For coal-fired plants, assuming that 

coal prices do not change, there is no offset for the revenue 

declines, and retrofit projects become uneconomical in some 

instances. The GHG Price Economywide case assumes a 

price on CO2 emissions, which renders many existing coalfired plants uneconomical. As a result, retirements of coalfired capacity total 135 gigawatts by 2035.

Retrofit equipment installations

In the Retrofit Required 20 and Retrofit Required 5 cases, 

power plants are required to install FGD scrubbers and SCRs 

in order to continue operating after 2020, based on the 

assumption that stringent controls will be required by the EPA 

for compliance with clean air rules. The combined cost of the 

two retrofits could range from $500 to $1,000 per kilowatt 

of capacity, depending on plant size and characteristics [82]. 

More retrofits occur in the Retrofit Required 20 case than in 

the Retrofit Required 5 case, because the economics of retrofit 

projects improve with the longer capital recovery period.

0

2

4

6

8

10

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Reference

High Shale EUR

Figure 39. Natural gas prices in the Reference and 

High Ultimate Shale Recovery cases, 2005-2035 

(dollars per million Btu)
50 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

The Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 and Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5 cases mandate emissions reductions, but they do not 

require the installation of any particular control equipment. Therefore, while there are more retrofit projects in these cases than 

in the Reference case, there are not nearly as many as in the Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, because there are other options for 

compliance with the rule, such as using more low-sulfur coal and dispatching uncontrolled plants less often—options that are not 

available in the Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases. In the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, lower prices for natural gas 

lead to lower overall electricity prices and lower plant revenues. There are fewer retrofits in the Low Gas Price cases, because lower 

revenues make it less likely that plant owners will be able to recover their investments in the equipment.

In the GHG Price Economywide case, 16 gigawatts of existing coal-fired capacity is retrofitted with CCS equipment. CCS is still 

unproven on a commercial scale, but AEO2011 assumes that the technology will be available as a carbon mitigation option if a 

sufficient CO2 price is in place.

Generation by fuel

Despite the decline in coal-fired capacity in all the analysis cases above, coal remains the largest single source of generation 

through 2035 in all but one of the cases (Figure 40). Even with more stringent emission caps, once a coal plant has been retrofitted 

it becomes more economical to run, because SO2 and NOx emission allowance costs are no longer incurred. Many of the coal 

plants that are retired have low utilization factors and high heat rates, and their contribution to overall coal generation is relatively 

small. In the Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, coal-fired generation increases in 2020, as plants that overcome the regulatory 

hurdle and install retrofits are run more frequently. In the Retrofit Required 20 case, coal-fired generation in 2035 is higher than 

in the Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 and 5 cases, as the retrofitted plants are heavily utilized. Other than in the GHG Price 

Economywide case, electricity generation from coal is lowest in the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, where low 

natural gas prices stimulate construction of new natural gas plants to replace retired coal capacity, and existing gas-fired capacity 

is dispatched more frequently, displacing additional coal-fired generation. In the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, 

generation from coal in 2035 is 10 percent and 19 percent below the Reference case level, respectively. In the Low Gas Price Retrofit 

Required 5 case, the natural gas and coal shares of total generation in 2035 are the same, at 34 percent.

Natural-gas-fired electricity generation in 2035 is higher in all the cases (although it is lower in some earlier years) than in 

the Reference case. Rapid growth in gas-fired generation is supported by low natural gas prices and relatively low capital 

costs for new natural gas plants, which improve the relative economics of natural gas when regulatory pressure is placed on 

the existing coal fleet. Natural gas emits virtually no SO2 and less NOx than does coal, making it a more attractive fuel for 

environmental compliance.

In the Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 and 5 cases, generation from natural gas grows steadily throughout the projection. In 

the early years, gas-fired generation is slightly higher than in the Reference case, because fuel switching is used as an option to 

comply with the flexible requirements of the Transport Rule. In the Retrofit Required 20 case, electricity generation from natural 

gas increases more slowly, and it is 4 percent lower than the Reference case level in 2025, when retrofitted coal plants no longer 

incur costs for SO2 and NOx emissions allowances (Figure 41). In the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, utilization 

of existing combined-cycle natural gas plants is higher throughout the projections, resulting in more gas-fired generation. In all 

the cases, increases in natural-gas-fired generation after 2025 result predominantly from the construction of new combined-cycle 

plants to meet growing demand for electricity and replace retired coal capacity.

In the GHG Price Economywide case, coal-fired generation declines steadily throughout the projection. In 2035, generation from 

coal is approximately 54 percent below the 2009 level, and 11 percent of the electricity generated from coal comes from either 

new or retrofitted coal plants with CCS. Generation from natural gas increases by more than 90 percent from 2009 to 2035 in 

the GHG Price Economywide case. Natural gas is a more attractive fuel for complying with a GHG price, because when it is used 

Table 11. Coal-fired plant retirements in nine cases, 2010-2035

Analysis case

Coal-fired capacity retired 

(gigawatts)

Average size of coalfired plants retired 

(megawatts)

Average heat rate 

of coal-fired plants 

retired (million Btu per 

kilowatthour)

Reference 8.8 93.0 12,338

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 13.5 91.4 12,053

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5 17.8 83.3 12,102

Retrofit Required 20 19.2 84.5 12,034

Retrofit Required 5 44.8 91.2 11,579

Low Gas Price 15.6 104.0 12,098

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 39.5 97.8 11,576

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5 72.6 109.6 11,363

GHG Price Economywide 135.2 157.0 11,454
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 51

Issues in focus

in an efficient combined-cycle plant, it emits approximately 60 percent less CO2 per kilowatthour of generation than coal burned 

in a typical existing plant. Toward the end of the projection, new natural gas plants with CCS are also built in the GHG Price 

Economywide case, and in 2035 13 percent of gas-fired electricity generation is from plants with CCS.

Generation from nuclear power is the same as in the AEO2011 Reference case in all cases, with the exception of the GHG Price 

Economywide and Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 cases. In the GHG Price Economywide case, generation from nuclear capacity 

increases as a result of additional capacity builds. In the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 case, 2.9 gigawatts of nuclear capacity 

is retired because electricity prices are low. Generation from renewables remains relatively unchanged from the Reference case level 

through 2035 in all cases.

Fuel use

High levels of electricity generation from natural gas generally mean more natural gas consumption. In all cases examined here, 

natural gas use in 2035 is higher than in the Reference case (Figure 42). The largest increase in natural gas consumption occurs 

in the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases, where natural gas consumption in 2035 is 23 percent and 36 percent 

higher, respectively, than in the Reference case, as well as in the GHG Price Economywide case, where natural gas consumption 

is 30 percent higher in 2035.

Capacity additions

The retirement of significant amounts of coal-fired capacity, combined with growth in electricity demand, necessitates the 

construction of additional generation capacity. Natural gas plants with lower generating costs make up the majority of new capacity 

in all cases, with the largest amount of new natural gas capacity constructed in the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases. 

Most of the new coal-fired plants that are built have already 

been announced and are in either planning or construction 

stages. All new nuclear plants are built as a result of public 

policies (such as PTCs and the loan guarantee programs). A 

small amount of new coal-fired capacity is built in the last few 

years of the Reference case projection, because natural gas 

prices rise. Renewable capacity additions are similar to the 

Reference case in all cases.

In the GHG Price Economywide case there is significantly 

more new capacity construction than in any of the other 

cases, as coal-fired plants are retired and need to be replaced 

with low CO2-emitting technologies (Figure 43). This includes 

29 gigawatts of new nuclear capacity added through 2035. 

In the cases without a CO2 emissions price, new nuclear 

power plants are built beyond those explicitly helped by the 

loan guarantee program. However, a price on CO2 emissions 

raises the cost of electricity sufficiently for nuclear power 

(which releases no CO2) to become an economically viable 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 option without additional subsidies. Additions of renewable 

GHG Price Economywide

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20

Low Gas Price

Retrofit Required 5

Retrofit Required 20

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20

Reference

2009

Figure 40. Electricity generation by fuel in nine cases, 

2009 and 2035 (trillion kilowatthours)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

GHG Price Economywide

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20

Low Gas Price

Retrofit Required 5

Retrofit Required 20

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20

Reference

2009

Figure 41. Electricity generation by fuel in nine cases, 

2009 and 2025 (trillion kilowatthours)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

GHG Price Economywide

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20

Low Gas Price

Retrofit Required 5

Retrofit Required 20

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20

Reference

2009

2025

2035

Figure 42. Natural gas consumption in the power sector 

in nine cases, 2009, 2025, and 2035 (trillion cubic feet)
52 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

capacity, also a low-CO2 source of electricity, are 36 percent higher in the GHG Price Economywide case than in the Reference 

case in 2035.

Emissions

Emissions of SO2 decline from Reference case levels in all cases, with more dramatic declines in the Retrofit Required 20 and 5 

cases. With the Transport Rule in force, SO2 emissions decline to levels slightly below the Reference case level. The Reference case 

already includes CAIR, which remains in effect until the Transport Rule takes effect. CAIR features a flexible trading system and 

allowance banking, resulting in slightly higher annual emissions toward the end of the projection and more variability in year-toyear emissions levels. Trading is more limited with the Transport Rule because of restrictions on the banking of allowances, which 

levels out emissions over the projection. NOx emissions are slightly higher with the Transport Rule than in the Reference case, 

because fewer NOx control retrofits are built as a result of the higher NOx allowance prices under CAIR than under the Transport 

Rule. There are significant reductions in SO2 and NOx emissions in the four Retrofit Required cases, where all coal-fired plants 

that continue to operate through 2020 are required to be equipped with FGD and SCR. The Retrofit Required 20 and 5 cases are 

assumed to be implemented nationwide, whereas the Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 and 5 cases apply only to the targeted 

States. Except for the Low Gas Price and GHG Price Economywide cases, all cases assume a 90-percent mercury MACT, which 

reduces mercury emissions significantly from Reference case levels after 2015.

CO2 emissions from the electric power sector in 2035 are lower in all cases than in the Reference case because of the shift 

from coal-fired to natural-gas-fired generation, but with electricity demand increasing throughout the projection period they are 

higher than the 2009 level except in the GHG Price Economywide case (Figure 44). Coal-fired plants that are not retired are used 

heavily, and natural gas plants still emit CO2 albeit at a significantly lower rate per kilowatthour than coal plants. In the GHG Price 

Economywide case, significantly more coal-fired capacity is retired than in the other cases, and more nuclear and renewable 

capacity, as well as coal and natural gas capacity equipped with CCS, is deployed.

Electricity prices

Electricity prices in 2035 are less than 2 percent above the Reference case level in the Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20, Retrofit 

Required 20, and Retrofit Required 5 cases. The increase is relatively modest because several low-cost alternatives for complying 

with the regulations are available. When lower natural gas prices are assumed, the real price of electricity price declines relative to 

the Reference case price, as lower natural gas prices are reflected in electricity prices. In the GHG Policy case, which assumes that 

the cost of CO2 emissions allowances is passed through directly to customers, average electricity prices in 2035 are 38 percent 

higher than in the Reference case. However, the GHG Price Economywide case does not include any of the consumer rebates from 

the Waxman-Markey and Kerry-Lieberman bills, which have the effect of significantly lowering electric prices.

Reliability

The possible retirement of significant amounts of coal-fired generating capacity has raised concerns about reliability of the electric 

power grid. For example, the North American Electric Reliability Council has warned that EPA regulation of emissions from the 

power sector is a threat to reliability standards. Specific plants may be important to the reliability of a specific region, and if they are 

shut down before replacement capacity has been constructed, local reliability shortfalls could ensue. However, several safeguards 

exist to prevent such problems. Merchant plant owners must obtain permission from grid operators before retiring capacity [83], 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Reference GHG Price Economywide

Coal

Nuclear

Natural gas

Renewables

Natural	gas+CCS

Coal+CCS	retrofit

New	coal+CCS

Figure 43. Cumulative capacity additions in the 

Reference and GHG Price Economywide cases, 

2010-2035 (gigawatts)

0 1,000 2,000 3,000

GHG Price Economywide

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5

Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20

Low Gas Price

Retrofit Required 5

Retrofit Required 20

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5

Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20

Reference

2009

2025

2035

Figure 44. Carbon dioxide emissions from the electric 

power sector in nine cases, 2009, 2025, and 2035 

(million metric tons)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 53

Issues in focus

and regulated utilities must demonstrate to their public utility commissions that their fleets meet the reliability standards included 

in their integrated resource plans.

On a national level, electric reliability shortfalls resulting from the retirement of coal plants can be mitigated both by increasing the 

utilization of other existing plants and by constructing new capacity. From 2000 to 2009, about 190 gigawatts of natural-gas-fired 

capacity was added in the U.S. electric power sector. In the AEO2011 Reference case another 135 gigawatts of natural-gas-fired 

capacity is added from 2010 to 2035, and in the Low Gas Price case 154 gigawatts of new natural-gas-fired capacity is added. Most 

of the new capacity is built after 2020 in both cases.
54 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Issues in focus

Endnotes for issues in focus

Links current as of April 2011

44. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Short-Term Energy Outlook (January 11, 2011), “Table 2. U.S. Energy Prices,” website 

www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/steo/pub/archives/jan11_base.xls#’2tab’!A1.

45. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, “2017 and Later Model Year Light 

Duty Vehicle GHG Emissions and CAFE Standards,” Federal Register, Vol. 75, No. 197 (October 13, 2010), pp. 62739-62750, 

website http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2010/2010-25444.htm. 

46. Data from Ward’s Auto, website www.wardsauto.com (subscription site).

47. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Heavy-Duty Regulations,” website www.epa.gov/oms/climate/regulations.htm#1-2; and 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards 

and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles,” Federal Register, Vol. 75, No. 229 (November 30, 

2010), pp. 74451-74456, website http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2010/2010-28120.htm. For purposes of the proposed rulemaking, 

heavy-duty vehicles are those with a GVWR of at least 8,501 pounds, except those Class 2b vehicles of 8,501 to 10,000 pounds that 

are currently covered under LDV fuel economy and GHG emissions standards.

48. Brake horsepower-hour is defined as the horsepower per hour of an engine before the loss in power caused by the gearbox, 

alternator, water pump, or other auxiliary components, usually determined from the force exerted on a friction brake or 

dynamometer connected to the drive shaft.

49. U.S. Census Bureau, “Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey,” website http://www.census.gov/svsd/www/vius/products.html. Note 

that the survey has been discontinued.

50. Ward’s Auto, “U.S. Factory Sales of Diesel Trucks by GVW, 1965-2010,” website www.wardsauto.com (subscription site).

51. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions 

Standards and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles,” Federal Register, Vol. 75, No. 229 

(November 30, 2010), pp. 74451-74456, website http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2010/2010-28120.htm.

52. For more information on vehicle compliance measurement and engine, cab, chassis, and vehicle test procedures, see Federal 

Register, Vol. 75, No. 229 (November 30, 2010), pp. 74451-74456, website http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2010/2010-

28120.htm.

53. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “ENERGY STAR® Unit Shipment and Market Penetration Report Calendar Year 2009 

Summary” (2009), website www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/downloads/2009_USD_Summary.pdf.

54. In this article, the term “building code” refers to building energy codes, as opposed to construction or safety codes, such as 

those from the International Code Council or the International Building Code.

55. American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, “The 2010 State Energy Efficiency Scorecard” (October 2010), website 

www.aceee.org/research-report/e107.

56. Advanced Resources International, Outer Continental Shelf Moratoria Areas: Impact of Various Assumptions on Oil and Natural Gas 

Production Potential (Arlington, VA: January 2009), prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, website 

http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/oilgas/publications/oilgas_generalpubs/ocs_moratoria_areas_2008analysis.html.

57. J. Ratafia-Brown, R. Irby, and K. Perry, Analysis of the Social, Economic and Environmental Effects of Maintaining Oil and Gas 

Exploration and Production Moratoria on and Beneath Federal Lands (Washington, DC: February 2010), website www.naruc.org/

Publications/NARUC_MORATORIA_REPORT_02-17-10.pdf.

58. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Updated Capital Cost Estimates for Electricity Generation Plants (Washington, DC: 

November 2010), website www.eia.gov/oiaf/beck_plantcosts/index.html.

59. National Energy Technology Laboratory, Carbon Sequestration Atlas of the United States and Canada, Third Edition (2010), website 

www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/refshelf/atlasIII.

60. International Energy Agency, Carbon Capture and Storage: Progress and Next Steps (Paris, France: 2010), website www.iea.org/

papers/2010/ccs_g8.pdf.

61. A supercritical state is a phase of matter in which a fluid has some of the properties of both a liquid and a solid. The advantage 

for transporting and injecting CO2 in a supercritical state is that the density can be fine-tuned to increase process efficiencies.

62. International Energy Agency, “IEA Energy Technology Essentials: CO2 Capture and Storage” (Paris, France: December 2006), 

website www.iea.org/techno/essentials1.pdf.

63. National Energy Technology Laboratory, DOE/NETL Advanced Carbon Dioxide Capture R&D Program: Technology Update (September 

2010), website www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/coalpower/ewr/pubs/CO2%20Capture%20Tech%20Update%20Final.pdf, 

p. 14, Box 2.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 55

Issues in focus

64. U.S. Department of Energy, Report of the Interagency Task Force on Carbon Capture and Storage (Washington, DC: August 2010), 

website www.fe.doe.gov/programs/sequestration/ccs_task_force.html.

65. National Energy Technology Laboratory, Methodology for Development of Geologic Storage Estimates for Carbon Dioxide (August 

2008), website www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/refshelf/methodology2008.pdf.

66. J.K. Eccles, L. Pratson, R.G. Newell, and R.B. Jackson, “Physical and Economic Potential of Geological CO2 Storage in Saline Aquifers,” 

Environment Science and Technology, Vol. 43, No. 6 (February 2009), website http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es801572e.

67. National Energy Technology Laboratory, Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery: Untapped Domestic Energy Supply and Long Term 

Carbon Storage Solution (March 2010), website www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/EP/CO2_EOR_Primer.pdf.

68. Advanced Resources International, Inc., U.S. Oil Production Potential from Accelerated Deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage: 

White Paper (Arlington, VA: March 2010).

69. Four key regulations currently being considered by EPA are the Air Transport Rule, Utility Boiler Maximum Available Control 

Technology (MACT), the Coal Combustion and Residuals Rule, and the Cooling Water Intake Structure Rule. Each proposal is 

designed to enforce existing sections of the CAA, RCRA, and CWA.

70. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Proposed Air Pollution Transport Rule” (Washington, DC: July 26, 2010), website 

www.epa.gov/airquality/transport/pdfs/TRPresentationfinal_7-26_webversion.pdf.

71. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Proposed Air Pollution Transport Rule” (Washington, DC: July 26, 2010), website www.

epa.gov/airquality/transport/pdfs/TRPresentationfinal_7-26_webversion.pdf.

72. U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, “State of North Carolina v. Environmental Protection Agency,” No. 05-

1244 (Washington, DC: December 23, 2008), website www.epa.gov/airmarkets/progsregs/cair/docs/CAIRRemandOrder.pdf.

74. Tennessee Valley Authority, “Coal Combustion Byproducts” (Oak Ridge, TN: July 2010), website www.tva.gov/news/keytopics/

coal_combustion_products.htm.

73. If a wet FGD proves prohibitively expensive for smaller coal plants, other retrofit options exist. Alternative SO2 control 

technologies, such as DSI, have lower initial capital cost but higher operating costs than FGD’s, making them potentially 

attractive for smaller to medium size coal plants. While some DSI systems are currently operating, the technology is still in 

early stages of commercialization. Since it is difficult to assess their long term impact on the coal fleet, they are not included 

in AEO2011.

78. U.S. Supreme Court, “Entergy Corp, v. Riverkeeper, Inc., et al,” No. 07-588 (Washington, DC: April 1, 2009), website www.

supremecourt.gov/opinions/08pdf/07-588.pdf.

75. U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, “State of New Jersey v. Environmental Protection Agency,” No. 05-

1097 (Washington, DC: February 8, 2008), website www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/68822E72677ACBCD852

5744000470736/$file/05-1097a.pdf.

76. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Power Plant Mercury and Air Toxics Standards” (Washington, DC: March 16, 2011), 

website www.epa.gov/airquality/powerplanttoxics/pdfs/overviewfactsheet.pdf.

77. Edison Electric Institute, “Potential Impacts of Environmental Regulation on the U.S. Generation Fleet” (Washington, 

DC: January 2011), website www.pacificorp.com/content/dam/pacificorp/doc/Energy_Sources/Integrated_Resource_

Plan/2011IRP/EEIModelingReportFinal-28January2011.pdf. DSI is allowed in one of the studies side cases. The side case 

also assumes that the 316b Cooling Water Intake Rule and the Coal Combustion Residuals Rule are also in effect.

79. Edison Electric Institute, “Potential Impacts of Environmental Regulation on the U.S. Generation Fleet” (Washington, 

DC: January 2011), website www.pacificorp.com/content/dam/pacificorp/doc/Energy_Sources/Integrated_Resource_

Plan/2011IRP/EEIModelingReportFinal-28January2011.pdf. DSI is allowed in one of the studies side cases. The side case 

also assumes that the 316b Cooling Water Intake Rule and the Coal Combustion Residuals Rule are also in effect.

80. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Energy Market and Economic Impacts of H.R. 2454, the American Clean Energy and 

Security Act of 2009” (Washington, DC: August 4, 2009), website www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/hr2454/index.html.

81. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Number and Capacity of Existing Fossil-Fuel Steam-Electric Generators with 

Environmental Equipment” (Washington, DC: April 2011), website www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epat3p10.html.

82. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Emission Control Technologies,” website www.epa.gov/airmarkt/progsregs/epa-ipm/

docs/v410/Chapter5.pdf.

83. For example, PJM Interconnection requires that Exelon keep its Eddystone Generating Plant in Pennsylvania open for an additional 

2 years in order to support system reliability. See Daily Times, “Exelon Postpones Shutdown of Eddystone Plant” (Delaware 

County, PA: March 4, 2010), website www.delcotimes.com/articles/2010/03/04/business/doc4b8f2a66906bf935574426.

txt?viewmode=fullstory.
This page intentionally left blank
Market trends

Projections by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) are not statements of what will happen but of what might 

happen, given the assumptions and methodologies used for any particular case. The Reference case projection is a businessas-usual estimate, given known technology, technological, market, and demographic trends. The main cases in the Annual 

Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011) generally assume that current laws and regulations are maintained throughout the projections. Thus, the projections provide a baseline starting point that can be used to analyze policy initiatives. EIA explores the 

impacts of alternative assumptions in other cases with different macroeconomic growth rates, world oil prices, rates of 

technology progress, and policy changes. 

While energy markets are complex, energy models are simplified representations of energy production and consumption, 

regulations, and producer and consumer behavior. Projections are highly dependent on the data, methodologies, model 

structures, and assumptions used in their development. Behavioral characteristics are indicative of real-world tendencies 

rather than representations of specific outcomes.

Energy market projections are subject to much uncertainty. Many of the events that shape energy markets are random and 

cannot be anticipated. In addition, future developments in technologies, demographics, and resources cannot be foreseen 

with certainty. Many key uncertainties in the AEO2011 projections are addressed through alternative cases.

EIA has endeavored to make these projections as objective, reliable, and useful as possible; however, they should serve as 

an adjunct to, not a substitute for, a complete and focused analysis of public policy initiatives.
58 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Trends in economic activity

Real growth in gross domestic product 

averages 2.1 to 3.2 percent across cases

Inflation, interest rates remain low,

unemployment averages about 6 percent

In the AEO2011 Reference case, annual consumer price inflation averages 2.1 percent from 2009 to 2035, the annual yield on the 10-year 

Treasury note averages 5.4 percent (nominal), and the unemployment rate averages 6.1 percent (Figure 46). In the High Economic 

Growth case, population, and labor productivity grow faster than in 

the Reference case, leading to faster growth in capital stock, labor 

force, and employment. Potential output growth is faster, and as a 

result the annual growth rate of real GDP is 0.5 percent higher than 

in the Reference case. In the Low Economic Growth case, productivity, population, labor force, and capital stock grow more slowly, and 

real GDP growth is 0.6 percent lower than in the Reference case.

As the economy recovers, real GDP and inflation are expected to 

grow faster than the average over the past 26 years. By 2020, real 

GDP and inflation settle into the long-run 26-year average growth 

rates of 2.7 percent and 2.1 percent, respectively. During the last 

five years of the projection (2030-2035), real GDP growth slows to 

2.5 percent, reflecting slowing growth in population. The Treasury 

note yield and unemployment rate average 5.8 percent and 5.1 percent, respectively, from 2020 to 2035, with the 10-year Treasury 

note higher than the 26-year average of 5.4 percent and the unemployment rate lower than the 26-year average of 6.1 percent.

Exports grow more rapidly than imports, as the dollar depreciates and countries in Asia and Latin America with higher economic growth rates develop their domestic markets and pull in 

more U.S. exports. Export growth supports U.S. employment, 

leading to lower unemployment rates and an improving trade 

balance over the projection period.

AEO2011 presents three views of economic growth (Figure 45). 

The rate of growth in real gross domestic product (GDP) depends 

on assumptions about labor force growth and productivity. In the 

Reference case, growth in real GDP averages 2.7 percent per year 

due to a 0.7 percent per year growth in the labor force and a 2.1 

percent per year growth in labor productivity.

GDP growth in 2010 partially offsets the decline in 2009, helping 

GDP to recover to pre-recession levels by 2011. In the AEO2011

Reference case, economic recovery accelerates in 2012, while 

employment recovers more slowly. With the percentage losses 

in employment during the 2007-2009 recession roughly double 

those of the 1982 recession, the unemployment rate remains 

elevated for an extended period, returning to its pre-recession 

2003 to 2007 average of 5.2 percent by 2022.

The AEO2011 High and Low Economic Growth cases examine 

the impacts of alternative assumptions on the economy. The 

High Economic Growth case includes more rapid expansion of 

the labor force, nonfarm employment, and productivity, with real 

GDP growth averaging 3.2 percent per year from 2009 to 2035. 

With higher productivity gains and employment growth, inflation and interest rates are lower in the High Economic Growth 

case than in the Reference case. In the Low Economic Growth 

case, real GDP growth averages 2.1 percent per year from 2009 

to 2035, with slower growth rates for the labor force, nonfarm 

employment, and labor productivity. Consequently, the Low 

Economic Growth case shows higher inflation and interest rates 

and slower growth in industrial output.

Reference

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

Real GDP Labor force Productivity

Figure 45. Average annual growth rates of real GDP, 

labor force, and productivity in three cases, 2009-2035 

(percent per year)

0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Inflation Interest rates Unemployment

Reference

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

Figure 46. Average annual inflation, interest, and 

unemployment rates in three cases, 2009-2035 

(percent)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 59

U.S. energy expenditures totaled $1.1 trillion (2009 dollars) in 2009, 

lower than the 2007 level of $1.3 trillion. As the economy recovers 

and energy prices rise, energy expenditures grow to $1.7 trillion in 

2035 in the Reference case, $1.9 trillion in the High Growth case, 

and $1.5 trillion in the Low Growth case (Figure 48). The energy 

intensity of the economy (thousand British thermal units [Btu] of 

energy consumed per dollar of real GDP) was 7.4 in 2009. With 

structural shifts in the economy, improving energy efficiency, and 

higher real energy prices, U.S. energy intensity falls to 4.4 in 2035.

From 2003 to 2008, rising oil and natural gas prices increased the 

energy expenditure share of nominal GDP; the 9.8-percent share in 

2008 was the highest since 1985. In 2009, the average cost of oil 

to refiners fell to $54 per barrel [85], natural gas prices fell by about 

half, and the energy expenditure share fell to 7.4 percent. The energy 

expenditure share declines throughout the projection (Figure 49), 

reflecting economic growth and declines in energy intensity.

Industrial sector output has grown more slowly than the overall economy in recent decades, as imports have met a growing 

share of demand for industrial goods, whereas the service sector has grown more rapidly [84]. In the AEO2011 Reference case, 

real GDP grows at an average annual rate of 2.7 percent from 

2009 to 2035, while the industrial sector and its manufacturing component grow by 1.7 percent per year and 1.9 percent per 

year, respectively (Figure 47). As the economy recovers from 

the recent recession, growth in U.S. manufacturing output in 

the Reference case accelerates from 2011 through 2020. After 

2020, growth in both GDP and manufacturing output return 

to rates closer to the historical trend. Increased foreign competition, slow expansion of domestic production capacity, and 

higher energy prices increase competitive pressure on most 

manufacturing industries after 2020. These factors weigh particularly heavy on the energy-intensive manufacturing sectors, 

which taken together grow at a slower rate of about 1.0 percent 

per year, which reflects projections ranging from a 0.1-percent annual decline for bulk chemicals to a 1.5-percent annual 

increase for food processing.

A decline in U.S. dollar exchange rates, combined with modest 

growth in unit labor costs, stimulates U.S. exports, eventually 

improving the U.S. current account balance. From 2009 to 2035, 

real exports of goods and services grow at an average annual 

rate of 6.3 percent, and real imports of goods and services grow 

by an average of 4.6 percent per year. Strong growth in exports 

is an important driver for growth projections in the transportation equipment, electronics, and machinery industries.

Energy trends in the economy

Output growth for energy-intensive

industries slows

Energy expenditures rise, but decline relative

to gross domestic product

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Nonmanufacturing

Energy-intensive

manufacturing

Non-energy-intensive

manufacturing

Industrial sector total

0 1.0 2.0 3.0

Reference

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

Figure 47. Sectoral composition of industrial output 

growth rates in three cases, 2009-2035 

(percent per year)

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1990 2000

2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

History Projections

2009

Figure 48. Energy expenditures in the U.S. economy 

in three cases, 1990-2035 (trillion 2009 dollars)

0

5

10

15

20

25

1970 1990 2020 2035

All energy

Petroleum

Natural gas

1973 2035

History Projections

2009

15.4

4.4

2009

Energy intensity

(thousand Btu per real dollar of GDP)

2009

Figure 49. Energy end-use expenditures as a 

share of gross domestic product, 1970-2035 

(nominal expenditures as percent of nominal GDP)
60 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

The energy markets of the three North American nations 

(United States, Canada, and Mexico) are well integrated, with 

extensive infrastructure that allows cross-border trade between 

the United States and both Canada and Mexico. The United 

States, which is by far the region’s largest energy consumer, 

relies on Canada and Mexico for supplies of liquid fuels. Canada 

and Mexico were the largest suppliers of U.S. liquids imports in 

2009, providing 2.5 and 1.2 million barrels per day, respectively. 

In addition, Canada supplies the United States with substantial 

natural gas supplies, exporting 3.2 trillion cubic feet to U.S. 

markets in 2009 (Figure 51).

In the AEO2011 Reference case, the existing trade relationships 

between the United States and the two other North American 

countries continue. In 2035, the United States still imports 

2.6  million barrels per day of liquid fuels from Canada and 

about 1.0 million barrels per day from Mexico. The improving 

prospects for domestic U.S. natural gas production, however, 

mean a smaller natural gas import requirement. In 2035, U.S. 

imports of Canadian natural gas fall to 2.8 trillion cubic feet. 

On the other hand, U.S. natural gas exports to both Canada and 

Mexico increase. Canada’s imports of U.S. natural gas rise from 

0.7 trillion cubic feet in 2009 to 1.0 trillion cubic feet in 2035, 

and Mexico’s imports rise from 0.3 trillion cubic feet in 2009 to 

1.6 trillion cubic feet in 2035.

EIA’s International Energy Outlook shows world marketed energy 

consumption increasing strongly over the projection period, 

rising by nearly 50 percent from 2009 through 2035 (Figure 

50). Most of the growth occurs in emerging economies outside 

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 

(OECD), especially in non-OECD Asia. Total non-OECD energy 

use increases by 84 percent in the Reference case, compared 

with a 14-percent increase in the developed OECD nations.

Energy use in non-OECD Asia, led by China and India, shows 

the most robust growth among the non-OECD regions, rising by 

118 percent over the projection period. However, strong growth 

is also projected for much of the rest of the non-OECD regions: 

82 percent growth in the Middle East, 63 percent in Africa, and 

63 percent in Central and South America. The slowest growth 

among the non-OECD regions is projected for non-OECD 

Europe and Eurasia (including Russia), where substantial gains 

in energy efficiency are achieved through replacement of inefficient Soviet-era capital equipment.

Worldwide, the use of energy from all sources increases over 

the projection. Given expectations that oil prices will remain 

relatively high, petroleum and other liquids are the world’s 

slowest-growing energy sources. High energy prices and concerns about the environmental consequences of greenhouse 

gas (GHG) emissions lead a number of national governments to 

provide incentives in support of the development of alternative 

energy sources, making renewables the world’s fastest-growing 

source of energy in the outlook.

International energy

Non-OECD nations account for 84 percent of 

growth in world energy use

U.S. reliance on imported natural gas falls, 

and exports rise

0

200

400

600

800

1990 2000 2007 2015 2025 2035

OECD

Non-OECD

Europe

and Eurasia

Africa

Central and

South America

Middle East

Non-OECD Asia

Figure 50. World energy consumption by region, 

1990-2035 (quadrillion Btu)

0

1

2

3

4

Canada Mexico Canada Mexico 2009 2015 2025 2035

U.S. imports U.S. exports

Figure 51. North American natural gas trade, 

2009-2035 (trillion cubic feet)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 61

Total use of liquids is similar in the Reference, High Oil Price, and 

Low Oil Price cases, ranging from 108 to 115 million barrels per day 

in 2035, respectively. This occurs because the alternative oil price 

cases reflect a shifting of both supply and demand, with a resulting consumption and production level that is similar. Although total 

GDP growth in the OECD countries is assumed to be the same in 

all three cases, non-OECD GDP growth is lower in the Low Oil Price 

case and higher in the High Oil Price case, changing the shares of 

global liquids use by OECD and non-OECD countries among the 

three cases (Figure 53). Thus the cases reflect a future where the 

impact of income growth as a demand driver of oil prices overwhelms any countervailing impact of oil prices as a driver of growth.

In the Reference case, OECD liquids use grows to 47.9 million 

barrels per day, while non-OECD liquids use grows to 62.9 million barrels per day, in 2035. In the Low Oil Price case, OECD 

liquids use in 2035 is higher than in the Reference case, whereas 

non-OECD use is lower. In the High Oil Price case, OECD use falls 

to 45.1 million barrels per day in 2035. In contrast, non-OECD 

use, driven by higher GDP growth, increases to nearly 70 million 

barrels per day in 2035. Non-OECD Asia and the Middle East 

account for most of the difference from the Reference case, but 

liquids use in Central and South America in 2035 is also 1.1 million barrels per day higher than in the Reference case.

Total liquids production is nearly identical in the Reference and 

High Oil Price cases, with the most significant difference coming from increased unconventional production in the High Oil 

Price case as some advanced production technologies become 

economical. In the Low Oil Price case, lower demand and lower 

prices shutter more expensive conventional liquids projects and 

reduce unconventional liquids production.

International oil markets

Oil price cases depict uncertainty 

in world oil markets

Liquids demand in developing nations 

is driven by the rate of GDP growth

World oil prices in AEO2011, defined in terms of the average price of low-sulfur, light crude oil delivered to Cushing, 

Oklahoma, span a broad range that reflects the inherent volatility and uncertainty of world oil prices (Figure 52). The AEO2011 

price paths are not intended to reflect absolute bounds for 

future oil prices, but rather to allow analysis of the implications 

of world oil market conditions that differ from those assumed 

in the AEO2011 Reference case. The Reference case assumes a 

continuation of current trends in terms of economic access to 

resources outside the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting 

Countries (OPEC), the OPEC market share of world production, 

and global economic growth.

The High Oil Price case depicts a world oil market in which 

total GDP growth in the non-OECD countries is faster than in 

the Reference case, driving up demand for liquids. On the supply side, conventional production is more restricted by political decisions and limits on economic access to resources (e.g., 

use of quotas, fiscal regimes, and other approaches that restrict 

access) compared to the Reference case. Oil production in the 

major producing countries is reduced (e.g., OPEC share falls 

to 37 percent), and the consuming countries turn to high-cost 

unconventional liquids production to satisfy demand.

In the Low Oil Price case, GDP growth in non-OPEC countries is 

slower than in the Reference case, resulting in lower demand for 

liquids. Regarding supply, producing countries develop stable 

fiscal policies and investment regimes directed at encouraging 

development of their resources. OPEC nations increase production, achieving approximately a 48-percent market share of 

total liquids production by 2035, up from approximately 40 percent in 2009.

0

50

100

150

200

250

1980 1995

2009

2020 2035

History Projections

Reference

High Oil Price

Low Oil Price

2009

Figure 52. Average annual world oil prices 

in three cases, 1980-2035 (2009 dollars per barrel)

2009 Low

Oil Price

2035

Reference

High

Oil Price

Supply Demand

0

40

80

120

OECD

Non-OECD

OPEC

Middle East

Other

OPEC

Non-OPEC

Figure 53. World liquids supply and demand by region 

in three cases, 2009 and 2035 (million barrels per day)
62 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Growth in energy use is linked to population growth through 

increases in housing, commercial floorspace, transportation, 

and goods and services. These changes affect not only the level 

of energy use, but also the mix of fuels used. Energy consumption per capita declined from 337 million Btu in 2007 to 308 

million Btu in 2009, the lowest level since 1967. In the AEO2011

Reference case, energy use per capita increases slightly 

through 2013, as the economy recovers from the 2008-2009 

economic downturn. After 2013, energy use per capita declines 

by 0.3 percent per year on average, to 293 million Btu in 2035, 

as higher efficiency standards for vehicles and appliances take 

effect (Figure 55).

Energy intensity (Btu of energy use per dollar of real GDP) falls 

as a result of structural changes and efficiency improvements. 

Since 1990, a growing share of U.S. output has come from less 

energy-intensive services. In 1990, 68 percent of the total value 

of output came from services, 8 percent from energy-intensive 

manufacturing industries, and the balance from non-energyintensive manufacturing and the nonmanufacturing industries 

(e.g., agriculture, mining, and construction). In 2009, services 

accounted for 76 percent of total output and energy-intensive 

industries only 6 percent. Services continue to play a growing 

role in the AEO2011 Reference case, accounting for 79 percent 

of total output in 2035, with energy-intensive manufacturing accounting for less than 5 percent. In combination with 

improvements in energy efficiency in all sectors, the shift away 

from energy-intensive industries pushes overall energy intensity 

down by an average of 1.9 percent per year from 2009 to 2035.

World production of liquid fuels from unconventional resources 

in 2009 was 4.1 million barrels per day, or about 5 percent of 

total liquids production. In the AEO2011 projections, production from unconventional sources grows to about 10.4, 13.5, 

and 19.4 million barrels per day in 2035 in the Low Oil Price, 

Reference, and High Oil Price cases, respectively, accounting 

for about 10, 12, and 17 percent of total world liquids production (Figure 54).

The factors most likely to affect production levels vary for the 

different types of unconventional liquid. Price is the most important factor for bitumen production from Canadian oil sands, 

because the fiscal regime and extraction technologies remain 

relatively constant, regardless of world oil prices. Production 

of Venezuela’s extra-heavy oil depends more on the prevailing investment environment and the assumed governmentimposed levels of economic access to resources in the different 

price cases. In the Low Oil Price case, with more foreign investment in extra-heavy oil, production in 2035 climbs to 3.6 million 

barrels per day. In the Reference and High Oil Price cases, with 

growing investment restrictions, extra-heavy oil production is 

limited to 1.5 million barrels per day and 1.7 million barrels per 

day, respectively, in 2035.

Production levels for biofuels, coal-to-liquids (CTL), and gas-toliquids (GTL) are driven largely by the price level and the extent 

of the need to compensate for restrictions on economic access 

to conventional liquid resources in other nations. In the Low 

Oil Price and High Oil Price cases, production from those three 

sources in 2035 totals 3.6 million barrels per day and 9.0 million 

barrels per day, respectively.

U.S. energy demand

Unconventional liquids gain market share

as prices rise

U.S. average energy use per person and 

per dollar of GDP declines through 2035

0

5

10

15

20

2009 Low

Oil Price

Reference High

Oil Price

Extra-heavy oil

Oil shale

GTL

CTL

Biofuel

Bitumen

2035

Figure 54. Unconventional resources as a share of 

total world liquids production in three cases, 

2009 and 2035 (percent)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1980 1995

2009

2020 2035

History Projections

Energy use 

per 2005

dollar of GDP

Energy use 

per capita

2009

Figure 55. Energy use per capita and per dollar 

of gross domestic product, 1980-2035 (index, 1980 = 1)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 63

Consumption of all fuels increases in the AEO2011 Reference case, 

but the aggregate fossil fuel share of total energy use falls from 

83 percent in 2009 to 78 percent in 2035 as renewable fuel use 

grows rapidly (Figure 57). The renewable share of total energy 

use increases from 8 percent in 2009 to 13 percent in 2035, in 

response to the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 

(EISA2007) RFS, availability of Federal tax credits for renewable 

electricity generation and capacity early in the projection period, 

and State renewable portfolio standard (RPS) programs.

Consumption of all liquid fuels increases by 0.5 percent per year from 

2009 to 2035, with most of the increase accounted for by biofuels. 

The petroleum share of liquid fuel use declines as consumption of 

alternative fuels increases and petroleum use is roughly flat. Nearly 

all use of liquid biofuels occurs in the transportation sector. Biodiesel 

blended into diesel, motor fuel containing up to 85 percent ethanol 

(E85), and ethanol blended into motor gasoline account for 54 percent of the growth in liquids fuel consumption from 2009 to 2035.

Natural gas consumption grows by about 0.6 percent per year 

from 2009 to 2035, as the large amount of shale gas resources 

that can be produced at prices under $7 per thousand cubic feet 

keeps natural gas prices from 2009 through 2035 below the 

levels seen from 2005 to 2008.

Coal consumption increases by 0.8 percent per year in the Reference case from 2009 to 2035, or by 0.2 percent per year starting 

from the 2007 consumption level. Several coal-fired power plants 

currently under construction, with combined capacity totaling 

11.5 gigawatts, come on line by 2012. Nuclear power capacity 

expands by 9.5 gigawatts, but the nuclear share of primary energy 

falls from 8.8 percent in 2009 to 8.0 percent in 2035.

U.S. energy demand

Industrial and commercial sectors lead growth

in primary energy use

Renewable sources lead rise in primary

energy consumption

Total primary energy consumption, including fuels used for electricity generation, grows by 0.7 percent per year from 2009 to 

2035, to 114.2 quadrillion Btu in 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference 

case (Figure 56). The largest increase, 7.2 quadrillion Btu from 

2009 to 2035, is in the industrial sector, which was the end-use 

sector most severely affected by the economic downturn in 2009. 

When 2008 is used as the base year, the total increase in industrial energy consumption is only about one-half the increase from 

2009 to 2035, at 3.3 quadrillion Btu from 2008 to 2035. Factors contributing to the growth in industrial energy consumption 

include increased use of natural gas for combined heat and power 

(CHP) generation and increased production of biofuels to meet 

the renewable fuels standard (RFS) required by EISA2007.

The second-largest increase in total primary energy consumption from 2009 to 2035 (5.8 quadrillion Btu) is in the commercial sector, which currently accounts for the smallest sectoral 

share of primary energy use. Even as standards for building 

shells and energy efficiency are being tightened in the commercial sector, the growth rate for commercial energy use, at 

1.1 percent per year, is the fastest rate among the end-use sectors, propelled by 1.2-percent average annual projected growth 

in commercial floorspace.

Primary energy use in the transportation sector grows by 

4.7  quadrillion Btu from 2009 to 2035. Light-duty vehicles 

(LDVs) have accounted for more than 16 percent of total U.S. 

energy consumption since 2002, and their share declines 

slightly to 15.5 percent in 2020 as fuel economy standards 

increase to meet the statutory requirements of EISA2007. 

Growth in energy consumption by LDVs averages 0.3 percent 

per year from 2009 to 2035.

125

0

25

50

75

100

2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Transportation

Industrial

Commercial

Residential

Figure 56. Primary energy use by end-use sector, 

2009-2035 (quadrillion Btu)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1980 1995 2020 2035

History Projections

Total

Renewables

Coal

Liquids

Natural gas

Nuclear

Biofuels

2009

2009

Figure 57. Primary energy use by fuel, 1980-2035 

(quadrillion Btu)
64 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Electricity use grows 0.7 percent per year, from 42 percent of total 

residential delivered energy consumption in 2009 to 47 percent 

in 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference case. Growing service demand 

is only partially offset by technological improvements that lead to 

increased efficiency of electric devices and appliances.

Despite increases in market penetration by ENERGY STAR qualified computers, as well as a general shift from desktop computers to laptops and other portable computing devices, energy use 

for personal computers (PCs) and related equipment continues 

to grow slowly, as the number of computers and peripherals per 

household increases (although at a slower rate than in the past). 

Contributing to the growth are related electronic devices, such 

as high-speed internet modems and network routers, which 

typically lack automatic standby modes and consume full power 

24 hours a day.

Increased market penetration is also expected for ENERGY 

STAR televisions and computer monitors. Flat panel displays 

capture a growing share of the market and overall stock efficiency improves as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) displace cold 

cathode fluorescent lamps as a major backlighting technology 

for liquid crystal displays. Improvements in efficiency are offset 

to some degree, however, by a trend toward larger screen sizes.

The EISA2007 Federal lighting standards will lead to a decline 

in energy use for lighting, as low-efficacy incandescent lamps 

are replaced by compact fluorescent, LED, and high-efficiency 

incandescent lamps (Figure 59). In 2020, delivered energy use 

for lighting per household in the Reference case is 33 percent 

below the 2009 level.

Residential sector energy demand

Residential energy use per capita varies

with end-use technology assumptions

Electricity use increases despite improved

efficiency of electric devices

In the AEO2011 Reference case, residential energy use per capita declines by 17.0 percent from 2009 to 2035 (Figure 58). 

Delivered energy use stays relatively constant while population 

grows by 26.7 percent during the period. Growth in the number of homes and in average square footage leads to increased 

demand for energy services, which is offset in part by efficiency 

gains in space heating, water heating, and lighting equipment. 

Population shifts to warmer and drier climates also reduce 

energy demand for space heating.

Three alternative cases show the potential role of energy-efficient technologies in reducing energy use per capita. The 2010 

Technology case assumes no improvement in efficiency for 

equipment or building shells beyond what is available in 2010. 

The High Technology case assumes earlier availability, lower 

cost, higher efficiency, and more energy-efficient consumer 

purchasing decisions for some advanced equipment. The Best 

Available Technology case limits purchases of new and replacement appliances to the most efficient available in the year of 

replacement—regardless of cost—and assumes that new home 

construction adopts the most energy-efficient components for 

insulation, windows, and space conditioning equipment.

In the High Technology and Best Available Technology cases, 

with greater efficiency improvements, household energy use 

per capita declines by 25.4 percent and 34.1 percent, respectively, from 2009 to 2035. Household energy use per capita 

falls by 9.6 percent from 2009 to 2035 in the 2010 Technology 

case, even in the absence of efficiency improvements in commercially available equipment and new building shells, as older 

equipment is retired and replaced with 2010 vintage equipment.

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1990 2000

2009

2015 2025 2035

History Projections

Reference

2010 Technology

Best Available Technology

High Technology

2009

0

Figure 58. Residential delivered energy consumption 

per capita in four cases, 1990-2035 (index, 1990 = 1)

-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

Other

Heating,	cooling,	

and ventilation

TVs and set-top boxes

Refrigeration and cooking

Water heating

Laundry and dishwashing

PCs and related equipment

Lighting

Figure 59. Change in residential electricity 

consumption for selected end uses in the 

Reference case, 2009-2035 (billion kilowatthours)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 65

In the residential sector, growth of distributed electricity generation is limited by financial considerations and the interconnection regulations of local electric generators. As technologies 

improve and policies change, however, the limitations, which 

vary by State, are assumed to be reduced over time, allowing for 

faster growth in residential distributed generation (DG).

The current Federal investment tax credit (ITC) for renewable 

energy installations is available through 2016. When the ITC 

expires, average growth in solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity in 

the AEO2011 Reference case slows from 39 percent per year to 

less than 1 percent per year. A total of 8.9 gigawatts of photovoltaic capacity is installed by 2035. Likewise, installed wind 

capacity grows by 48 percent per year from 2009 through 2016, 

but without the ITC the growth slows to nearly zero percent per 

year from 2017 to 2035. In the AEO2011 Extended Policies case, 

which assumes extension of the ITC through 2035, PV capacity grows by 17 percent per year from 2009 to 2035, and total 

installed capacity reaches 47.8 gigawatts in 2035.

The number of homes heated by ground-source heat pumps 

(GSHPs) increases by more than 19 percent per year from 2009 

to 2016 in the Reference case, then slows to 3 percent per year 

after the ITC expires. In 2035, GSHPs account for 2.3 percent 

of all heating systems installed in single-family homes (Figure 

61). In the Extended Policies case, however, sustained tax credits lead to a continued 8.8-percent average annual increase in 

total installations, from 389,000 units in 2009 to 3,504,000 

units in 2035, when GSHPs make up 3.4 percent of all residential heating systems.

Residential sector energy demand

AEO reflects improvement in

efficiency standards

As tax credits expire under current law, 

gains in residential renewable energy use slow

Since their inception in the 1970s, Federal efficiency standards 

have expanded to cover an extensive range of residential equipment [86]. The Reference case captures the continuing effects 

of the standards, which often are the primary reason for efficiency gains.

The largest gains in efficiency are expected for lighting, based 

on EISA2007 standards that require the phased replacement of 

most incandescent lamps with technologies that by 2020 are 

roughly three times more efficient than those widely marketed 

today (Figure 60). Refrigerators and water heaters also have 

been the subject of recent U.S. Department of Energy rulemakings. Overall, delivered energy use for products covered by the 

new standards declines by 0.1 percent per year, even as the number of households increase by an average of 1 percent per year.

The Best Available Technology case—which does not consider 

cost—demonstrates even greater gains in energy efficiency, 

especially for electric equipment, which has greater potential 

for improvement. In that case, delivered energy consumption 

per household declines by 1.7 percent per year from 2009 to 

2035, and the total in 2035 is 1.8 quadrillion Btu lower than the 

2009 level.

A variety of other products—mostly consumer electronics—are 

not subject to existing standards, although voluntary programs, 

such as ENERGY STAR, still lead to some efficiency gains in the 

AEO2011 Reference case. Delivered energy use for such products grows faster than the number of households, averaging 

1.5 percent per year in the Reference case.

0 50 100 150 200 250

Refrigeration

Lighting

Water heating: natural gas

Water heating: electric

Central air conditioning: electric

Space heating: gas furnace

Space heating: electric heat pump

2010 Technology

Best Available Technology

Reference

Figure 60. Efficiency gains for selected residential 

equipment in three cases, 2035 (percent change 

from 2009 installed stock efficiency)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Ground-source heat pumps

Solar photovoltaics

Ground-source heat pumps

Solar photovoltaics

Ground-source heat pumps

Solar photovoltaics Reference

Extended Policies

2009

2020

2035

Figure 61. Residential market saturation by renewable 

technologies in two cases, 2009, 2020, and 2035 

(percent share of single-family homes)
66 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Electricity use increases 1.4 percent per year, from 53 percent 

of total commercial delivered energy consumption in 2009 to 

58 percent in 2035, in the AEO2011 Reference case. Growth in 

electricity demand for new electronic equipment more than offsets improvements in equipment and building shell efficiency 

and growth in CHP.

Average annual growth in commercial sector electricity use 

for PCs and related devices slows between 2009 and 2035, 

as the market penetration of ENERGY STAR qualified products 

increases, and laptops gain market share relative to desktop 

PCs, which use more energy than laptops.

Electricity use for “other” office equipment—including servers 

and mainframe computers—increases by 2.5 percent per year 

as demand for high-speed networks and internet connectivity 

grows, surpassing electricity demand for commercial refrigeration by 2019.

End uses such as space heating and cooling, water heating, and 

lighting are covered by Federal and State efficiency standards, 

which have the effect of limiting growth in energy consumption 

to less than the average of 1.2 percent per year for growth in 

commercial floorspace (Figure 63). “Other” electric end uses, 

some of which are not subject to Federal standards, account 

for much of the growth in commercial electricity consumption. 

Electricity demand for those other end uses, which include distribution transformers, vertical transport, and medical imaging 

equipment, increases by an average of 2.4 percent per year and 

accounts for 39 percent of total commercial electricity consumption in 2035.

Commercial sector energy demand

End-use efficiency improvements could

lower energy consumption per capita

Growth in electricity use dominates the

outlook for commercial energy demand

The AEO2011 Reference case shows minimal change in commercial energy use per capita between 2009 and 2035 (Figure 

62). While growth in commercial floorspace (1.2 percent per 

year) is faster than growth in population (0.9 percent per year), 

energy use per capita remains relatively steady due to efficiency 

improvements in equipment and building shells. Efficiency standards and the addition of more efficient technologies account 

for a large share of the improvement in the efficiency of end-use 

services, notably in space cooling, refrigeration, and lighting.

Three alternative cases use different assumptions about technology and energy efficiency to examine uncertainty in the 

projections of commercial energy consumption per capita. The 

2010 Technology case limits equipment and building shell technologies to the options available in 2010. The High Technology 

case assumes lower costs, higher efficiencies for equipment 

and building shells, and earlier availability of some advanced 

equipment than in the Reference case, with commercial consumers placing greater importance on the value of future 

energy savings. The Best Available Technology case limits 

future equipment choices to the most efficient model for each 

technology available in the year of replacement and assumes 

more improvement in the efficiency of building shells for new 

and existing buildings than in the High Technology case.

Commercial energy consumption per capita in 2035 is 3.9 percent higher in the 2010 Technology case than in the Reference 

case. In contrast, it is 12.5 percent lower in the High Technology 

case and 17.9 percent lower in the Best Available Technology 

case than in the Reference case.

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1990 2000

2009

2015 2025 2035

History Projections

Reference

2010 Technology

Best Available Technology

High Technology

2009

0

Figure 62. Commercial delivered energy consumption 

per capita in four cases, 1990-2035 (index, 1990 = 1)

-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Office equipment: other

Other (miscellaneous)

Lighting

Cooking

Refrigeration

Commercial floorspace (1.2 percent per year)

Heating,	cooling,	and	ventilation

Office equipment: personal computers

Figure 63. Average annual growth rates for selected 

electricity end uses in the commercial sector, 2009-2035 

(percent per year)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 67

More than 40 States have some form of interconnection standard or guideline that governs the installation of DG capacity 

and its incorporation into the electricity grid. Current limits on 

the maximum capacity that can be interconnected are expected 

to decrease with improvements in technology and the spread of 

RPS policies and goals over time.

In addition to declining limits on DG interconnection, ITCs for 

various renewable and nonrenewable DG technologies continue 

through 2016. With the exception of a permanent 10-percent 

credit following the expiration of the current 30-percent credit 

for solar PVs, the AEO2011 Reference case assumes no ITCs for 

DG after 2016. The Extended Policies case, on the other hand, 

assumes that current tax credits continue through 2035.

Total commercial DG capacity in the Reference case increases 

from 1.9 gigawatts in 2009 to more than 6.8 gigawatts in 2035. 

In the Extended Policies case, capacity increases to 9.8 gigawatts in 2035. Microturbines show the fastest capacity growth 

among the DG technologies in the Reference case, averaging 

16  percent per year. Commercial sector wind capacity grows 

by 11 percent per year in the Extended Policies case, more than 

double the annual growth in the Reference case, as a result 

of continued tax credits. In 2035, renewable energy accounts 

for 50 percent of all commercial DG capacity in the Extended 

Policies case, as compared with less than 35 percent in the 

Reference case (Figure 65).

Delivered energy consumption for core space heating, ventilation, air conditioning, water heating, lighting, cooking, and refrigeration uses grows at an average annual rate of 0.6 percent in 

the AEO2011 Reference case, compared with 1.2 percent annual 

growth in commercial floorspace. These core end uses, which 

frequently have been targets of energy efficiency standards, 

accounted for just over 60 percent of commercial delivered 

energy demand in 2009 and are projected to fall to 55 percent 

of delivered energy in 2035. Energy consumption for the remaining end uses together grows by 1.5 percent per year, led by other 

electric end uses and by office equipment other than computers.

The percentage gains in efficiency in the Reference case are 

highest for refrigeration, as a result of provisions in the Energy 

Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT2005) and EISA2007. Electric space 

heating shows the next-largest percentage improvement, followed by lighting and cooling (Figure 64).

The Best Available Technology case demonstrates the significant potential for further improvement—especially in electric 

equipment, led by lighting, space heating, and water heating. In 

the Best Available Technology case, the share of total commercial delivered energy use accounted for by the core end uses falls 

to 49 percent in 2035, with significant efficiency gains coming 

from LED lighting, GSHPs, high-efficiency rooftop heat pumps, 

centrifugal chillers, and solar water heaters. Those technologies 

are relatively costly, however, and thus are unlikely to gain wide 

adoption in commercial applications without improved economics or additional incentives. Additional efficiency improvements 

could also come from an expansion of standards to include 

some of the rapidly growing miscellaneous electric applications.

Commercial sector energy demand

Core technologies lead efficiency gains 

in the commercial sector

Improved interconnection supports growth

in distributed generation

0 50 100 150 200

Lighting

Electric space heating

Electric water heating

Refrigeration

Electric space cooling

Natural gas space heating

Natural gas water heating

2010 Technology

Best Available Technology

Reference

Figure 64. Efficiency gains for selected commercial 

equipment in three cases, 2035 (percent change 

from 2009 installed stock efficiency)

0 1 2 3

Solar photovoltaics

Microturbines

Conventional 

natural-gas-fired 

CHP

Wind

Fuel cells 

Reference

Extended Policies

Figure 65. Additions to electricity generation 

capacity in the commercial sector in two cases, 

2009-2035 (gigawatts)
68 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Industrial sector energy demand

Heat and power energy consumption

increases in manufacturing industries

Industrial fuel mix changes as demand

increases from low levels in 2009

Despite a 54-percent increase in industrial shipments, industrial 

energy consumption increases by only 19 percent from 2009 

to 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference case. Energy consumption 

growth is moderated by a shift in the mix of output, as growth in 

energy-intensive manufacturing output (aluminum, steel, bulk 

chemicals, paper, and refining) slows and growth in high-value 

(but less energy-intensive) industries, such as computers and 

transportation equipment, accelerates.

There is also a relative shift in industrial energy use to manufacturing from nonmanufacturing industries. Manufacturing heat 

and power as a percentage of total industrial delivered energy 

consumption grows from 65 percent in 2009 to 71 percent in 

2035 (Figure 66). Nonmanufacturing (agriculture, mining, and 

construction) heat and power energy consumption as a percentage of total energy drops by 2 percent over the projection. 

The remaining fuel consumption, consisting of nonfuel uses of 

energy (primarily as feedstocks in chemical manufacturing and 

asphalt for construction), also declines by about 4 percent.

The rise in manufacturing heat and power consumption in 

the AEO2011 Reference case is due primarily to an increase of 

1.7 quadrillion Btu in total energy use for production of liquid 

fuels—both petroleum and nonpetroleum liquids—in the refining industry. From 2009 to 2035, CTL, coal- and biomass-toliquids (CBTL), and biofuels production accounts for the bulk 

of the increase, which corresponds to a 48-percent increase in 

energy consumption for liquid fuels production, although total 

refinery shipments increase by only 16 percent.

0

5

10

15

20

25

2009 2015 2020 2025 2035

Manufacturing heat and power

Nonmanufacturing heat and power

Nonfuel uses

Figure 66. Industrial delivered energy consumption 

by application, 2009-2035 (quadrillion Btu)

Demand for all fuels in the industrial sector increases from 2009 

levels in the Reference case. As consumption increases, the mix 

of fuels and their relative shares change slowly, reflecting modest capital spending and limited capability for fuel switching 

(Figure 67).

Industrial use of liquid fuels grows by 13 percent from 2009 to 

2035, but its share of total liquid fuel consumption declines. 

Nearly one-half of industrial liquid fuel consumption is for 

feedstocks in the production of chemicals, and another 20 percent consists of still gas generated and consumed by refineries. Natural gas use in the industrial sector grows by 27 percent 

from 2009 to 2035, reflecting the recovery in industrial output 

and relatively low natural gas prices, which spur a large increase 

in natural gas consumption for CHP generation that offsets a 

decline in natural gas use for feedstock.

After 2025, increased use of coal for CTL and CBTL production offsets a decline in traditional industrial uses of coal 

(including steam generation and coke production) as a result 

of efficiency improvements that reduce the need for process 

steam. Metallurgical coal use drops, based on an expected 

decline in smelting and increased use of electric arc furnaces 

in steel-making.

A decline in the electricity share of industrial energy consumption reflects growth in on-site CHP and efficiency improvements 

across industries, mostly based on motor efficiency standards. 

The renewable fuel share expands with growth in lumber, paper, 

and other industries that consume biomass-based byproducts.

0

5

10

15

2007 2009 2025 2035

Liquid fuels

Natural gas

Electricity

Coal

Renewables

Figure 67. Industrial energy consumption by fuel, 

2007, 2009, 2025 and 2035 (quadrillion Btu)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 69

Starting from the low levels of 2009, industrial delivered energy 

use grows sharply in nearly all the AEO2011 cases. From 2009 to 

2035, industrial energy consumption grows by 7 percent in the 

Low Economic Growth case, 19 percent in the Reference case, 

and 31 percent in the High Economic Growth case (Figure 69).

The most significant changes in energy use are in the refining, bulk chemicals, and iron and steel industries. The refining 

industry (both petroleum and nonpetroleum liquids refineries) 

shows the strongest growth in the Reference, Low Economic 

Growth, and High Economic Growth cases. Although total 

refinery output grows by less than 1 percent per year, the industry’s energy use increases modestly in all cases, with continued efforts to remove sulfur from oil inputs, energy-intensive 

coal liquefaction beginning in 2025, and strong growth in the 

production of other nonpetroleum liquids. In the Low Economic 

Growth case, energy use in the bulk chemical industry declines 

from 2009 to 2035 as its output declines in the face of rising costs for domestic inputs in a globally competitive market. 

Similarly, energy consumption in the iron and steel industry 

declines in the Low Economic Growth case as penetration of 

energy-saving production technologies completely offsets output growth from 2009 to 2035.

Overall energy intensity in the industrial sector declines by 

21 percent in the Low Economic Growth case, 23 percent in the 

Reference case, and 25 percent in the High Economic Growth 

case. The projections are consistent with the expectation that 

energy intensity will decline as the economic recovery facilitates investments in more efficient equipment.

Industrial production recovers from the recent economic downturn and continues to grow over the long term in the AEO2011

Reference case. The recovery and long-term growth are uneven, 

however, with the strongest growth in iron and steel and nonenergy-intensive manufacturing industries. The remaining 

industries also recover from the recession, but their production 

begins to decline after 2025. Over the entire projection, total 

industrial shipments increase by 54 percent in the Reference 

case, 35 percent in the Low Economic Growth case, and 75 percent in the High Economic Growth case.

A few energy-intensive manufacturing industries account for the 

majority of total industrial energy consumption. Ranked by their 

total energy use, the top five energy-consuming industries—

bulk chemicals, refining, paper, steel, and food—accounted for 

61 percent of industrial energy consumption and 25 percent of 

total value of shipments in 2009. With the exception of bulk 

chemicals, most industries experience overall growth from 

2009 to 2035 (Figure 68). Chemical industry output recovers 

to pre-recession levels by 2015 but then declines by 16 percent 

from 2015 to 2035.

A rebound in industrial output is being seen already in selected 

industries, driven by increasing demand based on relative weakness of the U.S. dollar against foreign currencies, which promotes exports of basic commodities [87]. Long-term growth in 

the energy-intensive manufacturing industries is slower, however, as a result of reduced growth in demand for the goods 

they produce, increased foreign competition, and movement 

of investment capital to more profitable areas of the economy 

after the short-term economic rebound from the recession.

Industrial sector energy demand

Iron and steel and non-energy-intensive

industries show fastest output growth

Delivered energy use in industry sectors

trends upward after recession ends

0 1 2 3

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

Reference

Petroleum refineries

Paper products

Agriculture,

construction,	mining

Food products

Other manufacturing

Iron and steel

Bulk chemicals

Figure 69. Change in delivered energy consumption 

for industrial subsectors in three cases, 2009-2035 

(quadrillion Btu)

0 50 100 150

Petroleum refineries

Paper products

Agriculture,

construction,	mining

Food products

Other manufacturing

Iron and steel

Bulk chemicals

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

Reference

Figure 68. Cumulative growth in value of shipments by 

industrial subsector in three cases, 2009-2035 (percent)
70 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

From 2009 to 2035, transportation sector energy consumption 

grows at an average annual rate of 0.6 percent (from 27.2 quadrillion Btu to 31.8 quadrillion Btu), slower than the 1.2 percent 

average rate from 1975 to 2009. The slower growth is a result 

of changing demographics, increased LDV fuel economy, and 

saturation of personal travel demand.

Energy demand for LDVs increases by 10 percent, or 1.7 quadrillion Btu (1.3 million barrels per day), from 2009 to 2035 (Figure 

71). Moderate growth in fuel prices compared with recent history and rising real disposable income combine to increase 

annual vehicle miles traveled (VMT), although personal travel 

demand increases at a slower rate than historically. Growth in 

delivered energy consumption by LDVs is tempered by more 

stringent standards for vehicle GHG emissions through model 

year (MY) 2016 and fuel economy through MY 2020. Energy 

demand for heavy-duty vehicles (including primarily freight 

trucks but also buses) increases by 48 percent, or 2.2 quadrillion Btu (1.0 million barrels per day), as a result of increased 

freight travel demand as industrial output grows and the fuel 

economy of heavy-duty vehicles shows only marginal improvement.

Energy demand for air travel increases by 16 percent, or 0.4 quadrillion Btu (0.2 million barrels per day). Growth in air travel is 

driven by increases in income and moderate growth in fuel costs, 

tempered by gains in aircraft fuel efficiency, while growth in air 

freight movement (caused by export growth) also increases fuel 

use by aircraft. Energy consumption for marine and rail travel 

increases as industrial output rises and demand for coal transport grows. Energy use for pipelines stays flat as increasing volumes of natural gas are produced closer to end-use markets.

Transportation sector energy demand

Chemical industry use of fuels as

feedstocks recovers before declining

Growth in transportation energy use

slower than historical trend

0 10 20 30 40

Total

Pipeline

Rail

Marine

Air

Heavy-duty vehicles

Light-duty vehicles 2009

2035

Figure 71. Delivered energy consumption for 

transportation by mode, 2009 and 2035 

(quadrillion Btu)

Industrial feedstock consumption includes the use of asphalt 

and road oil in the construction industry, as well as use of liquid petroleum gas, naphtha, petroleum gas oil, and natural gas 

as raw materials for the production of various chemicals. The 

largest share of feedstock energy consumption occurs in the 

chemical industry, primarily for the production of ethylene and 

propylene, which are used to make plastics, fertilizers, and a 

variety of inorganic chemicals.

Industrial energy consumption trends in the AEO2011 Reference 

case reflect growth in consumption of all feedstocks after the 

2008-2009 economic downturn, followed by a long-term 

decline as production of basic chemicals falls. Increased use of 

ethane and propane as alternatives to naphtha and gas oil reflects 

a recent switch to lighter feedstocks with the rise in crude oil 

prices relative to natural gas prices. With increasing production 

of natural gas and natural gas liquids (NGLs), lighter feedstocks 

become readily available on a continuing basis (Figure 70).

Consumption of all feedstocks is higher in 2035 than in 2009, 

except for natural gas use, which drops by 14 percent from 2009 

to 2035. The use of natural gas as a feedstock falls after 2014, 

when domestic production of hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia begins a decline that continues through 2035. Ammonia 

production declines as a result of modest growth in agricultural 

production and increased foreign competition. Consumption of 

asphalt and road oil increases through 2016, then declines with 

slower growth in the construction industry.

0

1

2

3

2009 2015 2020 2025 2035

Liquefied petroleum gas

Petrochemical

Natural gas

Asphalt

Figure 70. Industrial consumption of fuels for use as 

feedstocks by fuel type, 2009-2035 (quadrillion Btu)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 71

Personal vehicle travel demand, measured as VMT per licensed 

driver, grew at an average annual rate of 1.1 percent between 

1970 to 2007, driven by rising income, a decline in the cost of 

driving per mile (determined by both fuel economy and fuel 

price), and demographic changes (such as women fully entering the workforce). Since 2007, VMT per licensed driver has 

declined slightly because of the sudden spike in the cost of 

driving per mile followed by the economic downturn. However, 

VMT per licensed driver begins to grow again in the Reference 

case, but at a more moderate average annual rate of 0.6 percent, reaching over 15,280 miles in 2035 (Figure 73).

The projected growth in VMT per licensed driver results from a 

return to rising real disposable personal income, which increases 

by 90 percent between 2009 and 2035. While motor gasoline 

prices rise by 60 percent over the period, faster income growth 

ensures that the impact on travel demand is blunted by a reduction in the percentage of income spent on fuel. In addition, the 

effect of rising fuel costs is moderated by a 30-percent improvement in new vehicle fuel economy following the implementation 

of more stringent GHG and CAFE standards for LDVs.

Several demographic forces also play a role in moderating the 

growth in VMT per licensed driver despite the rise in real disposable income. Although LDV sales increase through 2035, 

the number of vehicles per licensed driver remains relatively 

constant (at just over 1). In addition, unemployment remains 

above pre-recession levels in the Reference case until late in the 

projection period, further tempering the increase in personal 

travel demand.

After the introduction of corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) 

standards in 1978, the fuel economy for all LDVs increased from 

19.9 miles per gallon (mpg) in 1978 to 26.2 in 1987. Despite continued technological improvement, fuel economy fell to between 

24 and 26  mpg over the next two decades, with sales of light 

trucks increasing from about 20 percent of new LDV sales 

in 1980 to 55 percent in 2004 [88]. From 2004 to 2008, fuel 

prices increased, sales of light trucks slowed, and tighter fuel 

economy standards for light-duty trucks were introduced. As a 

result, average fuel economy for LDVs rose to 28.0 mpg in 2008.

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) 

introduced new attribute-based CAFE standards for MY 2011 

LDVs in 2009, and in 2010 NHTSA and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) jointly announced CAFE and GHG 

emissions standards for MY 2012 to MY 2016. EISA2007 also 

requires that LDVs reach an average fuel economy of 35 mpg by 

MY 2020 [89]. In the Reference case, the average fuel economy 

of new LDVs (including credits for alternative-fuel vehicles and 

banked credits) rises to 29.8 mpg in 2011, 33.3 mpg in 2016, 

and 35.8 mpg in 2020 (Figure 72). After 2020, CAFE standards 

for LDVs remain constant in the Reference case, and LDV fuel 

economy increases only moderately, to 37.8 mpg in 2035.

In the Reference case, cars represent 65 percent of LDV sales 

in 2035, compared with 69 percent in the High Oil Price case 

and 55 percent in the Low Oil Price case. The economics of fuelsaving technologies improve in the High Technology and High 

Oil Price cases, but the effects on average fuel economy relative 

to the Reference case are tempered by the fact that CAFE standards already require significant improvement in fuel economy 

performance and the penetration of advanced technologies.

Transportation sector energy demand

CAFE and greenhouse gas emissions

standards boost vehicle fuel economy

Travel demand for personal vehicles

increases more slowly than in the past

25

30

35

40

1980 1995

2009

2020 2035

High Oil Price

High Technology

Low Technology

Low Oil Price

Reference

History Projections

2009

0

Figure 72. Average fuel economy of new light-duty 

vehicles in five cases, 1980-2035 (miles per gallon)

0

5

10

15

20

1970 1985 2000 2009 2020 2035

History 2009 Projections

Figure 73. Vehicle miles traveled per licensed driver, 

1970-2035 (thousand miles)
72 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Unconventional vehicles (those that use diesel, alternative 

fuels, and/or hybrid electric systems) play a significant role in 

meeting more stringent fuel economy standards and offering 

fuel savings in the face of relatively higher fuel prices, growing 

from 15 percent of new vehicle sales in 2009 to 42 percent by 

2035 in the AEO2011 Reference case.

Flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs), which can use blends of ethanol up to 

85 percent, represent the largest share of unconventional LDV 

sales in 2035, at 19 percent of total new vehicle sales and 47 percent of unconventional vehicle sales (Figure 75). Manufacturers 

selling FFVs currently receive incentives in the form of fuel economy credits earned for CAFE compliance through MY 2016. 

FFVs also play a critical role in meeting the RFS for biofuels.

Sales of electric and hybrid vehicles that use stored electric 

energy grow considerably in the Reference case. Micro hybrids, 

which use start/stop technology to manage engine operation 

while at idle, account for 8 percent of all conventional gasoline 

vehicle sales by 2035, the largest share for vehicles that use 

electric storage. Gasoline-electric and diesel-electric hybrid 

vehicles account for 5 percent of total LDV sales and 13 percent 

of unconventional vehicle sales in 2035, and plug-in and allelectric hybrid vehicles account for 3 percent of LDV sales and 

8 percent of unconventional vehicle sales. Sales of diesel vehicles also increase, to 5 percent of total LDV sales and 13 percent 

of unconventional vehicle sales in 2035. Light duty natural gas 

vehicles account for less than 0.1 percent of new vehicle sales 

throughout the projection due to their high incremental cost and 

limited fuel infrastructure.

Transportation sector energy demand

New technologies promise better

vehicle fuel efficiency

Unconventional vehicle technologies

exceed 40 percent of new sales in 2035

The market adoption of advanced technologies in conventional 

vehicles facilitates the improvement in fuel economy that is 

necessary to meet more stringent CAFE standards through MY 

2020 and reduce fuel costs thereafter. In the AEO2011 Reference 

case, the CAFE compliance of new LDVs rises from 29.1 mpg in 

2009 to 35.8 mpg in 2020 and 37.8 mpg in 2035, due in part to 

greater penetration of unconventionally fueled vehicles and in 

part to the addition of individual technologies in conventional 

vehicles (Figure 74).

In 2035, advanced drag reduction, which provides fuel economy improvements by reducing vehicle air resistance at higher 

speeds, is implemented in 98 percent of new LDVs. In addition, 

with the adoption of light-weight materials through material 

substitution, the average weights of new cars and light trucks 

decline by 4.9 percent and 1.5 percent, respectively, from 2009 

to 2035, providing additional improvements in fuel economy.

Advanced transmission technologies also improve fuel economy 

by improving the efficiency of vehicle drive trains. Aggressive 

shift logic is used in 73 percent of new LDVs in 2035; and other 

advanced technologies, such as continuously variable, automated manual, and six-speed transmissions, are installed in 

56 percent of new conventional vehicles.

Engine technologies that reduce fuel consumption also penetrate the market for new vehicles. Cylinder deactivation and 

turbocharging reach penetrations of 31 and 14 percent, respectively, in 2035. Electrification of accessories such as pumps and 

power steering, which also increases fuel economy, is implemented in 19 percent of new LDVs in 2035.

0 20 40 60 80 100

Turbocharging

Electric Accessories

Cylinder deactivation

Advanced transmission

Aggressive shift logic

Material substitution

Drag reduction

Figure 74. Market penetration of new technologies 

for light-duty vehicles, 2035 (percent)

0

2

4

6

8

10

2009 2020 2035

Total

Flex-fuel

Micro hybrid

Electric hybrid

Diesel

Plug-in and all-electric

Figure 75. Sales of unconventional light-duty vehicles 

by fuel type, 2009, 2020, and 2035 (million vehicles sold)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 73

Assuming no additional constraints on carbon emissions, coal 

remains the dominant source of electricity generation in the AEO2011

Reference case (Figure 77). Generation from coal increases by 25 percent from 2009 to 2035, but only 10 percent from pre-recession 

2007 levels, largely as a result of increased use of existing capacity. 

Its share of the total generation mix, however, falls from 45 percent to 

43 percent as a result of more rapid increases in generation from natural gas and renewables. Growth in gas-fired generation is supported 

by low natural gas prices and stable capital costs for new plants. Low 

natural gas prices make the dispatch of existing plants and construction of new natural-gas-fired plants more competitive.

Generation from U.S. nuclear power plants increases by 9 percent 

from 2009 to 2035, but its share of total generation falls from 

20  percent in 2009 to 17 percent in 2035. The Reference case 

assumes that existing nuclear power plants will continue operating through 2035 (except for retirements already announced); that 

some plants will be upgraded to higher rated capacities; and that a 

small number of new nuclear power plants will be built as a result of 

various incentive programs.

Electricity generation from renewable sources grows by 72 percent in the Reference case, raising its share of total generation 

from 11 percent in 2009 to 14 percent in 2035. Most of the 

growth in renewable electricity generation in the power sector 

consists of generation from wind and biomass facilities. The 

growth in wind generation is primarily driven by State RPS and 

Federal tax credits. Generation from biomass comes from both 

dedicated biomass plants and co-firing in coal plants. Its growth 

is driven by State RPS, the availability of low-cost feedstocks, 

and the RFS, which results in significant production of electricity 

at plants producing biofuels.

Electricity demand

Residential and commercial sectors

dominate electricity demand growth

Coal-fired plants continue to

lead electricity output

Electricity demand growth has slowed in each decade since the 

1950s. After 9.8-percent annual growth in the 1950s, demand 

(including retail sales and direct use) increased 2.4 percent per 

year in the 1990s. From 2000 to 2009 (including the 2008-2009 

economic downturn) demand grew by 0.5 percent per year. In the 

Reference case, electricity demand growth rebounds but remains 

relatively slow, as growing demand for electricity services is offset by efficiency gains from new appliance standards and investments in energy-efficient equipment.

Electricity demand grows by 31 percent in the Reference case 

(an average of 1.0 percent per year), from 3,745 billion kilowatthours in 2009 to 4,908 billion in 2035 (Figure 76). Residential 

demand grows by 18 percent over the period, spurred by population growth, rising disposable income, and continued population shifts to warmer regions with greater cooling requirements. 

Commercial sector electricity demand increases 43 percent, led 

by the service industries. Industrial electricity demand grows 

only 9 percent, slowed by increased competition from overseas 

manufacturers and a shift of U.S. manufacturing toward consumer goods that require less energy to produce.

In the Reference case, average annual electricity prices (2009 

dollars) fall 6 percent from 2009 to 2035. Through 2021 prices 

fall in response to lower coal and natural gas prices, and the 

phaseout of competitive transition and system upgrade charges 

included in transmission and distribution costs. After 2021, rising 

fuel costs more than offset the lower transmission and distribution costs. Economic growth leads to more demand for electricity 

and the fuels used for generation, raising the prices of both. In the 

High and Low Economic Growth cases, electricity prices fall by 

2 percent and 11 percent, respectively, over the projection period.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Coal Natural

gas

Nuclear Renew- ablesPetroleum

2007

2009

2035

Figure 77. Electricity generation by fuel, 

2007, 2009, and 2035 (billion kilowatthours)

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1950 1970 1990 2009 2020 2035

3-year moving average

Trend line

History 2009 Projections

Figure 76. U.S. electricity demand growth, 1950-2035 

(percent, 3-year moving average)
74 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Decisions to add capacity and the choice of fuel depend on a 

number of factors [90]. With growing electricity demand and the 

retirement of 39 gigawatts of existing capacity, 223 gigawatts of 

new generating capacity (including end-use combined heat and 

power) will be needed between 2010 and 2035 (Figure 78).

Natural-gas-fired plants account for 60 percent of capacity 

additions between 2010 and 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference 

case, compared with 25 percent for renewables, 11 percent for 

coal-fired plants, and 3 percent for nuclear. Escalating construction costs have the largest impact on capital-intensive technologies, including nuclear, coal, and renewables. However, 

Federal tax incentives, State energy programs, and rising prices 

for fossil fuels increase the competitiveness of renewable and 

nuclear capacity. In contrast, uncertainty about future limits on 

GHG emissions and other possible environmental regulations 

reduces the competitiveness of coal-fired plants (reflected in 

the AEO2011 Reference case by adding 3 percentage points to 

the cost of capital for new coal-fired capacity).

Capacity additions also are affected by demand growth and by fuel 

prices, which are uncertain. Total capacity additions from 2010 to 

2035 range from 172 gigawatts in the Low Economic Growth case to 

290 gigawatts in the High Economic Growth case. With higher natural gas prices, such as in the AEO2011 Low Shale Estimated Ultimate 

Recovery (EUR) case, fewer natural-gas-fired plants are added than 

in the Reference case. In the High Shale EUR case, where delivered 

natural gas prices are 21 percent lower than in the Reference case 

by 2035, total gas-fired capacity additions increase to 154 gigawatts between 2009 and 2035 compared to 135 gigawatts in the 

Reference case. Total capacity additions range from 212 gigawatts in 

the Low Shale EUR case to 230 gigawatts in the High Shale EUR case.

Electricity generation

Most new capacity additions

use natural gas and renewables

Annual capacity additions slow significantly 

after 2012

0

10

20

30

40

50

2010-

2015

2016-

2020

2021-

2025

2026-

2030

2031-

2035

Nuclear

Natural gas

Coal

Renewables

Figure 78. Electricity generation capacity additions 

by fuel type, 2010-2035 (gigawatts)

Typically, investments in electricity generation capacity have 

gone through “boom and bust” cycles, with periods of slower 

growth followed by strong growth, in response to changing 

expectations for future electricity demand and fuel prices, as 

well as changes in the industry, such as restructuring (Figure 

79). A construction boom in the early 2000s saw capacity additions averaging 35 gigawatts a year, much higher than had been 

seen before. More recently, average annual builds have dropped 

to around 16 gigawatts per year.

In the AEO2011 Reference case, capacity additions from 2010 to 

2035 total 223 gigawatts, including new plants built not only in 

the power sector but also by end-use generators. Annual additions in 2010, 2011, and 2012 average 17 gigawatts per year, with 

at least 40 percent of that capacity already under construction. 

Of those early builds, about 46 percent are renewable capacity 

built to take advantage of Federal tax incentives and to meet 

State renewable standards.

Annual builds drop significantly after 2012 and remain below 

7 gigawatts per year until 2025. During that period, existing reserves are adequate to meet growth in demand in most 

regions, given the earlier construction boom and relatively low 

demand growth following the economic recession. Between 

2025 and 2035, average annual builds increase to 11 gigawatts 

per year, as excess reserves are depleted and total capacity 

growth is more consistent with demand growth. About 80 percent of the capacity added in the period is natural-gas-fired, due 

to higher construction costs for other capacity types and uncertain prospects for possible future limitations on GHG emissions.

0

20

40

60

1985 1995 2005 2015 2025 2035

Coal

Natural gas/oil

Nuclear

Hydropower

Other

Figure 79. Additions to electricity generation capacity, 

1985-2035 (gigawatts)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 75

Electricity generation

Growth in generating capacity tracks 

rising demand for electricity

Costs and regulatory uncertainties vary

across options for new capacity

Technology choices for new generating capacity are based 

largely on capital, operating, and transmission costs. Coal, 

nuclear, and renewable plants are capital-intensive (Figure 81), 

while operating (fuel) expenditures make up most of the costs 

for gas-fired capacity [91]. Capital costs depend on such factors 

as equipment costs, interest rates, and cost-recovery periods. 

Fuel costs vary with operating efficiency, fuel price, resource 

availability, and transportation costs.

In addition to levelized cost considerations [92], some technologies and fuels receive subsidies, such as production tax credits (PTCs) and ITCs. Also, new plants must satisfiy local and 

Federal emissions standards and must be compatible with the 

utility’s load profile.

Regulatory uncertainty also affects capacity planning. New coal 

plants may require carbon control and sequestration equipment, resulting in higher material, labor, and operating costs. 

Alternatively, coal plants without carbon controls could incur 

higher costs for siting and permitting. Because nuclear and 

renewable power plants (including wind plants) do not emit 

greenhouse gases, their costs are not directly affected by regulatory uncertainty in this area.

Capital costs can decline over time as developers gain technology 

experience. In the Reference case, the capital costs of new technologies are adjusted upward initially, to reflect the optimism inherent 

in early estimates of project costs, then decline as project developers gain experience. The decline continues at a progressively slower 

rate as more units are built. Operating efficiencies also are assumed 

to improve over time, resulting in reduced variable costs unless 

increases in fuel costs exceed the savings from efficiency gains.

0 5 10 15

Natural gas

combined cycle

Wind

Nuclear

Coal

Natural gas

combined cycle

Wind

Nuclear

Coal

2020

2035

Variable	costs,	including	fuel

Incremental

transmission costs

Capital costs

Fixed costs

Figure 81. Levelized electricity costs for new power 

plants, 2020 and 2035 (2009 cents per kilowatthour)

Over the long term, growth in electricity generating capacity 

and growth in end-use demand for electricity track one another. 

However, unexpected shifts in demand or dramatic changes 

affecting capacity investment decisions can cause imbalances 

for a period of time. Because long-term planning is required for 

large-scale investments in new capacity, such periods of imbalance can take years to work out.

Figure 80 shows indexes summarizing relative changes in total 

generating capacity and demand. During the 1950s and 1960s, 

the capacity and demand indexes tracked very closely. The 

energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s, together with other factors, slowed electricity demand growth, and capacity growth outpaced demand for more than 10 years afterward, as planned units 

continued to come on line. Demand and capacity did not align 

again until the mid-1990s. Then, in the late 1990s, uncertainty 

about deregulation of the electricity industry caused a downturn 

in capacity expansion, and another period of imbalance followed, 

with growth in demand exceeding capacity growth.

In 2000, a boom in construction of new natural-gas-fired plants 

began, quickly bringing capacity back into balance with demand 

and, in fact, creating excess capacity. More recently, the economic recession in 2008 and 2009 caused a significant drop 

in electricity demand. As a result, the lower demand projected 

for the near term in the AEO2011 Reference case again results 

in excess generating capacity. Capacity that is currently under 

construction is completed in the Reference case, but only a 

limited amount of additional capacity is built through 2025. In 

2025, capacity growth and demand growth are in balance again, 

and they grow at similar rates through 2035.

0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

1949 1965 1985 2009 2035

Power sector generating capacity

Electricity sales

History Projections

Figure 80. Electricity sales and power sector generating 

capacity, 1949-2035 (index, 1949 = 1.0)
76 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Renewable generation

EPACT2005 tax credits stimulate

some nuclear builds

Biomass and wind lead growth in

renewable generation

Renewable electricity generation, excluding hydropower, 

accounts for nearly one-quarter of the growth in electricity generation from 2009 to 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference 

case (Figure 83). The increase is supported by RFS, State-level 

renewable electricity standards, and Federal tax credits. In the 

Reference case, generation from wind power nearly doubles 

its share of total generation, while generation from geothermal 

resources triples as a result of technology advances that make 

previously marginal sites attractive for development, as well as 

increasing the resources available at existing geothermal sites.

Renewable electricity generation in the end-use sectors also 

continues to grow. As a result of the Federal RFS that requires 

increased use of biofuels, there is an attractive opportunity to 

use waste heat from biofuel production to generate electricity. 

Consequently, generation from biomass more than triples from 

2009 to 2035, when it accounts for 39 percent of total nonhydroelectric renewable electricity generation. Generation from 

solar resources increases from 2 percent of nonhydroelectric 

renewable generation in 2009 to more than 5 percent in 2035, 

as capital costs, especially for PV technologies in the end-use 

sectors, decrease over time. End-use solar generation grows 

from 2.3 billion kilowatthours in 2009 to 16.8 billion kilowatthours in 2035, and additional growth in solar generation comes 

from utility-scale PV plants, which begin to become competitive 

in the later years of the projection.

In the AEO2011 Reference case, nuclear power capacity increases 

from 101.0 gigawatts in 2009 to 110.5 gigawatts in 2035 (Figure 

82), including 3.8 gigawatts of expansion at existing plants and 

6.3 gigawatts of new capacity. The new capacity includes completion of a second unit at the Watts Bar site, where construction on a partially completed plant has resumed. Increases in the 

estimated costs for new nuclear plants make new investments 

in nuclear power uncertain. Four new nuclear power plants are 

completed in the Reference case, all of which are brought on line 

by 2020 to take advantage of Federal financial incentives. High 

construction costs for nuclear plants, especially relative to natural-gas-fired plants, make other options for new nuclear capacity uneconomical even in the alternative electricity demand and 

fuel price cases. In the GHG Price Economywide case, which 

attaches a price to reductions in carbon dioxide, total nuclear 

capacity additions from 2010 to 2035 increase to 29 gigawatts 

as a consequence of the higher costs for operating fossil-fueled 

capacity.

One nuclear unit, Oyster Creek, is expected to be retired at the 

end of 2019, as announced by Exelon in December 2010. All 

other existing nuclear units continue to operate through 2035 

in the Reference case, which assumes that they will apply for, 

and receive, operating license renewals, including in some cases 

a second 20-year extension after they reach 60 years of operation. As discussed in last year’s “Issues in focus” section, it will 

likely be a decade or more before significant insight can be 

gained regarding what will happen beyond 60 years. With costs 

for natural-gas-fired generation rising and future regulation of 

GHG emissions uncertain, the economics of keeping existing 

nuclear power plants in operation are favorable.

0

100

200

300

400

500

2009 2020 2030 2035

Solar

MSW/LFG

Geothermal

Biomass

Wind

Figure 83. Nonhydropower renewable electricity 

generation by energy source, 2009-2035 

(billion kilowatthours)

0 25 50 75 100 125 150

2035

2020

2009

Reference

Reference

Reference

GHG Price

Economywide

GHG Price

Economywide

GHG Price

Economywide

Figure 82. Electricity generating capacity at 

U.S. nuclear power plants in two cases, 

2009, 2020, and 2035 (gigawatts)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 77

Renewable capacity

Renewable capacity growth spurred by

end-use increases

State portfolio standards increase

renewable electricity generation

Supported in part by Federal tax credits in the early part of the 

projection period, the Federal RFS, and State RPS, nonhydropower renewable generating capacity grows at a faster rate than 

fossil fuel capacity in the AEO2011 Reference case. Total nonhydropower renewable capacity increases from 47 gigawatts in 

2009 to 100 gigawatts in 2035 (Figure 84). The largest increase 

is in wind-powered generating capacity. Because the Federal 

PTC expires at the end of 2012, however, 73 percent of the overall increase in wind capacity (18.2 gigawatts) occurs between 

2009 and 2012. From 2012 through 2035, only an additional 6.9 

gigawatts of wind capacity is added.

Biomass generating capacity grows from 7 gigawatts in 2009 

(15 percent of total nonhydropower renewable capacity) to 

20.2 gigawatts in 2035 (20 percent). All the growth in biomass 

capacity occurs in the end-use sectors, mainly at biorefineries, 

where electricity generation capacity increases as a result of 

mandates in the Federal RFS that require increased use of biofuels. No growth occurs in dedicated biomass generating capacity, because dedicated open-loop biomass plants remain too 

expensive to compete successfully with renewable capacity.

Solar generating capacity increases five-fold, with most capacity additions coming in the end-use sectors. The additions are 

based on a decline in the cost of PV systems over the projection 

period and the availability of Federal tax credits through 2016. 

Geothermal capacity also grows as a result of increased site 

availability, more favorable resource estimates, and lower costs 

for construction of geothermal facilities.

0

20

40

60

80

100

2009 2020 2030 2035

MSW/LFG

Solar

Geothermal

Biomass

Wind

Figure 84. Nonhydropower renewable electricity 

generation capacity by source, 2009-2035 (gigawatts)

Regional growth in renewable generation is based largely on two 

factors: availability of renewable energy resources and the existence of State RPS programs. After a period of robust RPS enactments in several States, 2010 was a relatively quiet year for RPS 

expansions. The most prominent change was California’s RPS 

modification, which now requires renewable energy (including 

hydroelectric plants smaller than 30 megawatts capacity) to make 

up 33 percent of electricity generation, strengthening the prior 

20-percent requirement that was supported by a limited fund.

The WECC California region (CAMX), whose area approximates the California State boundaries (for a map of the electricity regions modeled, see Appendix F) has the largest projected 

nonhydroelectric renewable capacity, at 13.8 gigawatts in 2035 

(Figure 85). The vast majority of California’s renewable generating plants in 2035 consist of wind and geothermal capacity, each totaling more than 4.5 gigawatts in 2035. The Texas 

Regional Entity (ERCT) has more wind capacity in 2035 than 

any other region, at 10.1 gigawatts in 2035, and the second-largest nonhydro renewable capacity overall.

CAMX leads in solar installations, although State RPS programs 

heavily influence solar growth beyond the Southwest as both 

the Reliability First Corporation/East (RFCE) and the Reliability 

First Corporation/West (RFCW) regions have about 1 gigawatt 

of end-use solar capacity in 2035. Those two regions are not 

known for a strong solar resource base, and the installations are 

in response to the ITC in the early years of the projection period 

and high electricity prices during the later years. Most biomass 

capacity—confined largely to the end-use sectors—is built at 

cellulosic ethanol plant sites, most of which are in the Southeast.

NYCW

NYLI

RFCM

SRTV

FRCC

NYUP

MORE

SRSO

SRMV

SRVC

RFCE

SPNO

SPSO

SRMW

RMPA

RFCW

NEWE

AZNM

MROW

NWPP

ERCT

CAMX

0 5 10 15

2009

2035

Figure 85. Regional growth in nonhydroelectric 

renewable electricity generation capacity, 

including end-use capacity, 2009-2035 (gigawatts)
78 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

The extent to which natural gas prices in the Rapid and Slow 

Oil and Gas Technology cases differ from the Reference case 

depends on assumptions about the rate of improvement in natural gas exploration and production technologies. Technology 

improvement can reduce drilling and operating costs, expand 

the economically recoverable resource base, and affect the timing of production increases. It is particularly important to the 

production of natural gas from shale formations. The Reference 

case assumes that annual technology improvements follow historical trends. In the Rapid Oil and Gas Technology case, exploration and development costs decline at a faster rate, accelerating growth in production, which puts downward pressure on 

prices. In the Slow Oil and Gas Technology case, slower respective cost declines lead to higher natural gas prices and lower 

levels of consumption than in the Reference case (Figure 88).

The same type of impact can be seen from changes in economic 

growth and demand technologies. In the High Economic Growth 

and Integrated Low Technology cases, higher levels of demand 

result in increased production, which puts upward pressure on 

natural gas prices. In the Low Economic Growth and Integrated 

High Technology cases, the opposite impact is seen. Lower levels of demand put downward pressure on natural gas prices.

In the High Economic Growth and Slow Oil and Gas Technology cases with faster production growth, prices rise to levels 

that cause the Alaska pipeline to be completed towards the end 

of the projection, leading to temporary declines in natural gas 

prices. In the other cases, natural gas prices remain too low to 

make the Alaska pipeline economical before 2035.

Natural gas prices

Price disparity between crude oil and natural

gas shifts drilling to liquids-rich shales

Natural gas prices vary with economic

growth and technology progress

Unlike crude oil prices, natural gas prices do not return to the 

higher levels recorded before the 2007-2009 recession (Figure 

86). Although some supply factors continue to relate the two 

markets loosely, the two do not track directly (Figure 87). The 

large difference between crude oil and natural gas prices results 

in a shift in drilling toward shale formations with high concentrations of liquids.

Shale gas continues to have enormous potential. To satisfy consumption levels in the Reference case, the number of lower 48 

natural gas wells completed increases by 2.3 percent per year 

from 2009 to 2035. As a result, the average wellhead price for 

natural gas increases by an average of 2.1 percent per year, to 

$6.26 per million Btu in 2035 (2009 dollars). Henry Hub prices 

increase by 2.3 percent per year, to $7.07 per million Btu in 2035. 

Nonetheless, the Henry Hub price and average wellhead prices do 

not pass $5.00 per million Btu until 2020 and 2024, respectively.

0

2

4

6

8

10

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Henry Hub spot market

Lower 48 wellhead

History 2009 Projections

Figure 86. Annual average lower 48 wellhead and 

Henry Hub spot market prices for natural gas, 

1990-2035 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

History Projections

Rapid Technology

Slow Technology

0

2

4

6

8

10

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Integrated High Technology

Integrated Low Technology

Reference

2009

Figure 88. Annual average lower 48 wellhead prices 

for natural gas in seven cases, 1990-2035 

(2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

0

1

2

3

4

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History 2009 Projections

Figure 87. Ratio of low-sulfur light crude oil price 

to Henry Hub natural gas price on an energy 

equivalent basis, 1990-2035
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 79

Natural gas supply

Shale gas provides largest source of

growth in U.S. natural gas supply

Economic growth and technology progress

affect natural gas supply

The increase in natural gas production from 2009 to 2035 in 

the AEO2011 Reference case results primarily from continued 

exploration and development of shale gas resources (Figure 

89). Shale gas is the largest contributor to production growth, 

while production from tight sands, coalbed methane deposits, 

and offshore waters remains stable. Shale gas makes up 47 percent of total U.S. production in 2035, nearly triple its 16-percent share in 2009. The estimate for technically recoverable 

unproved shale gas resources in the AEO2011 Reference case is 

827 trillion cubic feet. Although more information has become 

available as a result of increased drilling activity in developing 

shale gas plays, estimates of technically recoverable resources 

and well productivity remain highly uncertain. The “Issues in 

focus” section explores several sensitivity cases that alter the 

outlook for shale gas resources.

Offshore natural gas production in the Reference case declines 

initially, reflecting delays in near-term projects in the Gulf of 

Mexico. According to the latest leasing plan from the Bureau 

of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), lease sales in the 

Mid- and South Atlantic outer continental shelf (OCS) will not 

occur before 2017. Because the Pacific OCS is considered to 

have low economic potential, AEO2011 assumes that leasing in 

the Pacific will occur only in the southern California offshore 

and only after 2023.

Production from coalbeds and tight sands does not contribute to total production growth in the Reference case but does 

remain an important source of natural gas, accounting for 29 to 

40 percent of total production from 2009 to 2035.

Total

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History 2009 Projections

Lower 48 onshore conventional

Shale gas

Coalbed methane

Alaska Lower 48 offshore

Tight gas

Figure 89. Natural gas production by source, 1990-2035 

(trillion cubic feet)

The level of domestic natural gas production is influenced by 

changes in the rate of economic growth and improvement in exploration and development technologies. The effect of economic 

growth results from its impact on the level of natural gas consumption. Changes in the rate of technology improvement affect 

natural gas drilling and production costs, which in turn can affect 

productive capacity of natural gas wells and change the number of 

successful wells, resulting in lower or higher production.

From 2009 to 2035, average annual natural gas consumption is 

1.1 trillion cubic feet higher in the High Economic Growth case than 

in the Reference case. Domestic production accounts for 90 percent of this increase, with imports from Canada supplying most of 

the rest. On average in the High Economic Growth case, 64 percent 

of the increase in domestic production from 2009 to 2035 comes 

from shale gas, 15 percent from tight sands, and the remainder from 

offshore wells, coalbeds, and an Alaska pipeline completed in 2034.

Average annual natural gas production from 2009 to 2035 is 

0.7  trillion cubic feet higher and 0.9 trillion cubic feet lower in 

the Rapid and Slow Technology cases, respectively, than in the 

Reference case (Figure 90). Shale gas production accounts for 

most of the difference, increasing by 0.8 trillion cubic feet per year 

on average from Reference case levels in the High Technology 

case and decreasing by 0.9 trillion cubic feet per year on average 

in the Slow Technology case. Higher prices in the Slow Technology 

case enable the Alaska pipeline to be completed in 2032, displacing more expensive production from tight sands and coalbed 

methane sources in the Rocky Mountain region, where shale gas 

is less abundant. Lower production levels in the Slow Technology 

case result from higher costs, lower resource availability, and, ultimately, reduced consumption in response to higher prices.

0

20

25

30

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Reference

Low Economic Growth

High Economic Growth

History Projections

Rapid Technology

Slow Technology

2009

Figure 90. Total U.S. natural gas production 

in five cases, 1990-2035 (trillion cubic feet)
80 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

An almost four-fold increase in shale gas production from 

2009 to 2035 more than offsets a 26-percent decline in nonshale lower 48 onshore natural gas production in the AEO2011

Reference case. Significant increases in shale gas production 

occur in the Northeast and Gulf Coast regions. (See Figure F4 

in Appendix F for a map of the regions.) Resource estimates for 

the Marcellus, Haynesville, and Eagle Ford plays have continued 

to increase as new information becomes available from exploration and development in those areas.

Dry gas production in the Northeast region increases in the 

Reference case nearly five-fold from 2009 to 2035 (Figure 91). 

The majority of the increase comes from the Marcellus shale gas 

play, which has an estimated technically recoverable resource 

base of about 400 trillion cubic feet. Because the growth in 

shale gas production displaces much of the natural gas that 

currently is supplied to the Northeast from the Gulf Coast and 

Canada, Gulf Coast gas tends to saturate the Henry Hub market 

and put downward pressure on natural gas prices.

Even with significant growth in shale gas production, total production in the Gulf Coast and Midcontinent regions falls, reflecting significant declines in sources other than shale formations. 

In particular, rigs previously used for drilling in tight sands are 

being moved to shale deposits. In the Southwest, as shale production increases, production from non-shale sources is maintained at a level that allows the region’s total production to 

grow. In the Rocky Mountain region, production increases from 

tight sands and coalbed methane sources support increases in 

total production.

Natural gas supply

Increases in shale gas supply support growth 

in total natural gas supply production

U.S. net imports of natural gas decline 

as domestic production rises

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Rocky Mountain 2009

2035

2009

2035

Northeast

2009

2035

Gulf Coast

2009

2035

Midcontinent

2009

2035

Southwest

2009

2035

West Coast

Other gas

Shale

gas

Coalbed

methane Tight gas

Figure 91. Lower 48 onshore natural gas production 

by region, 2009 and 2035 (trillion cubic feet)

U.S. net imports of natural gas decline in the AEO2011 Reference 

case from 11 percent of total supply in 2009 to 1 percent in 

2035. The reduction consists primarily of lower imports from 

Canada and higher net exports to Mexico (Figure 92), as a 

result of demand growth in both countries that outpace growth 

in their production.

Supplies of natural gas from Canada’s conventional sources 

decline from 2009 to 2035, but those declines are offset by 

increased production from coalbeds, tight formations, and shale 

gas deposits, allowing for a relatively constant level of exports 

to the United States through 2018 before they begin to decline. 

In addition, net imports to the United States from Canada are 

offset somewhat by an increase in exports from the United 

States to eastern Canada.

Mexico’s natural gas consumption shows robust growth through 

2035, and expected increases in its domestic production are not 

sufficient to meet demand growth. As a result, Mexico will need 

to import natural gas to fill the gap. Some of the increased supply to Mexico will be delivered by liquefied natural gas (LNG) 

tankers, largely to the south of the country, with the remainder 

coming from the United States.

LNG imports by the United States are minimal in the Reference 

case and occur largely during periods when world liquefaction 

capacity exceeds demand. Although U.S. LNG export projects 

have been proposed, their economic viability remains uncertain 

in view of the relatively inexpensive sources of natural gas supply available elsewhere in the world. As a result, existing liquefaction capacity in Alaska is the only source for U.S. exports of 

LNG that is considered in the AEO2011 Reference case [93].

Figure 92. U.S. net imports of natural gas by source, 

1990-2035 (trillion cubic feet)

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Canada

History Projections

Mexico

Overseas LNG

2009
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 81

Liquid fuels demand

Transportation uses lead growth 

in liquid fuels consumption

Biofuels and natural gas liquids lead growth 

in total liquids supply

U.S. consumption of liquid fuels—including fuels from petroleum-based sources and, increasingly, those derived from 

non-petroleum primary fuels such as biomass and natural 

gas—totals 21.9 million barrels per day in 2035 in the AEO2011

Reference case, an increase of 2.9 million barrels per day over 

the 2009 total (Figure 93). In all sectors except transportation, 

where consumption grows by about 2.5 million barrels per day, 

liquid fuel consumption remains at about the same level from 

2009 to 2035. The transportation sector accounts for 73 percent of total liquid fuels consumption in 2035, up slightly from 

71 percent in 2009.

Motor gasoline, ultra-low sulfur diesel, and jet fuel are the primary transportation fuels, supplemented by biofuels such as 

ethanol and biodiesel. The increase in demand for transportation fuels is met primarily by diesel and biofuels. Motor gasoline 

consumption increases by approximately 0.3 million barrels per 

day from 2009 to 2035 in the Reference case, while diesel fuel 

and E85 consumption increase by 1.3 and 0.8 million barrels per 

day, respectively, over the period.

Biodiesel and a number of next-generation biofuels account for 

about 0.6 million barrels per day of the increase in liquid fuels 

consumption for transportation in 2035. The growth in biofuel use is primarily a result of the RFS mandates in EISA2007, 

although there is moderate production of corn ethanol beyond 

that which qualifies for RFS credits. The growth in diesel fuel 

consumption results from both an expansion of light-duty diesel vehicle sales to meet more stringent CAFE standards and 

an increase in industrial output that leads to more fuel use by 

heavy trucks.

0

5

10

15

20

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Electricity generators

History Projections

Industrial

Transportation

Buildings

2009

Figure 93. Liquid fuels consumption by sector, 

1990-2035 (million barrels per day)

With world oil prices rising in the AEO2011 Reference case, 

domestic liquids production grows (Figure 94). From 2009 to 

2035, U.S. crude oil production increases by about 600,000 

barrels per day.

As a result of the EISA2007 RFS, biofuels production increases 

by almost 1.5 million barrel per day, with ethanol accounting for 

the largest share of the increase. Ethanol production increases 

by more than 800,000 barrels per day from 2009 to 2035, displacing approximately 12 percent of gasoline demand in 2035 

on an energy-equivalent basis. In the early years of the projection, ethanol is blended with gasoline and consumed as E10 

(motor gasoline blends containing up to 10 percent ethanol) or 

E15 (motor gasoline blends containing up to 15 percent ethanol). By 2035, however, ethanol is consumed in roughly equal 

shares as E10, E15, and E85.

NGL production increases by 1.0 million barrels per day, to 

2.9 million barrels per day in 2035, mainly as a result of strong 

growth in gas shale production, which tends to have relatively large amounts of liquids associated with it. BTL production increases to 516,000 barrels per day, and CTL production 

increases to 550,000 barrels per day in 2035.

Much of the increased liquids production comes from oil in 

shale formations (i.e., produced from kerogen, a solid hydrocarbon), CO2-enhanced oil recovery (EOR), and next-generation 

“xTL” production, which includes biomass-to-liquids (BTL), 

GTL, and CTL.

0

5

10

15

2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Natural gas liquids

Crude oil

Other

Biofuels

xTL

Figure 94. U.S. domestic liquids production by source, 

2009-2035 (million barrels per day)
82 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Rising world oil prices, growing shale oil resources (i.e., liquid oil 

embedded in non-porous shale rock), and increased production 

using EOR techniques contribute to increased domestic crude 

oil production from 2009 to 2035 in the AEO2011 Reference 

case (Figure 95). The Bakken shale oil formation contributes to 

growth in crude oil production in the Rocky Mountain Region, 

and growth in the Gulf Coast region is spurred by the resources 

in the Eagle Ford and Austin Chalk formations. Some of the 

decline in oil production in the Southwest region is offset by 

production coming from the Avalon shale formation.

Production with CO2-EOR increases beginning in 2015 (largely 

using natural CO2 sources), continues to grow through 2025 as 

anthropogenic CO2 sources increase, and eventually dominates 

CO2 production, supporting just over 20 percent of total crude 

oil production in 2035.

Lower 48 offshore production increases by 13 percent from 

2009 to 2035 in the Reference case. According to the recent 

BOEM leasing plan, lease sales in the Mid- and South-Atlantic 

OCS will not occur before 2017. In the Pacific OCS, leasing is 

assumed to occur only off the coast of Southern California and 

not until after 2023 in the Reference case, because the Pacific 

OCS is considered to have low potential [94].

Oil shale liquid production (i.e., produced from kerogen, a solid 

hydrocarbon), which comes on line in the Rocky Mountain 

region in 2029 in the Reference case, accounts for roughly 

2 percent of total domestic crude oil production in 2035.

Crude oil supply

U.S. crude oil production increases as

projected world oil prices rise

U.S. oil production is more responsive to

price changes than to technology gains

0

2

4

6

8

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Alaska

History Projections

Lower 48 onshore

Total

Lower 48 offshore

2009

Figure 95. Domestic crude oil production by source, 

1990-2035 (million barrels per day)

In the AEO2011 Oil Price and Technology cases, total U.S. crude 

oil production is more responsive to changes in world oil prices 

than it is to advances in technology (Figure 96). The most significant difference between the Reference case and the High 

and Low Oil Price cases is the change in use of CO2–enhanced 

EOR in response to the changes in oil price assumptions. From 

2015 to 2035, when compared with the Reference case, crude 

oil production using CO2 EOR is 17 percent higher on average in 

the High Oil Price case. In comparison, in the Rapid Technology 

case, CO2 EOR technology shows little change, in part because 

of the limited availability of CO2 supplies.

Oil production from offshore areas, Alaska, and oil shale deposits also is responsive to changes in world oil prices, because 

higher or lower prices improve or worsen the economics of 

those supply sources. For example, production from oil shale in 

2035 is nearly threefold higher in the High Oil Price case than in 

the Reference case, and oil production from offshore drilling is 

26 percent higher than in the Reference case.

Advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing techniques continue to enhance the development of shale oil formations. Improvements in drilling equipment and monitoring 

instrumentation are among the key advances that have contributed to the slowdown and subsequent reversal in the decline in 

U.S. domestic oil production.

0

2

4

6

8

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Low Oil Price

History Projections

Rapid Technology

Slow Technology

High Oil Price

2009

Reference

Figure 96. Total U.S. crude oil production in five cases, 

1990-2035 (million barrels per day)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 83

Liquid fuels supply

Imports of liquid fuels vary with 

world oil price assumptions

Renewable fuels standard leads to

increased production of biofuels

U.S. imports of liquid fuels (including crude oil, petroleum liquids, and liquids derived from nonpetroleum sources), which 

grew steadily from the mid-1980s to 2005, have been declining 

since 2005. In the AEO2011 Reference and High Oil Price cases, 

imports of liquid fuels continue to decline from 2009 to 2035, 

although they provide a major part of total U.S. liquids supply 

over the period. Tighter fuel efficiency standards and higher 

prices for liquid fuels moderate the growth in liquids demand, 

even as the combination of higher prices and renewable fuel 

mandates leads to increased domestic production of both oil 

and biofuels. Consequently, while consumption of liquid fuels 

increases steadily in the Reference case from 2009 to 2035, the 

growth in demand is met by domestic production.

The net import share of U.S. liquid fuels consumption fell from 

60 percent in 2005 to 52 percent in 2009. The net import 

share continues to decline in the Reference case, to 42 percent 

in 2035 (Figure 97). In the High Oil Price case, the net import 

share falls to an even lower 24 percent in 2035. Increased 

penetration of biofuels in the liquids market reduces the need 

for imports of crude oil and petroleum products in the High 

Oil Price case. In the Low Oil Price case, the net import share 

remains flat in the near term, then rises to 56 percent in 2035 

as demand increases and imports become cheaper than crude 

oil produced domestically.

0

20

40

60

80

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Low Oil Price

History Projections

Reference

High Oil Price

2009

Figure 97. Net import share of U.S. liquid fuels 

consumption in three cases, 1990-2035 (percent)

The RFS results in a strong increase in renewable fuel production between 2009 to 2022 in the AEO2011 Reference case 

(Figure 98). Renewable fuel production, however, does not meet 

the RFS requirement of 36 billion gallons in 2022 because financial and technological hurdles delay the start of many advanced 

biofuel projects—particularly, cellulosic biofuel projects.

The provisions of the RFS require annual evaluations by the 

U.S. EPA to determine the status of biofuel production capacity and revise the production mandates for the following year, 

as needed. The Reference case reflects an EPA reduction in 

the mandate for cellulosic biofuel production in both 2010 and 

2011. Accounting for those modifications and anticipated future 

changes, only 25.7 billion credits are generated in 2022 in the 

Reference case, including 15 billion gallons of credits for domestic corn-based ethanol. Corn ethanol consumption grows above 

the 15 billion gallons that qualifies for the RFS credit to as high 

as 18 billion gallons by 2035.

The remainder of the biofuel supply in the Reference case consists of cellulosic ethanol, small volumes of next-generation biofuels, and imports of ethanol and biodiesel. In 2022, cellulosic 

ethanol contributes 3.5 billion gallons of credits towards the RFS 

mandate, and biodiesel and imported ethanol contribute 2.0 

and 2.8 billion gallons of credits, respectively.

The Reference case assumes that the EPA will continue to set 

RFS targets after 2022, leading to more capacity builds than 

would have occurred otherwise. The mandate for 36 billion 

gallons of biofuel is met by 2030, and total biofuel production 

increases to 37.2 billion ethanol-equivalent gallons in 2035.

0

10

20

30

40

50

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

EISA2007 target

Corn-based ethanol

Cellulosic ethanol

Biomass-to-liquids

Other ethanol

Imports

Biodiesel

Corn-based ethanol

above 15 billion gallons

Figure 98. EISA2007 renewable fuels standard, 

2010-2035 (billion ethanol equivalent gallons)
84 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Liquid fuels supply

Future refinery operations and

investments target diesel output

Higher limit on ethanol blending spurs

consumption growth in the near term

Tighter CAFE standards and increased consumption of ethanol 

as E85 slow the growth of gasoline consumption in the AEO2011

Reference case, but diesel consumption increases steadily 

through 2035 (Figure 99). The resulting increase in diesel output, coupled with a decrease in refinery capacity, causes a shift 

in the overall slate of refinery outputs.

Although demand for petroleum products declined during the 

recent economic downturn, new refining capacity that was 

planned before the downturn comes on line early in the projection, despite lower utilization levels. This new capacity results in 

the addition of approximately 400,000 barrels per day of new 

refining distillation capacity by the end of 2012. A portion of the 

new capacity is configured to process heavier and previously 

less desirable crudes, capitalizing on their lower costs. The 

expansions are focused on diesel output for use both domestically and abroad. Given the current economics of refining operations, no additional capacity additions are expected after 2013. 

As a result, total refining capacity declines gradually after 2013, 

and more capacity is idled.

Diesel fuel consumption increases by approximately 1.3 million 

barrels per day from 2009 through 2035 in the Reference case, 

while motor gasoline consumption increases by 0.3 million barrels per day. The share of total refinery output represented by 

diesel fuel increases over the projection period.

0

2

4

6

8

10

2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History Projections

Gasoline (excluding E85)

Diesel

2009

Figure 99. U.S. motor gasoline and diesel fuel 

consumption, 2000-2035 (million barrels per day)

Currently, given the limited retail availability of E85, the primary 

use of ethanol in the United States is as a blendstock for gasoline. With rapid growth in ethanol capacity and production in 

recent years, ethanol consumption in 2010 approached the legal 

gasoline blending limit of 10 percent (E10). Recent EPA actions 

have increased the blending limit to 15 percent (E15) for vehicles 

built in 2001 and after. Although the higher blending limit allows 

ethanol consumption to increase in the near term, a number of 

issues may constrain its immediate impact.

One of the primary issues expected to slow the widespread 

adoption of E15 is liability for potential misfueling and infrastructure problems. Retailers will be hesitant to sell E15 if they 

are not relieved of responsibility for damage to consumer vehicles that may result from misfueling, as well as malfunctions 

of storage equipment or infrastructure that may be caused by 

the higher ethanol blend. Consumer acceptance will also play 

a part; warning labels could deter customers from risking any 

potential damage from the use of E15.

Given the issues above, ethanol blending in gasoline increases 

only gradually in the AEO2011 Reference case (Figure 100), from 

13.1 billion gallons in 2010 (about 9 percent of the gasoline pool) 

to 17.8 billion gallons in 2020 (about 12 percent of the gasoline pool). In 2020, vehicles built in 2001 and after consume 

E15 primarily, and the remaining growth in ethanol consumption 

shifts to E85 use, which increases from about 0.8 billion gallons 

in 2017 to 9.6 billion gallons in 2035.

0

5

10

15

20

2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History Projections

Blended ethanol

E85

2009

Figure 100. U.S. ethanol use in gasoline and E85, 

2000-2035 (billion gallons)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 85

Coal production

Early declines in coal production 

are more than offset by growth after 2014

Long-term outlook for coal production

varies considerably across cases

U.S. coal production declined by 2.3 quadrillion Btu in 2009. In 

the AEO2011 Reference case, production does not return to its 

2008 level until after 2025. Between 2008 and 2014 a potential 

recovery in coal production is kept in check by continued low 

natural gas prices and increased generation from renewables 

and nuclear capacity. After 2014, coal production grows at an 

average annual rate of 1.1 percent through 2035, with increases 

in coal use for electricity generation and for the production of 

synthetic liquids.

Western coal production increases through 2035 (Figure 101) 

but at a much slower rate than in the past, as demand grows 

slowly. Low-cost supplies of coal from the West satisfy much of 

the additional fuel needs at coal-fired power plants east of the 

Mississippi River and supply most of the coal needed at new 

CTL and CBTL plants.

Coal production in the Interior region, which has trended slightly 

downward since the early 1990s, rebounds somewhat in the 

Reference case, increasing from 2.9 quadrillion Btu in 2009 to 

3.5 quadrillion Btu in 2035. Most of the additional production 

from this region originates from mines tapping into the substantial reserves of mid- and high-sulfur bituminous coal in Illinois, 

Indiana, and western Kentucky. Appalachian coal production 

declines substantially from current levels, as coal produced 

from the extensively mined, higher cost reserves of Central 

Appalachia is supplanted by lower cost coal from other supply 

regions. Increasing production in the northern part of the basin, 

however, does help to moderate the overall production decline 

in Appalachia.

0

10

20

30

1970 1985 2000 2009 2020 2035

West

History Projections

Total

Interior

Appalachia

2009

Figure 101. Coal production by region, 1970-2035 

(quadrillion Btu)

U.S. coal production varies across the AEO2011 cases, reflecting 

different assumptions about the costs of producing and transporting coal, the outlook for economic growth, and the outlook 

for world oil prices (Figure 102). In addition, although they are 

not shown in the figure, alternative assumptions about restrictions on GHG emissions could have even larger impacts on coal 

production over the projection period.

Assumptions about economic growth primarily affect the projections for overall electricity demand, which in turn determine 

the need for coal-fired generation. In contrast, assumptions 

about the costs of producing and transporting coal primarily 

affect the choice of technologies for electricity generation, with 

coal capturing a larger share of the U.S. electricity market in the 

Low Coal Cost case and a smaller share in the High Coal Cost 

case. In the High Oil Price case, higher oil prices stimulate the 

demand for coal-based synthetic liquids, leading to a substantial expansion of coal use at CTL and CBTL plants. Production of 

coal-based synthetic liquids totals 1.6 million barrels per day in 

2035 in the High Oil Price case, nearly three times the amount 

in the Reference case.

Coal production in the Reference case increases by 21 percent from 2009 to 2035, whereas the alternative cases show 

changes ranging from a decrease of 4 percent to an increase of 

41 percent. In the earlier years of the projection, from 2009 to 

2020, variations in coal production across the cases are smaller, 

ranging from a decline of 4 percent to an increase of 8 percent, primarily reflecting the smaller changes in overall energy 

demand over the shorter time frame.

Figure 102. U.S. coal production in six cases, 

2007, 2009, 2020, and 2035 (quadrillion Btu)

High Coal Cost

Low Economic Growth

Reference

High Economic Growth

Low Coal Cost

High Oil Price

0

10

20

30

40

2007 2009 2020 2035
86 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Coal prices

Growth in average minemouth price slows 

compared to recent history

Substantial changes in coal prices 

would have moderate effects on demand

Alternative assumptions for coal mining and transportation 

costs affect delivered coal prices and demand. Two Coal Cost 

cases developed for AEO2011 examine the impacts on U.S. coal 

markets of alternative assumptions about mining productivity, labor costs, mine equipment costs, and coal transportation 

rates (Figure 104). Although alternative assumptions about 

economic growth and world oil prices lead to some variations in 

the price paths for coal, the differences from the Reference case 

are relatively small in those cases.

In the High Coal Cost case, the average delivered coal price 

is $4.08 per million Btu (2009 dollars) in 2035—65 percent 

higher than in the Reference case, where the average price is 

$2.47 per million Btu in 2035. Because the higher coal prices 

result in switching from coal to natural gas and renewables in 

the electricity sector, U.S. coal consumption in 2035 is 16 percent (3.8 quadrillion Btu) lower in the High Coal Cost case than 

in the Reference case. In the Low Coal Cost case, delivered coal 

prices in 2035 average $1.53 per million Btu—38 percent lower 

than in the Reference case—and total coal consumption is 4 percent (0.9 quadrillion Btu) higher than in the Reference case.

Because the Economic Growth and Oil Price cases use the 

Reference case assumptions for coal mining and rail transportation costs, they show smaller variations in average delivered 

coal prices than do the two coal cost cases. Differences in coal 

price projections in the Economic Growth and Oil Price cases 

result mainly from higher and lower levels of demand for coal. 

In the Oil Price cases, higher and lower fuel costs for both coal 

producers and railroads also contribute to the slight variations 

in coal prices.

In the Reference case, the average real minemouth price for 

U.S. coal remains nearly unchanged, declining from $1.67 per 

million Btu in 2009 to $1.65 in 2020, and then rising to $1.73 

in 2035—an increase of 0.2 percent per year over the entire 

projection period. In contrast, there were sizable increases in 

coal prices from 2000 to 2009, averaging 6.0 percent per year, 

and declines from 1990 to 2000 that averaged 4.2 percent per 

year. The moderation of coal prices in the Reference case results 

from a variety of factors, including a shift in production from 

Appalachia to the Interior and Western regions, which have 

lower costs of production, and a relatively flat outlook for coal 

mining productivity, which acts to keep mine production costs 

close to current levels. 

In the Western and Interior coal supply regions, slight declines 

in mining productivity, combined with increased production, 

result in higher real minemouth prices in the AEO2011 Reference 

case, with prices increasing at average annual rates of 1.1 percent in the Western region and 0.5 percent in the Interior region 

from 2009 to 2035 (Figure 103).

In the Appalachian region, the average real minemouth coal 

price increases by 0.2 percent per year from 2009 to 2035. The 

price outlook for Appalachian coal primarily reflects continuing 

but slower declines in coal mining productivity. Recent increases 

in the average price of Appalachian coal, from $1.27 per million 

Btu in 2000 to $2.56 per million Btu in 2009, in part as a result 

of significant declines in mining productivity over the decade, 

have substantially reduced the competitiveness of Appalachian 

coal with coal from other producing regions.

0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

History Projections

High Coal Cost

Reference

Low Coal Cost

High Oil Price

2009

Figure 104. Average annual delivered coal prices 

in four cases, 1990-2035 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

West

U.S. average

Interior

Appalachia

History 2009 Projections

0

1.0

2.0

3.0

1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035

Figure 103. Average annual minemouth coal prices 

by region, 1990-2035 (2009 dollars per million Btu)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 87

Emissions from energy use

Concerns about GHG legislation 

affect the long-term outlook for coal

Growth of carbon dioxide emissions 

slows in the projections

In the Reference case, the cost of capital for investments in GHGintensive technologies—including conventional coal-fired power 

plants, CTL plants, CBTL plants, and integrated coal gasification 

and combined cycle plants without CCS—is increased by 3 percentage points to reflect the behavior of utilities, other energy 

companies, and regulators concerning the possible enactment 

of GHG legislation which could mandate that owners purchase 

allowances, invest in CCS, or invest in other projects to offset their 

emissions in the future. A No GHG Concern case, in which the 

additional 3 percentage points for GHG-intensive technologies is 

removed, is used to evaluate the impact on energy investments.

In the No GHG Concern case, coal use for both electricity generation in the electric power sector and as part of production of 

coal-based synthetic liquids is 3.5 quadrillion Btu higher than in 

the Reference case (Figure 105), and 48 gigawatts (including 28 

gigawatts at coal-based synthetic liquids plants) of new coal-fired 

generating capacity is added after 2009, as compared with 26 

gigawatts in the Reference case (including about 12 gigawatts currently under construction). Of the 22 gigawatts of additional coalfired capacity builds in the No GHG Concern case, 16 gigawatts, or 

73 percent, are at coal-based synthetic liquids plants and 6 gigawatts are in the electric power sector. As a result, additions of both 

natural gas and renewable generating capacity are lower in the No 

GHG Concern case than in the Reference case. The production of 

coal-based synthetic liquids rises to 1.3 million barrels per day (2.7 

quadrillion Btu) in 2035 in the No GHG Concern case, compared 

with 0.5 million barrels per day (1.1 quadrillion Btu) in the Reference 

case. Total CO2 emissions increase to 6,476 million metric tons in 

2035 in the No GHG Concern case, about 3 percent higher than in 

the Reference case and 19 percent higher than in 2009.

Reference

No GHG Concern

0

1

2

3

4

Electric power

sector

Coal-to-liquids

heat and power

Coal-to-liquids

production

Figure 105. Change in annual U.S. coal consumption 

by end use in two cases, 2009-2035 (quadrillion Btu)

On average, energy-related CO2 emissions in the AEO2011

Reference case grow slowly, by an average of 0.2 percent per 

year from 2005 to 2035 as compared with 0.9 percent per year 

from 1980 to 2005. Reasons for the slower rate of increase 

include growing use of renewable technologies and fuels, efficiency improvements, slower growth in electricity demand (in 

part because of the recent recession), and more use of natural 

gas, which is less carbon-intensive than other fossil fuels. In the 

Reference case, energy-related CO2 emissions do not exceed 

2005 levels until 2027, and in 2035 they total 6,311 million metric tons or about 5 percent higher than in 2005 (Figure 106).

Petroleum remains the largest source of CO2 emissions over the 

projection period, but its share falls to 41 percent in 2035 from 

44 percent in 2005. Although rising from the relatively low levels of 2009, CO2 emissions from petroleum, used mainly in the 

transportation sector, vary little from 2013 to 2025, as improvements in fuel economy and the expanded use of ethanol rise 

more quickly than travel demand. From 2025 to 2035, with little 

additional improvement in fuel economy and slower growth in 

biofuels use, petroleum-related CO2 emissions increase by an 

average of 0.6 percent per year.

Emissions from coal, the second largest source of CO2 emissions, 

do not reach 2005 levels until 2027. Coal’s share of CO2 emissions remains fairly stable through 2035 because of sustained 

growth in the CTL industry and some growth in the power sector. From 2009 to 2035, the natural gas share of CO2 emissions 

increases relative to its 2005 share, because more natural gas 

is used to fuel electricity generation and industrial applications.

Residential Commercial Industrial Transportation Electricity

generation

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

2005 2035

Petroleum

Natural gas

Coal

Electricity

6,311 5,996

Total carbon dioxide emissions

4,770

1980 2005 2035

Figure 106. U.S. carbon dioxide emissions 

by sector and fuel, 2005 and 2035 (million metric tons)
88 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Emissions from energy use

Sulfur dioxide emissions decrease due to

the Clean Air Interstate Rule

Nitrogen oxide emissions are flat

in the Reference case

The Air Transport Rule, released in July 2010, seeks nitrous 

oxide (NOx) emissions reductions similar to those in the CAIR. 

Because key details of the Air Transport Rule have not been 

finalized, however, it is not included in the AEO2011 Reference 

case. A temporary version of CAIR remains binding until the Air 

Transport Rule can be finalized, and the Reference case assumes 

that CAIR remains in effect through 2035.

NOx emissions from electric power plants dropped significantly 

from 3 million short tons in 2008 to approximately 2 million 

short tons in 2009, as a result of a reduction in coal-fired electricity generation in 2009. In the Reference case, NOx emissions 

stabilize at roughly the 2009 level through 2035 (Figure 108), 

despite steady increases in coal-fired generation. With a growing number of coal-fired power plants being fitted with NOx

control equipment, NOx emissions are maintained at the levels 

needed to meet the CAIR target.

Coal-fired power plants can be retrofitted with any of the three 

types of NOx control technologies: selective catalytic converter 

(SCR), selective noncatalytic converter (SCNR), or low-NOx

burners. The type of retrofit used depends on the specific characteristics of the plant, including the boiler configuration and 

the type of coal used. From 2009 to 2035, 155 gigawatts of coalfired capacity is retrofitted with NOx controls in the Reference 

case: 61 percent with SCR, 5 percent with SCNR, and 33 percent 

with low-NOx burners.

Since the U.S. District Court of Appeals overturned the Clean 

Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) in July 2008 [95], followed by its 

temporary reinstatement of the rule 6 months later, there has 

been tremendous uncertainty about regulation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from electric power plants. In July 2010, 

the EPA proposed the Air Transport Rule, which would require 

emissions reductions similar to those in CAIR, but is designed 

to address the court’s objections to CAIR. Currently, the EPA 

is reviewing public comments on the Air Transport Rule, and 

many key details of the regulation have not been determined. 

Because of the uncertainty about the ultimate makeup of the 

Air Transport Rule, AEO2011 assumes that the temporary CAIR 

rule, which still is the binding rule on SO2 emissions from power 

plants, remains in effect through 2035.

In the AEO2011 Reference case, SO2 emissions from the U.S. 

electric power sector fall to between 3.8 and 4.1 million short 

tons from 2015 to 2035, or an average of about 30 percent 

below 2009 levels (Figure 107). The reduction occurs as a 

result of CAIR limits. Emissions fluctuate slightly from year 

to year after 2020 as a result of allowance banking, which is 

allowed under CAIR but probably will be more limited under the 

Air Transport Rule, given its restrictions on allowance trading. 

In order to meet the emission reduction requirements in CAIR, 

new flue gas desulfurization (FGD) retrofits are installed on 

54 gigawatts of coal capacity from 2009 to 2035, increasing 

the total amount of generating capacity with FGD equipment 

installed to approximately 222 gigawatts, or 70 percent of coalfired generating capacity in the electric power sector, in 2035. 

In the Reference case, 8.8 gigawatts of coal-fired capacity is 

retired from 2009 to 2035.

History Projections

0

2

4

6

2000 2005 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

5.33

3.64

1.99 1.98 1.98 2.00 2.01 2.03

Figure 108. Nitrogen oxide emissions from electricity 

generation, 2000-2035 (million short tons)

2000 2005 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

0

5

10

15

11.4

10.2

5.7

3.8 3.7 4.1 4.0 3.9

History Projections

Figure 107. Sulfur dioxide emissions from electricity 

generation, 2000-2035 (million short tons)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 89

Endnotes for market trends

90. The factors that influence decisionmaking on capacity additions include electricity demand growth, the need to replace 

inefficient plants, the costs and operating efficiencies of different generation options, fuel prices, State RPS programs, and 

the availability of Federal tax credits for some technologies.

91. Unless otherwise noted, the term “capacity” in the discussion of electricity generation indicates utility, nonutility, and 

CHP capacity. Costs reflect the average of regional costs.

92. For detailed discussion of levelized costs, see U.S. Energy 

Administration, “Levelized Cost of New Generation 

Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011,” website

www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/electricity_generation.html. 

93. Conoco Phillips has recently announced plans to shut down 

its Alaska facility, which has been exporting small amounts 

of LNG to Japan for over 40 years. They have a license to 

export through 2013. This is Alaska’s only export facility.

94. See “Potential of offshore crude oil and natural gas resources” 

in the “Issues in focus” section of this report.

95. U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, “State of North Carolina v. Environmental Protection 

Agency,” No. 05-1244 (Washington, DC: December 23, 

2008), website www.epa.gov/airmarkets/progsregs/cair/

docs/CAIRRemandOrder.pdf.

Links current as of April 2011

84. The industrial sector includes manufacturing, agriculture, 

construction, and mining. The energy-intensive manufacturing sectors include food, paper, bulk chemicals, petroleum refining, glass, cement, steel, and aluminum.

85. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC: August 

2010), Table 5.21, “Crude Oil Refiner Acquisition Cost, 1968-

2009,” website www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/txt/stb0521.xls.

86. Products covered include many types of heating and cooling equipment, gas and electric water heaters, refrigerators 

and freezers, several types of lighting (especially, incandescent lamps and fluorescent ballasts), clothes washers and 

dryers, dishwashers, ranges and ovens, and swimming pool 

heaters.

87. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Reserve Statistical Release G.17, “Industrial Production and Capacity Utilization” (Washington, DC: February 2011), website www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g17/

Current/#NOTICE.

88. S.C. Davis, S.W. Diegel, and R.G. Boundy, Transportation 

Energy Databook: Edition 29, ORNL-6985 (Oak Ridge, TN: 

July 2010), Chapter 4, “Light Vehicles and Characteristics.”

89. The AEO2011 Reference case does not include the proposed 

fuel economy standards for heavy-duty vehicles provided 

in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and Fuel Efficiency 

Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles, 

published by the EPA and the NHTSA in April 2010, nor 

does it include increases in fuel economy standards for 

LDVs, based on the September 2010 EPA/NHTSA Notice 

of Upcoming Joint Rulemaking to Establish 2017 and Later 

Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions 

and CAFE Standards, because the notice of intent does not 

propose any new vehicle standards.
This page intentionally left blank
Comparison with

other projections
92 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

Only IHS Global Insight (IHSGI) produces a comprehensive energy projection with a time horizon similar to that of the Annual 

Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011). Other organizations, however, address one or more aspects of the U.S. energy market. The most 

recent projection from IHSGI, as well as others that concentrate on economic growth, international oil prices, energy consumption, 

electricity, natural gas, petroleum, and coal, are compared here with the AEO2011 Reference case.

1. Economic growth

The range of projected economic growth tends to be wider for the earlier years of the projection period and then narrows in 

the long run, because the group of concepts—such as population, productivity, and labor force growth—that explain long-run 

growth trends is smaller than the group of variables that affect projections of short-run growth. From 2009 to 2011, projections 

for the average annual rate of growth of real gross domestic product (GDP) in the United States range from -0.1 percent to 3.0 

percent (Table 12).

In the AEO2011 Reference case, real GDP grows at a 2.4-percent average annual rate over the 2009-2011 period, lower than 

projected by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the Interindustry Forecasting Project at the University of 

Maryland (INFORUM); however, not all of those projections have been updated to take account of the faster pace of economic 

recovery that became evident late in 2010. The AEO2011 projection of GDP growth is slightly lower than the projections by 

IHSGI and higher than projection by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), although the BLS macroeconomic projections are 

made only every 2 years. In March 2010, the consensus Blue Chip projection was for 3.0-percent average annual growth in 

GDP from 2009 to 2011.

The range of GDP growth rates narrows over the period from 2011 to 2015, with projections ranging from 3.0 to 4.0 percent per 

year. The average annual GDP growth of 3.2 percent in the AEO2011 Reference case from 2011 to 2015 falls in the middle of the 

range, with the OMB projecting a stronger recovery from the recession. OMB projects average annual GDP growth of 4.0 percent 

from 2011 to 2015. INFORUM, IHSGI, and the International Energy Agency (IEA) all project growth rates that are below that in the 

AEO2011 Reference case.

There are few public or private projections of GDP growth for the United States that extend to 2035. The AEO2011

Reference case projects 2.7-percent average annual GDP growth from 2009 to 2035, consistent with trends in labor force 

and productivity growth. IHSGI projects GDP growth averaging 2.7 percent per year from 2009 to 2035, and INFORUM 

projects lower GDP growth of 2.5 percent over the same period. INFORUM also projects lower growth in productivity and 

labor force.

2. World oil prices

In the AEO2011 Reference case, world oil prices rise from 

$62 per barrel to approximately $95 per barrel in 2015 and 

$108 per barrel in 2020 (Table 13). From 2020 to 2035, 

prices increase slowly to $125 per barrel in 2035. This price 

trend is slightly lower than the trend shown in the AEO2010

Reference case.

Table 12. Projections of average annual economic 

growth, 2009-2035

Average annual 

percentage growth rates

Projection 2009-2020 2020-2035

AEO2010 (Reference case) 2.8 2.5

AEO2011 (Reference case) 2.8 2.6

IHSGI (August 2010) 2.8 2.6

OMB (January 2011)a 3.2 --

CBO (January 2011)a 2.8 --

INFORUM (December 2010) 2.8 2.3

Social Security Administration 

(May 2010) 2.3 2.1

BLS (December 2009)a 2.4 --

IEA (2010)b 2.0 2.1

Blue Chip Consensus (March 2010) 2.4 --

ExxonMobil 2.6 2.4

ICF Q4 2010 

Integrated Energy Outlook 2.8 2.8

-- = not reported. 

a

CBO and OMB forecasts end in 2021, and growth rates cited are for 

2009-2021. BLS forecast ends in 2018. ExxonMobil forecast ends in 

2030, and growth rates cited are for 2020-2030.

b

IEA publishes U.S. growth rates for certain intervals: 2008-2020 

growth is 2.0 percent, and 2008-2035 growth rate is 2.1 percent.

Table 13. Projections of world oil prices, 2015-2035 

(2009 dollars per barrel)

Projection 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

AEO2011

(Reference case)

94.58 108.10 117.54 123.09 124.94

AEO2010 

(Reference case)

94.51 109.30 116.12 124.66 134.47

Deutsche Bank 81.06 91.77 99.75 105.39 109.09

ICF Q4 2010 

Integrated Energy 

Outlook 77.86 77.86 77.86 77.86 77.86

INFORUM 90.97 102.25 108.91 117.02 125.07

IEA (current 

policy scenario) 94.00 110.00 120.00 130.00 135.00

EVA 87.02 91.97 99.71 110.85 --

IHSGI 90.44 86.15 80.17 82.31 --

-- = not reported.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 93

Comparison with other projections

Market volatility and differing assumptions about the future of the world economy are reflected in the range of price projections for 

both the short term and the long term; however, most projections show prices rising over the entire course of the projection period 

although slowing after 2025. The other projections range from $78 per barrel to $95 per barrel in 2015, a span of $17 per barrel; 

and from $78 per barrel to $135 per barrel in 2035, a span of $57 per barrel. The wide range underscores the uncertainty inherent 

in the projections. The range of the other projections is encompassed in the range of the AEO2011 Low and High Oil Price cases, 

from $55 per barrel to $146 per barrel in 2015 and from $50 per barrel to $200 per barrel in 2035.

World oil price measures are, by and large, comparable across projections. EIA reports the price of imported low-sulfur, light 

crude oil, approximately the same as the West Texas Intermediate (WTI) price widely cited in the trade press as a proxy for 

world oil prices. The only series that do not report projections in WTI terms are IEA’s World Energy Outlook 2010, where prices are 

expressed as the IEA crude oil import price, and INFORUM, where prices are expressed as the average U.S. refiner acquisition cost 

of imported crude oil.

3. Total energy consumption

Three of the projections, IHSGI, INFORUM, and ExxonMobil, feature consumption by sector. However, to allow comparison with 

the IHSGI projection, the AEO2011 Reference case was adjusted to remove coal-to-liquids (CTL) heat and power, biofuels heat and 

co-products, and natural gas feedstock use. The ExxonMobil projections do not include electricity consumption in the sectoral 

consumption breakout. Both the IHSGI and INFORUM projections feature higher total energy consumption than AEO2011, while 

ExxonMobil features lower consumption (Table 14).

Both INFORUM and IHSGI have significantly higher projections of electricity consumption than AEO2011, which explains much of 

the difference in the levels of energy consumption among the three projections: the generation of electricity uses approximately 

three times the amount of energy from fuel as the amount of useful energy provided to end users. In both the INFORUM and IHSGI 

projections, the electric power sector consumes 10 quadrillion Btu more energy than projected in AEO2011. The greater use of 

electricity, predominantly for more conventional applications, results in higher electricity prices.

None of the electricity projections includes more than modest penetration of electric vehicles in the transportation sector by 2035 

(IHSGI projects almost 300 trillion Btu of electricity consumed in the transportation sector in 2035). The ExxonMobil projection 

for electricity does not detail electricity consumption, but the amount of energy used to generate electricity is at the 2008 level in 

2025 and 2030, with electricity producers aggressively switching to natural gas from coal (the amount of coal used by electricity 

generators ranks third behind natural gas and nuclear in 2030).

Projected commercial and transportation sector electricity consumption in INFORUM is comparable to that in AEO2011, but electricity 

consumption in the residential and industrial sectors in the INFORUM projection grows to a level more than 50 percent above 

consumption in 2009, much greater than the increase in AEO2011 (about 20 percent in the residential sector and 10 percent in the 

industrial sector). Residential and industrial sector electricity consumption in the IHSGI projection also grows faster than in AEO2011, 

but at a somewhat slower rate than in the INFORUM projection. However, commercial sector electricity consumption grows more 

rapidly in the IHSGI projection than in both the INFORUM and AEO2011 projections. AEO2011 includes the consensus agreement to 

implement one round of appliance standard updates that holds down residential electricity growth, as well as growth in industrial 

natural gas usage for combined heat and power, which shifts some industrial energy demand from electricity to natural gas.

Despite the much higher level of electricity consumption in the IHSGI projection, projected total energy consumption is only 

about 1.2 quadrillion Btu higher than in AEO2011. The difference is moderated by lower growth in motor gasoline consumption in 

the transportation sector in the IHSGI forecast. Motor gasoline consumption in the IHSGI projection in 2035 is almost 3 quads 

lower than in AEO2011, however, the lower level of gasoline consumption is partially offset by about one quad higher diesel fuel 

consumption. The IHSGI projection includes about 3 million more light-duty truck sales in 2035 (but comparable numbers of lightduty car sales) than AEO2011.

INFORUM projects higher prices for motor gasoline than AEO2011 (more than $1 higher in 2035), with more efficient light-duty 

vehicles (the vehicle stock average is about 1.8 mpg higher in 2035). However, the total stock of vehicles is larger (due mainly to a 

stock difference in 2009), and they are driven more miles, leading to a higher level of consumption in the INFORUM forecast than 

shown in AEO2011. The ExxonMobil projection has energy use in each sector level or declining from the level in 2008, which leads 

to lower overall energy consumption than in the AEO2011 Reference case.

4. Electricity

Table 15 provides a summary of the results from the AEO2011 Reference case and compares them with the other projections. 

Electricity sales increase on average by 1.1 percent per year through 2015 in AEO2011, reaching 3,811 billion kilowatthours, which 

is lower than the other projections. Electricity sales in 2015 range from a low of 3,811 billion kilowatthours in AEO2011 to a high of 

4,500 billion kilowatthours in INFORUM. The IHSGI projection of electricity sales, at 4,119 billion kilowatthours in 2015, also projects 

higher sales than AEO2011 for the residential and commercial sectors, while industrial sector sales are slightly less than in AEO2011. 

Both IHSGI and INFORUM project higher sales in 2035 than AEO2011. In 2035, IHSGI projects sales of 5,551 billion kilowatthours, 

INFORUM projects 5,935 billion kilowatthours, and AEO2011 projects 4,483 billion kilowatthours. Although INFORUM does not 

provide sales by sector, IHSGI projects higher sales than AEO2011 for all sectors in 2035.
94 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

The average retail electricity price in AEO2011 falls from 9.8 cents per kilowatthour in 2009 to 8.9 cents per kilowatthour in 2015. 

IHSGI projects a higher average retail price of 10.4 cents per kilowatthour in 2015, consistent with the higher level of demand in that 

projection. The average retail electricity price remains relatively flat after 2015 in AEO2011, rising to only 9.2 cents per kilowatthour 

in 2035. In comparison, the average retail electricity price increases to 12.9 cents per kilowatthour in the IHSGI projection, again 

reflecting the much higher level of electricity sales in that projection.

Although the average retail electricity price in the residential sector falls in AEO2011 from 11.5 cents per kilowatthour in 2009 to 10.6 cents 

per kilowatthour in 2025 before rising to 10.8 cents per kilowatthour in 2035, it rises steadily in the Energy Ventures Analysis (EVA) 

and IHSGI projections, to 18.5 cents per kilowatthour and 13.2 cents per kilowatthour in 2025, respectively. The average residential retail 

electricity price in the INFORUM projection is similar to those in AEO2011. The relative patterns of change in retail electricity prices in the 

commercial and industrial sectors in the AEO2011, EVA, IHSGI, and INFORUM projections are similar to those in the residential sector.

The change in total generation and imports of electricity in 2015 is consistent with sales, ranging from 4,286 billion kilowatthours 

in AEO2011 to 4,522 billion kilowatthours in the IHSGI projection. The level of generation continues to increase with the growth 

Table 14. Projections of energy consumption by sector, 2009-2035 (quadrillion Btu)

Sector

AEO2011

Reference INFORUM IHSGI

ExxonMobilAEO2011

Reference INFORUM IHSGI

ExxonMobil

2009 2015

Residential 11.1 11.6 10.6 -- 11.0 12.3 11.2 --

Residential excluding electricity 6.5 6.6 6.0 6.0 6.4 6.4 5.9 6.0

Commercial 8.5 8.4 8.4 -- 9.0 9.0 9.0 --

Commercial excluding electricity 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.6 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.5

Industrial 21.8 22.3 -- -- 26.7 25.1 -- --

Industrial excluding electricity 18.8 19.3 -- 19.0 23.2 21.6 -- 18.0

Lossesa 0.7 -- -- -- 0.9 -- -- --

Natural gas feedstocks 0.5 -- -- -- 0.6 -- -- --

Industrial removing losses and feedstocks 20.6 -- 20.0 -- 25.2 -- 21.4 --

Transportation 27.2 27.0 26.2 27.0 28.5 28.5 27.1 28.0

Electric power 38.3 40.2 39.7 36.0 39.7 45.4 44.6 37.0

Less: electricity demandb 12.2 12.6 12.2 -- 13.0 14.5 14.1 --

Total primary energy 94.8 96.9 -- 91.0 102.0 105.9 -- 92.0

Excluding: losses and feedstocksa 93.6 -- 92.7 -- 100.5 -- 99.2 --

2025 2035

Residential 11.3 13.8 12.1 -- 11.7 14.4 12.8 --

Residential excluding electricity 6.3 6.5 5.8 5.0 6.2 6.5 5.7 --

Commercial 9.9 10.0 9.8 -- 11.1 11.0 10.8 --

Commercial excluding electricity 4.4 4.2 3.6 3.5 4.6 4.5 3.5 --

Industrial 28.1 28.6 -- -- 28.9 30.8 -- --

Industrial excluding electricity 24.6 24.3 -- 17.0 25.6 26.0 -- --

Lossesa 2.3 -- -- -- 3.7 -- -- --

Natural gas feedstocks 0.6 -- -- -- 0.5 -- -- --

Industrial removing losses and feedstocks 25.2 -- 21.9 -- 24.7 -- 22.3 --

Transportation 29.6 30.2 27.4 27.0 31.8 32.6 28.2 --

Electric power 43.2 54.0 50.4 38.0 46.0 58.4 56.0 --

Less: electricity demandb 14.1 17.5 16.6 -- 15.3 19.3 18.9 --

Total primary energy 108.0 119.1 -- 92.0 114.2 128.0 -- --

Excluding: losses and feedstocksa 105.1 -- 105.1 -- 110.0 -- 111.2 --

-- = not reported.

a

Losses in CTL and biofuel production.

b

Energy consumption in the sectors includes electricty demand purchases from the electric power sector, which are subtracted to avoid double 

counting in deriving total primary energy consumption.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 95

Comparison with other projections

Table 15. Comparison of electricity projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035 (billion kilowatthours, except where noted)

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference case

Other projections

EVA IHSGI ICF INFORUM

2015

Average end-use price (2009 cents per kilowatthour) 9.8 8.9 -- 10.4 -- --

Residential 11.5 10.9 13.4 12.0 -- 11.5

Commercial 10.1 9.1 12.1 10.9 -- 10.1

Industrial 6.8 6.0 8.4 7.1 -- 6.8

Total generation plus imports 4,015 4,286 4,072 4,522 4,380 --

Coal 	 1,772 	 1,799 	 1,748 	 1,905 -- --

Oil 41 43 -- 42 -- --

Natural gasa 931 	 1,000 944 	 1,159 -- --

Nuclear 799 839 850 831 -- --

Hydroelectric/otherb 437 572 530 586 -- --

Net imports 34 33 -- 23 -- --

Electricity sales 	 3,574 	 3,811 	 3,825 	 4,119 -- 	 4,500

Residential 	 1,363 	 1,348 	 1,489 	 1,556 -- --

Commercial/otherc 	 1,323 	 1,416 	 1,419 	 1,528 -- --

Industrial 882 	 1,038 917 	 1,036 -- --

Capability, including CHP (gigawatts)d 	 1,033 	 1,075 	 1,061 	 1,101 	 1,009 --

Coal 317 322 296 318 297 --

Oil and natural gas 467 469 505 477 423 --

Nuclear 101 106 106 105 105 --

Hydroelectric/other 149 179 155 200 184 --

2025

Average end-use price (2009 cents per kilowatthour) 9.8 8.9 -- 11.5 -- --

Residential 11.5 10.6 18.5 13.2 -- 11.8

Commercial 10.1 9.1 17.1 12.0 -- 10.4

Industrial 6.8 6.1 13.0 7.8 -- 7.0

Total generation plus imports 4,015 4,704 4,144 5,282 5,060 --

Coal 	 1,772 	 2,069 	 1,603 	 1,689 -- --

Oil 41 44 -- 43 -- --

Natural gasa 931 	 1,003 942 	 1,756 -- --

Nuclear 799 877 965 	 1,000 -- --

Hydroelectric/otherb 437 689 635 794 -- --

Net imports 34 22 -- 23 -- --

Electricity sales 	 3,574 	 4,142 	 3,873 	 4,856 -- 	 5,390

Residential 	 1,363 	 1,461 	 1,595 	 1,881 -- --

Commercial/otherc 	 1,323 	 1,636 	 1,615 	 1,835 -- --

Industrial 882 	 1,031 664 	 1,139 -- --

Capability, including CHP (gigawatts)d 	 1,033 	 1,119 	 1,065 	 1,282 	 1,173 --

Coal 317 326 278 304 261 --

Oil and natural gas 467 489 479 574 579 --

Nuclear 101 111 120 125 108 --

Hydroelectric/other 149 194 188 279 226 --

-- = not reported.

See notes at end of table.

(continued on page 96)
96 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

in sales. In 2035, the total electricity supply from generation plus imports ranges from 5,181 billion kilowatthours in AEO2011 to 

6,025 billion kilowatthours in the IHSGI projection, over 16 percent higher than in AEO2011.

AEO2011 projects more coal-fired generation in 2035 than IHSGI—2,218 billion kilowatthours compared with 1,487 billion 

kilowatthours. The difference in the IHSGI projection, which includes greater electricity demand, is made up by increased generation 

primarily from natural gas but also from nuclear and hydroelectric/other energy sources. While AEO2011 shows 1,288  billion 

kilowatthours of natural-gas-fired generation in 2035, IHSGI shows 2,261 billion kilowatthours. Nuclear generation in 2035 totals 

874 billion kilowatthours in AEO2011, compared with 1,163 billion kilowatthours in the IHSGI projection, and hydroelectric/other 

generation in 2035 is 740 billion kilowatthours in AEO2011, compared with 1,069 billion kilowatthours in the IHSGI projection.

The mix of generating capability by fuel is relatively similar across the projections in 2015. By 2025, however, the mix of generating 

capacity begins to change, due to variations in the projected rates of growth in electricity demand and more aggressive retirements 

of coal capacity in the EVA and ICF International (ICF) projections. Although little coal-fired capacity is retired in the IHSGI 

projection by 2025, the greater growth in electricity demand is met by a sharp increase in natural gas and hydroelectric/other 

capacity. Natural-gas- and oil-fired capacity in 2025 totals 574 gigawatts in the IHSGI projection, compared with 489 gigawatts in 

AEO2011. While the ICF projection shows less growth in demand, it shows more retirements of coal capacity by 2025. As a result, 

ICF shows the highest level of natural-gas- and oil-fired capacity in 2025, at 579 gigawatts.

The faster growth in natural gas and hydroelectric/other capacity continues through 2035 in the IHSGI and ICF projections. 

Natural-gas- and oil-fired capacity reaches 675 gigawatts and 655 gigawatts in 2035 in the IHSGI and IFC projections, respectively. 

By comparison, natural-gas- and oil-fired capacity grows to only 572 gigawatts in AEO2011 in 2035. Hydroelectric/other capacity 

continues to grow in each of the three projections after 2025, to 384 gigawatts and 297 gigawatts in the IHSGI and ICF projections, 

Table 15. Comparison of electricity projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035 (billion kilowatthours, except where noted) 

(continued)

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference case

Other projections

EVA IHSGI ICF INFORUM

2035

Average end-use price (2009 cents per kilowatthour) 9.8 9.2 -- 12.9 -- --

Residential 11.5 10.8 -- 14.8 -- 12.6

Commercial 10.1 9.2 -- 13.5 -- 11.1

Industrial 6.8 6.4 -- 8.7 -- 7.4

Total generation plus imports 4,015 5,181 -- 6,025 5,601 --

Coal 	 1,772 	 2,218 -- 	 1,487 -- --

Oil 41 46 -- 45 -- --

Natural gasa 931 	 1,288 -- 	 2,261 -- --

Nuclear 799 874 -- 	 1,163 -- --

Hydroelectric/otherb 437 740 -- 	 1,069 -- --

Net imports 34 14 -- 23 -- --

Electricity sales 	 3,574 	 4,483 -- 	 5,551 -- 	 5,935

Residential 	 1,363 	 1,613 -- 	 2,187 -- --

Commercial/otherc 	 1,323 	 1,886 -- 	 2,139 -- --

Industrial 882 962 -- 	 1,225 -- --

Capability, including CHP (gigawatts)d 	 1,033 	 1,221 -- 	 1,498 	 1,346 --

Coal 317 334 -- 292 287 --

Oil and natural gas 467 572 -- 675 655 --

Nuclear 101 111 -- 147 108 --

Hydroelectric/other 149 205 -- 384 297 --

-- = not reported.

a

Includes supplemental gaseous fuels. For EVA, represents total oil and natural gas.

b

”Other” includes conventional hydroelectric, pumped storage, geothermal, wood, wood waste, municipal waste, other biomass, solar and wind 

power, batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, petroleum coke, and miscellaneous technologies.

c

”Other” includes sales of electricity to government, railways, and street lighting authorities.

d

EIA capacity is net summer capability, including CHP plants. IHSGI capacity is nameplate, excluding cogeneration plants.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 97

Comparison with other projections

respectively, compared with 205 gigawatts in AEO2011. The IHSGI projection shows the most growth in U.S. nuclear power capacity, 

to 147 gigawatts in 2035, compared with 111 gigawatts in AEO2011. ICF shows 108 gigawatts of nuclear capacity in 2035.

Environmental regulations are an important factor in the selection of technologies for electricity generation. While complete 

information on the regulations assumed in each of the projection is not available. AEO2011 includes only current laws and 

regulations; it does not assume a cap or tax on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Restrictions on CO2 emissions could change the 

mix of technologies used to generate electricity.

5. Natural gas

The variation among published projections of natural gas consumption, production, imports, and prices (Table 16) can be 

significant. It results from differences in the assumptions that underlie the projections. For example, the natural gas projection in 

the AEO2011 Reference case assumes, for the most part, that current laws and regulations will continue through the projection 

period, whereas other natural gas projections may include anticipated policy developments over the next 25 years. In particular, 

AEO2011 does not assume the implementation of regulations limiting CO2 emissions or other types of emissions beyond those 

already in effect.

Each of the projections examined here shows an increase in overall natural gas consumption from 2009 to 2035, with the ICF and 

IHSGI projections having the most significant increases, at 43 percent and 41 percent, respectively. Total natural gas consumption 

in the INFORUM and ExxonMobil projections remains flat from 2009 to 2015 but grows to a level comparable with those in the 

AEO2011, Deutsche Bank (DB), and EVA projections in 2025. In the later years of all the projections, total natural gas consumption 

grows despite increasing natural gas prices, with the exception of the DB projection, which shows a decline in consumption from 

2025 to 2035. Total natural gas consumption in 2035 in the ICF and IHSGI projections is about 30 percent higher than in the DB 

projection, which shows the lowest level of total natural gas consumption.

The ICF, ExxonMobil, and IHSGI projections for natural gas consumption by electricity generators are significantly different from 

the other projections. In 2035, IHGSI is more than double the lowest projection, the AEO2011 Reference case. AEO2011, DB, EVA, 

and INFORUM show similar projections of natural gas consumption for the electricity generation sector, with annual growth rates 

of 1 percent across the projection period; the ICF, ExxonMobil, and IHSGI projections show 3-percent annual growth. The slow 

growth in AEO2011 reflects slow growth for electricity generation due to the construction of planned coal, renewable, and nuclear 

capacity builds. 

Industrial natural gas consumption varies greatly across the different projections. ICF, INFORUM, EVA, and the AEO2011 Reference 

case show growing industrial natural gas consumption throughout the projection period. Industrial natural gas consumption in 

AEO2011, however, increases by 31 percent from 2009 to 2015 and then levels off for the remainder of the projection, whereas in the 

other projections it grows more steadily. The growth in industrial natural gas consumption in AEO2011 is attributable to relatively 

low industrial natural gas prices, a strong increase in natural gas use in combined heat and power plants, and a significant increase 

in the use of natural gas as a feedstock in the chemical and hydrogen industries. Industrial natural gas consumption remains 

constant in the ExxonMobil projection throughout the projection period, while industrial natural gas consumption in the IHSGI and 

DB projections increases initially, then declines from 2015 to 2035. The projections of industrial natural gas consumption in 2035 

range from 36 percent above the 2009 level (INFORUM) to 11 percent below the 2009 level (DB).

The basic consumption patterns and levels of natural gas consumption are relatively similar across the residential sector projections, 

with the exception of DB. (It should be noted that ExxonMobil’s projection for residential consumption includes commercial 

consumption.) Residential sector natural gas consumption in the DB projection increases steadily, growing to 26 percent above 

the 2009 level in 2035. Three of the six projections (INFORUM, AEO2011, and EVA) show relatively similar growth in commercial 

consumption in the projection period. The projections of commercial natural gas consumption in the ICF, DB and IHSGI projections 

are initially similar to the other projections, but demand eventually declines, resulting in 2035 projections of commercial natural gas 

consumption that are below 2009 levels. (INFORUM’s 2009 commercial consumption level is 3.68 trillion cubic feet, significantly 

higher than the others.) The DB projection includes the most significant decline, falling to 23 percent below 2009 levels in 2035.

With the exception of the DB and INFORUM projections for the period after 2025, all the projections show growing domestic 

natural gas production throughout the projection period, although at different rates. The greatest growth in natural gas production 

is in the ICF projection, and the lowest is in the INFORUM projection. Natural gas production in the ICF projection exceeds that in 

the INFORUM projection by 28 percent in 2025. With significant declines in net pipeline imports, ICF and the AEO2011 Reference 

case project strong increases in the domestic production share of total natural gas supply. The rest of the projections show 

domestic natural gas production maintaining a relatively stable share of total natural gas supply, with the exception of the DB 

projection, where domestic production drops off notably in 2035 with a big increase in LNG imports. In all the other projections, 

net LNG imports remain well under 1 trillion cubic feet throughout the projection period. Some of the projections show declines 

in net pipeline imports relative to the 2009 level. The exception is IHSGI, which shows increasing net pipeline imports after 2015, 

following an initial dip. In comparison with EVA and DB, the AEO2011 and ICF projections show severe declines in pipeline imports.
98 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

Table 16. Comparison of natural gas projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035 (trillion cubic feet, except where noted) 

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference 

case

Other projections

IHSGI EVA DB ICF ExxonMobil INFORUM

2015

Dry gas productiona 20.96 22.43 22.70 22.70 21.98 23.75 21.00 21.21

Net imports 2.64 2.69 2.19 2.60 3.01 1.68 1.60 --

Pipeline 2.23 2.33 1.46 2.20 1.53 1.26 -- --

LNG 0.41 0.36 0.73 0.40 1.48 0.42 -- --

Consumption 22.71 25.11 24.89 24.70 25.17 25.30 23.00b 21.20c

Residential 4.75 4.81 4.72 4.90 5.10 5.11 8.00d 4.67

Commercial 3.11 3.38 3.05 3.20 3.25 3.20 -- 3.86

Industriale 6.14 8.05 6.64 6.90 6.70 6.88 7.00 7.06

Electricity generatorsf 6.89 6.98 8.58 7.60 8.01 7.81 8.00 5.61

Othersg 1.82 1.90 1.90 2.10 2.11 2.29 0.00h --

Lower 48 wellhead price (2009 dollars 

per thousand cubic feet) 3.71 4.24 4.74 5.13 4.66 5.29 -- --

End-use prices (2009 dollars per 

thousand cubic feet)

Residential 12.20 10.39 11.85 -- -- 9.76 -- --

Commercial 9.94 8.60 10.00 -- -- 8.77 -- --

Industriali 5.39 5.10 7.18 -- -- 6.59 -- --

Electricity generators 4.94 4.79 5.49 -- -- 6.27 -- --

2025

Dry gas productiona 20.96 23.98 26.22 24.70 23.48 29.04 24.00 22.67

Net imports 2.64 1.08 2.74 2.00 2.20 1.31 2.00 --

Pipeline 2.23 0.74 2.01 1.60 1.55 0.68 -- --

LNG 0.41 0.34 0.73 0.40 0.66 0.63 -- --

Consumption 22.71 25.07 28.87 25.70 25.69 30.28 26.10b 24.84c

Residential 4.75 4.83 4.62 5.00 5.52 5.20 7.00d 4.84

Commercial 3.11 3.56 2.98 3.30 3.25 3.04 -- 4.13

Industriale 6.14 8.10 6.47 7.50 6.70 7.21 7.00 7.88

Electricity generatorsf 6.89 6.66 12.64 7.70 8.21 12.18 12.00 7.99

Othersg 1.82 1.92 2.17 2.20 2.01 2.65 0.10h --

Lower 48 wellhead price (2009 dollars 

per thousand cubic feet) 3.71 5.43 4.73 6.46 7.15 6.10 -- --

End-use prices (2009 dollars per 

thousand cubic feet)

Residential 12.20 12.15 11.59 -- -- 10.47 -- --

Commercial 9.94 10.03 9.81 -- -- 9.52 -- --

Industriali 5.39 6.33 7.09 -- -- 7.35 -- --

Electricity generators 4.94 5.91 5.43 -- -- 7.09 -- --

-- = not reported.

See notes at end of table.

(continued on page 99)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 99

Comparison with other projections

The AEO2011 Reference case, EVA, and ICF all show similar natural gas production and price levels that increase over time. In 

contrast, DB projects lower but more stable production levels, with greater price increases; and IHSGI projects stronger growth in 

natural gas production than AEO2011, EVA, and ICF, with lower and more stable prices.

Only three of the projections provide delivered natural gas prices for comparison: the AEO2011 Reference case, ICF, and IHSGI. 

However, the ICF and IHSGI price projections are difficult to compare with the AEO2011 prices because of apparent definitional 

differences. In the ICF projection, end-use sector prices for the 2009 base year are very different from those in the AEO2011 and 

IHSGI projections. Further, the IHSGI industrial delivered natural gas price is difficult to compare. The IHSGI industrial delivered 

natural gas price in 2009 is $1.23 higher than the 2009 price in AEO2011 and $1.35 higher than the 2009 price in the ICF projection 

(all prices in 2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet). The AEO2011 historical delivered industrial natural gas price is based on the 

Manufacturing-Industrial Energy Production Survey (rather than EIA’s Natural Gas Monthly, which represents prices paid to local 

distribution companies by industrial customers). To put the prices on a more common basis, price margins (the difference between 

delivered prices and average wellhead prices) can be compared.

For the residential and commercial sectors, each of the projections shows an initial decline in natural gas price margins from 

2009 levels. The margins in the AEO2011 Reference case, however, recover 86 percent of the decline from the 2009 level by 

2035, while the ICF and IHSGI margins continue declining throughout the projection period at relatively similar rates. The 

increase in residential and commercial margins in AEO2011 is attributable to a significant decline in consumption per customer. 

From 2015 forward, the projected industrial margins are relatively stable in all three projections, although at significantly 

different levels. The AEO2011 and IHSGI natural gas price margins for the electricity sector are similar, with IHSGI showing 

Table 16. Comparison of natural gas projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035 (trillion cubic feet, except where noted) 

(continued)

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference 

case

Other projections

IHSGI EVA DB ICF ExxonMobil INFORUM

2035

Dry gas productiona 20.96 26.32 28.67 -- 21.02 31.92 -- 20.59

Net imports 2.64 0.18 3.44 -- 3.71 0.75 -- --

Pipeline 2.23 0.04 2.70 -- 1.57 -0.13 -- --

LNG 0.41 0.14 0.75 -- 2.14 0.87 -- --

Consumption 22.71 26.55 32.06 -- 24.73 32.64 -- 27.50c

Residential 4.75 4.78 4.57 -- 5.98 5.13 -- 4.92

Commercial 3.11 3.82 2.93 -- 2.39 2.85 -- 4.44

Industriale 6.14 8.02 6.23 -- 5.47 7.61 -- 8.06

Electricity generatorsf 6.89 7.88 15.94 -- 9.07 14.20 -- 10.08

Othersg 1.82 2.07 2.39 -- 1.82 2.84 -- --

Lower 48 wellhead price 

(2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet) 3.71 6.42 4.88 -- 8.59 6.52 -- --

End-use prices 

(2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

Residential 12.20 13.76 11.53 -- -- 10.67 -- --

Commercial 9.94 11.28 9.80 -- -- 9.78 -- --

Industriali 5.39 7.40 7.13 -- -- 7.77 -- --

Electricity generators 4.94 6.97 5.55 -- -- 7.47 -- --

-- = not reported.

a

Does not include supplemental fuels.

b

Does not include lease, plant, and pipeline fuel.

c

Does not include lease, plant, and pipeline fuel and fuel consumed in natural gas vehicles.

d

Natural gas consumed in the residential and commercial sectors.

e

Includes consumption for industrial combined heat and power (CHP) plants and a small number of industrial electricity-only plants, and natural gasto-liquids heat/power and production; excludes consumption by nonutility generators.

f

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power (CHP) plants whose primary business is to sell electricity, or 

electricity and heat, to the public. Includes electric utilities, small power producers, and exempt wholesale generators.

g

Includes lease, plant, and pipeline fuel and fuel consumed in natural gas vehicles.

h

Fuel consumed in natural gas vehicles.

i

The 2009 industrial natural gas price for IHSGI is $6.62.
100 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

slightly higher margins; however, those in the ICF projection range from 31 to 106 percent higher than the margins in the other 

projections from 2015 to 2035.

6. Liquid fuels

In the AEO2011 Reference case, the U.S. imported refiner’s acquisition cost (RAC) for crude oil (in 2009 dollars) increases to $86.83 

per barrel in 2015, $107.40 barrel in 2025, and $113.70 per barrel in 2035 (Table 17). Prices are lower in all years in the DB, ICF, and 

IHSGI projections, ranging from $70 per barrel to $106 per barrel in 2035. In fact, the IHSGI price in 2035 is 9 percent lower than 

the 2015 price. The ICF price remains steady at $70 per barrel over the entire projection. The prices in the INFORUM projection are 

slightly higher in 2025 and 2035, reaching $125 per barrel in 2035. Purvin & Gertz (P&G) did not provide a projection of RAC prices.

Domestic crude oil production increases by 11 percent from 2009 to 2035 in the AEO2011 projection. The INFORUM projection 

shows production varying within a slightly wider band but remaining at a lower overall level than in AEO2011. DB, IHSGI, and P&G 

all project decreasing domestic crude production. DB’s projection for 2035 is 40 percent lower than the AEO2011 projection, and 

IHSGI’s is 43 percent lower. In the AEO2011 Reference case, total net imports of crude oil and petroleum products in 2035 are 

9 percent lower than in 2009, consistent with projected increases in domestic production of crude oil. IHSGI and INFORUM both 

project higher total net imports in 2035.

Prices for motor gasoline prices and diesel fuel increase steadily through 2035 in the AEO2011 projection. INFORUM also projects 

rising prices but at a faster rate than in AEO2011. IHSGI projects decreasing prices. Biofuels supply is listed separately only in the 

AEO2011 Reference case and in the P&G projection. In AEO2011, biofuels supply increases steadily through 2035 in response to the 

Renewable Fuels Standard mandate. In the P&G projection, biofuel supply remains steady. Total product demand, including both 

petroleum products and biofuels, is similar in the AEO2011 and P&G projections.

7. Coal

The coal projections provided by DB, EVA, ICF, INFORUM, and Wood Mackenzie (WM) present interesting contrasts with the 

AEO2011 Reference case. Only AEO2011 and INFORUM show growth in coal consumption; the other projections show declines 

ranging between 10 percent and 38 percent from 2009 levels by the end of their respective projection horizons.

Of the six coal projections, only ICF and WM explicitly state that they include a price on carbon. In the ICF projection, coal 

consumption in 2015 (before implementation of the carbon price) is 3 percent higher than projected in AEO2011. In 2025, however, 

coal consumption in the ICF projection is 19 percent lower than ICF’s projection for 2015 and 27 percent lower than the AEO2011

projection for 2025 (on a Btu basis); this difference is most likely attributable to inclusion of the carbon price in 2025 along with 

other assumed regulations affecting coal use that are specified in the notes for Table 18. In 2030 and 2035, ICF’s outlook for coal 

consumption is the lowest of the projections.

For most years, the WM projection shows less coal consumption and production than in the AEO2011 projection, consistent 

with the impact of a carbon price. The WM projection also showed a decline in regional coal production, again consistent with 

the assumed carbon price. Coal production both east and west of the Mississippi declines in 2025 relative to 2015 in the WM 

projection. In 2030, total coal production (excluding coking coal) in the WM projection is 27 percent lower than in the AEO2011

projection. (WM provides projections only for thermal coal, thus excluding coking coal, which is used in steelmaking. In 2009, 

coking coal production occurred only in the East, and it accounted for 11 percent of eastern coal production.)

Excluding coking coal, the average minemouth price of coal per ton in 2015 in the WM projection is 19 percent higher than the 

corresponding price in the AEO2011 projection. The price difference narrows after 2015, however, and in 2030 the AEO2011 and 

WM prices are nearly identical, despite very different coal production outlooks. The WM projection has generally lower production 

levels than the AEO2011 projection throughout the period, implying that WM includes higher production costs.

The AEO2011 and WM projections show similar levels of eastern coal production (excluding coking coal) in 2030, differing by only 

0.5 percent, which is noteworthy given the carbon price assumption in the WM projection. It appears that production west of the 

Mississippi falls more (in terms of tonnage) in the WM projection as a result of the carbon price, but the regional shares of total 

production remain constant over the projection. Coal production east of the Mississippi (excluding coking coal) represents 38 to 

39 percent of total production in all years in the WM projection, consistent with the historical share, but in the AEO2011 projection 

coal production east of the Mississippi falls to a 28-percent share in 2030. In AEO2011, more favorable pricing of western coal than 

eastern coal facilitates growth in western coal’s share of total production.

Steam coal exports fall to only 8 million tons in 2015 in the WM projection, a decline of 63 percent from 2009 levels, and then 

exceed 2009 levels by 2025. While steam coal exports show modest gains after 2015, they never reach the higher levels seen in 

2008. In contrast, steam coal exports in the AEO2011 projection vary little, ranging between 18 and 20 million tons from 2009 to 

2035 and remaining well below the volumes exported in 2008.

In the INFORUM projection, coal exports total 177 million tons in 2035, the equivalent of about 11 percent of total U.S. production 

in 2035 and 64 million tons higher than the historical record set in 1981. Total coal exports in 2035 in the INFORUM case are more 

than double the total in the AEO2011 projection. Imports are also notably higher in the INFORUM projection, at 113 million tons in 

2035—triple the highest historical level of U.S. imports.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 101

Comparison with other projections

Although ICF does not explicitly provide a coal export projection, coal consumption (in Btu) declines at a far faster rate than coal 

production (provided in tons only), implying strong growth in exports. For example, from 2015 to 2025, coal production east of the 

Mississippi—historically, where most U.S. coal exports originate—rises by nearly 100 million tons; and while total coal production 

falls by 4 percent (47 million tons), coal consumption (in Btu) declines by a much larger 19 percent. The gap between production 

and consumption closes somewhat by 2035, with production 29 percent lower and consumption 39 percent lower than ICF’s 

projection for 2015. EVA also projects strong coal exports that remain in the range of 80 million tons, similar to 2008 export levels, 

for the projection years shown. In the AEO2011 Reference case, exports hover in the 70 million ton range.

Table 17. Comparison of liquids projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035 (million barrels per day, except where noted)

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference case

Other projections

DB ICF IHSGI INFORUM P&G

2015

Average U.S. imported RAC (2009 dollars per barrel) 59.04 86.83 78.22 70.00 85.02 90.97 --

Domestic production 5.36 5.81 5.52 -- 4.89 5.33 4.62

Total net imports 9.72 9.85 -- -- 10.25 10.26 11.19

Crude oil 8.97 8.70 8.30 -- 9.61 8.86 11.07

Petroleum products 0.75 1.14 -- -- 0.64 1.41 0.12

Liquids demand 18.81 20.44 -- -- -- -- 20.63

Net import share of petroleum demand (percent) 52 49 -- -- -- -- 54

Biofuel supply 0.76 1.12 -- -- -- -- 0.90

Product prices (2009 dollars per gallon)

Gasoline 2.349 3.13 -- -- 3.01 3.74 --

Diesel 2.441 3.08 -- -- 3.12 3.55 --

2025

Average U.S. imported RAC (2009 dollars per barrel) 59.04 107.40 96.43 70.00 78.36 108.91 --

Domestic production 5.36 5.88 4.48 -- 3.68 5.77 3.56

Total net imports 9.72 9.06 -- -- 11.27 10.47 12.06

Crude oil 8.97 8.25 8.46 -- 10.40 8.80 11.63

Petroleum products 0.75 0.81 -- -- 0.87 1.66 0.43

Liquids demand 18.81 20.99 -- -- -- -- 20.77

Net import share of petroleum demand (percent) 52 44 -- -- -- -- 58

Biofuel supply 0.76 1.92 -- -- -- -- 0.92

Product prices (2009 dollars per gallon)

Gasoline 2.349 3.54 -- -- 2.69 4.23 --

Diesel 2.441 3.73 -- -- 2.83 3.84 --

2035

Average U.S. imported RAC (2009 dollars per barrel) 59.04 113.70 106.36 70.00 77.37 125.07 --

Domestic production 5.36 5.95 3.57 -- 3.38 5.73 --

Total net imports 9.72 8.89 -- -- 11.54 10.62 --

Crude oil 8.97 8.25 7.24 -- 11.02 8.76 --

Petroleum products 0.75 0.64 -- -- 0.52 1.86 --

Liquids demand 18.81 21.93 -- -- -- -- --

Net import share of petroleum demand (percent) 52 42 -- -- -- -- --

Biofuel supply 0.76 2.48 -- -- -- -- --

Product prices (2009 dollars per gallon)

Gasoline 2.349 3.71 -- -- 2.53 4.87 --

Diesel 2.441 3.89 -- -- 2.61 4.48 --

-- = not reported.
102 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

Table 18. Comparison of coal projections, 2015, 2025, 2030, and 2035 (million short tons, except where noted)

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference case

AEO2011

Reference case 

(thermal coal only)a

Other projections

DB EVA ICFb, c INFORUM

WM 

(thermal 

coal only)b, d

2015

Production 1,075 1,040 969 -- 1,060 1,150 1,321 1,111

East of the Mississippi 450 387 319 -- 413 505 -- 423

West of the Mississippi 625 653 650 -- 646 645 -- 688

Consumption

Electric power 937 928 928 -- 929 -- -- --

Coke plants 15 22 -- -- 18 -- -- --

Coal-to-liquids 0 11 11 -- 0 -- -- --

Other industrial/buildings 49 52 52 -- 49 -- -- --

Total consumption (quadrillion Btu)e 19.69 19.73 19.14 19.66 20.33 -- --

Total consumption 

(million short tons) 1,000 1,013 991 -- 996 -- 1,252f 1,123f

Net coal exports 38 40 -9 -- 73 -- 69 -12

Exports 59 70 20 -- 85 -- 107 8 

Imports 21 30 29 -- 13 -- 38 20 

Minemouth price

2009 dollars per ton 33.26 32.36 27.53 -- -- 32.14 57.05 32.85 

2009 dollars per Btu 1.67 1.62 1.41 -- -- 1.48 -- 1.67 

Average delivered price 

to electricity generators

2009 dollars per ton 43.48 40.94 40.94 -- -- -- -- 51.64 

2009 dollars per Btu 2.20 2.11 2.11 -- -- 2.15 -- 2.63 

2025

Production 1,075 1,188 1,111 -- 980 1,103 1,538 985

East of the Mississippi 450 406 333 -- 363 600 -- 370

West of the Mississippi 625 782 778 -- 616 503 -- 615

Consumption

Electric power 937 1,066 1,066 -- 857 -- -- --

Coke plants 15 21 -- -- 14 -- -- --

Coal-to-liquids 0 44 44 -- 0 -- -- --

Other industrial/buildings 49 51 51 -- 40 -- -- --

Total consumption (quadrillion Btu)e 19.69 22.61 22.06 18.7 -- 16.48 -- --

Total consumption 

(million short tons) 1,000 1,182 1,161 -- 910 -- 1,463f 978f

Net coal exports 38 19 -37 -- 71 -- 75 7

Exports 59 75 18 -- 83 -- 138 33 

Imports 21 56 55 -- 12 -- 63 26 

Minemouth price

2009 dollars per ton 33.26 33.22 27.92 -- -- 33.95 63.29 30.09 

2009 dollars per Btu 1.67 1.68 1.45 -- -- 1.55 -- 1.54 

Average delivered price 

to electricity generators

2009 dollars per ton 43.48 43.33 43.33 -- -- -- 50.12 

2009 dollars per Btu 2.20 2.24 2.24 -- 2.04 -- 2.57 

-- = not reported. 

See notes at end of table.

(continued on page 103)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 103

Comparison with other projections

Table 18. Comparison of coal projections, 2015, 2025, 2030, and 2035 (million short tons, except where noted) (continued)

Projection 2009

AEO2011 

Reference case

AEO2011

Reference case 

(thermal coal only)a

Other projections

DB EVA ICFb, c INFORUM

WM 

(thermal 

coal only)b, d

2030

Production 1,075 1,252 1,180 -- 962 916 1,591 862

East of the Mississippi 450 402 335 -- 353 500 -- 337

West of the Mississippi 625 850 845 -- 609 416 -- 525

Consumption

Electric power 937 1094 1094 -- 847 -- -- --

Coke plants 15 20 -- -- 12 -- -- --

Coal-to-liquids 0 82 82 -- 0 -- -- --

Other industrial/buildings 49 51 51 -- 36 -- -- --

Total consumption (quadrillion Btu)e 19.69 23.39 22.88 18.23 13.85 -- --

Total consumption 

(million short tons) 1,000 1,247 1,227 -- 895 -- 1,517f 855f

Net coal exports 38 20 -33 -- 69 -- 74 7

Exports 59 74 20 -- 81 -- 156 33 

Imports 21 54 53 -- 12 -- 82 26 

Minemouth price

2009 dollars per ton 33.26 33.25 28.47 -- 34.54 73.37 28.86 

2009 dollars per Btu 1.67 1.69 1.48 -- 1.58 -- 1.48 

Average delivered price 

to electricity generators

2009 dollars per ton 43.48 44.63 44.63 -- -- -- 48.41 

2009 dollars per Btu 2.20 2.32 2.32 -- 1.99 -- 2.48 

2035

Production 1,075 1,319 1,252 -- 822 1,632 --

East of the Mississippi 450 415 354 -- 464 -- --

West of the Mississippi 625 904 898 -- 359 -- --

Consumption

Electric power 937 1119 1119 -- -- -- --

Coke plants 15 18 -- -- -- -- --

Coal-to-liquids 0 128 128 -- -- -- --

Other industrial/buildings 49 50 50 -- -- -- --

Total consumption (quadrillion Btu)e 19.69 24.30 23.83 17.78 12.30 -- --

Total consumption 

(million short tons) 1,000 1,315 1,297 -- -- 1,568f --

Net coal exports 38 18 -31 -- -- 64 --

Exports 59 71 21 -- -- 177 --

Imports 21 53 52 -- -- 113 --

Minemouth price

2009 dollars per ton 33.26 33.92 29.68 -- 36.73 79.43 --

2009 dollars per Btu 1.67 1.73 1.54 -- 1.67 -- --

Average delivered price 

to electricity generators

2009 dollars per ton 43.48 46.36 46.36 -- -- -- --

2009 dollars per Btu 2.20 2.40 2.40 -- 1.97 -- --

a

Excludes coking coal for all data items to facilitate comparison with Wood Mackenzie projections.

b

ICF includes a carbon price beginning in 2018.

WM includes a carbon price beginning in 2016.

c

Aside from a price on carbon, the ICF projection also differs from AEO2011 by representing certain proposed regulations, including Maximum 

Achievable Control Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants, regulations for cooling water intake structures under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water 

Act, and regulations for coal combustion residuals under the authority of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. ICF represents the Clean Air 

Transport Rule, whereas AEO2011 represents the Clean Air Interstate Rule. d

Wood Mackenzie projections exclude coking coal for all data items.

e

For AEO2011, excludes coal converted to coal-based synthetic liquids. f

Calculated as consumption = (production – exports + imports).
104 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Comparison with other projections

In the INFORUM projection, the average minemouth price of coal (in constant 2009 dollars) increases by about 140 percent 

from 2009 to 2035. The rise may be due in part to higher mining costs and expectations of growth in domestic coal demand, 

but it may also be due to strong international demand for U.S. coal. Larger exports of coking coal—which typically command 

higher prices than thermal coal exports—might also explain some of the increase in the average coal minemouth price in the 

INFORUM projection.

ICF projects a minemouth coal price on 2015 that is 8 percent lower on a Btu basis than the AEO2011 price in 2015, although 

coal production in 2015 is 11 percent higher in the ICF projection. All of the increase in production in 2015 relative to AEO2011 is 

attributed to production east of the Mississippi, possibly for export. Over the projection, as ICF’s total production falls relative to 

AEO2011, its average minemouth price still continues to rise, so that in 2035 it is only 4 percent lower than the corresponding price 

in AEO2011. The rise in minemouth prices in the ICF projection could be the result of strong international demand, a larger share 

of higher-cost eastern production, or rising mining costs. In contrast, ICF’s delivered coal price to the electricity sector falls slightly 

from 2015 levels, possibly reflecting either a larger proportion of eastern coal production, which would have lower total transport 

costs, or generally lower transportation rates for all U.S. coal shipments. AEO2011 projects an increase in the delivered price of coal 

to the electricity sector, reflecting higher transportation costs for western coal, as well as higher projected minemouth prices for 

coal from most basins.

The strongest growth in coal production is projected by INFORUM. In 2035, coal production in the INFORUM projection is 

24 percent above the AEO2011 projection. Similarly, coal consumption in the INFORUM projection is the highest among all the 

projections regardless of the projection year.

Total coal consumption declines at a rate of 0.5 percent per year (on a tonnage basis) from 2009 to 2030 in the EVA projection, as 

compared with an average increase of 1.1 percent per year in AEO2011. For the same period, thermal coal consumption (excluding 

coking coal) declines by 0.7 percent per year in the WM projection but increases by 1.1 percent per year in the AEO2011 projection. 

From 2009 to 2035, coal consumption increases by 1.7 percent per year (on a tonnage basis) in the INFORUM projection and 

by 1.1 percent per year in the AEO2011 Reference case. Also over the 2009-2035 period, coal consumption in the DB and ICF 

projections (on a Btu basis) declines at by 0.4 percent per year and 1.8 percent per year, respectively, compared with an increase 

of 0.8 percent per year in the AEO2011 projection.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 105

List of acronyms

AB Assembly Bill

ACI Activated carbon injection

AEO Annual Energy Outlook

AEO2011 Annual Energy Outlook 2011

ARI Advanced Resources International

ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, 

and Air Conditioning Engineers

BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics

BOEM Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

BTA Best technology available

BTL Biomass-to-liquid

Btu British thermal unit

CAA Clean Air Act

CAAA90 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990

CAFE Corporate average fuel economy

CAIR Clean Air Interstate Rule

CAMR Clean Air Mercury Rule

CARB California Air Resources Board

CBO Congressional Budget Office

CBTL Coal- and biomass-to-liquids

CCR Coal combustion residual

CCS Carbon capture and storage

CHP Combined heat and power

CMM Coal Market Module

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CTL Coal-to-liquids

CWA Clean Water Act

DB Deutsche Bank

DG Distributed generation

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DSI Direct sorbent injection

DSIRE Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency

E10 Motor gasoline blend containing up to 10 percent ethanol

E15 Motor gasoline blend containing up to 15 percent ethanol

E85 Motor fuel containing up to 85 percent ethanol

EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration

EISA2007 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

EOR Enhanced oil recovery

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EPACT2005 Energy Policy Act of 2005

EUR Estimated ultimate recovery

EVA Energy Ventures Analysis

FEMP Federal Energy Management Program

FFV Flex-fuel vehicle

FGD Flue gas desulfurization

GDP Gross domestic product

GEM Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model

GHG Greenhouse gas

GSHP Ground-source heat pump

GTL Gas-to-liquids

GVWR Gross vehicle weight rating

HAP Hazardous air pollutant

HB House Bill

HCl Hydrogen chloride

HDV Heavy-duty vehicle

ICF ICF International

IDM Industrial Demand Module

IEA International Energy Agency

IECC International Energy Conservation Code

IEM International Energy Module

IHSGI IHS Global Insight

ILUC Indirect land-use change

INFORUM Interindustry Forecasting Project 

at the University of Maryland

ITC Investment tax credit

LCFS Low Carbon Fuel Standard

LDV Light-duty vehicle

LED Light-emitting diode

LNG Liquefied natural gas

MAM Macroeconomic Activity Module

mpg Miles per gallon

MY Model year

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NEMS National Energy Modeling System

NERC North American Electric Reliability Council

NGL Natural gas liquids

NGTDM Natural Gas Transmission and Distribution Module

NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

NOx Nitrous oxide

OCS Outer continental shelf

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

PADD Petroleum Administration for Defense District

PCs Personal computers

P&G Purvin & Gertz

PM Particulate matter

PMM Petroleum Market Module

PM2.5 Particulate matter less than 2.5 microns diameter

PTC Production tax credit

PV Solar photovoltaic

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RFM Renewable Fuels Module

RFS Renewable fuels standard

RGGI Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative

RPS Renewable portfolio standard

SCNR Selective noncatalytic converter

SCR Selective catalytic converter

SEP State Energy Program

SNCR Selective noncatalytic converter

SO2 Sulfur dioxide

TVA Tennessee Valley Authority

VIUS U.S. Census Bureau’s 2002 Vehicle Inventory 

and Use Survey

VMT Vehicle miles traveled

WM Wood Mackenzie

WTI West Texas Intermediate
106 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Notes and sources

Table notes and sources

Table 1. Coal-fired plant retirements in alternative cases, 2010-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A, TRMA05.D021811A, TRMA20.D021811A, BAMA05.D021811A, BAMA20.D021811A, LGBAMA05.D021811A, LGBAMA20.

D021811A, and HSHLEUR.D020911A.

Table 2. Renewable portfolio standards in the 30 States with current mandates: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office 

of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting. Based on a review of enabling legislation and regulatory actions from the various States of 

policies identified by the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy as of September 30, 2010, website www.dsireuse.org.

Table 3. Key analyses of interest from Issues in focus in recent AEOs: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 

2010, DOE/EIA-0383(2010) (Washington, DC, April 2010); U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2009, 

DOE/EIA-0383(2009) (Washington, DC, March 2009); U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2008, 

DOE/EIA-0383(2008) (Washington, DC, June 2008).

Table 4. Unconventional light-duty vehicle types: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.

Table 5. Vehicle categories for the HDV standards: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Heavy-Duty Regulations,” website 

www.epa.gov/oms/climate/regulations.htm#1-2; and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and National Highway Traffic Safety 

Administration, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines 

and Vehicles,” Federal Register, Vol. 75, No. 229 (November 30, 2010), pp. 74451-74456, website http://edocket.access.gpo.

gov/2010/2010-28120.htm.

Table 6. Technically recoverable undiscovered U.S. offshore oil and natural gas resources assumed in two cases: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and OCSHRES3S.D032911A.

Table 7. First year of available offshore leasing in two cases: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.

Table 8. Natural gas prices, production, imports, and consumption in five cases, 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, HSHLEUR.D020911A, HSHLDRL.D020911A, LSHLEUR.D020911A, and LSHLDRL.D020911A.

Table 9. Commercial-scale CCS projects operating in 2010: International Energy Agency, Carbon Capture and Storage: Progress and 

Next Steps, website www.iea.org/papers/2010/ccs_g8.pdf.

Table 10. Transport Rule emissions targets, 2012 and 2014: “Federal Implementation Plans To Reduce Interstate Transport of Fine 

Particulate Matter and Ozone,” Federal Register, Vol. 75, No. 147 (August 2, 2010), p. 45217, website www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR2010-08-02/pdf/2010-17007.pdf#page=1.

Table 11. Coal-fired plant retirements in nine cases, 2010-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, 

TRMA05.D021811A, TRMA20.D021811A, BAMA05.D021811A, BAMA20.D021811A, LGBAMA05.D021811A, LGBAMA20.D021811A, 

HSHLEUR.D020911A, and POLMAX.D031411A.

Table 12. Projections of average annual economic growth, 2009-2035: AEO2010 (Reference case): AEO2010 National Energy 

Modeling System, run AEO2010R.D111809A. AEO2011 (Reference case): AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run AEO2011.

D020911A. IHSGI (August 2010): IHS/Global Insight, Inc., U.S. Macroeconomic 30 Year Trend Forecast (Lexington, MA, August 

2010). OMB (July 2009): Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government Fiscal Year 2012 (Washington, 

DC, January 2011). CBO (January 2011): Congressional Budget Office, The Budget and Economic Outlook (Washington, DC, January 

2011). INFORUM (December 2010): Inforum Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model (2010). SSA (May 2010):

Social Security Administration, OASDI Trustees Report (Washington, DC, May 2010). BLS (December 2009): Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, Macro Projections 2009. IEA (2010): International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2010 (Paris, France, September 

2010). Blue Chip Consensus (March 2010): Blue Chip Economic Indicators (Aspen Publishers, March 10, 2010). Exxon/Mobil 2010: 

Exxon Mobil Corporation, The Outlook for Energy: A View to 2030 (Irving, TX, 2010). ICF Quarter 4 2010 Integrated Energy Outlook: 

ICF International, ICD Integrated Energy Outlook (Fourth Quarter, 2010).

Table 13. Projections of world oil prices, 2015-2035: AEO2011 (Reference case): AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A. AEO2010 (Reference case): AEO2010 National Energy Modeling System, run AEO2010.D1111809A. DB:

Deutsche Bank AG, e-mail from Adam Sieminski (January 11, 2011). ICF Q4 2010 Integrated Energy Outlook: ICF International, ICD 

Integrated Energy Outlook (Fourth Quarter, 2010). INFORUM: INFORUM Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model 

(2010). IEA (current policies scenario): International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2010 (Paris, France, November 2010), 

Reference Scenario. EVA: Energy Ventures Analysis, Inc., Fuel Cast Long Term (February 2010). IHSGI: IHS/Global Insight, Inc., U.S. 

Energy Outlook (Lexington, MA, September 2010).

Table 14. Projections of energy consumption by sector, 2009-2035: AEO2011: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A. INFORUM: INFORUM Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model (2010). IHSGI: IHS/Global 

Insight, Inc., U.S. Energy Outlook (Lexington, MA, September 2010). ExxonMobil: Exxon Mobil Corporation, The Outlook for Energy: 

A View to 2030 (Irving, TX, 2010).
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 107

Notes and sources

Table 15. Comparison of electricity projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035: AEO2011: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

run AEO2011.D020911A. EVA: Energy Ventures Analysis, Inc., FUELCAST: Long-Term Outlook (February 2011). IHSGI: IHS/Global 

Insight, Inc., 2010 Energy Outlook (Lexington, MA, September 2010). ICF: ICF International, ICD Integrated Energy Outlook (Fourth 

Quarter, 2010). INFORUM: Inforum Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model (2010).

Table 16. Comparison of natural gas projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035: AEO2011: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A. IHSGI: IHS/Global Insight, Inc., U.S. Energy Outlook (Lexington, MA, September 2010). EVA: Energy Ventures 

Analysis, Inc., FUELCAST: Long-Term Outlook (February 2011). DB: Deutsche Bank AG, e-mail from Adam Sieminski (January 11, 

2011). ICF: ICF International, ICD Integrated Energy Outlook (Fourth Quarter, 2010). ExxonMobil: Exxon Mobil Corporation, The 

Outlook for Energy: A View to 2030 (Irving, TX, 2010). INFORUM: Inforum Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model 

(2010).

Table 17. Comparison of liquids projections, 2015, 2025, and 2035: AEO2011: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

AEO2011.D0209A. DB: Deutsche Bank AG, email from Adam Sieminski (January 11, 2011). ICF: ICF International, ICD Integrated 

Energy Outlook (Fourth Quarter, 2010). IHSGI: IHS/Global Insight, Inc., U.S. Energy Outlook (Lexington, MA, September 2010). 

INFORUM: Inforum Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model (2010).P&G: Purvin and Gertz, Inc., 2010 Global 

Petroleum Market Outlook, Vol. 2, Table III-2 (2010).

Table 18. Comparison of coal projections, 2015, 2025, 2030, and 2035: AEO2011: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

run REF2011.D020911A. DB: Deutsche Bank AG, email from Adam Sieminski (January 11, 2011). EVA: Energy Ventures Analysis, 

Inc., FUELCAST: Long-Term Outlook (February 2011). ICF: ICF International, ICD Integrated Energy Outlook (Fourth Quarter, 2010). 

INFORUM: INFORUM Long-term Interindustry Forecasting Tool (Lift) Model (2010). WM: Wood Mackenzie, Fall 2010 Long-Term 

US Thermal Coal Outlook.

Figure notes and sources

Figure 1. U.S. liquids fuel consumption, 1970-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, 

DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A.

Figure 2. U.S. natural gas production, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, 

DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A.

Figure 3. U.S. nonhydropower renewable electricity generation, 1990-2035: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 4. U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by sector and fuel, 2005 and 2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 5. Surface coal mining productivity in Central Appalachia, 1980-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report,” and U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Form 7000-2, 

“Quarterly Mine Employment and Coal Production Report.” Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A and AEO2010 National Energy Modeling System, run AEO2010R.D111809A.

Figure 6. Total energy consumption in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 7. Total liquid fuels consumption for transportation in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 8. Renewable electricity generation in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 9. Electricity generation from natural gas in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 10. Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.
108 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Notes and sources

Figure 11. Natural gas wellhead prices in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 12. Average electricity prices in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, NOSUNSET.D030711A, and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 13. Average annual world oil prices in three cases, 1980-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, and HP2011HNO.D022511A.

Figure 14. Total liquids production by source in the Reference case, 2000-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 15. Differences from Reference case liquids production in four Oil Price cases, 2035: Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs LP2011LNO.D022511A, HP2011HNO.D022511A, LP2011MNO.D022511A, and HP2011MNO.D022811A.

Figure 16. Combined CAFE standards for light-duty vehicles in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 17. Model year 2025 light-duty vehicle market shares by technology type in three cases: Projections: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 18. Distribution of new light-duty vehicle sales by vehicle price in 2025 in the CAFE3 and CAFE6 cases: Projections:

AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 19. On-road fuel economy of the light-duty vehicle stock in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 20. Total liquid fuels consumption by light-duty vehicles in three cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 21. Total transportation carbon dioxide emissions: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs 

REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 22. Total annual fuel consumption for consumers driving 14,000 miles per year and annual fuel expenditures at a $4.00 

per gallon fuel price: Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, CAFE3.D022211A, and 

CAFE6.D022211A.

Figure 23. On-road fuel economy of new medium and heavy heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy 

Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections:

AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and ATHDVCAFE.D030411A.

Figure 24. Average on-road fuel economy of medium and heavy heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy 

Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections:

AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and DVCAFE.D030411A.

Figure 25. Total liquid fuels consumed by the transportation sector in two cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and DVCAFE.D030411A.

Figure 26. CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles in two cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and DVCAFE.D030411A.

Figure 27. Residential and commercial delivered energy consumption in four cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, BLDFRZ.D021011A, EXPANDED.D022811A, and EXPANDEDCS.

D022811A.

Figure 28. Residential delivered energy savings in three cases, 2010-2035: Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, EXPANDED.D022811A, and EXPANDEDCS.D022811A.

Figure 29. Commercial delivered energy savings in three cases, 2010-2035: Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, EXPANDED.D022811A, and EXPANDEDCS.D022811A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 109

Notes and sources

Figure 30. Offshore crude oil production in four cases, 2009-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, OCSHCST.D031811A, OCSACCESS.D032911A, and OCSHRES3S.D032911A.

Figure 31. Offshore natural gas production in four cases, 2009-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, OCSHCST.D031811A, OCSACCESS.D032911A, and OCSHRES3S.D032911A.

Figure 32. Additions to U.S. generating capacity by fuel type in five cases, 2009-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, FRZCST11.D020911A, DECCST11.D020911A, LCNUC11.D020911A, 

and LCFOSS11.D020911A.

Figure 33. U.S. electricity generation by fuel in five cases, 2009 and 2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, FRZCST11.D020911A, DECCST11.D020911A, LCNUC11.D020911A, and LCFOSS11.D020911A.

Figure 34. U.S. electricity prices in five cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs 

REF2011.D020911A, FRZCST11.D020911A, DECCST11.D020911A, LCNUC11.D020911A, and LCFOSS11.D020911A.

Figure 35. CO2 injection volumes in the Reference case, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 36. CCS capacity additions in the U.S. electric power sector in the GHG Price Economywide case, 2015-2035: History:

U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). 

Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run POLMAX.D031411A.

Figure 37. CO2 injection volumes in the GHG Price Economywide case, 2005-2035:History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, run POLMAX.D031411A.

Figure 38. CO2-EOR oil production in four cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, POLMAX.D031411A, LOWCO2.D030711A, and POLMAXLCO2.D032111A.

Figure 39. Natural gas prices in the Reference and High Ultimate Shale Recovery cases, 2005-2035: History: U.S. Energy 

Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections:

AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and HSHLEUR.D020911A.

Figure 40. Electricity generation by fuel in nine cases, 2009 and 2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, TRMA05.D021811A, TRMA20.D021811A, BAMA05.D021811A, BAMA20.D021811A, 

LGBAMA05.D021811A, LGBAMA20.D021811A, POLMAX.D031411A, and HSHLEUR.D020911A.

Figure 41. Electricity generation by fuel in nine cases, 2009 and 2025: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, TRMA05.D021811A, TRMA20.D021811A, BAMA05.D021811A, BAMA20.D021811A, 

LGBAMA05.D021811A, LGBAMA20.D021811A, POLMAX.D031411A, and HSHLEUR.D020911A.

Figure 42. Natural gas consumption in the power sector in nine cases, 2009, 2025, and 2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, TRMA05.D021811A, TRMA20.D021811A, BAMA05.D021811A, 

BAMA20.D021811A, LGBAMA05.D021811A, LGBAMA20.D021811A, POLMAX.D031411A, and HSHLEUR.D020911A.

Figure 43. Cumulative capacity additions in the Reference and GHG Price Economywide cases, 2010-2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and POLMAX.D031411A.

Figure 44. Carbon dioxide emissions from the electric power sector in nine cases, 2009, 2025, and 2035: History: U.S. Energy 

Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections:

AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, TRMA05.D021811A, TRMA20.D021811A, BAMA05.

D021811A, BAMA20.D021811A, LGBAMA05.D021811A, LGBAMA20.D021811A, POLMAX.D031411A, and HSHLEUR.D020911A.

Figure 45. Average annual growth rates of real GDP, labor force, and productivity in three cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.

Figure 46. Average annual inflation, interest, and unemployment rates in three cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.
110 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Notes and sources

Figure 47. Sectoral composition of industrial output growth rates in three cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.

Figure 48. Energy expenditures in the U.S. economy in three cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.

Figure 49. Energy end-use expenditures as a share of gross domestic product, 1970-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.

Figure 50. World energy consumption by region, 1990-2035: U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 

2010, DOE/EIA-0484(2010) (Washington, DC, July 2010), Appendix A, Table A1.

Figure 51. North American natural gas trade, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 52. Average annual world oil prices in three cases, 1980-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, and HP2011HNO. D022511A.

Figure 53. World liquids supply and demand by region in three cases, 2009 and 2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, International Energy Statistics database (as of November 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, and HP2011HNO.D022511A.

Figure 54. Unconventional resources as a share of total world liquids production in three cases, 2009 and 2035: 2008: Derived 

from U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics database (as of November 2010), website www.eia.

gov/ies. Projections: Generate World Oil Balance (GWOB) Model and AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.

D020911A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, and HP2011HNO.D022511A.

Figure 55. Energy use per capita and per dollar of gross domestic product, 1980-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 56. Primary energy use by end-use sector, 2009-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 57. Primary energy use by fuel, 1980-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, 

DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A.

Figure 58. Residential delivered energy consumption per capita in four cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, BLDFRZ.D021011A, BLDBEST.D021011A, and BLDHIGH.D021011A.

Figure 59. Change in residential electricity consumption for selected end uses in the Reference case, 2009-2035: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 60. Efficiency gains for selected residential equipment in three cases, 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, BLDFRZ.D021011A, and BLDBEST.D021011A.

Figure 61. Residential market saturation by renewable technologies in two cases, 2009, 2020, and 2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 62. Commercial delivered energy consumption per capita in four cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A, BLDFRZ.D021011A, BLDBEST.D021011A, and BLDHIGH.D021011A.

Figure 63. Average annual growth rates for selected electricity end uses in the commercial sector, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 64. Efficiency gains for selected commercial equipment in three cases, 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, BLDFRZ.D021011A, and BLDBEST.D021011A.

Figure 65. Additions to electricity generation capacity in the commercial sector in two cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and EXTENDED.D031011A.

Figure 66. Industrial delivered energy consumption by application, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 67. Industrial energy consumption by fuel, 2007, 2009, 2025 and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 111

Notes and sources

Figure 68. Cumulative growth in value of shipments by industrial subsector in three cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.

Figure 69. Change in delivered energy consumption for industrial subsectors in three cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and LM2011.D020911A.

Figure 70. Industrial consumption of fuels for use as feedstocks by fuel type, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 71. Delivered energy consumption for transportation by mode, 2009 and 2035: 2008: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 72. Average fuel economy of new light-duty vehicles in five cases, 1980-2035: History: U.S. Department of Transportation, 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Summary of Fuel Economy Performance (Washington, DC, October 2010), web site 

www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/rulemaking/pdf/cafe/Oct2010_Summary_Report.pdf. Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, HP2011HNO.D022511A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, TRNHIGH.D021011A, and TRNLOW.D021011A.

Figure 73. Vehicle miles traveled per licensed driver, 1970-2035: History: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway 

Administration, Highway Statistics 2008 (Washington, DC, 2009), Table VM-1 and annual Table DL-22, website www.fhwa.dot.

gov/policyinformation/statistics/2008/. Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run AEO2011.D020911A.

Figure 74. Market penetration of new technologies for light-duty vehicles, 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 75. Sales of unconventional light-duty vehicles by fuel type, 2009, 2020, and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 76. U.S. electricity demand growth, 1950-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 77. Electricity generation by fuel, 2007, 2009, and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A.

Figure 78. Electricity generation capacity additions by fuel type, 2010-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 79. Additions to electricity generation capacity, 1985-2035: History: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-860, 

“Annual Electric Generator Report.” Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 80. Electricity sales and power sector generating capacity, 1949-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy 

Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 81. Levelized electricity costs for new power plants, 2020 and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 82. Electricity generating capacity at U.S. nuclear power plants in two cases, 2009, 2020, and 2035: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A and POLMAX.D031411A.

Figure 83. Nonhydropower renewable electricity generation by energy source, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 84. Nonhydropower renewable electricity generation capacity by source, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 85. Regional growth in nonhydroelectric renewable electricity generation capacity, including end-use capacity, 2009-

2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 86. Annual average lower 48 wellhead and Henry Hub spot market prices for natural gas, 1990-2035: History: Based on 

U.S. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Annual 2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010). Henry 

Hub natural gas prices: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Short-Term Energy Outlook Query System, Monthly Natural Gas 

Data, Variable NGHHUUS. Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 87. Ratio of low-sulfur light crude oil price to Henry Hub natural gas price on an energy equivalent basis, 1990-2035:

History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Short-Term Energy Outlook Query System, Monthly Natural Gas Data, Variable 

NGHHUUS. Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 88. Annual average lower 48 wellhead prices for natural gas in seven cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Natural Gas Annual 2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, LM2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, OGLTEC11.D020911A, OGHTEC11.

D020911A, LTRKITEN.D030111A, and HTRKITEN.D030111A.
112 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Notes and sources

Figure 89. Natural gas production by source, 1990-2035: History: Based on U.S. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas 

Annual 2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010); and HPDI Production Data Applications database, Office of 

Petroleum, Gas, and Biofuels Analysis. Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 90. Total U.S. natural gas production in five cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas 

Annual 2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, LM2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, OGLTEC11.D020911A, and OGHTEC11.D020911A.

Figure 91. Lower 48 onshore natural gas production by region, 2009 and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 92. U.S. net imports of natural gas by source, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas 

Annual 2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 93. Liquid fuels consumption by sector, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 94. U.S. domestic liquids production by source, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.

D020911A.

Figure 95. Domestic crude oil production by source, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum 

Marketing Annual 2009, DOE/EIA-0487(2010) (Washington, DC, August 2009). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 96. Total U.S. crude oil production in five cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

runs REF2011.D020911A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, HP2011HNO.D022511A, OGLTEC11.D020911A, and OGHTEC11.D020911A.

Figure 97. Net import share of U.S. liquid fuels consumption in three cases, 1990-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 

National Energy Modeling System, runs REF2011.D020911A, LP2011LNO.D022511A, and HP2011HNO.D022511A.

Figure 98. EISA2007 renewable fuels standard, 2010-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 99. U.S. motor gasoline and diesel fuel consumption, 2000-2035: History:

U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual 2009, Volume 1, DOE/EIA-0340(2010) (Washington, DC, July 

2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 100. U.S. ethanol use in gasoline and E85, 2000-2035: History: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy 

Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, 

run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 101. Coal production by region, 1970-2035: History (short tons): 1970-1990: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

The U.S. Coal Industry, 1970-1990: Two Decades of Change, DOE/EIA-0559 (Washington, DC, November 2002). 1991-2000: U.S. 

Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual, DOE/EIA-0584 (various years). 2001-2009: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Coal Report 2009, DOE/EIA-0584(2009) (Washington, DC, February 2011), and previous issues. History 

(conversion to quadrillion Btu): 1970-2009: Estimation Procedure: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Electricity, 

Coal, Nuclear and Renewables Analysis. Estimates of average heat content by region and year are based on coal quality data 

collected through various energy surveys (see sources) and national-level estimates of U.S. coal production by year in units of 

quadrillion Btu, published in EIA’s Annual Energy Review. Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010), Table 1.2; Form EIA-3, “Quarterly Coal Consumption and Quality 

Report, Manufacturing Plants”; Form EIA-5, “Quarterly Coal Consumption and Quality Report, Coke Plants”; Form EIA-6A, “Coal 

Distribution Report”; Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report”; Form EIA-423, “Monthly Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Plants 

Report”; Form EIA-906, “Power Plant Report”; Form EIA-920, “Combined Heat and Power Plant Report”; Form EIA-923, “Power 

Plant Operations Report”; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “Monthly Report EM 545”; and Federal Energy 

Regulatory Commission, Form 423, “Monthly Report of Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Plants.” Projections: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A. Note: For 1989-2035, coal production includes waste coal.

Figure 102. U.S. coal production in six cases, 2007, 2009, 2020, and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, runs 

REF2011.D020911A, LCCST11.D020911A, HCCST11.D020911A, LM2011.D020911A, HM2011.D020911A, and HP2011HNO.

D022511A. Note: Coal production includes waste coal.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 113

Notes and sources

Figure 103. Average annual minemouth coal prices by region, 1990-2035: History (dollars per short ton): 1990-2000: U.S. 

Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual, DOE/EIA-0584 (various years). 2001-2009: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Coal Report 2009, DOE/EIA-0584(2009) (Washington, DC, February 2011), and previous issues. 

History (conversion to dollars per million Btu): 1970-2009: Estimation Procedure: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 

Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting. Estimates of average heat content by region and year based on coal quality data 

collected through various energy surveys (see sources) and national-level estimates of U.S. coal production by year in units of 

quadrillion Btu published in EIA’s Annual Energy Review. Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 

2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010), Table 1.2; Form EIA-3, “Quarterly Coal Consumption and Quality 

Report, Manufacturing Plants”; Form EIA-5, “Quarterly Coal Consumption and Quality Report, Coke Plants”; Form EIA-6A, “Coal 

Distribution Report”; Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report”; Form EIA-423, “Monthly Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Plants 

Report”; Form EIA-906, “Power Plant Report”; and Form EIA-920, “Combined Heat and Power Plant Report”; Form EIA-923, “Power 

Plant Operations Report”; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “Monthly Report EM 545”; and Federal Energy 

Regulatory Commission, Form 423, “Monthly Report of Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Plants.” Projections: AEO2011 National 

Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A. Note: Includes reported prices for both open-market and captive mines.

Figure 104. Average annual delivered coal prices in four cases, 1990-2035: History: 1990-2009: U.S. Energy Information 

Administration, Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009, DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q) (Washington, DC, April 2010), and 

previous issues; Electric Power Monthly, October 2010, DOE/EIA-0226(2009/10) (Washington, DC, October 2010); and Annual 

Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, runs REF2011.D020911A, LCCST11.D020911A, HCCST11.D020911A, and HP2011HNO.D022511A.

Figure 105. Change in annual U.S. coal consumption by end use in two cases, 2009-2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling 

System, run REF2011.D020911A and NORSK2011.D020911A.

Figure 106. U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by sector and fuel, 2005 and 2035: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 107. Sulfur dioxide emissions from electricity generation, 2000-2035: 1995: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

National Air Pollutant Emissions Trends, 1990-1998, EPA-454/R-00-002 (Washington, DC, March 2000). 2000: U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Acid Rain Program Preliminary Summary Emissions Report, Fourth Quarter 2004, website www.epa.gov/airmarkets/

emissions/prelimarp/index.html. 2009 and Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run REF2011.D020911A.

Figure 108. Nitrogen oxide emissions from electricity generation, 2000-2035: History: 1995: U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, National Air Pollutant Emissions Trends, 1990-1998, EPA-454/R-00-002 (Washington, DC, March 2000). 2000: U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, Acid Rain Program Preliminary Summary Emissions Report, Fourth Quarter 2004, web site www.

epa.gov/airmarkets/emissions/prelimarp/index.html. 2009 and Projections: AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System, run 

REF2011.D020911A.
This page intentionally left blank
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 115

Table A1. Total Energy Supply, Disposition, and Price Summary

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Production

 Crude Oil and Lease Condensate . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.51 11.34 12.51 13.07 12.64 12.49 12.80 0.5%

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.41 2.57 2.86 3.06 3.55 3.71 3.92 1.6%

 Dry Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.83 21.50 23.01 24.04 24.60 25.75 27.00 0.9%

 Coal1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.85 21.58 20.94 22.05 23.64 24.77 26.01 0.7%

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.43 8.35 8.77 9.17 9.17 9.17 9.14 0.3%

 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.53 2.69 2.92 3.00 3.04 3.07 3.09 0.5%

 Biomass2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.94 3.52 4.70 5.77 7.20 8.15 8.63 3.5%

 Other Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 1.29 2.14 2.30 2.58 2.97 3.22 3.6%

 Other4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.19 0.34 0.78 0.96 0.88 0.81 0.78 3.2%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.80 73.18 78.63 83.42 87.29 90.88 94.59 1.0%

Imports

 Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.39 19.70 19.25 18.46 18.35 18.30 18.44 -0.3%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum5 . . . . . . . . . . . 6.32 5.40 5.33 5.34 5.18 5.26 5.33 -0.1%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.08 3.82 4.01 3.80 3.20 3.07 2.87 -1.1%

 Other Imports6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.96 0.61 0.82 0.98 1.39 1.30 1.27 2.9%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.76 29.53 29.41 28.57 28.13 27.93 27.92 -0.2%

Exports

 Petroleum7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.78 4.17 3.27 3.54 3.62 3.75 3.92 -0.2%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01 1.09 1.24 1.82 2.07 2.24 2.64 3.5%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.07 1.51 1.76 1.92 1.89 1.86 1.78 0.6%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.86 6.77 6.27 7.28 7.58 7.85 8.34 0.8%

Discrepancy8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.44 1.16 -0.24 -0.21 -0.12 -0.07 -0.02 - -

Consumption

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum9 . . . . . . . . . . . 38.46 36.62 39.10 39.38 39.84 40.55 41.70 0.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.85 23.31 25.77 26.00 25.73 26.58 27.24 0.6%

 Coal10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.38 19.69 19.73 20.85 22.61 23.39 24.30 0.8%

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.43 8.35 8.77 9.17 9.17 9.17 9.14 0.3%

 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.53 2.69 2.92 3.00 3.04 3.07 3.09 0.5%

 Biomass11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.07 2.52 3.27 3.93 4.71 5.05 5.25 2.9%

 Other Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 1.29 2.14 2.30 2.58 2.97 3.22 3.6%

 Other12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.25 -0.9%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.14 94.79 102.02 104.92 107.95 111.03 114.19 0.7%

Prices (2009 dollars per unit)

 Petroleum (dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price13 . . . 100.51 61.66 94.58 108.10 117.54 123.09 124.94 2.8%

 Imported Crude Oil Price13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.44 59.04 86.83 98.65 107.40 112.38 113.70 2.6%

 Natural Gas (dollars per million Btu)

 Price at Henry Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.94 3.95 4.66 5.05 5.97 6.40 7.07 2.3%

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.96 3.62 4.13 4.47 5.29 5.66 6.26 2.1%

 Natural Gas (dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.18 3.71 4.24 4.59 5.43 5.81 6.42 2.1%

 Coal (dollars per ton)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.54 33.26 32.36 32.85 33.22 33.25 33.92 0.1%

 Coal (dollars per million Btu)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.56 1.67 1.62 1.65 1.68 1.69 1.73 0.2%

 Average Delivered Price16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18 2.31 2.26 2.30 2.36 2.42 2.47 0.3%

 Average Electricity Price (cents per kilowatthour) 9.8 9.8 8.9 8.8 8.9 9.0 9.2 -0.2%

Appendix A

Reference case

Table A1. Total energy supply, disposition, and price summary

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)
116 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A1. Total energy supply, disposition, and price summary (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

2 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A1. Total Energy Supply and Disposition Summary (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Prices (nominal dollars per unit)

 Petroleum (dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price13 . . . 99.57 61.66 103.24 130.60 155.46 178.45 199.37 4.6%

 Imported Crude Oil Price13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.57 59.04 94.78 119.18 142.05 162.92 181.43 4.4%

 Natural Gas (dollars per million Btu)

 Price at Henry Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.86 3.95 5.09 6.10 7.90 9.28 11.28 4.1%

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.89 3.62 4.51 5.40 6.99 8.21 9.99 4.0%

 Natural Gas (dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10 3.71 4.63 5.55 7.18 8.43 10.24 4.0%

 Coal (dollars per ton)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.25 33.26 35.32 39.69 43.93 48.21 54.13 1.9%

 Coal (dollars per million Btu)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.55 1.67 1.77 1.99 2.22 2.45 2.76 2.0%

 Average Delivered Price16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16 2.31 2.47 2.78 3.12 3.50 3.95 2.1%

 Average Electricity Price (cents per kilowatthour) 9.7 9.8 9.7 10.7 11.8 13.0 14.7 1.6%

1

Includes waste coal.

2

Includes	grid-connected	electricity	from	wood	and	wood	waste;	biomass,	such	as	corn,	used	for	liquid	fuels	production;	and	non-electric energy demand from wood.

Refer to Table A17 for details. 3

Includes grid-connected electricity from landfill gas; biogenic municipal waste; wind; photovoltaic and solar thermal sources; and non-electric energy from renewable

sources,	such	as	active	and	passive	solar	systems.		Excludes	electricity imports using renewable sources and nonmarketed renewable energy. See Table A17 for

selected nonmarketed residential and commercial renewable energy. 4

Includes	non-biogenic	municipal	waste,	liquid	hydrogen,	methanol,	and	some	domestic	inputs	to	refineries.

5

Includes	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	alcohols,	ethers,	blending	components,	and	renewable	fuels	such as ethanol. 6

Includes	coal,	coal	coke	(net),	and	electricity	(net).

7

Includes crude oil and petroleum products.

8

Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses,	gains,	and	net	storage	withdrawals.

9

Includes	petroleum-derived	fuels	and	non-petroleum	derived	fuels,	such	as	ethanol	and	biodiesel,	and	coal-based	synthetic	liquids.		Petroleum	coke,	which	is	a	solid,

is included. Also included are natural gas plant liquids and crude oil consumed as a fuel. Refer to Table A17 for detailed renewable liquid fuels consumption. 10Excludes coal converted to coal-based synthetic liquids and natural gas.

11Includes	grid-connected	electricity	from	wood	and	wood	waste,	non-electric	energy	from	wood,	and	biofuels	heat	and	coproducts	used in the production of liquid

fuels,	but	excludes	the	energy	content	of	the	liquid	fuels. 12Includes non-biogenic municipal waste and net electricity imports.

13Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

14Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

15Includes reported prices for both open market and captive mines.

16Prices	weighted	by	consumption;	weighted	average	excludes	residential	and	commercial	prices,	and	export	free-alongside-ship	(f.a.s.) prices.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	natural	gas	supply	values:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March

2010).		2009	natural	gas	supply	values	and	natural	gas	wellhead	price:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2008	natural

gas	wellhead	price:		Bureau	of	Energy	Management,	Regulation	and	Enforcement;	and	EIA,	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March

2010). 2008	and	2009	coal	minemouth	and	delivered	coal	prices:		EIA,	Annual Coal Report 2009,	DOE/EIA-0584(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	October	2010).		2009

petroleum	supply	values	and	2008	crude	oil	and	lease	condensate	production:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	(Washington,	DC,	July

2010).		Other	2008	petroleum	supply	values:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0340(2008)/1	(Washington,	DC,	June	2009).		2008	and	2009	low	sulfur

light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil	Acquisition	Report.”		Other	2008	and	2009	coal	values:		Quarterly Coal Report, October-December

2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April	2010).		Other	2008	and	2009	values:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,

DC,	August	2010). Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 117

Reference case

Table A2. Energy consumption by sector and source

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 3

Table A2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Energy Consumption

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.52 0.53 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 -0.4%

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 -1.5%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37 -1.9%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 1.20 1.16 1.07 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.86 -1.1%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 4.87 4.94 4.98 4.96 4.95 4.90 0.0%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 -1.1%

 Renewable Energy1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.44 0.43 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 -0.1%

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.71 4.65 4.60 4.75 4.98 5.25 5.51 0.7%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.36 11.12 11.02 11.15 11.32 11.53 11.70 0.2%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17 9.96 9.46 9.80 10.24 10.67 11.06 0.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.53 21.08 20.48 20.95 21.56 22.20 22.76 0.3%

 Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.2%

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.3%

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.8%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.34 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 -1.2%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.3%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 0.64 0.60 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 -0.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22 3.20 3.47 3.59 3.66 3.78 3.92 0.8%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.0%

 Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.0%

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.56 4.51 4.83 5.21 5.58 6.01 6.43 1.4%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.60 8.49 9.02 9.50 9.94 10.49 11.05 1.0%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.85 9.66 9.94 10.73 11.47 12.21 12.93 1.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.44 18.15 18.96 20.24 21.41 22.70 23.98 1.1%

 Industrial4

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.08 2.01 2.36 2.39 2.38 2.29 2.18 0.3%

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.32 1.0%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.27 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.14 1.13 -0.1%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 -0.3%

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 0.90 1.29 1.33 1.34 1.30 1.26 1.3%

 Other Petroleum5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.98 3.45 3.97 3.82 3.79 3.77 3.88 0.5%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 8.91 7.94 9.29 9.20 9.16 8.98 8.94 0.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.83 6.31 8.27 8.46 8.32 8.30 8.23 1.0%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.22 1.24 1.28 0.3%

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.09 7.50 9.51 9.70 9.54 9.53 9.51 0.9%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.40 0.58 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.6%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 0.94 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.0%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.13 0.40 0.77 1.19 - -

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 -0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -7.2%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.78 1.32 1.67 1.69 1.93 2.24 2.60 2.6%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.66 0.85 1.19 1.90 2.33 2.52 5.3%

 Renewable Energy7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.52 1.42 1.89 1.98 2.05 2.06 2.04 1.4%

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44 3.01 3.54 3.57 3.52 3.40 3.28 0.3%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.72 21.85 26.75 27.34 28.11 28.54 28.89 1.1%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.44 6.44 7.28 7.36 7.23 6.92 6.59 0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.16 28.29 34.03 34.70 35.33 35.46 35.49 0.9%
118 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A2. Energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

4 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.4%

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.32 0.93 1.18 1.23 26.3%

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.87 16.82 17.02 16.53 15.93 16.08 16.69 -0.0%

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21 3.20 3.20 3.34 3.47 3.56 3.62 0.5%

 Distillate Fuel Oil10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.04 5.54 6.57 7.04 7.45 7.88 8.35 1.6%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.92 0.78 0.79 0.80 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.2%

 Other Petroleum11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.1%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 27.24 26.52 27.76 28.20 28.76 29.69 30.89 0.6%

 Pipeline Fuel Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.67 0.65 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.65 0.67 0.1%

 Compressed Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.14 0.16 7.4%

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 4.6%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.95 27.23 28.50 28.96 29.56 30.54 31.80 0.6%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.15 4.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.00 27.28 28.56 29.04 29.65 30.66 31.95 0.6%

 Delivered Energy Consumption for All

 Sectors

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.77 2.71 3.02 3.04 3.03 2.94 2.84 0.2%

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.32 0.93 1.18 1.23 26.3%

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.17 17.11 17.39 16.91 16.31 16.45 17.06 -0.0%

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21 3.20 3.20 3.34 3.47 3.56 3.62 0.5%

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.4%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.34 7.65 8.57 8.96 9.31 9.67 10.10 1.1%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.05 0.1%

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 0.90 1.29 1.33 1.34 1.30 1.26 1.3%

 Other Petroleum12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 3.60 4.13 3.98 3.94 3.92 4.04 0.4%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 37.99 36.23 38.67 38.94 39.39 40.10 41.22 0.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.07 14.41 16.72 17.10 17.05 17.17 17.22 0.7%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.22 1.24 1.28 0.3%

 Pipeline Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.67 0.65 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.65 0.67 0.1%

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.00 16.25 18.62 18.99 18.91 19.05 19.17 0.6%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.40 0.58 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.6%

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.24 1.01 1.05 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.01 -0.0%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.13 0.40 0.77 1.19 - -

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 -0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -7.2%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.86 1.39 1.74 1.76 2.00 2.31 2.66 2.5%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.66 0.85 1.19 1.90 2.33 2.52 5.3%

 Renewable Energy13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.07 1.96 2.41 2.51 2.59 2.59 2.58 1.1%

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.73 12.20 13.00 13.57 14.13 14.72 15.29 0.9%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.63 68.68 75.29 76.96 78.92 81.10 83.45 0.8%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.51 26.11 26.73 27.97 29.03 29.93 30.74 0.6%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.14 94.79 102.02 104.92 107.95 111.03 114.19 0.7%

 Electric Power14

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.4%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.30 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.8%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 0.47 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.7%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.85 7.06 7.15 7.02 6.82 7.53 8.07 0.5%

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.51 18.30 17.99 19.09 20.61 21.09 21.64 0.6%

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.43 8.35 8.77 9.17 9.17 9.17 9.14 0.3%

 Renewable Energy15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.67 3.89 5.08 5.52 5.84 6.16 6.47 2.0%

 Electricity Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.05 -3.4%

 Total16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.24 38.31 39.73 41.53 43.17 44.64 46.03 0.7%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 119

Reference case

Table A2. Energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 5

Table A2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

 Total Energy Consumption

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.77 2.71 3.02 3.04 3.03 2.94 2.84 0.2%

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.32 0.93 1.18 1.23 26.3%

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.17 17.11 17.39 16.91 16.31 16.45 17.06 -0.0%

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21 3.20 3.20 3.34 3.47 3.56 3.62 0.5%

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.4%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.45 7.75 8.66 9.06 9.40 9.76 10.20 1.1%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.56 1.32 1.37 1.38 1.40 1.40 1.41 0.3%

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 0.90 1.29 1.33 1.34 1.30 1.26 1.3%

 Other Petroleum12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 3.60 4.13 3.98 3.94 3.92 4.04 0.4%

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal . 38.46 36.62 39.10 39.38 39.84 40.55 41.70 0.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.92 21.47 23.87 24.11 23.87 24.69 25.29 0.6%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.22 1.24 1.28 0.3%

 Pipeline Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.67 0.65 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.65 0.67 0.1%

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.85 23.31 25.77 26.00 25.73 26.58 27.24 0.6%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.40 0.58 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.6%

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.75 19.31 19.04 20.13 21.65 22.12 22.64 0.6%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.13 0.40 0.77 1.19 - -

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 -0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -7.2%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.38 19.69 19.73 20.85 22.61 23.39 24.30 0.8%

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.43 8.35 8.77 9.17 9.17 9.17 9.14 0.3%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.66 0.85 1.19 1.90 2.33 2.52 5.3%

 Renewable Energy17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.74 5.85 7.49 8.04 8.43 8.76 9.04 1.7%

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Electricity Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.05 -3.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.14 94.79 102.02 104.92 107.95 111.03 114.19 0.7%

Energy Use and Related Statistics

 Delivered Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.63 68.68 75.29 76.96 78.92 81.10 83.45 0.8%

 Total Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.14 94.79 102.02 104.92 107.95 111.03 114.19 0.7%

 Ethanol Consumed in Motor Gasoline and E85 0.77 0.95 1.33 1.70 2.07 2.26 2.37 3.6%

 Population (millions) .................... 305.17 307.84 326.16 342.01 358.06 374.08 390.09 0.9%

 Gross Domestic Product (billion 2005 dollars) 13229 12881 15336 17421 20020 22731 25692 2.7%

 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (million metric tons) 5838.0 5425.5 5679.9 5776.7 5937.8 6107.5 6310.8 0.6%

1

Includes wood used for residential heating. See Table A4 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,

solar	thermal	hot	water	heating,	and	electricity	generation	from	wind	and	solar	photovoltaic	sources. 2

Includes ethanol (blends of 10 percent or less) and ethers blended into gasoline.

3

Excludes	ethanol.		Includes	commercial	sector	consumption	of	wood	and	wood	waste,	landfill	gas,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass for combined heat and power.

See Table A5 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption for solar thermal hot water heating and electricity generation from wind

and solar photovoltaic sources. 4

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 5

Includes	petroleum	coke,	asphalt,	road	oil,	lubricants,	still	gas,	and	miscellaneous	petroleum	products. 6

Represents	natural	gas	used	in	well,	field,	and	lease	operations,	and	in	natural	gas	processing	plant	machinery.

7

Includes	consumption	of	energy	produced	from	hydroelectric,	wood	and	wood	waste,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass	sources.		Excludes ethanol blends (10

percent or less) in motor gasoline. 8

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol

varies seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 9

Includes only kerosene type.

10Diesel fuel for on- and off- road use.

11Includes aviation gasoline and lubricants.

12Includes unfinished oils,	natural	gasoline,	motor	gasoline	blending	components,	aviation	gasoline,	lubricants,	still	gas,	asphalt,	road	oil,	petroleum	coke,	and

miscellaneous petroleum products. 13Includes	electricity	generated	for	sale	to	the	grid	and	for	own	use	from	renewable	sources,	and	non-electric	energy	from	renewable sources. Excludes ethanol and

nonmarketed	renewable	energy	consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	buildings	photovoltaic	systems,	and	solar	thermal	hot	water heaters. 14Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the

public. Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 15Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood	and	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	other	biomass,	wind,	photovoltaic,	and	solar	thermal	sources.

Excludes net electricity imports. 16Includes non-biogenic municipal waste not included above.

17Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood	and	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	other	biomass,	wind,	photovoltaic,	and	solar	thermal	sources.

Excludes	ethanol,	net	electricity	imports,	and	nonmarketed	renewable	energy	consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	buildings	photovoltaic	systems,	and	solar	thermal

hot water heaters.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	consumption	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,

DC,	August	2010).	2008	and	2009	population	and	gross	domestic	product:	IHS	Global	Insight	Industry	and	Employment	models,	September 2010. 2008 and 2009

carbon	dioxide	emissions:		EIA,	Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009,	DOE/EIA-0573(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	December	2010).		Projections:

EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 121

Reference case

Table A3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(nominal dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 7

Table A3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal Dollars per Million Btu, Unless Otherwise Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.18 24.63 32.51 38.92 44.84 50.56 55.86 3.2%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.52 18.12 23.07 29.32 34.28 39.05 43.93 3.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.49 11.88 11.05 13.13 15.65 18.14 21.37 2.3%

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.85 33.62 34.72 37.89 41.27 45.25 50.54 1.6%

Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.45 21.49 28.73 34.72 40.22 45.46 50.23 3.3%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.61 15.97 21.04 26.98 31.77 36.23 40.72 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.66 13.45 14.47 18.35 22.55 25.62 28.93 3.0%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.88 9.68 9.14 10.81 12.92 14.92 17.52 2.3%

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.22 29.51 29.12 32.04 35.25 38.56 43.06 1.5%

Industrial1

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.72 20.59 25.45 31.19 36.40 41.18 45.52 3.1%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.36 16.56 21.12 27.10 32.01 36.45 40.95 3.5%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.11 12.05 16.15 20.11 24.05 26.98 29.88 3.6%

 Natural Gas2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.00 5.25 5.42 6.47 8.15 9.54 11.50 3.1%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.49 5.43 6.56 7.65 8.54 9.44 10.50 2.6%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90 3.05 3.17 3.55 3.96 4.43 5.01 1.9%

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 1.96 2.30 2.36 2.87 3.27 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.79 19.79 19.30 21.43 23.79 26.45 29.88 1.6%

Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.95 25.52 33.36 39.83 45.80 51.56 56.90 3.1%

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.03 20.50 28.80 34.79 39.01 43.98 49.35 3.4%

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.81 19.28 28.35 34.01 39.01 43.98 49.31 3.7%

 Jet Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.09 12.59 20.76 26.62 31.16 35.80 40.35 4.6%

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.71 17.79 24.56 31.04 35.96 40.57 45.30 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.43 10.57 13.80 17.57 21.19 24.21 26.24 3.6%

 Natural Gas8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.04 12.71 13.06 14.80 16.98 19.05 21.66 2.1%

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.36 34.92 31.83 33.91 39.01 44.74 51.66 1.5%

Electric Power9

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.38 14.33 18.38 23.89 28.04 32.34 36.45 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.61 8.96 14.37 17.83 21.50 24.46 26.66 4.3%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.02 4.82 5.10 6.05 7.62 9.00 10.86 3.2%

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.05 2.20 2.31 2.60 2.96 3.36 3.83 2.2%
122 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(nominal dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

8 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal Dollars per Million Btu, Unless Otherwise Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Average Price to All Users10

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.51 17.43 23.65 28.84 33.64 38.28 42.49 3.5%

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.03 20.50 28.80 34.79 39.01 43.98 49.35 3.4%

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.63 19.23 28.35 34.00 39.01 43.98 49.31 3.7%

 Jet Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.09 12.59 20.76 26.62 31.16 35.80 40.35 4.6%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.28 17.51 23.83 30.24 35.20 39.83 44.57 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.75 10.53 14.27 17.98 21.67 24.66 26.88 3.7%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.46 7.28 7.04 8.39 10.33 11.98 14.21 2.6%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.49 5.43 6.56 7.65 8.54 9.44 10.50 2.6%

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 2.25 2.36 2.66 3.02 3.41 3.89 2.1%

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 1.96 2.30 2.36 2.87 3.27 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.38 28.69 28.43 31.30 34.53 38.17 42.97 1.6%

Non-Renewable Energy Expenditures by

 Sector (billion nominal dollars)

 Residential ............................ 253.79 238.63 243.63 279.35 320.68 367.88 426.84 2.3%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190.06 174.64 185.21 221.24 262.27 308.62 368.78 2.9%

 Industrial ............................. 247.19 179.22 244.72 295.03 341.84 377.94 417.29 3.3%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710.71 474.91 725.73 889.64 1022.56 1184.56 1382.69 4.2%

 Total Non-Renewable Expenditures ....... 1401.75 1067.41 1399.29 1685.26 1947.34 2239.00 2595.61 3.5%

 Transportation Renewable Expenditures . . . . 0.04 0.06 0.25 11.06 36.34 51.81 60.53 30.6%

 Total Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401.79 1067.47 1399.54 1696.32 1983.68 2290.81 2656.14 3.6%

1

Includes energy for combined heat and power plants, except those whose primary business is to sell electricity, or electricity and heat, to the public.

2

Excludes use for lease and plant fuel.

3

Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

4

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting issues, the percentage of ethanol

varies seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 5

Sales weighted-average price for all grades. Includes Federal, State and local taxes.

6

Kerosene-type jet fuel. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

7

Diesel fuel for on-road use. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

8

Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel. Includes estimated motor vehicle fuel taxes and estimated dispensing costs or charges.

9

Includes electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity, or electricity and heat, to the public.

10Weighted averages of end-use fuel prices are derived from the prices shown in each sector and the corresponding sectoral consumption.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources: 2008 and 2009 prices for motor gasoline, distillate fuel oil, and jet fuel are based on prices in the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Petroleum

Marketing Annual 2009, DOE/EIA-0487(2009) (Washington, DC, August 2010). 2008 residential and commercial natural gas delivered prices: EIA,Natural Gas Annual

2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010). 2009 residential and commercial natural gas delivered prices: EIA, Natural Gas Monthly, DOE/EIA0130(2010/07) (Washington, DC, July 2010). 2008 and 2009 industrial natural gas delivered prices are estimated based on: EIA, Manufacturing Energy Consumption

Survey and industrial and wellhead prices from the Natural Gas Annual 2008, DOE/EIA-0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010) and the Natural Gas Monthly,

DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07) (Washington, DC, July 2010). 2008 transportation sector natural gas delivered prices are based on: EIA, Natural Gas Annual 2008, DOE/EIA0131(2008) (Washington, DC, March 2010) and estimated State taxes, Federal taxes, and dispensing costs or charges. 2009 transportation sector natural gas delivered

prices are model results. 2008 and 2009 electric power sector distillate and residual fuel oil prices: EIA, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0035(2010/09) (Washington,

DC, September 2010). 2008 and 2009 electric power sector natural gas prices: EIA, Electric Power Monthly, DOE/EIA-0226, April 2009 and April 2010, Table 4.2. 2008

and 2009 coal prices based on: EIA, Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009, DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q) (Washington, DC, April 2010) and EIA, AEO2011

National Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A. 2008 and 2009 electricity prices: EIA, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington,

DC, August 2010). 2008 and 2009 E85 prices derived from monthly prices in the Clean Cities Alternative Fuel Price Report. Projections: EIA, AEO2011 National

Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A.
122 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(2009 dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

8 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Average Price to All Users10

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.51 17.43 23.65 28.84 33.64 38.28 42.49 3.5%

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.03 20.50 28.80 34.79 39.01 43.98 49.35 3.4%

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.63 19.23 28.35 34.00 39.01 43.98 49.31 3.7%

			Jet	Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.09 12.59 20.76 26.62 31.16 35.80 40.35 4.6%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.28 17.51 23.83 30.24 35.20 39.83 44.57 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.75 10.53 14.27 17.98 21.67 24.66 26.88 3.7%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.46 7.28 7.04 8.39 10.33 11.98 14.21 2.6%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.49 5.43 6.56 7.65 8.54 9.44 10.50 2.6%

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 2.25 2.36 2.66 3.02 3.41 3.89 2.1%

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 1.96 2.30 2.36 2.87 3.27 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.38 28.69 28.43 31.30 34.53 38.17 42.97 1.6%

Non-Renewable Energy Expenditures by

 Sector (billion nominal dollars)

 Residential ............................ 253.79 238.63 243.63 279.35 320.68 367.88 426.84 2.3%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190.06 174.64 185.21 221.24 262.27 308.62 368.78 2.9%

 Industrial ............................. 247.19 179.22 244.72 295.03 341.84 377.94 417.29 3.3%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710.71 474.91 725.73 889.64 1022.56 1184.56 1382.69 4.2%

 Total Non-Renewable Expenditures ....... 1401.75 1067.41 1399.29 1685.26 1947.34 2239.00 2595.61 3.5%

 Transportation Renewable Expenditures . . . . 0.04 0.06 0.25 11.06 36.34 51.81 60.53 30.6%

 Total Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401.79 1067.47 1399.54 1696.32 1983.68 2290.81 2656.14 3.6%

1

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Excludes use for lease and plant fuel.

3

Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

4

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol

varies seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 5

Sales	weighted-average	price	for	all	grades.		Includes	Federal,	State	and	local	taxes.

6

Kerosene-type jet fuel. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

7

Diesel fuel for on-road use. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

8

Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel. Includes estimated motor vehicle fuel taxes and estimated dispensing costs or charges. 9

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 10Weighted averages of end-use fuel prices are derived from the prices shown in each sector and the corresponding sectoral consumption.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	prices	for	motor	gasoline,	distillate	fuel	oil,	and	jet	fuel	are	based	on	prices	in	the	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Petroleum

Marketing Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	residential	and	commercial	natural	gas	delivered	prices:		EIA,Natural Gas Annual

2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010).		2009	residential	and	commercial	natural	gas	delivered	prices:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2008	and	2009	industrial	natural	gas	delivered	prices	are	estimated	based	on:		EIA, Manufacturing Energy Consumption

Survey and industrial and wellhead prices from the Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010)	and	the	Natural Gas Monthly,

DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).	2008	transportation	sector	natural	gas	delivered	prices	are	based	on:		EIA,	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010)	and	estimated	State	taxes,	Federal	taxes,	and	dispensing	costs	or	charges.		2009	transportation sector natural gas delivered

prices	are	model	results.		2008	and	2009	electric	power	sector	distillate	and	residual	fuel	oil	prices:	EIA,	Monthly Energy Review,	DOE/EIA-0035(2010/09)	(Washington,

DC,	September	2010).		2008	and	2009	electric	power	sector	natural	gas	prices:	EIA,	Electric Power Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0226,	April	2009	and	April	2010,	Table	4.2.		2008

and	2009	coal	prices	based	on:		EIA,	Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April	2010)	and	EIA,	AEO2011

National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.		2008	and	2009	electricity	prices:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,

DC,	August	2010).	2008	and	2009	E85	prices	derived	from	monthly	prices	in	the	Clean	Cities	Alternative	Fuel	Price	Report.		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National

Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 123

Reference case

Table A4. Residential sector key indicators and consumption

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 9

Table A4. Residential Sector Key Indicators and Consumption

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Key Indicators

 Households (millions)

 Single-Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80.95 81.48 87.91 92.69 97.10 101.16 104.70 1.0%

 Multifamily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.12 25.32 26.87 28.65 30.69 32.77 34.81 1.2%

 Mobile Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.69 6.63 6.53 6.78 7.04 7.25 7.39 0.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.76 113.43 121.32 128.12 134.83 141.18 146.90 1.0%

 Average House Square Footage . . . . . . . . . . 1656 1669 1765 1831 1888 1938 1981 0.7%

Energy Intensity

 (million Btu per household)

 Delivered Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . 100.8 98.0 90.8 87.0 83.9 81.7 79.7 -0.8%

 Total Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.0 185.8 168.8 163.5 159.9 157.3 155.0 -0.7%

 (thousand Btu per square foot)

 Delivered Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . 60.9 58.7 51.5 47.5 44.5 42.1 40.2 -1.4%

 Total Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115.3 111.3 95.6 89.3 84.7 81.2 78.2 -1.3%

Delivered Energy Consumption by Fuel

 Electricity

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.4%

 Space Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.87 0.83 0.82 0.86 0.90 0.95 0.99 0.7%

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.43 0.43 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.4%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.1%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 1.3%

 Clothes Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.3%

 Freezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.4%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.72 0.71 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.53 0.54 -1.0%

 Clothes Washers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.4%

 Dishwashers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.8%

 Color Televisions and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . 0.33 0.34 0.33 0.34 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.8%

 Personal Computers and Related Equipment 0.17 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.3%

 Furnace Fans and Boiler Circulation Pumps . 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 1.3%

 Other Uses2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.89 0.88 0.95 1.05 1.17 1.30 1.42 1.9%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.71 4.65 4.60 4.75 4.98 5.25 5.51 0.7%

 Natural Gas

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.40 3.28 3.28 3.30 3.29 3.29 3.28 0.0%

 Space Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.33 1.33 1.38 1.40 1.39 1.37 1.33 -0.0%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.5%

 Clothes Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.3%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 4.87 4.94 4.98 4.96 4.95 4.90 0.0%

 Distillate Fuel Oil

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.56 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.33 -1.7%

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 -3.4%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37 -1.9%

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.26 0.26 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 -1.1%

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 -3.5%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.7%

 Other Uses3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.23 1.5%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.52 0.53 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 -0.4%

 Marketed Renewables (wood)4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.44 0.43 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 -0.1%

 Other Fuels5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 -1.4%
124 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A4. Residential sector key indicators and consumption (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

10 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A4. Residential Sector Key Indicators and Consumption (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Delivered Energy Consumption by End Use

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.97 4.78 4.71 4.69 4.64 4.61 4.55 -0.2%

 Space Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.87 0.83 0.82 0.86 0.90 0.95 0.99 0.7%

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.96 1.95 1.99 2.00 1.99 1.94 1.88 -0.1%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.1%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.6%

 Clothes Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.3%

 Freezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.4%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.72 0.71 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.53 0.54 -1.0%

 Clothes Washers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.4%

 Dishwashers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.8%

 Color Televisions and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . 0.33 0.34 0.33 0.34 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.8%

 Personal Computers and Related Equipment 0.17 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.3%

 Furnace Fans and Boiler Circulation Pumps . 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 1.3%

 Other Uses6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.03 1.03 1.12 1.23 1.37 1.51 1.65 1.8%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.36 11.12 11.02 11.15 11.32 11.53 11.70 0.2%

Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17 9.96 9.46 9.80 10.24 10.67 11.06 0.4%

Total Energy Consumption by End Use

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.59 5.39 5.30 5.30 5.26 5.23 5.18 -0.2%

 Space Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.75 2.62 2.52 2.62 2.75 2.88 2.99 0.5%

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.89 2.88 2.96 3.01 3.01 2.94 2.84 -0.1%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.18 1.15 1.08 1.06 1.07 1.10 1.15 -0.0%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.58 0.60 0.63 0.66 0.69 0.71 0.8%

 Clothes Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.61 0.63 0.66 0.1%

 Freezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.2%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.28 2.23 1.74 1.64 1.59 1.60 1.63 -1.2%

 Clothes Washers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 -0.6%

 Dishwashers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.7%

 Color Televisions and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . 1.05 1.05 1.01 1.03 1.10 1.17 1.25 0.7%

 Personal Computers and Related Equipment 0.55 0.56 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.2%

 Furnace Fans and Boiler Circulation Pumps . 0.43 0.44 0.47 0.51 0.55 0.58 0.59 1.1%

 Other Uses6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.94 2.91 3.06 3.40 3.78 4.16 4.50 1.7%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.53 21.08 20.48 20.95 21.56 22.20 22.76 0.3%

Nonmarketed Renewables7

 Geothermal Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 8.7%

 Solar Hot Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 2.0%

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 9.7%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 11.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.11 8.3%

1

Does not include water heating portion of load.

2

Includes	small	electric	devices,	heating	elements,	and	motors	not	listed	above.

3

Includes such appliances as outdoor grills and mosquito traps.

4

Includes wood used for primary and secondary heating in wood stoves or fireplaces as reported in the Residential Energy Consumption Survey 2005. 5

Includes kerosene and coal.

6

Includes all other uses listed above.

7

Represents delivered energy displaced.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August

2010). Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011		National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 125

Reference case

Table A5. Commercial sector key indicators and consumption

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 11

Table A5. Commercial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Key Indicators

 Total Floorspace (billion square feet)

 Surviving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.4 77.9 83.4 89.3 95.1 101.1 107.3 1.2%

 New Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 2.3 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 0.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78.8 80.2 85.4 91.5 97.4 103.5 109.8 1.2%

 Energy Consumption Intensity

 (thousand Btu per square foot)

 Delivered Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . 109.1 105.9 105.6 103.9 102.1 101.3 100.7 -0.2%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.0 120.6 116.3 117.3 117.8 118.0 117.8 -0.1%

 Total Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234.1 226.4 221.8 221.2 219.9 219.2 218.4 -0.1%

Delivered Energy Consumption by Fuel

 Purchased Electricity

 Space Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 -0.0%

 Space Cooling1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.49 0.47 0.53 0.54 0.56 0.59 0.61 1.0%

 Water Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.1%

 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50 0.50 0.56 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.71 1.4%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 -0.0%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.04 1.03 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.20 1.25 0.7%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.40 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.39 -0.1%

 Office Equipment (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.21 -0.1%

 Office Equipment (non-PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.25 0.32 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.47 2.5%

 Other Uses2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.37 1.35 1.55 1.77 1.99 2.23 2.49 2.4%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.56 4.51 4.83 5.21 5.58 6.01 6.43 1.4%

 Natural Gas

 Space Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.56 1.61 1.72 1.76 1.76 1.77 1.77 0.4%

 Space Cooling1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.6%

 Water Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.44 0.45 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.62 0.64 1.4%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.25 1.4%

 Other Uses3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.02 0.94 1.00 1.02 1.05 1.12 1.23 1.0%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22 3.20 3.47 3.59 3.66 3.78 3.92 0.8%

 Distillate Fuel Oil

 Space Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 -1.6%

 Water Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 -0.3%

 Other Uses4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 -1.0%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.34 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 -1.2%

 Marketed Renewables (biomass) . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.0%

 Other Fuels5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.2%

Delivered Energy Consumption by End Use

 Space Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.89 1.94 2.02 2.05 2.04 2.05 2.05 0.2%

 Space Cooling1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.52 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.65 1.0%

 Water Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.56 0.63 0.67 0.70 0.73 0.75 1.1%

 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50 0.50 0.56 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.71 1.4%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 1.2%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.04 1.03 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.20 1.25 0.7%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.40 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.39 -0.1%

 Office Equipment (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.21 -0.1%

 Office Equipment (non-PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.25 0.32 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.47 2.5%

 Other Uses6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.04 2.89 3.12 3.36 3.62 3.93 4.31 1.6%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.60 8.49 9.02 9.50 9.94 10.49 11.05 1.0%
126 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A5. Commercial sector key indicators and consumption (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

12 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A5. Commercial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.85 9.66 9.94 10.73 11.47 12.21 12.93 1.1%

Total Energy Consumption by End Use

 Space Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.28 2.32 2.37 2.41 2.40 2.41 2.40 0.1%

 Space Cooling1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.58 1.52 1.65 1.70 1.76 1.82 1.89 0.8%

 Water Heating1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 0.76 0.82 0.86 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.8%

 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.57 1.58 1.70 1.84 1.96 2.06 2.15 1.2%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.32 1.0%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.29 3.24 3.18 3.34 3.49 3.63 3.75 0.6%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.28 1.25 1.11 1.09 1.10 1.13 1.17 -0.3%

 Office Equipment (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 0.68 0.58 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 -0.2%

 Office Equipment (non-PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 0.78 0.97 1.12 1.23 1.34 1.41 2.3%

 Other Uses6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.00 5.77 6.32 7.00 7.70 8.47 9.32 1.9%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.44 18.15 18.96 20.24 21.41 22.70 23.98 1.1%

Nonmarketed Renewable Fuels7

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.6%

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 3.9%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.8%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 1.3%

1

Includes fuel consumption for district services.

2

Includes	miscellaneous	uses,	such	as	service	station	equipment,	automated	teller	machines,	telecommunications	equipment,	and	medical equipment. 3

Includes	miscellaneous	uses,	such	as	pumps,	emergency	generators,	combined	heat	and	power in commercial buildings,	and	manufacturing performed in commercial

buildings. 4

Includes	miscellaneous	uses,	such	as	cooking,	emergency	generators,	and	combined	heat	and	power	in	commercial	buildings.

5

Includes	residual	fuel	oil,	liquefied	petroleum	gases,	coal,	motor	gasoline,	and	kerosene. 6

Includes	miscellaneous	uses,	such	as	service	station	equipment,	automated	teller	machines,	telecommunications equipment,	medical	equipment,	pumps,	emergency

generators,	combined	heat	and	power	in	commercial	buildings,	manufacturing	performed	in	commercial	buildings,	and	cooking	(distillate),	plus	residual	fuel	oil,	liquefied

petroleum	gases,	coal,	motor	gasoline,	and	kerosene. 7

Represents	delivered	energy	displaced	by	solar	thermal	space	heating	and	water	heating,	and	electricity	generation	by	solar	photovoltaic systems.

Btu = British thermal unit.

PC = Personal computer.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August

2010). Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 127

Reference case

Table A6. Industrial sector key indicators and consumption

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 13

Table A6. Industrial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Key Indicators

 Value of Shipments (billion 2005 dollars)

 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4680 4197 5279 5643 6016 6393 6770 1.9%

 Nonmanufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039 1821 2193 2308 2381 2433 2521 1.3%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6720 6017 7472 7951 8396 8826 9292 1.7%

 Energy Prices

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.95 20.59 23.31 25.82 27.52 28.41 28.52 1.3%

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.48 16.59 25.95 28.10 29.48 30.32 30.89 2.4%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.57 16.56 19.34 22.43 24.20 25.14 25.66 1.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.26 12.05 14.80 16.65 18.19 18.61 18.73 1.7%

 Asphalt and Road Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 6.52 7.40 8.40 9.04 9.24 9.14 1.3%

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.17 4.48 4.17 4.60 5.45 5.93 6.60 1.5%

 Natural Gas Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.86 6.03 5.74 6.14 6.93 7.33 7.95 1.1%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.53 5.43 6.01 6.33 6.46 6.51 6.58 0.7%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.93 3.05 2.91 2.94 2.99 3.05 3.14 0.1%

 Coal for Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 1.79 1.91 1.78 1.98 2.05 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.97 19.79 17.68 17.74 17.99 18.25 18.73 -0.2%

 (nominal dollars per million Btu)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.72 20.59 25.45 31.19 36.40 41.18 45.52 3.1%

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.33 16.59 28.33 33.95 38.99 43.96 49.30 4.3%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.36 16.56 21.12 27.10 32.01 36.45 40.95 3.5%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.11 12.05 16.15 20.11 24.05 26.98 29.88 3.6%

 Asphalt and Road Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.27 6.52 8.08 10.15 11.96 13.39 14.59 3.1%

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10 4.48 4.55 5.56 7.21 8.60 10.53 3.3%

 Natural Gas Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.77 6.03 6.27 7.42 9.16 10.62 12.68 2.9%

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.49 5.43 6.56 7.65 8.54 9.44 10.50 2.6%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90 3.05 3.17 3.55 3.96 4.43 5.01 1.9%

 Coal for Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 1.96 2.30 2.36 2.87 3.27 - -

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.79 19.79 19.30 21.43 23.79 26.45 29.88 1.6%

Energy Consumption (quadrillion Btu)1

 Industrial Consumption Excluding Refining

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Heat and Power . 0.23 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.5%

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Feedstocks . . . . 1.85 1.79 2.07 2.10 2.09 2.00 1.90 0.2%

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.32 1.0%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.14 1.13 -0.1%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.19 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 -0.1%

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 0.90 1.29 1.33 1.34 1.30 1.26 1.3%

 Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.28 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.20 -1.3%

 Asphalt and Road Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01 0.87 1.08 1.05 1.01 0.96 0.94 0.3%

 Miscellaneous Petroleum2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.48 0.27 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.6%

 Petroleum Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.74 5.88 6.93 6.96 6.90 6.66 6.46 0.4%

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.99 4.43 6.24 6.34 6.30 6.29 6.29 1.4%

 Natural Gas Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.59 0.55 0.61 0.60 0.56 0.51 0.47 -0.6%

 Lease and Plant Fuel3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.22 1.24 1.28 0.3%

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.84 6.16 8.09 8.18 8.08 8.03 8.04 1.0%

 Metallurgical Coal and Coke4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62 0.38 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.8%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10 0.88 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.0%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.72 1.26 1.51 1.50 1.47 1.41 1.35 0.3%

 Renewables5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.52 1.42 1.89 1.98 2.05 2.06 2.04 1.4%

 Purchased Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27 2.82 3.37 3.39 3.34 3.22 3.09 0.3%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.09 17.55 21.79 22.01 21.84 21.38 20.98 0.7%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.06 6.04 6.93 6.99 6.86 6.54 6.20 0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.15 23.59 28.73 29.00 28.70 27.92 27.19 0.5%
128 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A6. Industrial sector key indicators and consumption (continued)

14 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A6. Industrial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption (Continued)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

 Refining Consumption

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Heat and Power . 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 6.0%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.52 0.59 0.55 0.55 0.57 0.58 0.4%

 Still Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.60 1.50 1.70 1.63 1.64 1.68 1.82 0.7%

 Miscellaneous Petroleum2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 1.5%

 Petroleum Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16 2.05 2.36 2.25 2.26 2.32 2.47 0.7%

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25 1.34 1.42 1.52 1.46 1.50 1.47 0.4%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25 1.34 1.42 1.52 1.46 1.50 1.47 0.4%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.0%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.13 0.40 0.77 1.19 32.7%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.16 0.19 0.46 0.83 1.25 12.4%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.66 0.85 1.19 1.90 2.33 2.52 5.3%

 Purchased Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.2%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.63 4.30 4.96 5.33 6.26 7.16 7.91 2.4%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.38 0.40 0.35 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.39 -0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 4.69 5.30 5.70 6.63 7.54 8.30 2.2%

 Total Industrial Sector Consumption

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Heat and Power . 0.24 0.22 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 1.1%

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Feedstocks . . . . 1.85 1.79 2.07 2.10 2.09 2.00 1.90 0.2%

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.32 1.0%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.27 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.14 1.13 -0.1%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 -0.3%

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 0.90 1.29 1.33 1.34 1.30 1.26 1.3%

 Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.87 0.80 0.81 0.77 0.76 0.78 0.78 -0.1%

 Asphalt and Road Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01 0.87 1.08 1.05 1.01 0.96 0.94 0.3%

 Still Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.60 1.50 1.70 1.63 1.64 1.68 1.82 0.7%

 Miscellaneous Petroleum2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50 0.28 0.38 0.37 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.7%

 Petroleum Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.91 7.94 9.29 9.20 9.16 8.98 8.94 0.5%

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.24 5.76 7.66 7.86 7.76 7.79 7.76 1.2%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Natural Gas Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.59 0.55 0.61 0.60 0.56 0.51 0.47 -0.6%

 Lease and Plant Fuel3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.22 1.24 1.28 0.3%

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.09 7.50 9.51 9.70 9.54 9.53 9.51 0.9%

 Metallurgical Coal and Coke4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62 0.38 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.8%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 0.94 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.0%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.13 0.40 0.77 1.19 32.7%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.78 1.32 1.67 1.69 1.93 2.24 2.60 2.6%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.66 0.85 1.19 1.90 2.33 2.52 5.3%

 Renewables5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.52 1.42 1.89 1.98 2.05 2.06 2.04 1.4%

 Purchased Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44 3.01 3.54 3.57 3.52 3.40 3.28 0.3%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.72 21.85 26.75 27.34 28.11 28.54 28.89 1.1%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.44 6.44 7.28 7.36 7.23 6.92 6.59 0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.16 28.29 34.03 34.70 35.33 35.46 35.49 0.9%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 129

Reference case

Table A6. Industrial sector key indicators and consumption (continued)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 15

Table A6. Industrial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption (Continued)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Energy Consumption per dollar of

Shipment (thousand Btu per 2005 dollars)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Heat and Power . 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 -0.6%

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases Feedstocks . . . . 0.27 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.20 -1.4%

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 -0.7%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.19 0.19 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 -1.8%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 -1.9%

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 -0.4%

 Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 -1.7%

 Asphalt and Road Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 -1.3%

 Still Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.20 -0.9%

 Miscellaneous Petroleum2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 -1.0%

 Petroleum Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.33 1.32 1.24 1.16 1.09 1.02 0.96 -1.2%

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.93 0.96 1.03 0.99 0.92 0.88 0.84 -0.5%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Natural Gas Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 -2.2%

 Lease and Plant Fuel3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.19 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 -1.4%

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.20 1.25 1.27 1.22 1.14 1.08 1.02 -0.8%

 Metallurgical Coal and Coke4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05 -0.9%

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.10 -1.7%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.13 30.5%

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.28 0.9%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.11 0.11 0.15 0.23 0.26 0.27 3.6%

 Renewables5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 -0.3%

 Purchased Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.35 -1.3%

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.68 3.63 3.58 3.44 3.35 3.23 3.11 -0.6%

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11 1.07 0.97 0.93 0.86 0.78 0.71 -1.6%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.79 4.70 4.55 4.36 4.21 4.02 3.82 -0.8%

Industrial Combined Heat and Power

 Capacity (gigawatts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.73 27.99 38.78 43.54 54.01 63.20 71.40 3.7%

 Generation (billion kilowatthours) .......... 135.57 152.63 227.87 263.44 344.91 413.49 475.49 4.5%

1

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes lubricants and miscellaneous petroleum products.

3

Represents	natural	gas	used	in	well,	field,	and	lease	operations,	and	in	natural	gas	processing	plant	machinery.

4

Includes net coal coke imports.

5

Includes	consumption	of	energy	produced	from	hydroelectric,	wood	and	wood	waste,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass	sources.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	prices	for	motor	gasoline	and	distillate	fuel	oil	are	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Petroleum Marketing Annual

2009,	DOE/EIA-0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	and	2009	petrochemical	feedstock	and	asphalt	and	road	oil	prices	are	based	on:		EIA,	State Energy

Data Report 2008,	DOE/EIA-0214(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	June	2010).		2008	and	2009	coal	prices	are	based	on:		EIA,	Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,

DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q) (Washington,	DC,	April	2010)	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A. 2008 and 2009 electricity prices:

EIA, Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	and	2009	natural	gas	prices	are	based	on:		EIA,	Manufacturing Energy

Consumption Survey and industrial and wellhead prices from the Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010)	and	the	Natural Gas

Monthly,	 DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	 (Washington,	 DC,	 July	 2010).	 	 2008	 refining	 consumption	 values	 are	 based	 on:	 	Petroleum Supply Annual 2008, DOE/EIA0340(2008)/1	(Washington,	DC,	June	2009).		2009	refining	consumption	based	on:		Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	(Washington,	DC,	July

2010).		Other	2008	and	2009	consumption	values	are	based	on:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	and

2009	shipments:	IHS	Global	Insight	Industry	model,	September	2010.		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
130 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A7. Transportation sector key indicators and delivered energy consumption

16 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A7. Transportation Sector Key Indicators and Delivered Energy Consumption

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Key Indicators

 Travel Indicators

 (billion vehicle miles traveled)

									Light-Duty	Vehicles	less	than	8,500	pounds 2690 2707 2947 3199 3467 3755 4043 1.6%

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 67 81 86 92 98 104 1.7%

									Freight	Trucks	greater	than	10,000	pounds 228 207 250 269 291 313 335 1.9%

 (billion seat miles available)

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 960 1059 1122 1180 1234 1282 1.1%

 (billion ton miles traveled)

 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777 1677 1886 2025 2143 2255 2328 1.3%

 Domestic Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 486 521 544 559 577 596 0.8%

 Energy Efficiency Indicators

 (miles per gallon)

 New Light-Duty Vehicle CAFE Standard2 . 25.2 25.4 32.6 35.4 35.6 35.8 35.9 1.3%

 New Car2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4 28.4 37.9 40.4 40.4 40.4 40.4 1.4%

 New Light Truck2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4 23.0 28.0 29.7 29.7 29.7 29.7 1.0%

 Compliance New Light-Duty Vehicle3 . . . . 28.0 29.1 32.5 35.8 36.6 37.2 37.8 1.0%

 New Car3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5 33.7 37.8 40.7 41.2 41.6 42.0 0.9%

 New Light Truck3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 25.5 27.8 30.3 30.8 31.3 31.8 0.9%

 Tested New Light-Duty Vehicle4 . . . . . . . . 28.0 28.0 31.3 34.5 35.3 36.0 36.5 1.0%

 New Car4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5 32.7 36.5 39.4 40.0 40.4 40.8 0.9%

 New Light Truck4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 24.3 26.6 29.1 29.6 30.1 30.6 0.9%

 On-Road New Light-Duty Vehicle5 . . . . . . . 23.2 23.2 26.0 28.8 29.5 30.2 30.6 1.1%

 New Car5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5 26.7 30.1 32.6 33.3 33.8 34.2 1.0%

 New Light Truck5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 20.4 22.3 24.4 24.8 25.3 25.7 0.9%

 Light-Duty Stock6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.8 20.8 22.1 23.9 25.7 27.0 27.9 1.1%

 New Commercial Light Truck1 . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 15.6 16.4 17.7 17.9 18.0 18.1 0.6%

 Stock Commercial Light Truck1 . . . . . . . . . 14.3 14.4 15.2 16.3 17.2 17.7 18.0 0.9%

 Freight Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.5 6.6 0.3%

 (seat miles per gallon)

 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.8 62.0 62.8 64.1 65.6 67.5 69.9 0.5%

 (ton miles per thousand Btu)

 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 0.1%

 Domestic Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 0.2%

Energy Use by Mode

 (quadrillion Btu)

 Light-Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14 16.13 16.36 16.29 16.40 16.89 17.66 0.3%

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.63 0.58 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.73 0.8%

 Bus Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.32 0.33 0.8%

 Freight Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.70 4.26 5.11 5.43 5.73 6.02 6.35 1.5%

			Rail,	Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 1.1%

			Rail,	Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.51 0.57 0.61 0.64 0.67 0.69 1.2%

			Shipping,	Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.23 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.6%

			Shipping,	International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.1%

 Recreational Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.6%

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.70 2.66 2.71 2.84 2.95 3.03 3.07 0.6%

 Military Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.71 0.75 0.69 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.0%

 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.1%

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.67 0.65 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.65 0.67 0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.95 27.23 28.50 28.96 29.55 30.54 31.80 0.6%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 131

Reference case

Table A7. Transportation sector key indicators and delivered energy consumption (continued)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 17

Table A7. Transportation Sector Key Indicators and Delivered Energy Consumption

(Continued)

Key Indicators and Consumption

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Energy Use by Mode

 (million barrels per day oil equivalent)

 Light-Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.55 8.62 8.83 8.90 9.10 9.41 9.83 0.5%

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 0.30 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.37 0.9%

 Bus Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.8%

 Freight Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.26 2.05 2.46 2.61 2.75 2.90 3.05 1.5%

			Rail,	Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 1.1%

			Rail,	Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.24 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.33 1.2%

			Shipping,	Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.6%

			Shipping,	International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.39 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.1%

 Recreational Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.7%

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.31 1.29 1.31 1.38 1.43 1.47 1.49 0.6%

 Military Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.36 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.1%

 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.1%

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.22 13.95 14.67 15.00 15.42 15.98 16.64 0.7%

1

Commercial	trucks	8,500	to	10,000	pounds.

2

CAFE standard based on projected new vehicle sales.

3

Includes	CAFE	credits	for	alternative	fueled	vehicle	sales,	but	does	not	include	banked	credits	used	for	compliance.

4

Environmental Protection Agency rated miles per gallon.

5

Tested new vehicle efficiency revised for on-road performance.

6

Combined car and light truck “on-the-road” estimate.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data

reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010);	EIA,

Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010);	Federal	Highway	Administration,	Highway Statistics 2008	(Washington,	DC,	April

2010);	Oak	Ridge	National	Laboratory,	Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 29 and Annual	 (Oak	Ridge,	TN,	2010); National Highway Traffic and Safety

Administration,	Summary of Fuel Economy Performance	(Washington,	DC,	December	9,	2009);	U.S.	Department	of	Commerce,	Bureau	of	the	Census,	“Vehicle	Inventory

and	Use	Survey,”	EC02TV	(Washington,	DC,	December	2004);	EIA,	Alternatives	to	Traditional	Transportation	Fuels	2008	(Part	II	-	User	and	Fuel	Data),	April	2010;

EIA, State Energy Data Report 2008,	DOE/EIA-0214(2008)	 (Washington,	DC,	June 2010); U.S. Department of Transportation,	Research	and	Special	Programs

Administration,	Air Carrier Statistics Monthly, December 2009/2008	(Washington,	DC,	December	;	EIA,	Fuel Oil and Kerosene Sales 2008,	DOE/EIA-0535(2008)

(Washington,	DC,	December	2009);	and	United	States	Department	of	Defense,	Defense	Fuel	Supply	Center,	Fact	Book	(January,	2010). Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011

National Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A.
132 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A8. Electricity supply, disposition, prices, and emissions

(billion kilowatthours, unless otherwise noted)

18 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A8. Electricity Supply, Disposition, Prices, and Emissions

(Billion	Kilowatthours,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Generation by Fuel Type

 Electric Power Sector1

 Power Only2

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1932 1719 1746 1849 1987 2028 2076 0.7%

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 32 37 39 39 40 41 1.0%

 Natural Gas3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 722 729 716 701 817 921 0.9%

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 799 839 877 877 877 874 0.3%

 Pumped Storage/Other4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 2 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 - -

 Renewable Sources5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 380 491 521 541 554 569 1.6%

 Distributed Generation (Natural Gas) ....... 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3807 3653 3843 4004 4148 4319 4485 0.8%

 Combined Heat and Power6

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 30 23 26 29 30 31 0.1%

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 -9.1%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 119 129 125 119 120 113 -0.2%

 Renewable Sources .................... 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 -1.0%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 161 155 155 153 153 148 -0.3%

 Total Net Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3974 3814 3998 4158 4300 4472 4633 0.8%

 Less Direct Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 35 33 33 33 33 33 -0.2%

 Net Available to the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3939 3779 3965 4125 4267 4439 4600 0.8%

 End-Use Generation7

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 23 30 32 52 79 111 6.3%

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 -0.3%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 90 141 160 180 211 250 4.0%

 Other Gaseous Fuels8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11 15 15 15 15 15 1.4%

 Renewable Sources9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 36 63 82 128 147 152 5.7%

 Other10 ............................... 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 -1.8%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 167 255 295 381 458 533 4.6%

 Less Direct Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 135 205 230 276 334 392 4.2%

 Total Sales to the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 31 49 65 105 124 142 6.0%

 Total Electricity Generation by Fuel

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1987 1772 1799 1907 2069 2137 2218 0.9%

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 41 43 44 44 45 46 0.5%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 931 1000 1002 1003 1152 1288 1.3%

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 799 839 877 877 877 874 0.3%

 Renewable Sources5,9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 420 556 608 673 703 724 2.1%

 Other11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 18 16 16 16 16 16 -0.3%

 Total Electricity Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . 4123 3981 4253 4453 4682 4930 5167 1.0%

 Total Net Generation to the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . 3968 3810 4014 4190 4372 4563 4742 0.8%

Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 34 33 27 22 13 14 -3.4%

Electricity Sales by Sector

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1380 1363 1348 1394 1461 1538 1613 0.7%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1336 1323 1416 1526 1636 1761 1886 1.4%

 Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 882 1038 1046 1031 997 962 0.3%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 7 8 10 13 18 22 4.6%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3732 3574 3811 3976 4142 4314 4483 0.9%

 Direct Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 170 239 263 309 367 425 3.6%

 Total Electricity Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3886 3745 4049 4240 4451 4681 4908 1.0%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 133

Reference case

Table A8. Electricity supply, disposition, prices, and emissions (continued)

(billion kilowatthours, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 19

Table A8. Electricity Supply, Disposition, Prices, and Emissions (Continued)

(Billion	Kilowatthours,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

End-Use Prices

 (2009 cents per kilowatthour)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 11.5 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.6 10.8 -0.2%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 10.1 9.1 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.2 -0.3%

 Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 6.8 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.4 -0.2%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 11.9 10.0 9.6 10.1 10.5 11.0 -0.3%

 All Sectors Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 9.8 8.9 8.8 8.9 9.0 9.2 -0.2%

 (nominal cents per kilowatthour)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 11.5 11.8 12.9 14.1 15.4 17.2 1.6%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 10.1 9.9 10.9 12.0 13.2 14.7 1.5%

 Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 6.8 6.6 7.3 8.1 9.0 10.2 1.6%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 11.9 10.9 11.6 13.3 15.3 17.6 1.5%

 All Sectors Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 9.8 9.7 10.7 11.8 13.0 14.7 1.6%

Prices by Service Category

 (2009 cents per kilowatthour)

 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.0 5.0 5.3 5.6 5.8 6.0 0.0%

 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.5%

 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.3 -1.0%

 (nominal cents per kilowatthour)

 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.0 5.5 6.4 7.4 8.4 9.6 1.8%

 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 2.3%

 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.7 0.8%

Electric Power Sector Emissions1

 Sulfur Dioxide (million tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.62 5.72 3.77 3.68 4.09 3.97 3.94 -1.4%

 Nitrogen Oxide (million tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.01 1.99 1.99 1.98 2.00 2.03 2.05 0.1%

 Mercury (tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.27 40.66 26.88 26.82 28.21 29.08 29.91 -1.2%

1

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes plants that only produce electricity.

3

Includes electricity generation from fuel cells.

4

Includes non-biogenic municipal waste. The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates approximately 7 billion kilowatthours of electricity were generated

from a municipal waste stream containing petroleum-derived plastics and other non-renewable sources. See U.S. Energy Information	Administration,	Methodology for

Allocating Municipal Solid Waste to Biogenic and Non-Biogenic Energy,	(Washington,	DC,	May	2007). 5

Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood,	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	other	biomass,	solar,	and	wind	power. 6

Includes combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity and heat to the public (i.e.,	those	that	report North American Industry

Classification System code 22). 7

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors; and small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,

commercial,	and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid. 8

Includes refinery gas and still gas.

9

Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood,	wood	waste,	all	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	other	biomass,	solar,	and wind power. 10Includes	batteries,	chemicals,	hydrogen,	pitch,	purchased	steam,	sulfur,	and	miscellaneous	technologies.

11Includes	pumped	storage,	non-biogenic	municipal	waste,	refinery	gas,	still	gas,	batteries,	chemicals,	hydrogen,	pitch,	purchased	steam,	sulfur,	and	miscellaneous

technologies.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources: 2008 and 2009 electric power sector generation; sales to utilities; net imports; electricity sales; electricity end-use prices; and emissions: U.S. Energy

Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010),	and	supporting	databases.		2008	and	2009	prices:

EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
134 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A9. Electricity generating capacity

(gigawatts)

20 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A9. Electricity Generating Capacity

(Gigawatts)

Net Summer Capacity1

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Electric Power Sector2

 Power Only3

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304.4 308.2 312.5 313.1 313.1 313.1 313.4 0.1%

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam4 .............. 114.6 114.0 99.5 92.6 92.4 92.4 88.4 -1.0%

 Combined Cycle ....................... 157.1 165.4 170.7 170.9 177.2 202.7 226.8 1.2%

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.7 134.6 137.6 140.4 152.3 162.5 178.6 1.1%

 Nuclear Power5 ........................ 100.6 101.0 105.7 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 0.3%

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 0.0%

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Renewable Sources6 .................... 109.7 116.3 135.7 136.6 141.1 144.9 147.9 0.9%

 Distributed Generation7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.8 1.3 2.0 3.1 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939.8 961.5 984.0 986.8 1009.7 1050.0 1090.4 0.5%

 Combined Heat and Power8

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 -0.1%

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.0%

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.8 31.8 32.8 32.8 32.8 32.8 32.8 0.1%

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 0.2%

 Renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.4 40.4 41.3 41.3 41.3 41.3 41.3 0.1%

 Cumulative Planned Additions9

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 - -

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 - -

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 - -

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 - -

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.1 - -

 Distributed Generation7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 21.7 21.8 21.9 22.0 22.1 - -

 Cumulative Unplanned Additions9

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.3 - -

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.4 6.7 32.3 56.3 - -

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 4.1 7.7 19.6 29.9 45.9 - -

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 - -

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 18.7 19.5 23.9 27.6 30.5 - -

 Distributed Generation7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.8 1.3 2.0 3.1 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 23.5 35.7 58.7 98.9 143.3 - -

 Cumulative Electric Power Sector Additions 0.0 0.0 45.2 57.5 80.6 120.9 165.4 - -

 Cumulative Retirements10

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 7.4 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 - -

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 14.5 21.4 21.6 21.6 25.7 - -

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 - -

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 2.9 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 - -

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 - -

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - -

 Renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 25.4 35.0 35.2 35.2 39.3 - -

Total Electric Power Sector Capacity . . . . . . . . 980.2 1001.9 1025.3 1028.2 1051.0 1091.3 1131.7 0.5%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 135

Reference case

Table A9. Electricity generating capacity (continued)

(gigawatts)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 21

Table A9. Electricity Generating Capacity (Continued)

(Gigawatts)

Net Summer Capacity1

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

End-Use Generators11

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 4.0 4.9 5.2 7.9 11.5 15.7 5.4%

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.2%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8 16.1 23.0 25.5 28.2 32.4 37.5 3.3%

 Other Gaseous Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 1.9 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 1.3%

 Renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 7.5 17.5 21.3 27.4 30.3 31.6 5.7%

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4 31.5 50.0 56.6 68.1 78.9 89.5 4.1%

 Cumulative Capacity Additions9 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 18.5 25.1 36.6 47.4 58.0 - -

1

Net summer capacity is the steady hourly output that generating equipment is expected to supply to system load (exclusive of auxiliary	power),	as	demonstrated

by tests during summer peak demand. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

Includes plants that only produce electricity. Includes capacity increases (uprates) at existing units.

4

Includes	oil-,	gas-,	and	dual-fired	capacity.

5

Nuclear capacity includes 3.8 gigawatts of uprates through 2035.

6

Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood,	wood	waste,	all	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	other	biomass,	solar,	and wind power. Facilities co-firing

biomass and coal are classified as coal. 7

Primarily peak load capacity fueled by natural gas.

8

Includes	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity	and	heat	to	the	public	(i.e.,	those	that	report North American Industry

Classification System code 22). 9

Cumulative	additions	after	December	31,	2009.

10Cumulative	retirements	after	December	31,	2009.

11Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors; and small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,

commercial,	and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	capacity	and	projected	planned	additions:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Form	EIA-860,	"Annual	Electric Generator Report”

(preliminary). Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
136 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A10. Electricity trade

(billion kilowatthours, unless otherwise noted)

22 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A10. Electricity Trade

(Billion	Kilowatthours,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Electricity Trade

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Interregional Electricity Trade

 Gross Domestic Sales

 Firm Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.3 185.6 172.7 123.5 65.6 54.1 54.1 -4.6%

 Economy ............................... 303.1 279.2 290.0 241.3 286.6 287.1 301.1 0.3%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484.4 464.7 462.7 364.7 352.2 341.1 355.2 -1.0%

 Gross Domestic Sales (million 2009 dollars)

 Firm Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10738.4 10992.8 10232.4 7313.8 3888.3 3203.2 3203.2 -4.6%

 Economy ............................... 24158.0 11225.8 11949.4 11042.4 15126.4 15068.1 17376.4 1.7%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34896.4 22218.6 22181.8 18356.2 19014.6 18271.3 20579.6 -0.3%

 International Electricity Trade

 Imports from Canada and Mexico

 Firm Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.9 19.3 28.4 16.9 3.1 0.4 0.4 -14.0%

 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1 33.1 24.4 29.1 36.0 29.2 30.0 -0.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.0 52.4 52.8 46.0 39.2 29.6 30.4 -2.1%

 Exports to Canada and Mexico

 Firm Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 3.3 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 - -

 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.7 14.7 18.7 18.1 17.5 17.0 16.4 0.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.1 18.1 19.6 18.6 17.6 17.0 16.4 -0.4%

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data	reports.		Firm	Power	Sales	are	capacity	sales,	meaning	the	delivery	of	the	power	is	scheduled	as	part	of	the	normal	operating conditions of the affected electric

systems. Economy Sales are subject to curtailment or cessation of delivery by the supplier in accordance with prior agreements or under specified conditions.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	interregional	firm	electricity	trade	data:		North	American	Electric	Reliability	Council	(NERC),	Electricity	Sales and Demand Database 2007.

2008 and 2009 Mexican electricity trade data: U.S. Energy Information Administration	(EIA),	Electric Power Annual 2009	DOE/EIA-0348(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	January

2011).		2008	Canadian	international	electricity	trade	data:		National	Energy	Board,	Electricity Exports and Imports Statistics, 2008. 2009 Canadian electricity trade data:

National	Energy	Board,	Electricity Exports and Imports Statistics, 2009. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 137

Reference case

Table A11. Liquid fuels supply and disposition

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 23

Table A11. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Crude Oil

 Domestic Crude Production1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.96 5.36 5.81 6.08 5.88 5.82 5.95 0.4%

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.69 0.65 0.49 0.42 0.41 0.27 0.39 -1.9%

 Lower 48 States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.28 4.71 5.32 5.66 5.47 5.54 5.56 0.6%

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.75 8.97 8.70 8.30 8.25 8.21 8.25 -0.3%

 Gross Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.78 9.01 8.74 8.34 8.28 8.24 8.28 -0.3%

 Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 -1.2%

 Other Crude Supply2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.06 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Total Crude Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.66 14.33 14.52 14.38 14.13 14.02 14.20 -0.0%

Other Petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 3.59 4.38 4.34 4.41 4.40 4.46 0.8%

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.78 1.91 2.23 2.36 2.68 2.79 2.94 1.7%

 Net Product Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39 0.75 1.14 0.96 0.81 0.73 0.64 -0.6%

 Gross Refined Product Imports3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 1.27 1.04 0.99 0.92 0.90 0.84 -1.6%

 Unfinished Oil Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 0.68 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.74 0.76 0.5%

 Blending Component Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.79 0.72 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.81 0.83 0.6%

 Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.71 1.91 1.50 1.62 1.67 1.72 1.80 -0.2%

 Refinery Processing Gain4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 0.98 1.01 1.02 0.92 0.88 0.88 -0.4%

 Product Stock Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.07 -0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

Other Non-petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 0.81 1.42 1.86 2.40 2.92 3.28 5.5%

 Supply from Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.76 1.12 1.47 1.92 2.30 2.48 4.7%

 Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64 0.73 1.03 1.32 1.60 1.75 1.83 3.6%

 Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 0.72 0.97 1.20 1.44 1.52 1.58 3.1%

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.11 0.16 0.23 0.26 12.2%

 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.13 7.1%

 Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.13 5.2%

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Other Biomass-derived Liquids5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.19 0.42 0.52 - -

 Liquids from Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Liquids from Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.19 0.35 0.55 - -

 Other6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.05 0.25 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 6.3%

Total Primary Supply7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.51 18.73 20.32 20.58 20.94 21.34 21.94 0.6%

Liquid Fuels Consumption

 by Fuel

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.04 2.13 2.32 2.34 2.33 2.26 2.19 0.1%

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.22 0.64 0.81 0.84 26.3%

 Motor Gasoline9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.99 9.00 9.40 9.19 8.87 8.95 9.28 0.1%

						Jet	Fuel10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 1.39 1.55 1.62 1.68 1.72 1.75 0.9%

 Distillate Fuel Oil11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.94 3.63 4.13 4.32 4.49 4.66 4.87 1.1%

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44 3.18 3.68 3.90 4.09 4.29 4.51 1.4%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62 0.51 0.60 0.60 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.7%

 Other12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.38 2.15 2.43 2.39 2.38 2.35 2.38 0.4%

 by Sector

 Residential and Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.06 1.04 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.85 -0.8%

 Industrial13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.69 4.25 4.99 4.96 4.94 4.83 4.77 0.5%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.87 13.61 14.31 14.61 14.96 15.47 16.10 0.6%

 Electric Power14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.7%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.52 18.81 20.44 20.68 20.99 21.36 21.93 0.6%

Discrepancy15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.01 -0.08 -0.12 -0.10 -0.04 -0.02 0.01 - -
138 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A11. Liquid fuels supply and disposition (continued)

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

24 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A11. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition (Continued)

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Domestic Refinery Distillation Capacity16 . . . . . . . . 17.6 17.7 17.5 16.5 16.0 15.8 15.8 -0.4%

Capacity Utilization Rate (percent)17 . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.0 83.0 84.9 89.0 90.1 90.6 91.9 0.4%

Net Import Share of Product Supplied (percent) . . 57.2 51.9 48.8 45.6 44.0 43.0 41.7 -0.8%

Net Expenditures for Imported Crude Oil and

 Petroleum Products (billion 2009 dollars) ...... 272.65 203.65 296.22 325.04 347.74 363.62 370.10 2.3%

1

Includes lease condensate.

2

Strategic petroleum reserve stock additions plus unaccounted for crude oil and crude stock withdrawals minus crude product supplied. 3

Includes other hydrocarbons and alcohols.

4

The	volumetric	amount	by	which	total	output	is	greater	than	input	due	to	the	processing	of	crude	oil	into	products	which,	in	total,	have	a	lower	specific	gravity	than

the crude oil processed. 5

Includes	pyrolysis	oils,	biomass-derived	Fischer-Tropsch	liquids,	and	renewable	feedstocks	used	for	the	production	of	green	diesel and gasoline. 6

Includes	domestic	sources	of	other	blending	components,	other	hydrocarbons,	and	ethers. 7

Total	crude	supply	plus	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	inputs,	refinery	processing	gain,	and	net	product	imports.

8

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol

varies seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 9

Includes ethanol and ethers blended into gasoline.

10Includes only kerosene type.

11Includes distillate fuel oil and kerosene from petroleum and biomass feedstocks.

12Includes	aviation	gasoline,	petrochemical	feedstocks,	lubricants,	waxes,	asphalt,	road	oil,	still	gas,	special	naphthas,	petroleum	coke,	crude	oil	product	supplied,

methanol,	and	miscellaneous	petroleum	products. 13Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power,	which	produces	electricity	and	other	useful	thermal	energy.

14Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the

public. Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 15Balancing	item.		Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses,	and	gains.

16End-of-year operable capacity.

17Rate is calculated by dividing the gross annual input to atmospheric crude oil distillation units by their operable refining capacity in barrels per calendar day.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	petroleum	product	supplied	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		Other	2008	data:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0340(2008)/1	(Washington,	DC,	June	2009).		Other	2009	data:		EIA,

Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,	 DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	 (Washington,	 DC,	 July	 2010).	 	 Projections:	 	 EIA,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy Modeling System run

REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 139

Reference case

Table A12. Petroleum product prices

(2009 dollars per gallon, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 25

Table A12. Petroleum Product Prices

(2009	Dollars	per	Gallon,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Fuel

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Crude Oil Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 ....... 100.51 61.66 94.58 108.10 117.54 123.09 124.94 2.8%

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.44 59.04 86.83 98.65 107.40 112.38 113.70 2.6%

Delivered Sector Product Prices

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.525 2.087 2.523 2.729 2.872 2.954 2.965 1.4%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.432 2.514 2.931 3.366 3.595 3.736 3.818 1.6%

 Commercial

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.010 2.205 2.654 3.074 3.306 3.440 3.512 1.8%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.366 2.013 1.984 2.274 2.552 2.646 2.714 1.2%

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 99.36 84.54 83.33 95.50 107.19 111.12 113.99 1.2%

 Industrial2

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.139 1.744 1.975 2.187 2.331 2.406 2.416 1.3%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.108 2.281 2.656 3.079 3.322 3.452 3.523 1.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.434 1.804 2.215 2.492 2.722 2.786 2.803 1.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 102.24 75.79 93.04 104.68 114.34 117.02 117.73 1.7%

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.591 2.161 2.589 2.792 2.933 3.012 3.021 1.3%

 Ethanol (E85)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.355 1.945 2.503 2.732 2.798 2.878 2.934 1.6%

 Ethanol Wholesale Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.475 2.028 2.448 2.484 2.369 2.095 2.073 0.1%

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.327 2.349 3.134 3.378 3.539 3.640 3.707 1.8%

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.146 1.700 2.568 2.974 3.181 3.334 3.413 2.7%

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.837 2.441 3.084 3.521 3.726 3.834 3.890 1.8%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.181 1.582 1.893 2.176 2.398 2.500 2.461 1.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 91.59 66.44 79.51 91.41 100.70 105.01 103.37 1.7%

 Electric Power7

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.713 1.988 2.336 2.743 2.940 3.094 3.168 1.8%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.208 1.342 1.971 2.209 2.433 2.525 2.501 2.4%

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 92.73 56.36 82.79 92.77 102.20 106.05 105.03 2.4%

 Refined Petroleum Product Prices8

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.774 1.477 1.836 2.022 2.154 2.237 2.255 1.6%

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.305 2.344 3.134 3.378 3.539 3.640 3.707 1.8%

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.146 1.700 2.568 2.974 3.181 3.334 3.413 2.7%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.648 2.408 2.995 3.434 3.651 3.769 3.831 1.8%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.228 1.576 1.957 2.227 2.453 2.547 2.522 1.8%

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 93.58 66.20 82.19 93.55 103.03 106.96 105.92 1.8%

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.098 2.155 2.822 3.114 3.289 3.406 3.478 1.9%
140 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A12. Petroleum product prices (continued)

(nominal dollars per gallon, unless otherwise noted)

26 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A12. Petroleum Product Prices (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Gallon,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Fuel

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Crude Oil Prices (nominal dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . 99.57 61.66 103.24 130.60 155.46 178.45 199.37 4.6%

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.57 59.04 94.78 119.18 142.05 162.92 181.43 4.4%

Delivered Sector Product Prices

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.501 2.087 2.754 3.297 3.798 4.283 4.732 3.2%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.400 2.514 3.200 4.067 4.754 5.416 6.092 3.5%

 Commercial

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.982 2.205 2.897 3.713 4.373 4.987 5.605 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.344 2.013 2.166 2.747 3.376 3.836 4.331 3.0%

 Residual Fuel Oil (nominal dollars per barrel) 98.43 84.54 90.96 115.37 141.78 161.10 181.90 3.0%

 Industrial2

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.119 1.744 2.155 2.642 3.083 3.489 3.855 3.1%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.079 2.281 2.899 3.720 4.394 5.004 5.621 3.5%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.412 1.804 2.418 3.011 3.601 4.039 4.473 3.6%

 Residual Fuel Oil (nominal dollars per barrel) 101.29 75.79 101.55 126.46 151.23 169.65 187.86 3.6%

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.567 2.161 2.826 3.373 3.879 4.367 4.820 3.1%

 Ethanol (E85)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.323 1.945 2.732 3.300 3.701 4.173 4.682 3.4%

 Ethanol Wholesale Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.451 2.028 2.672 3.001 3.133 3.037 3.308 1.9%

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.297 2.349 3.421 4.081 4.681 5.277 5.915 3.6%

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.116 1.700 2.803 3.594 4.207 4.833 5.447 4.6%

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.801 2.441 3.366 4.253 4.928 5.559 6.207 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.161 1.582 2.066 2.629 3.171 3.625 3.928 3.6%

 Residual Fuel Oil (nominal dollars per barrel) 90.74 66.44 86.79 110.43 133.20 152.24 164.96 3.6%

 Electric Power7

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.688 1.988 2.550 3.314 3.889 4.486 5.055 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.187 1.342 2.152 2.669 3.219 3.661 3.990 4.3%

 Residual Fuel Oil (nominal dollars per barrel) 91.87 56.36 90.37 112.08 135.18 153.75 167.60 4.3%

 Refined Petroleum Product Prices8

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.758 1.477 2.004 2.443 2.849 3.242 3.599 3.5%

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.274 2.344 3.421 4.081 4.681 5.277 5.915 3.6%

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.116 1.700 2.803 3.594 4.207 4.833 5.447 4.6%

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.614 2.408 3.269 4.149 4.829 5.464 6.113 3.6%

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.207 1.576 2.136 2.691 3.245 3.692 4.024 3.7%

 Residual Fuel Oil (nominal dollars per barrel) 92.71 66.20 89.71 113.02 136.27 155.06 169.02 3.7%

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.069 2.155 3.080 3.762 4.350 4.938 5.550 3.7%

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol

varies seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 4

Sales	weighted-average	price	for	all	grades.		Includes	Federal,	State	and	local	taxes.

5

Includes only kerosene type.

6

Diesel fuel for on-road use. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

7

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes	small	power

producers and exempt wholesale generators. 8

Weighted averages of end-use fuel prices are derived from the prices in each sector and the corresponding sectoral consumption.

Note: Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	imported	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	 (EIA),	Form	EIA-856,	 “Monthly Foreign Crude Oil

Acquisition	Report.”		2008	and	2009	imported	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	and	2009

prices	for	motor	gasoline,	distillate	fuel	oil,	and	jet	fuel	are	based	on:		EIA,	Petroleum Marketing Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).

2008	and	2009	residential,	commercial,	industrial,	and	transportation	sector petroleum product prices	are	derived	from:		EIA,	Form	EIA-782A,	“Refiners’/Gas	Plant

Operators’ Monthly Petroleum Product Sales Report.” 2008 and 2009	 electric	 power	 prices	 based	 on:		EIA,	Monthly Energy Review,	 DOE/EIA-0035(2010/09)

(Washington,	DC,	September	2010).		2008	and	2009	E85	prices	derived	from	monthly	prices	in	the	Clean	Cities	Alternative	Fuel	Price Report. 2008 and 2009 wholesale

ethanol prices derived from Bloomberg U.S. average rack price. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 141

Reference case

Table A13. Natural gas supply, disposition, and prices

(trillion cubic feet per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 27

Table A13. Natural Gas Supply, Disposition, and Prices

(Trillion	Cubic	Feet	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Production

 Dry Gas Production1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.29 20.96 22.43 23.43 23.98 25.10 26.32 0.9%

 Supplemental Natural Gas2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 -0.0%

Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.98 2.64 2.69 1.90 1.08 0.78 0.18 -9.7%

 Pipeline3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.68 2.23 2.33 1.40 0.74 0.64 0.04 -14.0%

 Liquefied Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.41 0.36 0.50 0.34 0.14 0.14 -4.1%

Total Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.33 23.66 25.18 25.40 25.12 25.94 26.57 0.4%

Consumption by Sector

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.87 4.75 4.81 4.85 4.83 4.82 4.78 0.0%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13 3.11 3.38 3.49 3.56 3.68 3.82 0.8%

 Industrial4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.65 6.14 8.05 8.24 8.10 8.08 8.02 1.0%

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power5 . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Natural Gas to Liquids Production6 . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Electric Power7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.67 6.89 6.98 6.84 6.66 7.34 7.88 0.5%

 Transportation8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.14 0.16 7.5%

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.64 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.64 0.65 0.1%

 Lease and Plant Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.22 1.16 1.20 1.21 1.19 1.20 1.25 0.3%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.22 22.71 25.11 25.34 25.07 25.90 26.55 0.6%

Discrepancy10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.95 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.02 - -

Natural Gas Prices

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Henry Hub Spot Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.94 3.95 4.66 5.05 5.97 6.40 7.07 2.3%

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price11 . . . . . . . 7.96 3.62 4.13 4.47 5.29 5.66 6.26 2.1%

 (2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price11 . . . . . . . 8.18 3.71 4.24 4.59 5.43 5.81 6.42 2.1%

 Delivered Prices

 (2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.99 12.20 10.39 11.16 12.15 12.85 13.76 0.5%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.32 9.94 8.60 9.19 10.03 10.57 11.28 0.5%

 Industrial4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.32 5.39 5.10 5.50 6.33 6.76 7.40 1.2%

 Electric Power7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.35 4.94 4.79 5.13 5.91 6.36 6.97 1.3%

 Transportation12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.67 13.05 12.29 12.58 13.19 13.49 13.94 0.3%

 Average13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.84 7.47 6.62 7.13 8.01 8.48 9.14 0.8%
142 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A13. Natural gas supply, disposition, and prices (continued)

(trillion cubic feet per year, unless otherwise noted)

28 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A13. Natural Gas Supply, Disposition, and Prices (Continued)

(Trillion	Cubic	Feet	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Natural Gas Prices

 (nominal dollars per million Btu)

 Henry Hub Spot Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.86 3.95 5.09 6.10 7.90 9.28 11.28 4.1%

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price11 . . . . . . . 7.89 3.62 4.51 5.40 6.99 8.21 9.99 4.0%

 (nominal dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price11 . . . . . . . 8.10 3.71 4.63 5.55 7.18 8.43 10.24 4.0%

 Delivered Prices

 (nominal dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.86 12.20 11.34 13.48 16.08 18.63 21.95 2.3%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.20 9.94 9.38 11.10 13.27 15.32 18.00 2.3%

 Industrial4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.24 5.39 5.56 6.65 8.38 9.80 11.82 3.1%

 Electric Power7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.26 4.94 5.23 6.20 7.81 9.22 11.13 3.2%

 Transportation12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.50 13.05 13.42 15.20 17.44 19.56 22.25 2.1%

 Average13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.74 7.47 7.22 8.61 10.60 12.29 14.58 2.6%

1

Marketed production (wet) minus extraction losses.

2

Synthetic	natural	gas,	propane	air,	coke	oven	gas,	refinery	gas,	biomass	gas,	air	injected	for	Btu	stabilization,	and	manufactured gas commingled and distributed

with natural gas. 3

Includes	any	natural	gas	regasified	in	the	Bahamas	and	transported	via	pipeline	to	Florida,	as	well	as	gas	from	Canada	and	Mexico. 4

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 5

Includes any natural gas used in the process of converting natural gas to liquid fuel that is not actually converted.

6

Includes any natural gas that is converted into liquid fuel.

7

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the

public. Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 8

Compressed natural gas used as vehicle fuel.

9

Represents	natural	gas	used	in	well,	field,	and	lease	operations,	and	in	natural	gas	processing	plant	machinery.

10Balancing item. Natural gas lost as a result of converting flow data measured at varying temperatures and pressures to a standard temperature and pressure and

the	merger	of	different	data	reporting	systems	which	vary	in	scope,	format,	definition,	and	respondent	type.		In	addition,	2008 and 2009 values include net storage

injections. 11Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

12Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel. Price includes estimated motor vehicle fuel taxes and estimated dispensing costs or charges. 13Weighted	average	prices.		Weights	used	are	the	sectoral	consumption	values	excluding	lease,	plant,	and	pipeline	fuel.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	supply	values;	and	lease,	plant,	and	pipeline	fuel	consumption:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA0131(2008) (Washington,	DC,	March	2010).		2009	supply	values;	and	lease,	plant,	and	pipeline	fuel	consumption;	and	wellhead	price:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,

DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	 (Washington,	DC,	 July	2010).	 Other 2008 and 2009 consumption	based	on:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).	2008	wellhead	price:		Bureau	of	Energy	Management,	Regulation	and	Enforcement;	and	EIA,	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010).		2008	residential	and	commercial	delivered	prices:	EIA,	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,

March	2010).		2009	residential	and	commercial	delivered	prices:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2008	and	2009

electric	power	prices:		EIA,	Electric Power Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0226,	April	2009	and	April	2010,	Table	4.2.		2008	and	2009	industrial	delivered	prices	are	estimated	based

on:		EIA,	Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey and industrial and wellhead prices from the Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,

March 2010) and the Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010). 2008 transportation	sector	delivered	prices	are	based	on:	EIA,	Natural

Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010)	and	estimated	state	taxes,	federal	taxes,	and	dispensing	costs	or	charges.		2009 transportation

sector delivered prices are model results. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 143

Reference case

Table A14. Oil and gas supply

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 29

Table A14. Oil and Gas Supply

Production and Supply

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

(percent) 2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Crude Oil

 Lower 48 Average Wellhead Price1

 (2009 dollars per barrel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96.13 89.64 94.99 107.36 115.15 119.56 119.45 1.1%

 Production (million barrels per day)2

 United States Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.96 5.36 5.81 6.08 5.88 5.82 5.95 0.4%

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.01 3.00 3.51 3.72 3.92 3.83 3.65 0.8%

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.27 1.71 1.81 1.94 1.55 1.71 1.91 0.4%

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.69 0.64 0.49 0.42 0.41 0.27 0.39 -1.9%

 Lower 48 End of Year Reserves2

 (billion barrels) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.05 17.88 19.69 21.57 21.89 22.32 22.76 0.9%

Natural Gas

 Lower 48 Average Wellhead Price1

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Henry Hub Spot Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.94 3.95 4.66 5.05 5.97 6.40 7.07 2.3%

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price1 . . . . . . . . . . 7.96 3.62 4.13 4.47 5.29 5.66 6.26 2.1%

 (2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price1 . . . . . . . . . . 8.18 3.71 4.24 4.59 5.43 5.81 6.42 2.1%

 Dry Production (trillion cubic feet)3

 United States Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.29 20.96 22.43 23.43 23.98 25.10 26.32 0.9%

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.22 17.88 20.00 20.21 21.31 22.01 23.05 1.0%

 Associated-Dissolved4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.42 1.40 1.48 1.43 1.36 1.20 1.02 -1.2%

 Non-Associated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.81 16.48 18.51 18.78 19.95 20.81 22.04 1.1%

 Tight gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.75 6.59 5.90 5.72 5.74 5.71 5.84 -0.5%

 Shale Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.23 3.28 7.20 8.21 9.69 10.94 12.25 5.2%

 Coalbed Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.87 1.80 1.67 1.66 1.72 1.71 1.72 -0.2%

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.95 4.80 3.74 3.19 2.81 2.44 2.23 -2.9%

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.69 2.70 2.15 2.96 2.42 2.86 3.05 0.5%

 Associated-Dissolved4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62 0.64 0.64 0.87 0.68 0.71 0.80 0.8%

 Non-Associated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.07 2.05 1.51 2.09 1.74 2.15 2.26 0.4%

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.37 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 -2.1%

 Lower 48 End of Year Dry Reserves3

 (trillion cubic feet) ........................ 236.96 261.37 279.40 293.61 299.51 308.52 314.16 0.7%

 Supplemental Gas Supplies (trillion cubic feet)5 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 -0.0%

Total Lower 48 Wells Drilled (thousands) . . . . . . 56.20 35.06 37.10 40.23 45.34 49.05 53.63 1.6%

1

Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

2

Includes lease condensate.

3

Marketed production (wet) minus extraction losses.

4

Gas which occurs in crude oil reservoirs either as free gas (associated) or as gas in solution with crude oil (dissolved).

5

Synthetic	natural	gas,	propane	air,	coke	oven	gas,	refinery	gas,	biomass	gas,	air	injected	for	Btu	stabilization,	and	manufactured gas commingled and distributed

with natural gas.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	crude	oil	lower	48	average	wellhead	price:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Petroleum Marketing Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	and	2009	lower	48	onshore,	lower	48	offshore,	and	Alaska	crude	oil	production:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,

DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2008	U.S.	crude	oil	and	natural	gas	reserves:		EIA,	U.S. Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Natural Gas Liquids

Reserves,	DOE/EIA-0216(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	October	2010).		2008	Alaska	and	total	natural	gas	production,	and	supplemental	gas	supplies:		EIA,	Natural Gas

Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010).	2008	natural	gas	lower	48	average	wellhead	price:		Bureau	of	Energy	Management,	Regulation

and	Enforcement;	and	EIA,	Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010).		2009	natural	gas	lower	48	average	wellhead	price,	Alaska

and	total	natural	gas	production,	and	supplemental	gas	supplies:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		Other	2008	and

2009	values:		EIA,	Office	of	Energy	Analysis.		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
144 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A15. Coal supply, disposition, and prices

(million short tons per year, unless otherwise noted)

30 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A15. Coal Supply, Disposition, and Prices

(Million	Short	Tons	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Production1

 Appalachia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 343 274 279 282 278 282 -0.8%

 Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 147 156 160 166 167 177 0.7%

 West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 585 610 661 739 807 860 1.5%

 East of the Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 450 387 396 406 402 415 -0.3%

 West of the Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 625 653 704 782 850 904 1.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172 1075 1040 1100 1188 1252 1319 0.8%

Waste Coal Supplied2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 12 14 14 14 14 14 0.6%

Net Imports

 Imports3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 21 30 38 56 54 53 3.6%

 Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 59 70 76 75 74 71 0.7%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -49 -38 -40 -38 -19 -20 -18 -2.8%

Total Supply4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136 1049 1014 1076 1183 1247 1315 0.9%

Consumption by Sector

 Residential and Commercial ................. 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 -0.2%

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 15 22 22 21 20 18 0.6%

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 45 49 49 48 48 47 0.1%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 6 7 23 42 66 - -

 Coal to Liquids Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 5 6 21 40 62 - -

 Electric Power6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 937 928 989 1066 1094 1119 0.7%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 1000 1013 1076 1182 1247 1315 1.1%

Discrepancy and Stock Change7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 49 1 0 1 0 -0 - -

Average Minemouth Price8

 (2009 dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.54 33.26 32.36 32.85 33.22 33.25 33.92 0.1%

 (2009 dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.56 1.67 1.62 1.65 1.68 1.69 1.73 0.2%

Delivered Prices (2009 dollars per short ton)9

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119.20 143.01 157.51 165.95 169.26 170.64 172.38 0.7%

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.03 64.87 61.78 62.45 63.58 64.89 66.89 0.1%

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 30.96 35.63 31.66 35.84 36.68 - -

 Electric Power

 (2009 dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.07 43.48 40.94 41.57 43.33 44.63 46.36 0.2%

 (2009 dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.07 2.20 2.11 2.15 2.24 2.32 2.40 0.3%

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.77 46.03 44.40 45.00 45.97 46.81 47.87 0.2%

 Exports10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98.60 101.44 123.13 132.67 136.16 134.51 133.36 1.1%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 145

Reference case

Table A15. Coal supply, disposition, and prices (continued)

(million short tons per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 31

Table A15. Coal Supply, Disposition, and Prices (Continued)

(Million	Short	Tons	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Average Minemouth Price8

 (nominal dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.25 33.26 35.32 39.69 43.93 48.21 54.13 1.9%

 (nominal dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.55 1.67 1.77 1.99 2.22 2.45 2.76 2.0%

Delivered Prices (nominal dollars per short ton)9

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118.09 143.01 171.93 200.49 223.88 247.39 275.08 2.5%

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.44 64.87 67.44 75.45 84.09 94.08 106.75 1.9%

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - 33.79 43.05 41.88 51.96 58.54 - -

 Electric Power

 (nominal dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.69 43.48 44.69 50.23 57.30 64.71 73.98 2.1%

 (nominal dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.05 2.20 2.31 2.60 2.96 3.36 3.83 2.2%

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.37 46.03 48.47 54.37 60.80 67.86 76.40 2.0%

 Exports10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97.68 101.44 134.40 160.28 180.10 195.00 212.81 2.9%

1

Includes	anthracite,	bituminous	coal,	subbituminous	coal,	and	lignite. 2

Includes waste coal consumed by the electric power and industrial sectors. Waste coal supplied is counted as a supply-side item to balance the same amount of

waste coal included in the consumption data. 3

Excludes imports to Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

4

Production plus waste coal supplied plus net imports.

5

Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.

Excludes all coal use in the coal-to-liquids process. 6

Includes	all	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Balancing	item:		the	sum	of	production,	net	imports,	and	waste	coal	supplied	minus	total	consumption.

8

Includes reported prices for both open market and captive mines.

9

Prices	weighted	by	consumption;	weighted	average	excludes	residential	and	commercial	prices,	and	export	free-alongside-ship	(f.a.s.) prices. 10F.a.s. price at U.S. port of exit.

- - = Not applicable.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	data	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Coal Report 2009,	DOE/EIA-0584(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	October

2010);	EIA,	Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April	2010);	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling

System run REF2011.D020911A. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
146 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A16. Renewable energy generating capacity and generation

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

32 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A16. Renewable Energy Generating Capacity and Generation

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Capacity and Generation

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Electric Power Sector1

 Net Summer Capacity

 Conventional Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.87 76.87 77.52 77.61 78.59 79.28 79.85 0.1%

 Geothermal2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.42 2.42 2.75 3.38 4.21 5.58 6.42 3.8%

 Municipal Waste3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 -0.0%

 Wood and Other Biomass4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 0.0%

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.53 0.61 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.32 1.35 3.1%

 Solar Photovoltaic5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.07 0.15 0.23 0.32 0.43 0.52 7.9%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.89 31.45 48.90 49.01 51.56 53.17 54.63 2.1%

 Offshore Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110.31 116.98 136.33 137.27 141.75 145.53 148.53 0.9%

 Generation (billion kilowatthours)

 Conventional Hydropower .............. 253.09 270.20 293.22 301.20 305.17 308.11 310.59 0.5%

 Geothermal2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.95 15.21 19.63 24.68 31.36 42.34 49.19 4.6%

 Biogenic Municipal Waste6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.68 16.39 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 -0.4%

 Wood and Other Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.46 10.39 20.51 38.57 38.41 30.86 32.64 4.5%

 Dedicated Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.58 8.73 7.06 10.13 8.54 7.07 8.15 -0.3%

 Cofiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.88 1.66 13.45 28.45 29.87 23.79 24.49 10.9%

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.83 0.76 2.49 2.52 2.56 2.60 2.66 4.9%

 Solar Photovoltaic5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.04 0.36 0.56 0.80 1.06 1.31 13.9%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.42 70.82 141.77 142.16 150.73 155.92 160.13 3.2%

 Offshore Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350.47 383.82 493.52 525.25 544.58 556.44 572.06 1.5%

End-Use Generators7

 Net Summer Capacity

 Conventional Hydropower8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.0%

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Municipal Waste9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.0%

 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.86 4.86 7.26 9.46 15.14 17.50 18.06 5.2%

 Solar Photovoltaic5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.77 1.50 7.73 9.14 9.51 10.05 10.68 7.8%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08 0.18 1.45 1.68 1.70 1.76 1.83 9.2%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.70 7.55 17.46 21.29 27.36 30.31 31.58 5.7%

 Generation (billion kilowatthours)

 Conventional Hydropower8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33 3.34 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 0.2%

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

 Municipal Waste9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.94 1.96 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 1.0%

 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.88 27.88 42.60 59.73 104.98 122.36 126.57 6.0%

 Solar Photovoltaic5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.22 2.34 11.99 14.25 14.86 15.75 16.79 7.9%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.24 1.97 2.30 2.34 2.42 2.53 9.5%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.47 35.76 62.61 82.34 128.22 146.57 151.94 5.7%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 147

Reference case

Table A16. Renewable energy generating capacity and generation (continued)

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 33

Table A16. Renewable Energy Generating Capacity and Generation (Continued)

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Capacity and Generation

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Total, All Sectors

 Net Summer Capacity

 Conventional Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77.58 77.57 78.23 78.32 79.30 79.99 80.56 0.1%

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.42 2.42 2.75 3.38 4.21 5.58 6.42 3.8%

 Municipal Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.66 3.67 3.67 3.67 3.67 3.67 3.67 -0.0%

 Wood and Other Biomass4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.04 7.04 9.45 11.64 17.33 19.68 20.24 4.1%

 Solar5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35 2.18 9.14 10.65 11.13 11.80 12.56 7.0%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.96 31.64 50.55 50.89 53.46 55.13 56.66 2.3%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117.02 124.53 153.79 158.55 169.11 175.84 180.11 1.4%

 Generation (billion kilowatthours)

 Conventional Hydropower .............. 256.42 273.54 296.71 304.69 308.66 311.59 314.08 0.5%

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.95 15.21 19.63 24.68 31.36 42.34 49.19 4.6%

 Municipal Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.62 18.36 17.36 17.36 17.36 17.36 17.36 -0.2%

 Wood and Other Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.34 38.27 63.11 98.30 143.39 153.22 159.21 5.6%

 Solar5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.08 3.15 14.84 17.34 18.21 19.41 20.76 7.5%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.52 71.06 144.49 145.22 153.82 159.09 163.41 3.3%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384.94 419.59 556.13 607.59 672.80 703.01 724.00 2.1%

1

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes both hydrothermal resources (hot water and steam) and near-field enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Near-field EGS potential occurs on known

hydrothermal	sites,	however	this	potential	requires	the	addition	of	external	fluids	for	electricity	generation	and	is	only	available after 2025. 3

Includes	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		Incremental	growth	is	assumed	to	be	for	landfill	gas	facilities.		All	municipal	waste	is	included,

although a portion of the municipal waste stream contains petroleum-derived plastics and other non-renewable sources. 4

Facilities co-firing biomass and coal are classified as coal.

5

Does	not	include	off-grid	photovoltaics	(PV).		Based	on	annual	PV	shipments	from	1989	through	2008,	EIA	estimates	that	as	much	as 237 megawatts of remote

electricity	generation	PV	applications	(i.e.,	off-grid	power	systems)	were	in	service	in	2008,	plus	an	additional	550	megawatts	in	communications,	transportation,	and

assorted	 other	 non-grid-connected,	 specialized	 applications.	 	 See	 U.S.	 Energy	 Information	 Administration,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	 DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010),	Table	10.9	(annual	PV	shipments,	1989-2008).		The	approach	used	to	develop	the	estimate,	based	on	shipment	data,	provides	an

upper	estimate	of	the	size	of	the	PV	stock,	including	both	grid-based	and	off-grid	PV.		It	will	overestimate	the	size	of	the	stock,	because	shipments	include	a	substantial

number	of	units	that	are	exported,	and	each	year	some	of	the	PV	units	installed	earlier	will	be	retired	from	service	or	abandoned. 6

Includes	biogenic	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		Incremental	growth	is	assumed	to	be	for	landfill gas facilities. Only biogenic municipal

waste is included. The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 approximately 6 billion kilowatthours of electricity were generated from a municipal

waste stream containing petroleum-derived plastics and other non-renewable sources. See U.S. Energy Information Administration, Methodology for Allocating Municipal

Solid Waste to Biogenic and Non-Biogenic Energy	(Washington,	DC,	May	2007). 7

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors; and small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,

commercial,	and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid. 8

Represents own-use industrial hydroelectric power.

9

Includes	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		All	municipal	waste	is	included,	although	a	portion	of	the municipal waste stream contains

petroleum-derived plastics and other non-renewable sources.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	capacity:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Form	EIA-860,	"Annual	Electric	Generator	Report"	(preliminary). 2008 and 2009

generation:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System

run REF2011.D020911A.
148 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A17. Renewable energy consumption by sector and source

(quadrillion Btu per year)

34 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A17. Renewable Energy, Consumption by Sector and Source

(Quadrillion Btu per Year)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Marketed Renewable Energy1

 Residential (wood) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.44 0.43 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 -0.1%

 Commercial (biomass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.0%

 Industrial2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 2.08 2.74 3.18 3.96 4.39 4.57 3.1%

 Conventional Hydroelectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.0%

 Municipal Waste3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.1%

 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.33 1.22 1.68 1.77 1.84 1.85 1.83 1.6%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.66 0.85 1.19 1.90 2.33 2.52 5.3%

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.87 0.99 1.51 2.00 2.72 3.41 3.73 5.2%

 Ethanol used in E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.21 0.61 0.77 0.81 26.3%

 Ethanol used in Gasoline Blending . . . . . . . . . . 0.83 0.95 1.33 1.49 1.46 1.48 1.56 1.9%

 Biodiesel used in Distillate Blending . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.04 0.15 0.20 0.24 0.25 0.25 7.1%

 Liquids from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.09 0.39 0.89 1.10 - -

 Renewable Diesel and Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 - -

 Electric Power6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.67 3.89 5.08 5.52 5.84 6.16 6.47 2.0%

 Conventional Hydroelectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.49 2.66 2.89 2.97 3.01 3.04 3.06 0.5%

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.31 0.32 0.44 0.59 0.79 1.12 1.32 5.6%

 Biogenic Municipal Waste7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.0%

 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.11 0.23 0.43 0.43 0.34 0.37 4.8%

 Dedicated Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.15 0.13 0.10 0.11 -0.2%

 Cofiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08 -0.01 0.13 0.29 0.30 0.24 0.25 - -

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 4.9%

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 13.9%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.70 1.40 1.41 1.49 1.54 1.59 3.2%

Total Marketed Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . 7.58 7.50 9.85 11.23 13.05 14.50 15.29 2.8%

Sources of Ethanol

 From Corn and Other Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.93 1.24 1.40 1.38 1.49 1.56 2.0%

 From Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.15 0.48 0.47 0.47 48.6%

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.15 0.21 0.30 0.33 12.2%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.83 0.95 1.33 1.70 2.07 2.26 2.37 3.6%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 149

Reference case

Table A17. Renewable energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 35

Table A17. Renewable Energy, Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion Btu per Year)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Nonmarketed Renewable Energy8

 Selected Consumption

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.11 8.3%

 Solar Hot Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 2.0%

 Geothermal Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 8.7%

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 9.7%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 11.1%

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 1.3%

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.6%

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 3.9%

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.8%

1

Includes	nonelectric	renewable	energy	groups	for	which	the	energy	source	is	bought	and	sold	in	the	marketplace,	although	all	transactions may not necessarily be

marketed,	and	marketed	renewable	energy	inputs	for	electricity	entering	the	marketplace	on	the	electric	power	grid.		Excludes	electricity imports; see Table A2. 2

Includes all electricity production by industrial and other combined heat and power for the grid and for own use.

3

Includes	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		All	municipal	waste	is	included,	although	a	portion	of	the municipal waste stream contains

petroleum-derived plastics and other non-renewable sources. 4

Excludes motor gasoline component of E85.

5

Renewable feedstocks for the on-site production of diesel and gasoline.

6

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the

public. Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. Actual heat rates used to determine fuel consumption for all renewable fuels except

hydropower,	solar,	and	wind.		Consumption	at	hydroelectric,	solar,	and	wind	facilities	determined	by	using	the	fossil	fuel	equivalent	of	9,854	Btu	per	kilowatthour. 7

Includes	biogenic	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		Incremental	growth	is	assumed	to	be	for	landfill gas facilities. Only biogenic municipal

waste is included. The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 approximately 0.3 quadrillion Btus were consumed from a municipal waste stream

containing	petroleum-derived	plastics	and	other	non-renewable	sources.		See	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	Methodology for Allocating Municipal Solid Waste

to Biogenic and Non-Biogenic Energy	(Washington,	DC,	May	2007). 8

Includes	selected	renewable	energy	consumption	data	for	which	the	energy	is	not	bought	or	sold,	either	directly	or	indirectly	as an input to marketed energy. The

U.S. Energy Information Administration does not estimate or project total consumption of nonmarketed renewable energy.

- - = Not applicable.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	ethanol:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).

2008	and	2009	electric	power	sector:		EIA,	Form	EIA-860,	"Annual	Electric	Generator	Report”	(preliminary).		Other	2008	and	2009	values:		EIA,	Office	of	Energy	Analysis.

Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
150 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A18. Carbon dioxide emissions by sector and source

(million metric tons, unless otherwise noted)

36 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A18. Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Sector and Source

(Million	Metric	Tons,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Residential

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 83 73 68 64 61 58 -1.3%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 259 262 264 263 263 260 0.0%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 -1.1%

 Electricity1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878 824 757 780 833 872 909 0.4%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229 1166 1092 1112 1160 1196 1228 0.2%

Commercial

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 44 39 38 38 37 37 -0.6%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 169 184 190 194 200 208 0.8%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 0.0%

 Electricity1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 800 795 854 933 998 1063 1.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074 1018 1023 1088 1170 1241 1314 1.0%

Industrial2

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 343 410 402 402 400 405 0.6%

 Natural Gas3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 383 489 500 492 493 493 1.0%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 128 162 164 187 215 249 2.6%

 Electricity1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 533 582 586 588 565 542 0.1%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598 1387 1643 1651 1668 1673 1689 0.8%

Transportation

 Petroleum4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1896 1816 1878 1881 1892 1945 2023 0.4%

 Natural Gas5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 34 38 38 40 42 44 1.0%

 Electricity1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 5 6 8 10 12 4.3%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937 1854 1921 1925 1940 1997 2080 0.4%

Electric Power6

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 34 33 35 35 35 37 0.3%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 373 379 372 362 399 428 0.5%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1959 1742 1714 1806 1951 1998 2049 0.6%

 Other7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 0.0%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2374 2160 2138 2225 2360 2444 2526 0.6%

Total by Fuel

 Petroleum3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2444 2319 2434 2423 2430 2478 2561 0.4%

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243 1218 1352 1365 1351 1398 1434 0.6%

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139 1877 1882 1977 2144 2219 2304 0.8%

 Other7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 0.0%

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5838 5426 5680 5777 5938 6107 6311 0.6%

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

 (tons per person) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1 17.6 17.4 16.9 16.6 16.3 16.2 -0.3%

1

Emissions from the electric power sector are distributed to the end-use sectors.

2

Fuel	consumption	includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to

the public. 3

Includes lease and plant fuel.

4

This	includes	carbon	dioxide	from	international	bunker	fuels,	both	civilian	and	military,	which	are	excluded	from	the	accounting of carbon dioxide emissions under

the	United	Nations	convention.		From	1990	through	2008,	international	bunker	fuels	accounted	for	86	to	130	million	metric	tons	annually. 5

Includes pipeline fuel natural gas and compressed natural gas used as vehicle fuel.

6

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal waste.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	emissions	and	emission	factors:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009,

DOE/EIA-0573(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	December	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 151

Reference case

Table A19. Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions by end use

(million metric tons)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 37

Table A19. Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by End Use

(Million Metric Tons)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Residential

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.69 279.60 272.85 270.86 268.47 266.39 263.11 -0.2%

 Space Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.47 147.72 135.39 140.24 150.37 157.54 164.20 0.4%

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.41 160.32 160.36 162.26 163.49 159.75 154.66 -0.1%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.77 65.09 58.06 56.92 58.36 60.38 62.88 -0.1%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.95 32.03 32.51 34.07 35.91 37.39 38.70 0.7%

 Clothes Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.79 35.69 33.17 32.37 33.23 34.56 35.96 0.0%

 Freezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.84 13.90 12.91 13.13 13.71 14.06 14.43 0.1%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134.22 125.70 93.51 88.06 87.22 87.55 89.23 -1.3%

 Clothes Washers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.31 5.85 4.91 4.41 4.48 4.70 4.89 -0.7%

 Dishwashers1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.17 16.09 14.89 15.25 16.50 17.58 18.65 0.6%

 Color Televisions and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . . . 62.03 59.44 54.35 55.38 59.93 64.15 68.61 0.6%

 Personal Computers and Related Equipment . . 32.17 31.33 27.80 28.37 29.72 30.85 31.71 0.0%

 Furnace Fans and Boiler Circulation Pumps . . . 25.57 24.67 25.43 27.38 30.24 31.49 32.26 1.0%

 Other Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.01 165.12 166.34 183.70 208.58 229.34 249.04 1.6%

 Discrepancy2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.85 3.79 -0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -28.5%

 Total Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229.24 1166.35 1092.49 1112.42 1160.21 1195.73 1228.32 0.2%

Commercial

 Space Heating3 ......................... 127.32 128.25 128.76 130.33 130.33 130.73 130.54 0.1%

 Space Cooling3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.96 85.70 88.59 91.17 95.98 99.38 103.41 0.7%

 Water Heating3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.12 41.58 44.00 46.26 48.12 49.69 50.80 0.8%

 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.45 89.19 91.42 98.49 106.96 112.72 118.04 1.1%

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16 13.28 14.38 15.09 15.71 16.30 16.87 0.9%

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.26 182.85 171.08 179.04 190.65 198.63 206.01 0.5%

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.47 70.56 59.86 58.46 60.25 61.96 64.22 -0.4%

 Office Equipment (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.33 38.12 30.95 31.31 32.55 34.14 34.85 -0.3%

 Office Equipment (non-PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.27 44.13 51.94 60.16 67.37 73.13 77.41 2.2%

 Other Uses4 ............................ 350.35 324.36 342.43 377.83 422.03 464.68 511.60 1.8%

 Total Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073.69 1018.02 1023.40 1088.13 1169.96 1241.34 1313.74 1.0%

Industrial

 Manufacturing

 Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Food Products ........................ 260.03 258.29 288.28 290.06 314.11 356.19 405.68 1.8%

 Paper Products ........................ 107.09 102.49 105.47 110.03 116.18 119.76 122.70 0.7%

 Bulk Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 89.65 95.56 93.28 90.78 87.05 82.98 -0.3%

 Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.56 263.03 296.76 296.24 290.00 269.58 250.33 -0.2%

 Cement Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.31 20.02 22.83 24.06 25.94 26.14 26.04 1.0%

 Iron and Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.59 28.55 32.98 33.48 33.83 32.75 30.04 0.2%

 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118.67 75.90 107.58 110.31 107.52 99.37 91.23 0.7%

 Fabricated Metal Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.20 30.82 29.30 28.22 26.72 24.94 23.17 -1.1%

 Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.03 38.34 45.61 45.86 47.05 45.89 45.03 0.6%

 Computers and Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.22 22.37 28.08 29.54 31.97 31.88 32.02 1.4%

 Transportation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.33 32.51 39.99 42.57 45.67 47.67 48.93 1.6%

 Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.05 45.41 63.50 59.55 59.07 61.20 63.60 1.3%

 Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.42 7.45 9.31 9.15 9.90 10.16 10.49 1.3%

 Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.15 17.64 23.03 22.59 21.92 20.77 19.55 0.4%

 Balance of Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.80 37.75 41.50 42.12 42.41 41.02 40.40 0.3%

 Total Manufacturing ................... 159.81 143.04 152.19 156.28 153.93 150.44 146.27 0.1%

 Nonmanufacturing 1349.26 1213.26 1381.97 1393.31 1416.98 1424.82 1438.46 0.7%

 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.78 74.57 74.55 74.39 74.88 74.74 74.38 -0.0%

 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.04 78.52 96.81 97.43 96.54 94.14 93.58 0.7%

 Total Nonmanufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.28 49.39 50.85 50.28 50.19 50.26 50.44 0.1%

 Discrepancy2 ........................... 227.10 202.47 222.21 222.09 221.61 219.13 218.40 0.3%

 Total Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.41 -28.42 39.28 35.75 29.52 29.47 31.76 - -

1597.78 1387.31 1643.46 1651.16 1668.11 1673.42 1688.61 0.8%
152 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A19. Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions by end use (continued)

(million metric tons)

38 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A19. Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by End Use (Continued)

(Million Metric Tons)

Sector and Source

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Transportation

 Light-Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100.28 1072.82 1070.91 1040.63 1023.05 1045.89 1094.14 0.1%

 Commercial Light Trucks5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.05 40.28 45.08 44.73 45.06 46.60 48.85 0.7%

 Bus Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.85 18.92 18.92 18.94 18.98 19.08 19.28 0.1%

 Freight Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339.28 306.68 362.87 383.43 402.21 423.36 446.65 1.5%

			Rail,	Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19 5.96 6.15 6.49 6.93 7.25 7.55 0.9%

			Rail,	Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.80 37.09 40.84 43.41 45.53 47.72 49.09 1.1%

			Shipping,	Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11 15.14 15.85 16.32 16.55 16.95 17.35 0.5%

			Shipping,	International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.20 60.78 61.39 61.78 62.14 62.52 62.90 0.1%

 Recreational Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.54 17.86 18.30 18.65 19.21 19.80 20.47 0.5%

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.53 188.34 191.86 201.45 209.37 214.62 217.94 0.6%

 Military Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.75 53.27 48.79 49.61 50.96 52.34 53.69 0.0%

 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20 4.75 4.58 4.64 4.72 4.81 4.88 0.1%

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.31 34.65 35.34 34.73 34.02 34.63 35.42 0.1%

 Discrepancy2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.74 -2.69 -0.35 0.20 0.79 1.39 1.96 - -

 Total Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937.33 1853.85 1920.52 1924.99 1939.51 1996.96 2080.16 0.4%

Biogenic Energy Combustion6

 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196.75 174.96 227.61 256.86 262.92 255.30 256.31 1.5%

 Biogenic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.26 8.27 8.27 8.27 8.27 8.27 8.27 0.0%

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.62 61.59 79.61 111.90 178.58 218.60 236.59 5.3%

 Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.60 64.87 91.11 116.47 141.63 154.48 161.98 3.6%

 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.93 3.07 10.88 14.41 17.46 17.96 18.18 7.1%

 Liquids from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 1.51 6.33 28.66 65.12 80.22 - -

 Renewable Diesel and Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.90 1.01 1.12 1.12 1.11 - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.17 312.75 419.88 515.25 638.65 720.84 762.66 3.5%

1

Does not include water heating portion of load.

2

Represents differences between total emissions by end-use and total emissions by fuel as reported in Table A18. Emissions by fuel may reflect benchmarking and

other modeling adjustments to energy use and the associated emissions that are not assigned to specific end uses. 3

Includes emissions related to fuel consumption for district services.

4

Includes	miscellaneous	uses,	such	as	service	station	equipment,	automated	teller	machines,	telecommunications	equipment,	medical	equipment,	pumps,	emergency

generators,	combined	heat	and	power	in	commercial	buildings,	manufacturing	performed	in	commercial	buildings,	and	cooking	(distillate),	plus	emissions	from	residual

fuel	oil,	liquefied	petroleum	gases,	coal,	motor	gasoline,	and	kerosene. 5

Commercial	trucks	8,500	to	10,000	pounds.

6

By	convention,	the	direct	emissions	from	biogenic	energy	sources	are	excluded	from	energy-related	CO2 emissions. The release of carbon from these sources is

assumed	to	be	balanced	by	the	uptake	of	carbon	when	the	feedstock	is	grown,	resulting	in	zero	net	emissions	over	some	period	of	time.		If,	however,	increased	use

of	biomass	energy	results	in	a	decline	in	terrestrial	carbon	stocks,	a	net	positive	release	of	carbon	may	occur.		Accordingly,	the emissions from biogenic energy sources

are reported here as an indication of the potential net release of carbon dioxide in the absence of offsetting sequestration.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources:		2008	and	2009	emissions	and	emission	factors:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009,

DOE/EIA-0573(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	December	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 153

Reference case

Table A20. Macroeconomic indicators

(billion 2005 chain-weighted dollars, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 39

Table A20. Macroeconomic Indicators

(Billion	2005	Chain-Weighted	Dollars,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Indicators

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Real Gross Domestic Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13229 12881 15336 17421 20020 22731 25692 2.7%

Components of Real Gross Domestic Product

 Real Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9265 9154 10443 11669 13280 15046 16976 2.4%

 Real Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957 1516 2592 2992 3548 4128 4849 4.6%

 Real Government Spending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2503 2543 2555 2664 2796 2934 3069 0.7%

 Real Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648 1491 2437 3382 4485 5761 7334 6.3%

 Real Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2152 1854 2624 3153 3840 4730 5902 4.6%

Energy Intensity

 (thousand Btu per 2005 dollar of GDP)

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.49 5.33 4.91 4.42 3.94 3.57 3.25 -1.9%

 Total Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.57 7.36 6.65 6.02 5.39 4.88 4.44 -1.9%

Price Indices

 GDP Chain-type Price Index (2005=1.000) . . . . 1.086 1.096 1.197 1.324 1.450 1.589 1.749 1.8%

 Consumer Price Index (1982-4=1.00)

 All-urban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 2.15 2.39 2.69 2.97 3.29 3.66 2.1%

 Energy Commodities and Services . . . . . . . . . 2.36 1.93 2.44 2.86 3.25 3.64 4.10 2.9%

 Wholesale Price Index (1982=1.00)

 All Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90 1.73 2.00 2.19 2.38 2.54 2.74 1.8%

 Fuel and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14 1.59 2.05 2.43 2.84 3.22 3.68 3.3%

 Metals and Metal Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 1.87 2.48 2.68 2.77 2.83 2.87 1.7%

 Industrial Commodities excluding Energy . . . . 1.81 1.76 2.00 2.14 2.25 2.34 2.43 1.2%

Interest Rates (percent, nominal)

 Federal Funds Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93 0.16 5.15 4.96 4.86 4.94 5.04 - -

 10-Year Treasury Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.67 3.26 5.76 5.88 5.78 5.76 5.89 - -

 AA Utility Bond Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19 5.75 7.41 7.69 7.69 7.73 7.93 - -

Value of Shipments (billion 2005 dollars)

 Service Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20737 19555 23155 25591 28648 31685 34664 2.2%

 Total Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6720 6017 7472 7951 8396 8826 9292 1.7%

 Nonmanufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039 1821 2193 2308 2381 2433 2521 1.3%

 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4680 4197 5279 5643 6016 6393 6770 1.9%

 Energy-Intensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635 1551 1792 1875 1940 1977 2015 1.0%

 Non-energy Intensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3046 2646 3487 3768 4075 4416 4756 2.3%

Total Shipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27456 25573 30627 33542 37044 40510 43956 2.1%

Population and Employment (millions)

			Population,	with	Armed	Forces	Overseas ..... 305.2 307.8 326.2 342.0 358.1 374.1 390.1 0.9%

			Population,	aged	16	and	over .............. 239.4 241.8 256.5 269.4 282.6 296.2 309.6 1.0%

			Population,	over	age	65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.9 39.7 47.1 55.1 64.2 72.3 77.7 2.6%

			Employment,	Nonfarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136.7 130.9 142.2 148.7 156.2 164.2 170.8 1.0%

			Employment,	Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 11.9 17.4 17.1 15.8 14.3 13.1 0.4%

Key Labor Indicators

 Labor Force (millions) .................... 154.3 154.2 160.7 166.2 170.6 175.8 182.6 0.7%

 Nonfarm Labor Productivity (1992=1.00) . . . . . . 1.04 1.07 1.18 1.31 1.47 1.62 1.79 2.0%

 Unemployment Rate (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.82 9.27 6.87 5.47 4.98 4.94 5.20 - -

Key Indicators for Energy Demand

 Real Disposable Personal Income . . . . . . . . . . 10043 10100 11533 13181 15118 17123 19224 2.5%

 Housing Starts (millions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.60 1.85 1.90 1.93 1.83 1.74 4.2%

 Commercial Floorspace (billion square feet) . . . 78.8 80.2 85.4 91.5 97.4 103.5 109.8 1.2%

 Unit Sales of Light-Duty Vehicles (millions) . . . . 13.19 10.40 17.03 16.81 18.24 19.64 20.64 2.7%

GDP = Gross domestic product.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Sources:		2008	and	2009:	IHS	Global	Insight	Industry	and	Employment	models,	September	2010.		Projections:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011

National Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A.
154 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Reference case

Table A21. International liquids supply and disposition summary

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

40 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table A21. International Liquids Supply and Disposition Summary

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Crude Oil Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)1

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil .......... 100.51 61.66 94.58 108.10 117.54 123.09 124.94 2.8%

 Imported Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.44 59.04 86.83 98.65 107.40 112.38 113.70 2.6%

Crude Oil Prices (nominal dollars per barrel)1

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . 99.57 61.66 103.24 130.60 155.46 178.45 199.37 4.6%

 Imported Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.57 59.04 94.78 119.18 142.05 162.92 181.43 4.4%

Conventional Production (Conventional)2

 OPEC3

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.24 22.61 25.66 26.96 28.64 30.93 33.87 1.6%

 North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.05 3.92 4.32 3.96 3.84 3.85 3.98 0.1%

 West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18 4.06 5.10 5.18 5.10 5.10 5.31 1.0%

 South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 2.31 2.00 1.80 1.73 1.65 1.64 -1.3%

 Total OPEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.98 32.91 37.08 37.91 39.32 41.53 44.80 1.2%

 Non-OPEC

 OECD

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.71 8.26 9.30 9.79 9.78 9.70 9.89 0.7%

 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.84 1.96 1.80 1.78 1.78 1.79 1.78 -0.4%

 Mexico and Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19 2.90 2.05 1.52 1.22 1.30 1.48 -2.6%

 OECD Europe4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.96 4.62 3.36 2.83 2.67 2.62 2.66 -2.1%

									Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.6%

 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.65 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.54 -0.8%

 Total OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.48 18.52 17.20 16.58 16.13 16.08 16.49 -0.4%

 Non-OECD

 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.79 9.66 10.02 10.34 10.86 11.64 12.64 1.0%

 Other Europe and Eurasia5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.88 3.08 3.54 3.72 3.97 4.22 4.47 1.4%

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.97 3.93 3.80 3.81 4.02 4.22 4.22 0.3%

 Other Asia6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.75 3.70 3.47 3.17 2.99 2.87 2.85 -1.0%

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 1.54 1.57 1.40 1.24 1.14 1.10 -1.3%

 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.39 2.34 2.71 2.76 2.85 2.96 3.16 1.2%

 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.95 2.05 2.76 3.34 3.87 4.38 4.93 3.4%

 Other Central and South America . . . . . . . . . 1.82 1.87 2.10 2.10 2.24 2.49 2.59 1.3%

 Total Non-OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.09 28.17 29.96 30.64 32.03 33.92 35.95 0.9%

Total Conventional Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.55 79.60 84.24 85.14 87.47 91.53 97.24 0.8%

Unconventional Production7

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.75 1.11 1.41 1.94 2.47 2.90 5.3%

 Other North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 1.68 2.39 2.93 3.57 4.35 5.27 4.5%

 OECD Europe4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.28 1.0%

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.17 0.21 0.24 0.24 0.24 14.0%

 Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.21 0.28 0.37 0.39 0.44 0.44 2.9%

 Central and South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.18 1.14 1.78 2.31 2.61 2.90 3.17 4.0%

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.12 0.17 0.30 0.64 0.98 1.22 9.4%

 Total Unconventional Production . . . . . . . . . 3.91 4.14 6.13 7.77 9.66 11.65 13.54 4.7%

Total Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.45 83.74 90.37 92.91 97.13 103.18 110.78 1.1%
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 155

Reference case

Table A21. International liquids supply and disposition summary (continued)

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 41

Table A21. International Liquids Supply and Disposition Summary (Continued)

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition

Reference Case Annual

Growth

2009-2035

2008 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 (percent)

Consumption8

 OECD

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.52 18.81 20.44 20.68 20.99 21.36 21.93 0.6%

 United States Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.28 0.27 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.7%

 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24 2.15 2.24 2.14 2.14 2.18 2.24 0.2%

 Mexico and Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21 2.13 2.17 2.19 2.30 2.46 2.63 0.8%

 OECD Europe4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.36 14.49 13.55 13.03 12.82 12.85 12.95 -0.4%

						Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.79 4.37 4.18 4.07 3.98 3.91 3.88 -0.5%

 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.35 2.32 2.44 2.49 2.63 2.85 3.13 1.1%

 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14 1.19 1.18 1.14 1.13 1.14 1.17 -0.1%

 Total OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47.89 45.73 46.50 46.03 46.29 47.07 48.25 0.2%

 Non-OECD

 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91 2.83 2.90 2.75 2.66 2.66 2.78 -0.1%

 Other Europe and Eurasia5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.23 2.16 2.25 2.20 2.25 2.35 2.48 0.5%

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.83 8.32 11.10 12.60 14.36 16.55 19.13 3.3%

 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.97 3.06 3.68 4.13 4.54 5.05 5.64 2.4%

 Other Non-OECD Asia6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.35 6.13 6.72 7.27 7.98 8.77 9.75 1.8%

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.55 6.64 7.47 8.06 8.76 9.76 11.02 2.0%

 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15 3.31 3.50 3.56 3.76 4.07 4.45 1.2%

 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.49 2.46 2.82 3.00 3.20 3.49 3.79 1.7%

 Other Central and South America . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 3.09 3.41 3.32 3.33 3.41 3.51 0.5%

 Total Non-OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.59 38.01 43.87 46.88 50.84 56.11 62.54 1.9%

Total Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.48 83.74 90.37 92.91 97.13 103.19 110.79 1.1%

OPEC Production9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.63 33.45 38.08 39.23 40.77 43.10 46.50 1.3%

Non-OPEC Production9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.82 50.29 52.30 53.68 56.37 60.08 64.28 0.9%

Net Eurasia Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.48 9.80 11.16 12.45 13.80 15.22 16.78 2.1%

OPEC Market Share (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.7 39.9 42.1 42.2 42.0 41.8 42.0 - -

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes	production	of	crude	oil	(including	lease	condensate),	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	hydrogen	and	hydrocarbons	for	refinery	feedstocks,	alcohol	and	other

sources,	and	refinery	gains. 3

OPEC	=	Organization	of	Petroleum	Exporting	Countries	-	Algeria,	Angola,	Ecuador,	Iran,	Iraq,	Kuwait,	Libya,	Nigeria,	Qatar,	Saudi	Arabia,	the	United	Arab	Emirates,

and Venezuela. 4

OECD Europe = Organization	for	Economic	Cooperation	and	Development	-	Austria,	Belgium,	Czech	Republic,	Denmark,	Finland,	France,	Germany,	Greece,

Hungary,	Iceland,	Ireland,	Italy,	Luxembourg,	the	Netherlands,	Norway,	Poland,	Portugal,	Slovakia,	Slovenia,	Spain,	Sweden,	Switzerland,	Turkey,	and	the	United

Kingdom. 5

Other	Europe	and	Eurasia	=	Albania,	Armenia,	Azerbaijan,	Belarus,	Bosnia	and	Herzegovina,	Bulgaria,	Croatia,	Estonia,	Georgia,	Kazakhstan,	Kyrgyzstan,	Latvia,

Lithuania,	Macedonia,	Malta,	Moldova,	Montenegro,	Romania,	Serbia,	Tajikistan,	Turkmenistan,	Ukraine,	and	Uzbekistan. 6

Other	Asia	=	Afghanistan,	Bangladesh,	Bhutan,	Brunei,	Cambodia	(Kampuchea),	Fiji,	French	Polynesia,	Guam,	Hong	Kong,	Indonesia,	Kiribati,	Laos,	Malaysia,

Macau,	Maldives,	Mongolia,	Myanmar	(Burma),	Nauru,	Nepal,	New	Caledonia,	Niue,	North	Korea,	Pakistan,	Papua	New	Guinea,	Philippines,	Samoa,	Singapore,

Solomon	Islands,	Sri	Lanka,	Taiwan,	Thailand,	Tonga,	Vanuatu,	and	Vietnam. 7

Includes	liquids	produced	from	energy	crops,	natural	gas,	coal,	extra-heavy	oil,	oil	sands,	and	shale.		Includes	both	OPEC	and	non-OPEC producers in the regional

breakdown. 8

Includes both OPEC and non-OPEC consumers in the regional breakdown.

9

Includes both conventional and unconventional liquids production.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2008 and 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA

data reports.

Sources: 2008 and 2009 low sulfur light crude oil price: U.S. Energy Information	Administration	(EIA),	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign Crude Oil Acquisition Report.”

2008	and	2009	imported	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2008	quantities	derived	from:		EIA,

International Energy Statistics database as of November 2009. 2009 quantities and projections:	 	 EIA,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System	 run

REF2011.D020911A	and	EIA,	Generate	World	Oil	Balance	Model.
This page intentionally left blank
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 157

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 1

Table B1. Total Energy Supply, Disposition, and Price Summary

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Production

 Crude Oil and Lease Condensate . . . . . . . . . . 11.34 12.53 12.51 12.55 12.44 12.64 12.62 12.13 12.80 12.87

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.57 2.79 2.86 2.89 3.39 3.55 3.70 3.59 3.92 4.11

 Dry Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.50 22.50 23.01 23.30 23.58 24.60 25.54 24.92 27.00 30.16

 Coal1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.58 20.87 20.94 21.35 22.73 23.64 25.07 24.57 26.01 27.02

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.02 9.17 9.17 8.99 9.14 9.14

 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.69 2.92 2.92 2.93 3.00 3.04 3.06 3.03 3.09 3.10

 Biomass2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.52 4.67 4.70 4.79 6.99 7.20 7.40 8.28 8.63 9.58

 Other Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.29 2.03 2.14 2.18 2.36 2.58 2.74 2.79 3.22 3.46

 Other4 ............................... 0.34 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.81 0.88 0.88 0.77 0.78 0.88

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.18 77.87 78.63 79.51 84.32 87.29 90.17 89.07 94.59 100.33

Imports

 Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.70 18.75 19.25 19.84 17.24 18.35 19.70 16.92 18.44 20.43

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum5 . . . . . . . . . 5.40 5.21 5.33 5.52 4.87 5.18 5.65 4.78 5.33 6.22

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.82 3.97 4.01 4.09 3.10 3.20 3.33 2.79 2.87 2.79

 Other Imports6 ......................... 0.61 0.82 0.82 0.83 1.04 1.39 1.40 1.14 1.27 1.25

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.53 28.75 29.41 30.28 26.25 28.13 30.09 25.63 27.92 30.69

Exports

 Petroleum7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17 3.26 3.27 3.29 3.55 3.62 3.70 3.79 3.92 4.05

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.09 1.25 1.24 1.23 2.12 2.07 2.03 2.74 2.64 2.55

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.51 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.89 1.89 1.89 1.79 1.78 1.77

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.77 6.26 6.27 6.28 7.56 7.58 7.62 8.32 8.34 8.37

Discrepancy8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 -0.23 -0.24 -0.29 -0.13 -0.12 -0.18 0.03 -0.02 0.01

Consumption

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum9 . . . . . . . . . 36.62 38.46 39.10 39.94 37.91 39.84 41.96 38.41 41.70 45.43

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.31 25.21 25.77 26.14 24.55 25.73 26.84 24.97 27.24 30.41

 Coal10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.69 19.65 19.73 20.16 21.47 22.61 23.91 22.92 24.30 25.12

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.02 9.17 9.17 8.99 9.14 9.14

 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.69 2.92 2.92 2.93 3.00 3.04 3.06 3.03 3.09 3.10

 Biomass11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.52 3.24 3.27 3.35 4.57 4.71 4.86 5.00 5.25 5.73

 Other Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.29 2.03 2.14 2.18 2.36 2.58 2.74 2.79 3.22 3.46

 Other12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.24 0.25 0.25

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 100.59 102.02 103.79 103.15 107.95 112.82 106.35 114.19 122.64

Prices (2009 dollars per unit)

 Petroleum (dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price13 61.66 93.59 94.58 95.66 115.30 117.54 120.09 122.17 124.94 128.52

 Imported Crude Oil Price13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 86.00 86.83 88.20 104.56 107.40 110.70 110.20 113.70 118.34

 Natural Gas (dollars per million Btu)

 Price at Henry Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 4.52 4.66 4.84 5.59 5.97 6.50 6.29 7.07 7.50

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.62 4.00 4.13 4.29 4.95 5.29 5.76 5.57 6.26 6.64

 Natural Gas (dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.71 4.11 4.24 4.40 5.07 5.43 5.91 5.71 6.42 6.81

 Coal (dollars per ton)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26 32.25 32.36 32.87 32.95 33.22 34.20 33.12 33.92 34.82

 Coal (dollars per million Btu)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.67 1.61 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68 1.73 1.69 1.73 1.77

 Average Delivered Price16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.31 2.25 2.26 2.30 2.32 2.36 2.42 2.39 2.47 2.52

 Average Electricity Price

 (cents per kilowatthour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 8.8 8.9 9.0 8.6 8.9 9.3 8.7 9.2 9.6

Appendix B

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B1. Total energy supply, disposition, and price summary

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)
158 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B1. Total energy supply, disposition, and price summary (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

2 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table B1. Total Energy Supply and Disposition Summary (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Prices (nominal dollars per unit)

 Petroleum (dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price13 61.66 104.03 103.24 101.79 165.41 155.46 144.96 220.15 199.37 178.52

 Imported Crude Oil Price13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 95.59 94.78 93.85 149.99 142.05 133.62 198.58 181.43 164.38

 Natural Gas (dollars per million Btu)

 Price at Henry Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 5.02 5.09 5.15 8.01 7.90 7.85 11.33 11.28 10.41

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.62 4.45 4.51 4.56 7.10 6.99 6.95 10.03 9.99 9.22

 Natural Gas (dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.71 4.56 4.63 4.68 7.28 7.18 7.13 10.30 10.24 9.46

 Coal (dollars per ton)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26 35.85 35.32 34.98 47.27 43.93 41.29 59.67 54.13 48.37

 Coal (dollars per million Btu)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.67 1.79 1.77 1.75 2.38 2.22 2.09 3.04 2.76 2.46

 Average Delivered Price16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.31 2.50 2.47 2.44 3.33 3.12 2.93 4.30 3.95 3.50

 Average Electricity Price

 (cents per kilowatthour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.6 12.4 11.8 11.2 15.7 14.7 13.3

1

Includes waste coal.

2

Includes	grid-connected	electricity	from	wood	and	wood	waste;	biomass,	such	as	corn,	used	for	liquid	fuels	production;	and	non-electric energy demand from wood. Refer

to Table A17 for details. 3

Includes grid-connected electricity from landfill gas; biogenic municipal waste; wind; photovoltaic and solar thermal sources; and non-electric energy from renewable

sources,	such	as	active	and	passive	solar	systems.		Excludes	electricity	imports	using	renewable	sources	and	nonmarketed	renewable energy. See Table A17 for selected

nonmarketed residential and commercial renewable energy. 4

Includes	non-biogenic	municipal	waste,	liquid	hydrogen,	methanol,	and	some	domestic	inputs	to	refineries.

5

Includes	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	alcohols,	ethers,	blending	components,	and	renewable	fuels	such as ethanol. 6

Includes	coal,	coal	coke	(net),	and	electricity	(net).

7

Includes crude oil and petroleum products.

8

Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses,	gains,	and	net	storage	withdrawals.

9

Includes	petroleum-derived	fuels	and	non-petroleum	derived	fuels,	such	as	ethanol	and	biodiesel,	and	coal-based	synthetic	liquids.		Petroleum	coke,	which	is	a	solid,	is

included. Also included are natural gas plant liquids and crude oil consumed as a fuel. Refer to Table A17 for detailed renewable liquid fuels consumption. 10Excludes coal converted to coal-based synthetic liquids and natural gas.

11Includes	grid-connected	electricity	from	wood	and	wood	waste,	non-electric	energy	from	wood,	and	biofuels	heat	and	coproducts	used	in	the	production	of	liquid	fuels,	but

excludes the energy content of the liquid fuels. 12Includes non-biogenic municipal waste and net electricity imports.

13Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

14Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

15Includes reported prices for both open market and captive mines.

16Prices	weighted	by	consumption;	weighted	average	excludes	residential	and	commercial	prices,	and	export	free-alongside-ship	(f.a.s.) prices.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	natural	gas	supply	values	and	natural	gas	wellhead	price:	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)

(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	coal	minemouth	and	delivered	coal	prices:		EIA,	Annual Coal Report 2009,	DOE/EIA-0584(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	October	2010).		2009

petroleum	supply	values:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,

“Monthly Foreign Crude Oil Acquisition Report.” Other 2009 coal values: Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April

2010).		Other	2009	values:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling

System	runs	LM2011.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HM2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 159

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B2. Energy consumption by sector and source

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 3

Table B2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Energy Consumption

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.53 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.48 0.46 0.48 0.50

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.36 0.37 0.37

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 1.16 1.07 1.07 1.07 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.84 0.86 0.89

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.87 4.92 4.94 4.96 4.84 4.96 5.09 4.64 4.90 5.19

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Renewable Energy1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.43 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.44 0.40 0.42 0.45

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65 4.55 4.60 4.65 4.78 4.98 5.18 5.09 5.51 5.93

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 10.95 11.02 11.10 10.97 11.32 11.66 10.98 11.70 12.47

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.96 9.39 9.46 9.55 9.87 10.24 10.57 10.38 11.06 11.61

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.08 20.33 20.48 20.65 20.83 21.56 22.22 21.36 22.76 24.08

 Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.24 0.25 0.25

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.53 0.53 0.54 0.52 0.53 0.54

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.45 3.47 3.48 3.59 3.66 3.70 3.82 3.92 4.05

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

 Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51 4.80 4.83 4.87 5.41 5.58 5.74 6.16 6.43 6.74

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.49 8.97 9.02 9.07 9.70 9.94 10.15 10.68 11.05 11.50

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.66 9.89 9.94 10.01 11.16 11.47 11.73 12.57 12.93 13.20

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.15 18.86 18.96 19.07 20.87 21.41 21.88 23.25 23.98 24.70

 Industrial4

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.01 2.35 2.36 2.39 2.26 2.38 2.48 1.99 2.18 2.35

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.29 0.32 0.36

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 1.09 1.16 1.23 1.05 1.16 1.27 0.99 1.13 1.28

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.14 0.16 0.17

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.27 1.34 1.39 1.15 1.26 1.35

 Other Petroleum5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45 3.82 3.97 4.16 3.48 3.79 4.11 3.44 3.88 4.35

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 7.94 9.03 9.29 9.60 8.53 9.16 9.79 8.00 8.94 9.86

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.31 8.11 8.27 8.48 7.88 8.32 8.81 7.55 8.23 9.01

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.18 1.22 1.26 1.18 1.28 1.44

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.50 9.32 9.51 9.72 9.06 9.54 10.06 8.73 9.51 10.45

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.56 0.58 0.62 0.48 0.55 0.63 0.38 0.47 0.58

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.94 0.97 0.98 1.00 0.94 0.97 1.01 0.90 0.94 0.98

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.28 0.40 0.56 0.97 1.19 1.37

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 -0.00 0.00 0.01 -0.01 -0.00 0.01

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.32 1.63 1.67 1.73 1.70 1.93 2.21 2.23 2.60 2.95

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.84 0.85 0.86 1.86 1.90 1.93 2.45 2.52 2.80

 Renewable Energy7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.42 1.86 1.89 1.94 1.95 2.05 2.15 1.89 2.04 2.19

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.01 3.45 3.54 3.65 3.27 3.52 3.75 2.92 3.28 3.64

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.85 26.13 26.75 27.49 26.37 28.11 29.90 26.22 28.89 31.88

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.44 7.11 7.28 7.49 6.75 7.23 7.66 5.96 6.59 7.13

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.29 33.24 34.03 34.97 33.12 35.33 37.56 32.18 35.49 39.01
160 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B2. Energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

4 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table B2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.99 0.93 0.87 1.23 1.23 1.01

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.82 16.84 17.02 17.28 15.19 15.93 16.77 15.33 16.69 18.43

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.17 3.20 3.24 3.34 3.47 3.62 3.37 3.62 3.89

 Distillate Fuel Oil10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.54 6.39 6.57 6.79 6.98 7.45 7.98 7.66 8.35 9.29

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.83

 Other Petroleum11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 26.52 27.38 27.76 28.29 27.48 28.76 30.23 28.57 30.89 33.64

 Pipeline Fuel Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.62 0.67 0.78

 Compressed Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.18

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.08

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.10 28.50 29.03 28.23 29.56 31.05 29.42 31.80 34.69

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.14 0.15 0.16

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.28 28.16 28.56 29.09 28.32 29.65 31.15 29.56 31.95 34.85

 Delivered Energy Consumption for All

 Sectors

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.71 3.00 3.02 3.04 2.89 3.03 3.14 2.62 2.84 3.04

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.99 0.93 0.87 1.23 1.23 1.01

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11 17.21 17.39 17.67 15.54 16.31 17.17 15.66 17.06 18.84

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.17 3.20 3.24 3.34 3.47 3.62 3.37 3.62 3.89

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.65 8.33 8.57 8.86 8.73 9.31 9.95 9.25 10.10 11.19

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.03 1.04 1.06 1.02 1.05 1.07

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.27 1.34 1.39 1.15 1.26 1.35

 Other Petroleum12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 3.97 4.13 4.31 3.64 3.94 4.27 3.59 4.04 4.51

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 36.23 38.03 38.67 39.50 37.45 39.39 41.50 37.94 41.22 44.93

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.41 16.52 16.72 16.96 16.41 17.05 17.71 16.16 17.22 18.44

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.18 1.22 1.26 1.18 1.28 1.44

 Pipeline Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.62 0.67 0.78

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.25 18.39 18.62 18.89 18.20 18.91 19.63 17.96 19.17 20.66

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.56 0.58 0.62 0.48 0.55 0.63 0.38 0.47 0.58

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.01 1.04 1.08 0.97 1.01 1.05

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.28 0.40 0.56 0.97 1.19 1.37

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 -0.00 0.00 0.01 -0.01 -0.00 0.01

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39 1.69 1.74 1.80 1.76 2.00 2.28 2.30 2.66 3.01

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.84 0.85 0.86 1.86 1.90 1.93 2.45 2.52 2.80

 Renewable Energy13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.96 2.37 2.41 2.46 2.48 2.59 2.70 2.40 2.58 2.74

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.20 12.83 13.00 13.19 13.51 14.13 14.72 14.25 15.29 16.40

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.68 74.15 75.29 76.69 75.27 78.92 82.77 77.30 83.45 90.55

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11 26.44 26.73 27.10 27.87 29.03 30.05 29.05 30.74 32.09

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 100.59 102.02 103.79 103.15 107.95 112.82 106.35 114.19 122.64

 Electric Power14

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.12

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.38

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 0.40 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.46 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.50

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.06 6.82 7.15 7.25 6.35 6.82 7.21 7.01 8.07 9.75

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.30 17.96 17.99 18.37 19.71 20.61 21.63 20.62 21.64 22.11

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.02 9.17 9.17 8.99 9.14 9.14

 Renewable Energy15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.89 4.98 5.08 5.15 5.59 5.84 6.02 5.98 6.47 6.74

 Electricity Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.05

 Total16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.31 39.27 39.73 40.29 41.39 43.17 44.77 43.29 46.03 48.49
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 161

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B2. Energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 5

Table B2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

 Total Energy Consumption

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.71 3.00 3.02 3.04 2.89 3.03 3.14 2.62 2.84 3.04

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.99 0.93 0.87 1.23 1.23 1.01

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11 17.21 17.39 17.67 15.54 16.31 17.17 15.66 17.06 18.84

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.17 3.20 3.24 3.34 3.47 3.62 3.37 3.62 3.89

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.75 8.42 8.66 8.95 8.83 9.40 10.05 9.36 10.20 11.31

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.32 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.38 1.40 1.42 1.39 1.41 1.45

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.27 1.34 1.39 1.15 1.26 1.35

 Other Petroleum12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 3.97 4.13 4.31 3.64 3.94 4.27 3.59 4.04 4.51

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 36.62 38.46 39.10 39.94 37.91 39.84 41.96 38.41 41.70 45.43

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.47 23.34 23.87 24.21 22.76 23.87 24.92 23.17 25.29 28.19

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.18 1.22 1.26 1.18 1.28 1.44

 Pipeline Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.62 0.67 0.78

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.31 25.21 25.77 26.14 24.55 25.73 26.84 24.97 27.24 30.41

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.56 0.58 0.62 0.48 0.55 0.63 0.38 0.47 0.58

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.31 18.99 19.04 19.43 20.72 21.65 22.70 21.59 22.64 23.16

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.28 0.40 0.56 0.97 1.19 1.37

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 -0.00 0.00 0.01 -0.01 -0.00 0.01

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.69 19.65 19.73 20.16 21.47 22.61 23.91 22.92 24.30 25.12

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.02 9.17 9.17 8.99 9.14 9.14

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.84 0.85 0.86 1.86 1.90 1.93 2.45 2.52 2.80

 Renewable Energy17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.85 7.35 7.49 7.60 8.06 8.43 8.72 8.38 9.04 9.49

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.05

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 100.59 102.02 103.79 103.15 107.95 112.82 106.35 114.19 122.64

Energy Use and Related Statistics

 Delivered Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.68 74.15 75.29 76.69 75.27 78.92 82.77 77.30 83.45 90.55

 Total Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 100.59 102.02 103.79 103.15 107.95 112.82 106.35 114.19 122.64

 Ethanol Consumed in Motor Gasoline and E85 0.95 1.32 1.33 1.35 2.04 2.07 2.11 2.24 2.37 2.40

 Population (millions) ..................... 307.84 324.28 326.16 330.09 343.66 358.06 374.90 359.21 390.09 422.90

 Gross Domestic Product (billion 2005 dollars) 12881 14820 15336 15941 18388 20020 21728 22163 25692 29231

 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (million metric tons) 5425.5 5605.0 5679.9 5789.0 5652.0 5937.8 6248.7 5863.8 6310.8 6794.9

1

Includes wood used for residential heating. See Table A4 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	solar

thermal	hot	water	heating,	and	electricity	generation	from	wind	and	solar	photovoltaic	sources. 2

Includes ethanol (blends of 10 percent or less) and ethers blended into gasoline.

3

Excludes	ethanol.		Includes	commercial	sector	consumption	of	wood	and	wood	waste,	landfill	gas,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass for combined heat and power. See

Table A5 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption for solar thermal hot water heating and electricity generation from wind and solar

photovoltaic sources. 4

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 5

Includes	petroleum	coke,	asphalt,	road	oil,	lubricants,	still	gas,	and	miscellaneous	petroleum	products. 6

Represents	natural	gas	used	in	well,	field,	and	lease	operations,	and	in	natural	gas	processing	plant	machinery.

7

Includes	consumption	of	energy	produced	from	hydroelectric,	wood	and	wood	waste,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass	sources.		Excludes ethanol blends (10 percent or

less) in motor gasoline. 8

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 9

Includes only kerosene type.

10Diesel fuel for on- and off- road use.

11Includes aviation gasoline and lubricants.

12Includes	unfinished	oils,	natural	gasoline,	motor	gasoline	blending	components,	aviation	gasoline,	lubricants,	still	gas,	asphalt,	road	oil,	petroleum	coke,	and	miscellaneous

petroleum products. 13Includes	electricity	generated	for	sale	to	the	grid	and	for	own	use	from	renewable	sources,	and	non-electric	energy	from	renewable sources. Excludes ethanol and

nonmarketed	renewable	energy	consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	buildings	photovoltaic	systems,	and	solar	thermal	hot	water heaters. 14Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.	

Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 15Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood	and	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	other	biomass,	wind,	photovoltaic,	and	solar	thermal	sources.		Excludes

net electricity imports. 16Includes non-biogenic municipal waste not included above.

17Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood	and	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	other	biomass,	wind,	photovoltaic,	and	solar	thermal	sources.		Excludes

ethanol,	net	electricity	imports,	and	nonmarketed	renewable	energy	consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	buildings	photovoltaic	systems,	and	solar	thermal	hot	water

heaters.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	consumption	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).	

2009	population	and	gross	domestic	product:	IHS	Global	Insight	Industry	and	Employment	models,	September	2010.		2009	carbon	dioxide	emissions:		EIA,	Emissions of

Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009,	DOE/EIA-0573(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	December	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs

LM2011.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HM2011.D020911A.
162 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Economic growth case comparisons

6 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table B3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source

(2009	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.63 29.63 29.79 30.04 33.37 33.90 34.49 34.42 35.01 35.91

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12 20.81 21.14 21.63 25.42 25.92 27.03 26.28 27.53 28.76

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.88 9.97 10.12 10.31 11.40 11.83 12.42 12.51 13.39 13.83

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.62 31.52 31.80 32.12 30.43 31.20 32.37 30.25 31.67 32.89

Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.49 26.17 26.32 26.58 29.88 30.41 30.98 30.91 31.48 32.35

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.97 18.98 19.28 19.74 23.54 24.02 25.13 24.32 25.52 26.74

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.45 13.09 13.25 13.41 16.79 17.05 17.45 17.81 18.13 18.68

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.68 8.22 8.37 8.56 9.34 9.77 10.34 10.15 10.98 11.41

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.51 26.27 26.67 27.11 25.69 26.65 27.91 25.28 26.99 28.36

Industrial1

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.59 23.14 23.31 23.60 26.97 27.52 28.15 27.90 28.52 29.43

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.56 19.06 19.34 19.80 23.73 24.20 25.31 24.45 25.66 26.91

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.05 14.64 14.80 14.98 17.79 18.19 18.93 18.18 18.73 19.37

 Natural Gas2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.25 4.84 4.96 5.12 5.84 6.17 6.65 6.52 7.21 7.61

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 6.00 6.01 6.07 6.42 6.46 6.50 6.51 6.58 6.65

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.05 2.90 2.91 2.93 2.96 2.99 3.05 3.06 3.14 3.18

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.79 1.79 1.81 1.85 1.78 1.90 1.93 2.05 2.08

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.79 17.35 17.68 18.01 17.33 17.99 18.91 17.46 18.73 19.85

Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.52 30.40 30.56 30.82 34.08 34.62 35.22 35.08 35.66 36.56

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 26.19 26.38 26.53 29.05 29.49 30.71 29.52 30.93 32.31

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28 25.79 25.97 26.12 29.07 29.49 30.71 29.57 30.90 32.12

			Jet	Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 18.70 19.02 19.51 22.97 23.56 24.72 24.05 25.28 26.57

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.79 22.21 22.50 23.00 26.63 27.19 28.45 27.05 28.39 29.82

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.57 12.53 12.65 12.83 15.61 16.02 16.84 16.01 16.44 17.18

 Natural Gas8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.71 11.80 11.97 12.19 12.36 12.84 13.49 12.71 13.57 14.13

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.92 28.84 29.16 29.39 28.19 29.49 31.15 30.07 32.37 34.49

Electric Power9

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 16.55 16.84 17.32 20.73 21.20 22.18 21.71 22.84 24.00

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.96 13.05 13.17 13.35 15.86 16.26 16.98 16.35 16.71 17.31

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 4.51 4.67 4.84 5.36 5.76 6.28 6.02 6.80 7.32

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.10 2.11 2.14 2.20 2.24 2.30 2.32 2.40 2.43

Average Price to All Users10

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.43 21.53 21.67 21.90 24.99 25.43 25.93 26.19 26.62 27.39

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 26.19 26.38 26.53 29.05 29.49 30.71 29.52 30.93 32.31

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.23 25.79 25.97 26.12 29.07 29.49 30.71 29.57 30.90 32.12

			Jet	Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 18.70 19.02 19.51 22.97 23.56 24.72 24.05 25.28 26.57

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.51 21.53 21.83 22.31 26.07 26.61 27.84 26.62 27.93 29.33

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.53 12.94 13.07 13.26 15.98 16.39 17.17 16.41 16.85 17.54

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.28 6.34 6.45 6.61 7.47 7.81 8.30 8.21 8.91 9.24

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 6.00 6.01 6.07 6.42 6.46 6.50 6.51 6.58 6.65

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 2.15 2.16 2.18 2.24 2.28 2.34 2.36 2.43 2.47

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.79 1.79 1.81 1.85 1.78 1.90 1.93 2.05 2.08

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.69 25.74 26.04 26.37 25.35 26.11 27.20 25.47 26.93 28.14

Non-Renewable Energy Expenditures by

 Sector (billion 2009 dollars)

 Residential ............................ 238.63 219.18 223.20 227.80 228.09 242.45 259.97 237.98 267.49 296.15

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.64 166.09 169.68 173.77 185.95 198.28 212.97 208.42 231.11 252.68

 Industrial ............................. 179.22 215.61 224.19 234.84 233.84 258.44 288.83 221.28 261.51 302.29

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.91 649.53 664.86 685.06 722.46 773.10 851.85 761.88 866.49 996.25

 Total Non-Renewable Expenditures ....... 1067.41 1250.40 1281.92 1321.47 1370.34 1472.27 1613.61 1429.57 1626.60 1847.37

 Transportation Renewable Expenditures . . . . 0.06 0.22 0.23 0.24 28.63 27.48 26.58 36.43 37.93 32.69

 Total Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067.47 1250.63 1282.15 1321.71 1398.97 1499.75 1640.20 1466.00 1664.53 1880.05

Table B3. Energy prices by sector and source

(2009 dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 163

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(nominal dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 7

Table B3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.63 32.94 32.51 31.97 47.87 44.84 41.63 62.02 55.86 49.88

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12 23.13 23.07 23.02 36.46 34.28 32.63 47.36 43.93 39.96

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.88 11.09 11.05 10.97 16.36 15.65 14.99 22.54 21.37 19.21

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.62 35.04 34.72 34.18 43.66 41.27 39.07 54.51 50.54 45.69

Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.49 29.09 28.73 28.28 42.87 40.22 37.39 55.70 50.23 44.94

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.97 21.10 21.04 21.01 33.76 31.77 30.33 43.82 40.72 37.15

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.45 14.55 14.47 14.27 24.09 22.55 21.07 32.09 28.93 25.94

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.68 9.14 9.14 9.11 13.40 12.92 12.48 18.29 17.52 15.85

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.51 29.21 29.12 28.85 36.85 35.25 33.69 45.55 43.06 39.39

Industrial1

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.59 25.72 25.45 25.12 38.69 36.40 33.98 50.27 45.52 40.88

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.56 21.19 21.12 21.07 34.05 32.01 30.55 44.06 40.95 37.38

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.05 16.28 16.15 15.94 25.52 24.05 22.85 32.76 29.88 26.90

 Natural Gas2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.25 5.38 5.42 5.45 8.37 8.15 8.03 11.74 11.50 10.57

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 6.66 6.56 6.46 9.20 8.54 7.84 11.73 10.50 9.24

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.05 3.23 3.17 3.12 4.25 3.96 3.68 5.52 5.01 4.41

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.99 1.96 1.93 2.65 2.36 2.29 3.49 3.27 2.90

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.79 19.29 19.30 19.17 24.86 23.79 22.83 31.46 29.88 27.58

Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.52 33.80 33.36 32.80 48.89 45.80 42.51 63.21 56.90 50.79

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 29.12 28.80 28.23 41.68 39.01 37.07 53.20 49.35 44.87

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28 28.66 28.35 27.79 41.70 39.01 37.07 53.28 49.31 44.61

			Jet	Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 20.78 20.76 20.76 32.95 31.16 29.83 43.33 40.35 36.91

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.79 24.68 24.56 24.47 38.20 35.96 34.34 48.75 45.30 41.42

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.57 13.93 13.80 13.65 22.39 21.19 20.33 28.85 26.24 23.86

 Natural Gas8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.71 13.12 13.06 12.97 17.73 16.98 16.29 22.90 21.66 19.63

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.92 32.06 31.83 31.27 40.45 39.01 37.61 54.18 51.66 47.91

Electric Power9

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 18.39 18.38 18.43 29.74 28.04 26.77 39.12 36.45 33.34

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.96 14.50 14.37 14.21 22.76 21.50 20.50 29.46 26.66 24.04

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 5.01 5.10 5.15 7.69 7.62 7.58 10.85 10.86 10.16

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.33 2.31 2.27 3.16 2.96 2.78 4.19 3.83 3.38
164 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(nominal dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

8 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table B3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Average Price to All Users10

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.43 23.93 23.65 23.31 35.85 33.64 31.30 47.19 42.49 38.05

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 29.12 28.80 28.23 41.68 39.01 37.07 53.20 49.35 44.87

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.23 28.66 28.35 27.79 41.70 39.01 37.07 53.28 49.31 44.61

			Jet	Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 20.78 20.76 20.76 32.95 31.16 29.83 43.33 40.35 36.91

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.51 23.94 23.83 23.74 37.40 35.20 33.60 47.96 44.57 40.74

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.53 14.39 14.27 14.11 22.92 21.67 20.73 29.57 26.88 24.36

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.28 7.05 7.04 7.03 10.71 10.33 10.02 14.79 14.21 12.84

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 6.66 6.56 6.46 9.20 8.54 7.84 11.73 10.50 9.24

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 2.39 2.36 2.32 3.22 3.02 2.82 4.25 3.89 3.43

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.99 1.96 1.93 2.65 2.36 2.29 3.49 3.27 2.90

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.69 28.61 28.43 28.06 36.37 34.53 32.83 45.90 42.97 39.09

Non-Renewable Energy Expenditures by

 Sector (billion nominal dollars)

 Residential ............................ 238.63 243.64 243.63 242.40 327.21 320.68 313.80 428.83 426.84 411.36

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.64 184.62 185.21 184.91 266.76 262.27 257.06 375.56 368.78 350.97

 Industrial ............................. 179.22 239.67 244.72 249.89 335.45 341.84 348.63 398.73 417.29 419.90

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.91 722.01 725.73 728.96 1036.41 1022.56 1028.23 1372.86 1382.69 1383.82

 Total Non-Renewable Expenditures ....... 1067.41 1389.94 1399.29 1406.16 1965.83 1947.34 1947.72 2575.99 2595.61 2566.06

 Transportation Renewable Expenditures . . . . 0.06 0.25 0.25 0.25 41.08 36.34 32.09 65.64 60.53 45.40

 Total Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067.47 1390.19 1399.54 1406.41 2006.91 1983.68 1979.81 2641.63 2656.14 2611.46

1

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Excludes use for lease and plant fuel.

3

Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

4

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 5

Sales	weighted-average	price	for	all	grades.		Includes	Federal,	State	and	local	taxes.

6

Kerosene-type jet fuel. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

7

Diesel fuel for on-road use. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

8

Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel. Includes estimated motor vehicle fuel taxes and estimated dispensing costs or charges. 9

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 10Weighted averages of end-use fuel prices are derived from the prices shown in each sector and the corresponding sectoral consumption.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	prices	for	motor	gasoline,	distillate	fuel	oil,	and	jet	fuel	are	based	on	prices	in	the	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Petroleum Marketing Annual

2009,	DOE/EIA-0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	residential	and	commercial	natural	gas	delivered	prices:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	industrial	natural	gas	delivered	prices	are	estimated	based	on:		EIA,	Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey and

industrial and wellhead prices from the Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010)	and	the	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)

(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	transportation	sector	natural	gas	delivered	prices	are	model	results.		2009	electric	power	sector	natural	gas	prices:	EIA,	Electric Power

Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0226,	April	2009	and	April	2010,	Table	4.2.		2009	coal	prices	based	on:		EIA,	Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)

(Washington,	DC,	April	2010)	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.		2009	electricity	prices:		EIA, Annual Energy Review 2009,

DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	E85	prices	derived	from	monthly	prices	in	the	Clean	Cities	Alternative	Fuel Price Report. Projections:		EIA,

AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	LM2011.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HM2011.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 165

Economic growth case comparisons

Table B4. Macroeconomic indicators

(billion 2005 chain-weighted dollars, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 9

Table B4. Macroeconomic Indicators

(Billion	2005	Chain-Weighted	Dollars,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Indicators 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Low

Economic

Growth

Reference

High

Economic

Growth

Real Gross Domestic Product ............. 12881 14820 15336 15941 18388 20020 21728 22163 25692 29231

Components of Real Gross Domestic Product

 Real Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9154 10165 10443 10787 12313 13280 14276 14940 16976 19034

 Real Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516 2346 2592 2850 3110 3548 4018 3881 4849 5816

 Real Government Spending .............. 2543 2503 2555 2619 2610 2796 2996 2691 3069 3445

 Real Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1491 2403 2437 2490 4008 4485 5020 6194 7334 8502

 Real Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 2552 2624 2703 3658 3840 3982 5533 5902 6241

Energy Intensity

(thousand Btu per 2005 dollar of GDP)

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.33 5.00 4.91 4.81 4.09 3.94 3.81 3.49 3.25 3.10

 Total Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.36 6.79 6.65 6.51 5.61 5.39 5.19 4.80 4.44 4.20

Price Indices

 GDP Chain-Type Price Index (2005=1.000) . . 1.096 1.219 1.197 1.166 1.573 1.450 1.323 1.975 1.749 1.523

 Consumer Price Index (1982-4=1)

 All-urban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 2.44 2.39 2.33 3.23 2.97 2.72 4.12 3.66 3.19

 Energy Commodities and Services . . . . . . . . 1.93 2.46 2.44 2.40 3.46 3.25 3.10 4.42 4.10 3.71

 Wholesale Price Index (1982=1.00)

 All Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.73 2.05 2.00 1.94 2.63 2.38 2.14 3.16 2.74 2.30

 Fuel and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.59 2.06 2.05 2.03 3.00 2.84 2.72 3.93 3.68 3.33

 Metals and Metal Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.87 2.51 2.48 2.43 2.97 2.77 2.56 3.19 2.87 2.54

 Industrial Commodities excluding Energy . . . 1.76 2.04 2.00 1.95 2.44 2.25 2.05 2.74 2.43 2.11

Interest Rates (percent, nominal)

 Federal Funds Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 5.50 5.15 4.76 5.37 4.86 4.38 5.53 5.04 4.40

 10-Year Treasury Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26 6.21 5.76 5.23 6.37 5.78 5.23 6.46 5.89 5.20

 AA Utility Bond Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.75 7.71 7.41 7.04 8.39 7.69 7.07 8.62 7.93 7.16

Value of Shipments (billion 2005 dollars)

 Service Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19555 22738 23155 23669 27266 28648 30049 32411 34664 36924

 Total Industrial ......................... 6017 7186 7472 7796 7702 8396 9103 8128 9292 10535

 Non-manufacturing .................... 1821 2038 2193 2361 2117 2381 2651 2161 2521 2896

 Manufacturing ........................ 4197 5148 5279 5435 5585 6016 6452 5967 6770 7639

 Energy-Intensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1551 1760 1792 1833 1827 1940 2056 1829 2015 2205

 Non-Energy Intensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2646 3388 3487 3602 3758 4075 4395 4138 4756 5434

Total Shipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25573 29924 30627 31465 34967 37044 39152 40539 43956 47459

Population and Employment (millions)

 Population with Armed Forces Overseas .... 307.8 324.3 326.2 330.1 343.7 358.1 374.9 359.2 390.1 422.9

			Population,	aged	16	and	over ............. 241.8 254.7 256.5 260.1 272.9 282.6 293.6 289.4 309.6 331.1

			Population,	over	age	65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.7 46.9 47.1 47.4 63.1 64.2 65.4 75.2 77.7 80.4

			Employment,	Nonfarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130.9 136.1 142.2 149.1 145.1 156.2 166.9 155.4 170.8 186.0

			Employment,	Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 17.2 17.4 17.7 15.4 15.8 15.9 12.7 13.1 13.4

Key Labor Indicators

 Labor Force (millions) ................... 154.2 158.7 160.7 163.5 164.7 170.6 177.3 172.9 182.6 192.5

 Non-farm Labor Productivity (1992=1.00) . . . . 1.07 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.38 1.47 1.57 1.60 1.79 1.98

 Unemployment Rate (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.27 7.02 6.87 6.70 5.18 4.98 4.84 5.34 5.20 5.07

Key Indicators for Energy Demand

 Real Disposable Personal Income ......... 10100 11235 11533 11891 14171 15118 16080 17306 19224 21138

 Housing Starts (millions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.60 1.54 1.85 2.16 1.50 1.93 2.37 1.20 1.74 2.29

 Commercial Floorspace (billion square feet) . . 80.2 84.5 85.4 86.5 93.3 97.4 101.5 103.3 109.8 116.9

 Unit Sales of Light-Duty Vehicles (millions) . . . 10.40 16.51 17.03 17.86 16.92 18.24 19.70 18.37 20.64 23.26

GDP = Gross domestic product.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Sources: 2009: IHS Global Insight Industry and Employment	models,	September	2010.		Projections:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,

AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System runs	LM2011.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HM2011.D020911A.
This page intentionally left blank
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 167

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 1

Table C1. Total Energy Supply, Disposition, and Price Summary

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Production

 Crude Oil and Lease Condensate . . . . . . . . . . 11.34 12.35 12.51 12.76 11.19 12.64 15.18 9.32 12.80 15.31

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.57 2.88 2.86 2.90 3.50 3.55 3.62 3.85 3.92 3.86

 Dry Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.50 23.05 23.01 23.23 24.24 24.60 25.20 26.91 27.00 27.63

 Coal1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.58 20.63 20.94 20.83 23.30 23.64 24.98 23.82 26.01 30.33

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.08 9.17 9.17 9.05 9.14 9.14

 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.69 2.92 2.92 2.92 3.01 3.04 3.03 3.06 3.09 3.09

 Biomass2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.52 4.71 4.70 4.95 6.46 7.20 8.55 7.97 8.63 11.88

 Other Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.29 2.09 2.14 2.14 2.52 2.58 2.61 3.01 3.22 3.22

 Other4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.59 0.78 0.92 0.65 0.88 0.90 0.62 0.78 1.02

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.18 77.99 78.63 79.43 83.95 87.29 93.24 87.62 94.59 105.48

Imports

 Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.70 20.90 19.25 17.61 22.46 18.35 12.86 25.74 18.44 10.15

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum5 . . . . . . . . . 5.40 5.58 5.33 5.01 6.09 5.18 4.56 6.77 5.33 4.42

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.82 4.21 4.01 3.98 3.60 3.20 2.77 3.04 2.87 2.46

 Other Imports6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 0.82 0.82 0.82 1.22 1.39 1.39 1.05 1.27 1.38

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.53 31.51 29.41 27.42 33.37 28.13 21.58 36.61 27.92 18.41

Exports

 Petroleum7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17 3.23 3.27 3.38 3.45 3.62 3.64 3.73 3.92 3.93

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.09 1.24 1.24 1.24 2.10 2.07 2.06 2.71 2.64 2.62

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.51 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.89 1.89 1.86 1.65 1.78 1.92

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.77 6.23 6.27 6.37 7.45 7.58 7.57 8.09 8.34 8.47

Discrepancy8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 -0.27 -0.24 -0.18 -0.11 -0.12 -0.05 -0.05 -0.02 0.19

Consumption

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum9 . . . . . . . . . 36.62 40.72 39.10 37.62 42.67 39.84 37.88 45.61 41.70 39.11

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.31 25.99 25.77 25.97 25.70 25.73 25.93 27.21 27.24 27.33

 Coal10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.69 19.44 19.73 19.59 22.34 22.61 23.12 22.95 24.30 26.46

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.08 9.17 9.17 9.05 9.14 9.14

 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.69 2.92 2.92 2.92 3.01 3.04 3.03 3.06 3.09 3.09

 Biomass11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.52 3.30 3.27 3.33 4.39 4.71 5.29 5.05 5.25 6.62

 Other Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.29 2.09 2.14 2.14 2.52 2.58 2.61 3.01 3.22 3.22

 Other12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.24 0.25 0.25

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 103.55 102.02 100.66 109.98 107.95 107.30 116.19 114.19 115.23

Prices (2009 dollars per unit)

 Petroleum (dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price13 61.66 55.00 94.58 146.10 51.28 117.54 185.87 50.07 124.94 199.95

 Imported Crude Oil Price13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 48.46 86.83 136.84 41.36 107.40 175.09 39.66 113.70 187.79

 Natural Gas (dollars per million Btu)

 Price at Henry Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 4.60 4.66 4.74 5.63 5.97 6.19 6.66 7.07 7.20

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.62 4.07 4.13 4.20 4.98 5.29 5.48 5.90 6.26 6.37

 Natural Gas (dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.71 4.18 4.24 4.31 5.11 5.43 5.62 6.05 6.42 6.54

 Coal (dollars per ton)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26 31.65 32.36 33.61 31.30 33.22 35.10 31.42 33.92 36.56

 Coal (dollars per million Btu)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.67 1.58 1.62 1.68 1.59 1.68 1.77 1.60 1.73 1.87

 Average Delivered Price16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.31 2.20 2.26 2.37 2.22 2.36 2.52 2.29 2.47 2.68

 Average Electricity Price

 (cents per kilowatthour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 8.8 8.9 9.0 8.7 8.9 9.1 8.8 9.2 9.3

Appendix C

Price case comparisons

Table C1. Total energy supply, disposition, and price summary

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)
168 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

Table C1. Total energy supply, disposition, and price summary (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

2 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C1. Total Energy Supply and Disposition Summary (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Prices (nominal dollars per unit)

 Petroleum (dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price13 61.66 59.99 103.24 159.83 68.94 155.46 246.11 81.59 199.37 321.76

 Imported Crude Oil Price13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 52.86 94.78 149.70 55.61 142.05 231.84 64.62 181.43 302.20

 Natural Gas (dollars per million Btu)

 Price at Henry Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 5.01 5.09 5.19 7.56 7.90 8.19 10.85 11.28 11.58

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.62 4.44 4.51 4.59 6.70 6.99 7.25 9.61 9.99 10.25

 Natural Gas (dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Wellhead Price14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.71 4.56 4.63 4.71 6.87 7.18 7.44 9.86 10.24 10.52

 Coal (dollars per ton)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26 34.52 35.32 36.77 42.08 43.93 46.48 51.20 54.13 58.83

 Coal (dollars per million Btu)

 Minemouth Price15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.67 1.73 1.77 1.84 2.13 2.22 2.35 2.61 2.76 3.01

 Average Delivered Price16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.31 2.40 2.47 2.60 2.98 3.12 3.33 3.72 3.95 4.31

 Average Electricity Price

 (cents per kilowatthour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 9.5 9.7 9.9 11.7 11.8 12.1 14.4 14.7 15.0

1

Includes waste coal.

2

Includes	grid-connected	electricity	from	wood	and	wood	waste;	biomass,	such	as	corn,	used	for	liquid	fuels	production;	and	non-electric energy demand from wood. Refer

to Table A17 for details. 3

Includes grid-connected electricity from landfill gas; biogenic municipal waste; wind; photovoltaic and solar thermal sources; and non-electric energy from renewable

sources,	such	as	active	and	passive	solar	systems.		Excludes	electricity	imports	using	renewable	sources	and	nonmarketed	renewable energy. See Table A17 for selected

nonmarketed residential and commercial renewable energy. 4

Includes	non-biogenic	municipal	waste,	liquid	hydrogen,	methanol,	and	some	domestic	inputs	to	refineries.

5

Includes	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	alcohols,	ethers,	blending	components,	and	renewable	fuels	such as ethanol. 6

Includes	coal,	coal	coke	(net),	and	electricity	(net).

7

Includes crude oil and petroleum products.

8

Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses,	gains,	and	net	storage	withdrawals.

9

Includes	petroleum-derived	fuels	and	non-petroleum	derived	fuels,	such	as	ethanol	and	biodiesel,	and	coal-based	synthetic	liquids.		Petroleum	coke,	which	is	a	solid,	is

included. Also included are natural gas plant liquids and crude oil consumed as a fuel. Refer to Table A17 for detailed renewable liquid fuels consumption. 10Excludes coal converted to coal-based synthetic liquids and natural gas.

11Includes	grid-connected	electricity	from	wood	and	wood	waste,	non-electric	energy	from	wood,	and	biofuels	heat	and	coproducts	used	in	the	production	of	liquid	fuels,	but

excludes the energy content of the liquid fuels. 12Includes non-biogenic municipal waste and net electricity imports.

13Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

14Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

15Includes reported prices for both open market and captive mines.

16Prices	weighted	by	consumption;	weighted	average	excludes	residential	and	commercial	prices,	and	export	free-alongside-ship	(f.a.s.) prices.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:	2009	natural	gas	supply	values	and	natural	gas	wellhead	price:	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)

(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).	2009	coal	minemouth	and	delivered	coal	prices:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).	2009

petroleum	supply	values:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).	2009	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,

“Monthly Foreign Crude Oil Acquisition Report.” Other 2009 coal values: Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April

2010).		Other	2009	values:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling

System	runs	LP2011LNO.D022511A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 169

Price case comparisons

Table C2. Energy consumption by sector and source

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 3

Table C2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Energy Consumption

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.53 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.54 0.48 0.43

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 0.61 0.56 0.51 0.52 0.44 0.40 0.45 0.37 0.32

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 1.16 1.15 1.07 0.99 1.07 0.94 0.85 1.01 0.86 0.77

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.87 4.95 4.94 4.93 4.98 4.96 4.95 4.91 4.90 4.91

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Renewable Energy1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.43 0.36 0.40 0.45 0.35 0.42 0.48 0.34 0.42 0.48

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65 4.62 4.60 4.57 5.03 4.98 4.95 5.57 5.51 5.48

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 11.08 11.02 10.95 11.43 11.32 11.24 11.83 11.70 11.65

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.96 9.45 9.46 9.39 10.38 10.24 10.05 11.21 11.06 10.85

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.08 20.53 20.48 20.35 21.81 21.56 21.29 23.04 22.76 22.50

 Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.15

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.31 0.26 0.23 0.30 0.25 0.22

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.59 0.53 0.50 0.59 0.53 0.50

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.48 3.47 3.46 3.69 3.66 3.63 3.95 3.92 3.91

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

 Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51 4.85 4.83 4.80 5.63 5.58 5.54 6.51 6.43 6.41

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.49 9.08 9.02 8.96 10.07 9.94 9.85 11.22 11.05 10.99

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.66 9.91 9.94 9.87 11.62 11.47 11.25 13.12 12.93 12.68

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.15 19.00 18.96 18.82 21.69 21.41 21.10 24.34 23.98 23.67

 Industrial4

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.01 2.46 2.36 2.32 2.50 2.38 2.31 2.29 2.18 2.11

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.32

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.13 1.20 1.16 1.14 1.20 1.13 1.11

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.21 0.17 0.15 0.24 0.16 0.14

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.21 1.29 1.28 1.26 1.34 1.32 1.19 1.26 1.25

 Other Petroleum5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45 4.31 3.97 3.63 4.41 3.79 3.35 4.73 3.88 3.27

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 7.94 9.71 9.29 8.84 9.92 9.16 8.59 9.99 8.94 8.20

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.31 8.19 8.27 8.48 8.12 8.32 8.59 7.98 8.23 8.54

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.21 1.22 1.26 1.25 1.28 1.34

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.50 9.43 9.51 9.73 9.33 9.54 9.86 9.23 9.51 9.99

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.46 0.47 0.46

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.94 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.94 0.94 0.93

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.16 0.40 1.33 0.20 1.19 3.45

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -0.00

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.32 1.68 1.67 1.71 1.69 1.93 2.85 1.60 2.60 4.84

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.87 0.85 0.91 1.47 1.90 2.49 2.11 2.52 3.87

 Renewable Energy7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.42 1.91 1.89 1.88 2.09 2.05 2.02 2.12 2.04 2.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.01 3.60 3.54 3.52 3.53 3.52 3.49 3.29 3.28 3.25

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.85 27.18 26.75 26.57 28.02 28.11 29.30 28.34 28.89 32.15

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.44 7.36 7.28 7.22 7.28 7.23 7.08 6.63 6.59 6.44

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.29 34.54 34.03 33.80 35.31 35.33 36.38 34.97 35.49 38.59
170 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

Table C2. Energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

4 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.19 0.93 2.55 0.19 1.23 3.61

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.82 17.87 17.02 15.86 18.21 15.93 13.00 19.76 16.69 12.55

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.22 3.20 3.18 3.49 3.47 3.46 3.64 3.62 3.61

 Distillate Fuel Oil10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.54 6.63 6.57 6.51 7.53 7.45 7.48 8.40 8.35 8.38

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82

 Other Petroleum11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 26.52 28.70 27.76 26.85 30.39 28.76 27.48 32.98 30.89 29.16

 Pipeline Fuel Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.66

 Compressed Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.10 0.19 0.04 0.16 0.30

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.11

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 29.43 28.50 27.62 31.11 29.56 28.39 33.73 31.80 30.24

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.14 0.11 0.15 0.22

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.28 29.48 28.56 27.69 31.18 29.65 28.53 33.84 31.95 30.46

 Delivered Energy Consumption for All

 Sectors

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.71 3.14 3.02 2.94 3.20 3.03 2.91 3.01 2.84 2.72

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.19 0.93 2.55 0.19 1.23 3.61

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11 18.26 17.39 16.24 18.59 16.31 13.38 20.15 17.06 12.92

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.22 3.20 3.18 3.49 3.47 3.46 3.64 3.62 3.61

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.65 8.75 8.57 8.40 9.56 9.31 9.25 10.34 10.10 10.03

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.02 1.06 1.03 1.01 1.09 1.04 1.02 1.12 1.05 1.03

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.21 1.29 1.28 1.26 1.34 1.32 1.19 1.26 1.25

 Other Petroleum12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 4.46 4.13 3.78 4.56 3.94 3.50 4.89 4.04 3.43

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 36.23 40.13 38.67 37.19 41.96 39.39 37.42 44.57 41.22 38.63

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.41 16.64 16.72 16.94 16.82 17.05 17.37 16.89 17.22 17.66

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.21 1.22 1.26 1.25 1.28 1.34

 Pipeline Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.66

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.25 18.56 18.62 18.85 18.67 18.91 19.28 18.78 19.17 19.77

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.46 0.47 0.46

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01 1.05 1.05 1.04 1.05 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.01 1.00

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.16 0.40 1.33 0.20 1.19 3.45

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -0.00

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39 1.75 1.74 1.77 1.76 2.00 2.92 1.67 2.66 4.90

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.87 0.85 0.91 1.47 1.90 2.49 2.11 2.52 3.87

 Renewable Energy13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.96 2.38 2.41 2.45 2.55 2.59 2.61 2.58 2.58 2.59

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.20 13.09 13.00 12.93 14.22 14.13 14.06 15.42 15.29 15.26

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.68 76.77 75.29 74.10 80.63 78.92 78.78 85.13 83.45 85.03

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11 26.77 26.73 26.56 29.35 29.03 28.52 31.07 30.74 30.19

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 103.55 102.02 100.66 109.98 107.95 107.30 116.19 114.19 115.23

 Electric Power14

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.11

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.48 0.34 0.34 0.59 0.35 0.36 0.93 0.37 0.37

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 0.40 0.59 0.43 0.43 0.70 0.45 0.46 1.05 0.47 0.48

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.06 7.44 7.15 7.12 7.04 6.82 6.65 8.43 8.07 7.56

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.30 17.69 17.99 17.82 20.58 20.61 20.20 21.28 21.64 21.55

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.08 9.17 9.17 9.05 9.14 9.14

 Renewable Energy15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.89 5.06 5.08 5.03 5.90 5.84 5.82 6.44 6.47 6.47

 Electricity Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.05

 Total16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.31 39.87 39.73 39.49 43.57 43.17 42.58 46.49 46.03 45.45
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 171

Price case comparisons

Table C2. Energy consumption by sector and source (continued)

(quadrillion Btu per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 5

Table C2. Energy Consumption by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Quadrillion	Btu	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

 Total Energy Consumption

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.71 3.14 3.02 2.94 3.20 3.03 2.91 3.01 2.84 2.72

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.19 0.93 2.55 0.19 1.23 3.61

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11 18.26 17.39 16.24 18.59 16.31 13.38 20.15 17.06 12.92

					Jet	Fuel9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.22 3.20 3.18 3.49 3.47 3.46 3.64 3.62 3.61

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.75 8.85 8.66 8.49 9.68 9.40 9.35 10.47 10.20 10.14

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.32 1.54 1.37 1.35 1.67 1.40 1.38 2.05 1.41 1.40

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.21 1.29 1.28 1.26 1.34 1.32 1.19 1.26 1.25

 Other Petroleum12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 4.46 4.13 3.78 4.56 3.94 3.50 4.89 4.04 3.43

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum Subtotal 36.62 40.72 39.10 37.62 42.67 39.84 37.88 45.61 41.70 39.11

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.47 24.08 23.87 24.05 23.86 23.87 24.02 25.31 25.29 25.22

 Natural-Gas-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11

 Lease and Plant Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.21 1.22 1.26 1.25 1.28 1.34

 Pipeline Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.66

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.31 25.99 25.77 25.97 25.70 25.73 25.93 27.21 27.24 27.33

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.46 0.47 0.46

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.31 18.74 19.04 18.86 21.62 21.65 21.23 22.29 22.64 22.56

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.16 0.40 1.33 0.20 1.19 3.45

 Net Coal Coke Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00 -0.00 -0.00

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.69 19.44 19.73 19.59 22.34 22.61 23.12 22.95 24.30 26.46

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.08 9.17 9.17 9.05 9.14 9.14

 Biofuels Heat and Coproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.66 0.87 0.85 0.91 1.47 1.90 2.49 2.11 2.52 3.87

 Renewable Energy17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.85 7.44 7.49 7.48 8.45 8.43 8.43 9.01 9.04 9.06

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.05

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 103.55 102.02 100.66 109.98 107.95 107.30 116.19 114.19 115.23

Energy Use and Related Statistics

 Delivered Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.68 76.77 75.29 74.10 80.63 78.92 78.78 85.13 83.45 85.03

 Total Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 103.55 102.02 100.66 109.98 107.95 107.30 116.19 114.19 115.23

 Ethanol Consumed in Motor Gasoline and E85 0.95 1.36 1.33 1.46 1.77 2.07 2.83 1.89 2.37 3.54

 Population (millions) ..................... 307.84 326.16 326.16 326.16 358.06 358.06 358.06 390.09 390.09 390.09

 Gross Domestic Product (billion 2005 dollars) 12881 15411 15336 15260 20029 20020 20122 25735 25692 25813

 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (million metric tons) 5425.5 5777.8 5679.9 5557.7 6136.1 5937.8 5799.7 6497.0 6310.8 6243.9

1

Includes wood used for residential heating. See Table A4 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	solar

thermal	hot	water	heating,	and	electricity	generation	from	wind	and	solar	photovoltaic	sources. 2

Includes ethanol (blends of 10 percent or less) and ethers blended into gasoline.

3

Excludes	ethanol.		Includes	commercial	sector	consumption	of	wood	and	wood	waste,	landfill	gas,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass for combined heat and power. See

Table A5 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption for solar thermal hot water heating and electricity generation from wind and solar

photovoltaic sources. 4

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 5

Includes	petroleum	coke,	asphalt,	road	oil,	lubricants,	still	gas,	and	miscellaneous	petroleum	products. 6

Represents	natural	gas	used	in	well,	field,	and	lease	operations,	and	in	natural	gas	processing	plant	machinery.

7

Includes	consumption	of	energy	produced	from	hydroelectric,	wood	and	wood	waste,	municipal	waste,	and	other	biomass	sources.		Excludes ethanol blends (10 percent or

less) in motor gasoline. 8

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 9

Includes only kerosene type.

10Diesel fuel for on- and off- road use.

11Includes aviation gasoline and lubricants.

12Includes	unfinished	oils,	natural	gasoline,	motor	gasoline	blending	components,	aviation	gasoline,	lubricants,	still	gas,	asphalt,	road	oil,	petroleum	coke,	and	miscellaneous

petroleum products. 13Includes	electricity	generated	for	sale	to	the	grid	and	for	own	use	from	renewable	sources,	and	non-electric	energy	from	renewable sources. Excludes ethanol and

nonmarketed	renewable	energy	consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	buildings	photovoltaic	systems,	and	solar	thermal	hot	water heaters. 14Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.	

Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 15Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood	and	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	other	biomass,	wind,	photovoltaic,	and	solar	thermal	sources.		Excludes

net electricity imports. 16Includes non-biogenic municipal waste not included above.

17Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood	and	wood	waste,	biogenic	municipal	waste,	other	biomass,	wind,	photovoltaic,	and	solar	thermal	sources.		Excludes

ethanol,	net	electricity	imports,	and	nonmarketed	renewable	energy	consumption	for	geothermal	heat	pumps,	buildings	photovoltaic	systems,	and	solar	thermal	hot	water

heaters.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	consumption	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).	

2009	population	and	gross	domestic	product:	IHS	Global	Insight	Industry	and	Employment	models,	September	2010.		2009	carbon	dioxide	emissions:		EIA,	Emissions of

Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009,	DOE/EIA-0573(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	December	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs

LP2011LNO.D022511A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A.
172 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

6 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source

(2009	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.63 22.24 29.79 40.74 21.24 33.90 48.64 21.22 35.01 51.15

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12 14.62 21.14 30.42 14.75 25.92 37.19 15.51 27.53 39.66

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.88 10.04 10.12 10.21 11.49 11.83 12.11 12.91 13.39 13.52

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.62 31.38 31.80 32.28 30.45 31.20 31.88 30.66 31.67 32.04

Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.49 18.79 26.32 37.27 17.77 30.41 45.14 17.73 31.48 47.62

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.97 13.05 19.28 28.36 13.20 24.02 35.23 13.77 25.52 37.59

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.45 6.19 13.25 22.12 5.72 17.05 28.17 5.50 18.13 29.29

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.68 8.29 8.37 8.45 9.45 9.77 10.02 10.52 10.98 11.09

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.51 26.25 26.67 27.24 25.82 26.65 27.40 25.81 26.99 27.37

Industrial1

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.59 16.02 23.31 34.44 14.99 27.52 42.49 15.00 28.52 45.04

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.56 13.34 19.34 28.33 13.66 24.20 35.46 14.18 25.66 37.78

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.05 8.24 14.80 23.52 7.62 18.19 28.51 6.99 18.73 29.90

 Natural Gas2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.25 4.89 4.96 5.00 5.84 6.17 6.36 6.92 7.21 7.32

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 5.98 6.01 6.14 6.32 6.46 6.59 6.36 6.58 6.76

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.05 2.84 2.91 3.02 2.85 2.99 3.16 2.93 3.14 3.38

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.70 1.79 1.86 1.83 1.78 2.23 1.67 2.05 2.41

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.79 17.47 17.68 17.98 17.52 17.99 18.43 18.04 18.73 18.87

Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.52 23.03 30.56 41.52 21.99 34.62 49.36 21.91 35.66 51.81

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 18.30 26.38 32.25 19.64 29.49 40.12 19.81 30.93 41.77

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28 17.94 25.97 35.39 17.65 29.49 42.68 17.64 30.90 44.69

			Jet	Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 11.85 19.02 28.84 11.45 23.56 35.38 12.43 25.28 38.31

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.79 16.60 22.50 31.48 16.70 27.19 38.58 16.83 28.39 40.67

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.57 6.11 12.65 21.30 5.45 16.02 25.93 4.47 16.44 27.74

 Natural Gas8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.71 11.82 11.97 12.10 12.34 12.84 13.12 12.97 13.57 13.69

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.92 29.92 29.16 29.64 27.32 29.49 32.92 29.35 32.37 35.04

Electric Power9

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 9.97 16.84 26.07 9.74 21.20 32.26 10.41 22.84 34.70

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.96 5.72 13.17 21.87 4.91 16.26 26.11 4.13 16.71 27.49

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 4.62 4.67 4.73 5.47 5.76 5.95 6.44 6.80 6.90

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.04 2.11 2.22 2.08 2.24 2.41 2.18 2.40 2.64

Average Price to All Users10

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.43 14.69 21.67 31.69 13.75 25.43 38.99 13.92 26.62 41.50

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 18.30 26.38 32.25 19.64 29.49 40.12 19.81 30.93 41.77

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.23 17.94 25.97 35.39 17.65 29.49 42.68 17.63 30.90 44.69

			Jet	Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 11.85 19.02 28.84 11.45 23.56 35.38 12.43 25.28 38.31

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.51 15.82 21.83 30.85 16.03 26.61 37.98 16.40 27.93 40.19

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.53 6.27 13.07 21.73 5.55 16.39 26.36 4.64 16.85 27.96

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.28 6.36 6.45 6.50 7.48 7.81 8.04 8.50 8.91 9.07

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 5.98 6.01 6.14 6.32 6.46 6.59 6.36 6.58 6.76

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 2.09 2.16 2.27 2.12 2.28 2.45 2.22 2.43 2.68

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.70 1.79 1.86 1.83 1.78 2.23 1.67 2.05 2.41

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.69 25.65 26.04 26.51 25.40 26.11 26.78 25.91 26.93 27.29

Non-Renewable Energy Expenditures by

 Sector (billion 2009 dollars)

 Residential ............................ 238.63 215.39 223.20 232.94 229.49 242.45 254.58 252.80 267.49 277.66

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.64 164.57 169.68 176.23 188.46 198.28 207.60 218.12 231.11 239.14

 Industrial ............................. 179.22 182.20 224.19 280.05 185.38 258.44 333.95 184.42 261.51 336.85

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.91 476.48 664.86 880.88 494.49 773.10 997.03 543.73 866.49 1076.77

 Total Non-Renewable Expenditures ....... 1067.41 1038.64 1281.92 1570.10 1097.82 1472.27 1793.16 1199.08 1626.60 1930.42

 Transportation Renewable Expenditures . . . . 0.06 0.17 0.23 10.75 3.67 27.48 102.20 3.69 37.93 150.74

 Total Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067.47 1038.82 1282.15 1580.85 1101.49 1499.75 1895.36 1202.77 1664.53 2081.17

Table C3. Energy prices by sector and source

(2009 dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 173

Price case comparisons

Table C3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(nominal dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 7

Table C3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.63 24.25 32.51 44.57 28.55 44.84 64.40 34.58 55.86 82.31

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12 15.95 23.07 33.28 19.84 34.28 49.25 25.27 43.93 63.83

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.88 10.94 11.05 11.16 15.45 15.65 16.04 21.04 21.37 21.76

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.62 34.22 34.72 35.32 40.94 41.27 42.22 49.95 50.54 51.55

Commercial

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.49 20.50 28.73 40.77 23.90 40.22 59.76 28.89 50.23 76.63

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.97 14.23 21.04 31.02 17.75 31.77 46.65 22.43 40.72 60.49

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.45 6.76 14.47 24.20 7.70 22.55 37.29 8.97 28.93 47.13

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.68 9.04 9.14 9.24 12.71 12.92 13.27 17.14 17.52 17.84

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.51 28.63 29.12 29.79 34.71 35.25 36.28 42.05 43.06 44.05

Industrial1

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.59 17.47 25.45 37.68 20.16 36.40 56.27 24.43 45.52 72.48

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.56 14.55 21.12 30.99 18.37 32.01 46.95 23.11 40.95 60.80

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.05 8.98 16.15 25.73 10.24 24.05 37.75 11.39 29.88 48.11

 Natural Gas2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.25 5.33 5.42 5.47 7.85 8.15 8.42 11.27 11.50 11.79

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 6.53 6.56 6.71 8.50 8.54 8.72 10.36 10.50 10.88

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.05 3.10 3.17 3.30 3.84 3.96 4.18 4.77 5.01 5.44

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.85 1.96 2.04 2.46 2.36 2.95 2.72 3.27 3.89

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.79 19.05 19.30 19.67 23.55 23.79 24.40 29.39 29.88 30.36

Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.52 25.12 33.36 45.42 29.56 45.80 65.36 35.70 56.90 83.37

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 19.96 28.80 35.28 26.41 39.01 53.12 32.28 49.35 67.22

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28 19.57 28.35 38.71 23.73 39.01 56.52 28.74 49.31 71.92

			Jet	Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 12.92 20.76 31.55 15.40 31.16 46.85 20.25 40.35 61.65

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.79 18.11 24.56 34.44 22.46 35.96 51.08 27.42 45.30 65.44

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.57 6.66 13.80 23.30 7.33 21.19 34.33 7.28 26.24 44.64

 Natural Gas8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.71 12.89 13.06 13.24 16.58 16.98 17.38 21.14 21.66 22.03

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.92 32.63 31.83 32.42 36.73 39.01 43.59 47.82 51.66 56.39

Electric Power9

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 10.88 18.38 28.52 13.09 28.04 42.71 16.96 36.45 55.84

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.96 6.24 14.37 23.93 6.61 21.50 34.58 6.73 26.66 44.25

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 5.04 5.10 5.17 7.35 7.62 7.88 10.50 10.86 11.11

 Steam Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.22 2.31 2.43 2.80 2.96 3.19 3.55 3.83 4.25
174 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

Table C3. Energy prices by sector and source (continued)

(nominal dollars per million Btu, unless otherwise noted)

8 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C3. Energy Prices by Sector and Source (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Million	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Source 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Average Price to All Users10

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.43 16.02 23.65 34.67 18.48 33.64 51.63 22.68 42.49 66.79

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.50 19.96 28.80 35.28 26.41 39.01 53.12 32.28 49.35 67.22

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.23 19.57 28.35 38.71 23.72 39.01 56.52 28.73 49.31 71.92

			Jet	Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.59 12.92 20.76 31.55 15.40 31.16 46.85 20.25 40.35 61.65

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.51 17.26 23.83 33.75 21.55 35.20 50.29 26.72 44.57 64.67

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.53 6.84 14.27 23.77 7.46 21.67 34.90 7.56 26.88 45.00

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.28 6.94 7.04 7.11 10.05 10.33 10.65 13.84 14.21 14.59

 Metallurgical Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 6.53 6.56 6.71 8.50 8.54 8.72 10.36 10.50 10.88

 Other Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 2.28 2.36 2.48 2.86 3.02 3.24 3.61 3.89 4.31

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 1.85 1.96 2.04 2.46 2.36 2.95 2.72 3.27 3.89

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.69 27.98 28.43 29.00 34.15 34.53 35.46 42.22 42.97 43.92

Non-Renewable Energy Expenditures by

 Sector (billion nominal dollars)

 Residential ............................ 238.63 234.91 243.63 254.83 308.53 320.68 337.10 411.91 426.84 446.82

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.64 179.48 185.21 192.79 253.37 262.27 274.89 355.41 368.78 384.83

 Industrial ............................. 179.22 198.71 244.72 306.36 249.23 341.84 442.19 300.50 417.29 542.07

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.91 519.66 725.73 963.65 664.79 1022.56 1320.19 885.96 1382.69 1732.75

 Total Non-Renewable Expenditures ....... 1067.41 1132.76 1399.29 1717.63 1475.92 1947.34 2374.37 1953.78 2595.61 3106.48

 Transportation Renewable Expenditures . . . . 0.06 0.19 0.25 11.76 4.93 36.34 135.33 6.01 60.53 242.58

 Total Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067.47 1132.95 1399.54 1729.39 1480.85 1983.68 2509.69 1959.79 2656.14 3349.05

1

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Excludes use for lease and plant fuel.

3

Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

4

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 5

Sales	weighted-average	price	for	all	grades.		Includes	Federal,	State	and	local	taxes.

6

Kerosene-type jet fuel. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

7

Diesel fuel for on-road use. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

8

Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel. Includes estimated motor vehicle fuel taxes and estimated dispensing costs or charges. 9

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 10Weighted averages of end-use fuel prices are derived from the prices shown in each sector and the corresponding sectoral consumption.

Btu = British thermal unit.

- - = Not applicable.

Note: Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	prices	for	motor	gasoline,	distillate	fuel	oil,	and	jet	fuel	are	based	on	prices	in	the	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Petroleum Marketing Annual

2009,	DOE/EIA-0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	residential	and	commercial	natural	gas	delivered	prices:		EIA,	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	industrial	natural	gas	delivered	prices	are	estimated	based	on:		EIA,	Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey and

industrial and wellhead prices from the Natural Gas Annual 2008,	DOE/EIA-0131(2008)	(Washington,	DC,	March	2010)	and	the	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)

(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	transportation	sector	natural	gas	delivered	prices	are	model	results.		2009	electric	power	sector	natural	gas	prices:	EIA,	Electric Power

Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0226,	April	2009	and	April	2010,	Table	4.2.		2009	coal	prices	based	on:		EIA,	Quarterly Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)

(Washington,	DC,	April	2010)	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.		2009	electricity	prices:		EIA, Annual Energy Review 2009,

DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	E85	prices	derived	from	monthly	prices	in	the	Clean	Cities	Alternative	Fuel Price Report. Projections:		EIA,

AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	LP2011LNO.D022511A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 175

Price case comparisons

Table C4. Liquid fuels supply and disposition

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 9

Table C4. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Crude Oil

 Domestic Crude Production1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36 5.74 5.81 5.93 5.20 5.88 7.06 4.33 5.95 7.13

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.41 0.41 0.79 0.19 0.39 0.48

 Lower 48 States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.71 5.25 5.32 5.44 4.79 5.47 6.27 4.14 5.56 6.65

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.97 9.46 8.70 7.93 10.12 8.25 5.69 11.59 8.25 4.45

 Gross Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.01 9.49 8.74 7.96 10.15 8.28 5.73 11.62 8.28 4.49

 Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.04

 Other Crude Supply2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Total Crude Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 15.20 14.52 13.86 15.32 14.13 12.75 15.92 14.20 11.58

Other Petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59 4.57 4.38 4.19 4.97 4.41 4.07 5.33 4.46 3.65

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 2.24 2.23 2.25 2.65 2.68 2.74 2.89 2.94 2.90

 Net Product Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 1.26 1.14 0.92 1.29 0.81 0.46 1.40 0.64 0.06

 Gross Refined Product Imports3 . . . . . . . . . . 1.27 1.03 1.04 0.97 1.12 0.92 0.80 1.24 0.84 0.68

 Unfinished Oil Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.68 0.89 0.80 0.72 0.90 0.75 0.59 0.97 0.76 0.44

 Blending Component Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.72 0.82 0.81 0.77 0.86 0.80 0.74 0.92 0.83 0.75

 Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 1.47 1.50 1.54 1.59 1.67 1.66 1.73 1.80 1.81

 Refinery Processing Gain4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 1.07 1.01 1.02 1.03 0.92 0.87 1.04 0.88 0.69

 Product Stock Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Other Non-petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.81 1.35 1.42 1.66 1.90 2.40 3.51 2.40 3.28 5.88

 Supply from Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 1.13 1.12 1.27 1.63 1.92 2.59 2.12 2.48 3.84

 Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.73 1.06 1.03 1.13 1.37 1.60 2.19 1.46 1.83 2.74

 Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.72 1.00 0.97 1.05 1.21 1.44 1.91 1.21 1.58 2.26

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.16 0.16 0.28 0.26 0.26 0.49

 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.14

 Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.14

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.01 0.00 0.00 -0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.00

 Other Biomass-derived Liquids5 . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.19 0.26 0.54 0.52 0.95

 Liquids from Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09

 Liquids from Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.19 0.62 0.09 0.55 1.60

 Other6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.17 0.25 0.32 0.19 0.30 0.31 0.18 0.25 0.36

Total Primary Supply7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.73 21.12 20.32 19.70 22.19 20.94 20.33 23.65 21.94 21.11

Liquid Fuels Consumption

 by Fuel

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 2.42 2.32 2.27 2.46 2.33 2.24 2.32 2.19 2.09

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.23 0.13 0.64 1.75 0.13 0.84 2.48

 Motor Gasoline9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.00 9.86 9.40 8.78 10.11 8.87 7.28 10.95 9.28 7.04

						Jet	Fuel10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39 1.55 1.55 1.54 1.69 1.68 1.67 1.76 1.75 1.74

 Distillate Fuel Oil11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.63 4.22 4.13 4.05 4.62 4.49 4.46 4.99 4.87 4.84

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18 3.73 3.68 3.63 4.17 4.09 4.09 4.57 4.51 4.50

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.67 0.60 0.59 0.73 0.61 0.60 0.89 0.62 0.61

 Other12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 2.54 2.43 2.28 2.61 2.38 2.18 2.72 2.38 2.11

 by Sector

 Residential and Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.04 1.02 0.95 0.89 0.98 0.88 0.81 0.96 0.85 0.78

 Industrial13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.25 5.20 4.99 4.77 5.31 4.94 4.67 5.27 4.77 4.43

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.61 14.80 14.31 13.87 15.74 14.96 14.49 17.07 16.10 15.49

 Electric Power14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.26 0.19 0.19 0.31 0.20 0.20 0.46 0.21 0.21

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 21.28 20.44 19.73 22.34 20.99 20.18 23.76 21.93 20.91

Discrepancy15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.08 -0.16 -0.12 -0.02 -0.15 -0.04 0.15 -0.11 0.01 0.19
176 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

Table C4. Liquid fuels supply and disposition (continued)

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

10 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C4. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition (Continued)

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Domestic Refinery Distillation Capacity16 . . . . . . 17.7 17.5 17.5 17.4 16.8 16.0 14.9 17.3 15.8 14.2

Capacity Utilization Rate (percent)17 . . . . . . . . . . 83.0 88.8 84.9 81.5 93.4 90.1 87.6 93.8 91.9 83.8

Net Import Share of Product Supplied (percent) 51.9 51.1 48.8 45.3 52.2 44.0 31.7 56.0 41.7 23.7

Net Expenditures for Imported Crude Oil and

 Petroleum Products (billion 2009 dollars) .... 203.65 183.33 296.22 424.15 178.54 347.74 400.15 192.05 370.10 348.26

1

Includes lease condensate.

2

Strategic petroleum reserve stock additions plus unaccounted for crude oil and crude stock withdrawals minus crude product supplied. 3

Includes other hydrocarbons and alcohols.

4

The	volumetric	amount	by	which	total	output	is	greater	than	input	due	to	the	processing	of	crude	oil	into	products	which,	in	total,	have	a	lower	specific	gravity	than	the	crude

oil processed. 5

Includes	pyrolysis	oils,	biomass-derived	Fischer-Tropsch	liquids,	and	renewable	feedstocks	used	for	the	production	of	green	diesel and gasoline. 6

Includes	domestic	sources	of	other	blending	components,	other	hydrocarbons,	and	ethers. 7

Total	crude	supply	plus	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	inputs,	refinery	processing	gain,	and	net	product	imports.

8

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 9

Includes ethanol and ethers blended into gasoline.

10Includes only kerosene type.

11Includes distillate fuel oil and kerosene from petroleum and biomass feedstocks.

12Includes	aviation	gasoline,	petrochemical	feedstocks,	lubricants,	waxes,	asphalt,	road	oil,	still	gas,	special	naphthas,	petroleum	coke,	crude	oil	product	supplied,	methanol,

and miscellaneous petroleum products. 13Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power,	which	produces	electricity	and	other	useful	thermal	energy.

14Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.	

Includes small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 15Balancing	item.		Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses,	and	gains.

16End-of-year operable capacity.

17Rate is calculated by dividing the gross annual input to atmospheric crude oil distillation units by their operable refining capacity in barrels per calendar day.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	petroleum	product	supplied	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,

August	2010).		Other	2009	data:		EIA,	Petroleum Supply Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy

Modeling	System	runs	LP2011LNO.D022511A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 177

Price case comparisons

Table C5. Petroleum product prices

(2009 dollars per gallon, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 11

Table C5. Petroleum Product Prices

(2009	Dollars	per	Gallon,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Fuel 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Crude Oil Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . 61.66 55.00 94.58 146.10 51.28 117.54 185.87 50.07 124.94 199.95

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 48.46 86.83 136.84 41.36 107.40 175.09 39.66 113.70 187.79

Delivered Sector Product Prices

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.087 1.884 2.523 3.451 1.799 2.872 4.120 1.798 2.965 4.333

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.514 2.028 2.931 4.219 2.046 3.595 5.158 2.151 3.818 5.501

 Commercial

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.205 1.796 2.654 3.904 1.817 3.306 4.849 1.895 3.512 5.174

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.013 0.927 1.984 3.311 0.857 2.552 4.216 0.824 2.714 4.384

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 84.54 38.94 83.33 139.07 35.99 107.19 177.07 34.60 113.99 184.12

 Industrial2

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.744 1.357 1.975 2.917 1.270 2.331 3.599 1.270 2.416 3.815

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.281 1.831 2.656 3.889 1.876 3.322 4.867 1.947 3.523 5.187

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.804 1.233 2.215 3.520 1.140 2.722 4.267 1.046 2.803 4.475

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 75.79 51.78 93.04 147.85 47.89 114.34 179.22 43.94 117.73 187.97

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.161 1.951 2.589 3.517 1.863 2.933 4.181 1.856 3.021 4.388

 Ethanol (E85)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.945 1.736 2.503 3.060 1.863 2.798 3.806 1.880 2.934 3.963

 Ethanol Wholesale Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.028 2.345 2.448 2.689 2.230 2.369 2.645 2.013 2.073 2.698

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.349 2.167 3.134 4.271 2.118 3.539 5.123 2.117 3.707 5.362

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.700 1.599 2.568 3.894 1.546 3.181 4.777 1.678 3.413 5.172

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.441 2.275 3.084 4.314 2.289 3.726 5.286 2.306 3.890 5.573

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.582 0.914 1.893 3.188 0.816 2.398 3.881 0.669 2.461 4.152

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 66.44 38.38 79.51 133.90 34.28 100.70 163.02 28.10 103.37 174.39

 Electric Power7

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.988 1.383 2.336 3.615 1.350 2.940 4.474 1.444 3.168 4.812

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.342 0.856 1.971 3.274 0.735 2.433 3.909 0.618 2.501 4.116

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 56.36 35.97 82.79 137.52 30.89 102.20 164.18 25.96 105.03 172.86

 Refined Petroleum Product Prices8

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.477 1.244 1.836 2.684 1.164 2.154 3.303 1.179 2.255 3.516

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.344 2.167 3.134 4.271 2.118 3.539 5.123 2.117 3.707 5.362

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.700 1.599 2.568 3.894 1.546 3.181 4.777 1.678 3.413 5.172

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.408 2.171 2.995 4.233 2.199 3.651 5.210 2.250 3.831 5.511

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.576 0.938 1.957 3.253 0.830 2.453 3.946 0.695 2.522 4.186

 Residual Fuel Oil (2009 dollars per barrel) . . 66.20 39.40 82.19 136.61 34.88 103.03 165.72 29.18 105.92 175.81

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.155 1.933 2.822 3.956 1.894 3.289 4.783 1.920 3.478 5.072
178 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

Table C5. Petroleum product prices (continued)

(2009 dollars per gallon, unless otherwise noted)

12 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C5. Petroleum Product Prices (Continued)

(Nominal	Dollars	per	Gallon,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Sector and Fuel 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Crude Oil Prices (nominal dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . 61.66 59.99 103.24 159.83 68.94 155.46 246.11 81.59 199.37 321.76

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 52.86 94.78 149.70 55.61 142.05 231.84 64.62 181.43 302.20

Delivered Sector Product Prices

 Residential

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.087 2.054 2.754 3.775 2.419 3.798 5.455 2.929 4.732 6.972

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.514 2.212 3.200 4.615 2.751 4.754 6.830 3.505 6.092 8.852

 Commercial

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.205 1.959 2.897 4.270 2.443 4.373 6.420 3.087 5.605 8.326

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.013 1.011 2.166 3.622 1.152 3.376 5.583 1.342 4.331 7.055

 Industrial2

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.744 1.480 2.155 3.191 1.707 3.083 4.766 2.070 3.855 6.140

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.281 1.997 2.899 4.254 2.522 4.394 6.445 3.172 5.621 8.346

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.804 1.345 2.418 3.851 1.533 3.601 5.650 1.705 4.473 7.202

 Transportation

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.161 2.128 2.826 3.847 2.504 3.879 5.536 3.024 4.820 7.062

 Ethanol (E85)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.945 1.893 2.732 3.348 2.505 3.701 5.040 3.063 4.682 6.378

 Ethanol Wholesale Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.028 2.557 2.672 2.942 2.998 3.133 3.502 3.279 3.308 4.342

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.349 2.363 3.421 4.672 2.847 4.681 6.784 3.449 5.915 8.629

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.700 1.744 2.803 4.260 2.079 4.207 6.325 2.734 5.447 8.323

 Diesel Fuel (distillate fuel oil)6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.441 2.481 3.366 4.719 3.077 4.928 7.000 3.758 6.207 8.968

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.582 0.997 2.066 3.488 1.097 3.171 5.139 1.090 3.928 6.682

 Electric Power7

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.988 1.508 2.550 3.955 1.815 3.889 5.924 2.352 5.055 7.744

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.342 0.934 2.152 3.582 0.989 3.219 5.176 1.007 3.990 6.623

 Refined Petroleum Product Prices8

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.477 1.357 2.004 2.937 1.565 2.849 4.373 1.921 3.599 5.657

 Motor Gasoline4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.344 2.363 3.421 4.672 2.847 4.681 6.784 3.449 5.915 8.629

						Jet	Fuel5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.700 1.744 2.803 4.260 2.079 4.207 6.325 2.734 5.447 8.323

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.408 2.368 3.269 4.631 2.957 4.829 6.899 3.666 6.113 8.869

 Residual Fuel Oil (nominal dollars per barrel) 66.20 42.97 89.71 149.44 46.89 136.27 219.43 47.55 169.02 282.92

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.155 2.108 3.080 4.328 2.547 4.350 6.333 3.128 5.550 8.162

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 4

Sales	weighted-average	price	for	all	grades.		Includes	Federal,	State	and	local	taxes.

5

Includes only kerosene type.

6

Diesel fuel for on-road use. Includes Federal and State taxes while excluding county and local taxes.

7

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes	small	power

producers and exempt wholesale generators. 8

Weighted averages of end-use fuel prices are derived from the prices in each sector and the corresponding sectoral consumption.

Note: Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	imported	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign Crude Oil Acquisition Report.” 2009

imported	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	prices	for	motor	gasoline,	distillate	fuel	oil,	and	jet	fuel

are	based	on:		EIA,	Petroleum Marketing Annual 2009,	DOE/EIA-0487(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	residential,	commercial,	industrial,	and	transportation

sector	petroleum	product	prices	are	derived	from:		EIA,	Form	EIA-782A,	“Refiners’/Gas	Plant	Operators’	Monthly	Petroleum	Product Sales Report.” 2009 electric power prices

based	on:		Federal	Energy	Regulatory	Commission,	FERC	Form	423,	“Monthly	Report	of	Cost	and	Quality	of	Fuels	for	Electric	Plants.” 2009 E85 prices derived from monthly

prices in the Clean Cities Alternative Fuel Price Report. 2009 wholesale ethanol prices derived from Bloomberg U.S. average rack price. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National

Energy	Modeling	System	runs	LP2011LNO.D022511A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 179

Price case comparisons

Table C6. International liquids supply and disposition summary

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 13

Table C6. International Liquids Supply and Disposition Summary

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Crude Oil Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)1

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price . . . 61.66 55.00 94.58 146.10 51.28 117.54 185.87 50.07 124.94 199.95

 Imported Crude Oil Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 48.46 86.83 136.84 41.36 107.40 175.09 39.66 113.70 187.79

Crude Oil Prices (nominal dollars per barrel)1

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil Price . . . 61.66 59.99 103.24 159.83 68.94 155.46 246.11 81.59 199.37 321.76

 Imported Crude Oil Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 52.86 94.78 149.70 55.61 142.05 231.84 64.62 181.43 302.20

Conventional Production (Conventional)2

 OPEC3

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.61 28.19 25.66 23.16 31.81 28.64 27.48 34.74 33.87 30.24

 North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.92 4.70 4.32 3.83 4.15 3.84 3.72 3.94 3.98 3.70

 West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.06 5.80 5.10 4.44 6.54 5.10 4.90 6.81 5.31 4.86

 South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.31 2.18 2.00 1.77 1.86 1.73 1.68 1.62 1.64 1.54

 Total OPEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.91 40.87 37.08 33.20 44.35 39.32 37.78 47.10 44.80 40.33

 Non-OPEC

 OECD

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.26 9.22 9.30 9.52 9.07 9.78 10.89 8.45 9.89 10.70

 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.96 1.83 1.80 1.82 1.78 1.78 1.84 1.71 1.78 1.94

 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90 2.17 2.05 2.00 1.35 1.22 1.19 1.50 1.48 1.52

 OECD Europe4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.62 3.49 3.36 3.30 2.73 2.67 2.61 2.48 2.66 2.73

									Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.15 0.14

 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.54 0.55

 Total OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.52 17.43 17.20 17.33 15.62 16.13 17.18 14.79 16.49 17.59

 Non-OECD

 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.66 10.71 10.02 9.74 12.43 10.86 10.41 12.90 12.64 13.15

 Other Europe and Eurasia5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.08 3.77 3.54 3.44 4.47 3.97 3.81 4.48 4.47 4.64

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.93 3.96 3.80 3.72 4.10 4.02 3.89 3.83 4.22 4.40

 Other Asia6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.70 3.59 3.47 3.41 3.03 2.99 2.91 2.63 2.85 2.94

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 1.63 1.57 1.54 1.26 1.24 1.20 0.98 1.10 1.15

 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.34 2.82 2.71 2.65 2.89 2.85 2.75 2.82 3.16 3.32

 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.05 2.95 2.76 2.68 4.41 3.87 3.72 5.02 4.93 5.11

 Other Central and South America . . . . . . . 1.87 2.17 2.10 2.06 2.27 2.24 2.17 2.35 2.59 2.70

 Total Non-OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17 31.60 29.96 29.24 34.86 32.03 30.85 35.00 35.95 37.41

Total Conventional Production . . . . . . . . . . . . 79.60 89.89 84.24 79.76 94.83 87.47 85.81 96.89 97.24 95.33

Unconventional Production7

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 1.11 1.11 1.26 1.55 1.94 3.01 1.95 2.90 5.42

 Other North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.68 2.21 2.39 3.68 2.70 3.57 5.38 3.32 5.27 7.11

 OECD Europe3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.10 0.23 0.22 0.11 0.26 0.29 0.18 0.28 0.33

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.24 0.21

 Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.16 0.28 0.28 0.16 0.39 0.40 0.16 0.44 0.46

 Central and South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14 1.82 1.78 1.86 3.28 2.61 2.98 4.70 3.17 3.60

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 0.08 0.17 0.17 0.25 0.64 0.88 0.50 1.22 2.61

 Total Unconventional Production . . . . . . . 4.14 5.63 6.13 7.61 8.23 9.66 13.15 11.00 13.54 19.72

Total Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.74 95.52 90.37 87.38 103.06 97.13 98.96 107.90 110.78 115.06
180 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Price case comparisons

Table C6. International liquids supply and disposition summary (continued)

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

14 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Table C6. International Liquids Supply and Disposition Summary (Continued)

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition 2009

Projections

2015 2025 2035

Low Oil

Price Reference High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Low Oil

Price Reference High OilPrice

Consumption8

 OECD

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 21.28 20.44 19.73 22.34 20.99 20.18 23.76 21.93 20.91

 United States Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.28 0.32 0.36

 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 2.40 2.24 2.13 2.48 2.14 2.01 2.64 2.24 2.08

 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 2.29 2.17 2.09 2.57 2.30 2.20 3.02 2.63 2.51

 OECD Europe3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.49 14.47 13.55 12.95 14.61 12.82 12.14 14.91 12.95 12.11

						Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37 4.47 4.18 4.03 4.49 3.98 3.75 4.37 3.88 3.55

 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.32 2.59 2.44 2.34 3.01 2.63 2.54 3.45 3.13 2.89

 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.25 1.18 1.14 1.26 1.13 1.08 1.30 1.17 1.10

 Total OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.73 49.07 46.50 44.70 51.06 46.29 44.23 53.72 48.25 45.51

 Non-OECD

 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83 3.05 2.90 2.80 2.73 2.66 2.71 2.59 2.78 3.01

 Other Europe and Eurasia5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16 2.43 2.25 2.18 2.41 2.25 2.36 2.33 2.48 2.70

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.32 11.99 11.10 10.80 15.60 14.36 15.97 16.50 19.13 20.68

 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.06 3.97 3.68 3.55 4.80 4.54 4.82 4.96 5.64 6.12

 Other Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.13 7.11 6.72 6.51 8.01 7.98 8.46 8.69 9.75 10.94

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.64 7.69 7.47 7.38 8.27 8.76 9.50 9.01 11.02 12.81

 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.31 3.71 3.50 3.39 3.82 3.76 3.97 3.96 4.45 4.94

 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.46 2.96 2.82 2.74 3.10 3.20 3.42 3.16 3.79 4.40

 Other Central and South America . . . . . . . . 3.09 3.55 3.41 3.33 3.27 3.33 3.52 3.00 3.51 3.94

 Total Non-OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.01 46.45 43.87 42.67 52.00 50.84 54.73 54.20 62.54 69.54

Total Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.74 95.52 90.37 87.38 103.06 97.13 98.95 107.92 110.79 115.06

OPEC Production9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.45 42.41 38.08 34.29 47.25 40.77 39.34 50.88 46.50 42.14

Non-OPEC Production9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.29 53.11 52.30 53.09 55.81 56.37 59.62 57.02 64.28 72.92

Net Eurasia Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.80 11.95 11.16 10.90 16.17 13.80 12.87 17.48 16.78 17.18

OPEC Market Share (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.9 44.4 42.1 39.2 45.8 42.0 39.8 47.2 42.0 36.6

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes	production	of	crude	oil	(including	lease	condensate),	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	hydrogen	and	hydrocarbons	for	refinery	feedstocks,	alcohol	and	other	sources,

and refinery gains. 3

OPEC	=	Organization	of	Petroleum	Exporting	Countries	-	Algeria,	Angola,	Ecuador,	Iran,	Iraq,	Kuwait,	Libya,	Nigeria,	Qatar,	Saudi	Arabia,	the	United	Arab	Emirates,	and

Venezuela. 4

OECD	Europe	=	Organization	for	Economic	Cooperation	and	Development	-	Austria,	Belgium,	Czech	Republic,	Denmark,	Finland,	France,	Germany,	Greece,	Hungary,

Iceland,	Ireland,	Italy,	Luxembourg,	the	Netherlands,	Norway,	Poland,	Portugal,	Slovakia,	Spain,	Sweden,	Switzerland,	Turkey,	and the United Kingdom. 5

Other	Europe	and	Eurasia	=	Albania,	Armenia,	Azerbaijan,	Belarus,	Bosnia	and	Herzegovina,	Bulgaria,	Croatia,	Estonia,	Georgia,	Kazakhstan,	Kyrgyzstan,	Latvia,

Lithuania,	Macedonia,	Malta,	Moldova,	Montenegro,	Romania,	Serbia,	Slovenia,	Tajikistan,	Turkmenistan,	Ukraine,	and	Uzbekistan. 6

Other	Asia	=	Afghanistan,	Bangladesh,	Bhutan,	Brunei,	Cambodia	(Kampuchea),	Fiji,	French	Polynesia,	Guam,	Hong	Kong,	Indonesia,	Kiribati,	Laos,	Malaysia,	Macau,

Maldives,	Mongolia,	Myanmar	(Burma),	Nauru,	Nepal,	New	Caledonia,	Niue,	North	Korea,	Pakistan,	Papua	New	Guinea,	Philippines,	Samoa,	Singapore,	Solomon	Islands,	Sri

Lanka,	Taiwan,	Thailand,	Tonga,	Vanuatu,	and	Vietnam. 7

Includes	liquids	produced	from	energy	crops,	natural	gas,	coal,	extra-heavy	oil,	oil	sands,	and	shale.		Includes	both	OPEC	and	non-OPEC producers in the regional

breakdown. 8

Includes both OPEC and non-OPEC consumers in the regional breakdown.

9

Includes both conventional and unconventional liquids production.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil Acquisition Report.” 2009 imported

crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009 quantities and projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy

Modeling	System	runs	LP2011LNO.D022511A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A	and	EIA,	Generate	World	Oil	Balance	Model.
This page intentionally left blank
182 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 1

Table D1. Key Results for Residential and Commercial Sector Technology Cases

Energy Consumption 2009

2015 2025

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Best

Available

Technology

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Best

Available

Technology

Residential

Energy Consumption

 (quadrillion Btu)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . 0.53 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.48 0.45 0.45

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.52 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.37

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum 1.16 1.09 1.07 1.05 1.02 0.99 0.94 0.88 0.83

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.87 5.00 4.94 4.79 4.57 5.23 4.96 4.62 4.18

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Renewable Energy1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.40 0.38 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.36

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65 4.69 4.60 4.26 4.02 5.27 4.98 4.42 3.96

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 11.19 11.02 10.50 10.00 11.96 11.32 10.32 9.34

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . 9.96 9.64 9.46 8.75 8.27 10.83 10.24 9.07 8.14

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.08 20.83 20.48 19.25 18.27 22.79 21.56 19.39 17.48

Delivered Energy Intensity

 (million Btu per household) . . . . . . . 98.0 92.2 90.8 86.5 82.4 88.7 83.9 76.5 69.3

Nonmarketed Renewables

 Consumption (quadrillion Btu) . . . . . 0.01 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.11

Commercial

Energy Consumption

 (quadrillion Btu)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

 Motor Gasoline2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.25

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.47 3.47 3.35 3.34 3.68 3.66 3.42 3.41

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

 Renewable Energy3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51 4.90 4.83 4.60 4.41 5.83 5.58 4.93 4.47

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.49 9.10 9.02 8.67 8.47 10.21 9.94 9.05 8.58

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . 9.66 10.08 9.94 9.46 9.07 11.97 11.47 10.13 9.19

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.15 19.18 18.96 18.13 17.54 22.18 21.41 19.18 17.77

Delivered Energy Intensity

 (thousand Btu per square foot) . . . . 105.9 106.5 105.6 101.4 99.1 104.9 102.1 92.9 88.1

Commercial Sector Generation

 Net Summer Generation Capacity

 (megawatts)

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 781 809 842 842 1257 1702 2166 2263

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 908 910 914 923 1159 1163 1355 1819

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 84 85 85 100 89 113 118 170

 Electricity Generation

 (billion kilowatthours)

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.70 5.63 5.84 6.08 6.08 9.10 12.33 15.71 16.42

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.09 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.84 1.88 2.20 2.96

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.15 0.16 0.23

Nonmarketed Renewables

 Consumption (quadrillion Btu) . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.07

1

Includes wood used for residential heating. See Table A4 and/or Table A17 for estimates of nonmarketed renewable energy consumption for geothermal	heat	pumps,	solar	thermal

hot	water	heating,	and	solar	photovoltaic	electricity	generation. 2

Includes ethanol (blends of 10 percent or less) and ethers blended into gasoline.

3

Includes	commercial	sector	consumption	of	wood	and	wood	waste,	landfill	gas,	municipal	solid	waste,	and	other	biomass	for	combined heat and power.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports. Side cases

were	run	without	the	fully	integrated	modeling	system,	so	not	all	feedbacks	are	captured.	The	reference	case	ratio	of	electricity losses to electricity use was used to compute electricity

losses for the technology cases.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System,	runs	BLDFRZN.D021011A,	REF2011.D020911A,	BLDHIGH.D021011A,	and

BLDBEST.D021011A.

Appendix D

Results from side cases

Table D1. Key results for residential and commercial sector technology cases
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 183

Results from side cases

2 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

2035 Annual Growth 2009-2035 (percent)

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Best

Available

Technology

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Best

Available

Technology

0.50 0.48 0.45 0.44 -0.2% -0.4% -0.6% -0.7%

0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 -1.0% -1.5% -2.1% -2.4%

0.43 0.37 0.32 0.27 -1.4% -1.9% -2.4% -3.0%

0.94 0.86 0.79 0.73 -0.8% -1.1% -1.5% -1.8%

5.34 4.90 4.48 3.98 0.4% 0.0% -0.3% -0.8%

0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 -0.5% -1.1% -1.4% -1.8%

0.48 0.42 0.38 0.33 0.4% -0.1% -0.5% -1.0%

5.96 5.51 4.85 4.25 1.0% 0.7% 0.2% -0.3%

12.74 11.70 10.51 9.29 0.5% 0.2% -0.2% -0.7%

11.99 11.06 9.76 8.54 0.7% 0.4% -0.1% -0.6%

24.72 22.76 20.26 17.83 0.6% 0.3% -0.2% -0.6%

86.7 79.7 71.5 63.2 -0.5% -0.8% -1.2% -1.7%

0.13 0.11 0.13 0.16 9.0% 8.3% 9.0% 10.0%

0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.8% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8%

0.25 0.25 0.23 0.23 -1.2% -1.2% -1.4% -1.4%

0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 -0.5% -0.5% -0.6% -0.6%

3.91 3.92 3.62 3.63 0.8% 0.8% 0.5% 0.5%

0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

6.87 6.43 5.36 4.75 1.6% 1.4% 0.7% 0.2%

11.48 11.05 9.67 9.07 1.2% 1.0% 0.5% 0.3%

13.80 12.93 10.77 9.54 1.4% 1.1% 0.4% -0.0%

25.28 23.98 20.43 18.61 1.3% 1.1% 0.5% 0.1%

104.6 100.7 88.0 82.6 -0.0% -0.2% -0.7% -0.9%

2157 4361 5970 6187 4.7% 7.6% 8.9% 9.0%

1564 1789 2895 5943 3.2% 3.7% 5.7% 8.6%

131 240 260 335 2.0% 4.4% 4.7% 5.7%

15.64 31.68 43.39 44.96 4.7% 7.6% 8.9% 9.1%

2.47 2.93 4.74 9.74 3.2% 3.9% 5.8% 8.8%

0.18 0.34 0.37 0.47 2.2% 4.8% 5.1% 6.1%

0.04 0.04 0.10 0.12 1.0% 1.3% 4.8% 5.5%
184 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D2. Key results for industrial sector technology cases

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 3

Table D2. Key Results for Industrial Sector Technology Cases

Consumption and Indicators 2009

2015 2025 2035

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

2010

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Value of Shipments

 (billion 2005 dollars)

 Manufacturing ..................... 4197 5279 5279 5279 6016 6016 6016 6770 6770 6770

 Nonmanufacturing .................. 1821 2193 2193 2193 2381 2381 2381 2521 2521 2521

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6017 7472 7472 7472 8396 8396 8396 9292 9292 9292

Energy Consumption excluding Refining1

(quadrillion Btu)

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . 2.00 2.33 2.32 2.29 2.36 2.34 2.25 2.17 2.14 2.00

 Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.26 0.24 0.22

 Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.79 2.07 2.07 2.04 2.10 2.09 2.01 1.91 1.90 1.78

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.38 0.32 0.28

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.13 1.27 1.16 1.07 1.32 1.13 0.99

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.15

 Petrochemical Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90 1.29 1.29 1.27 1.34 1.34 1.28 1.26 1.26 1.17

 Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.28 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.26 0.20 0.17

 Asphalt and Road Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.87 1.17 1.08 1.00 1.27 1.01 0.82 1.32 0.94 0.70

 Miscellaneous Petroleum2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.36 0.36 0.34 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.34 0.31 0.26

 Petroleum Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.88 7.10 6.93 6.74 7.40 6.90 6.38 7.22 6.46 5.72

 Natural Gas Heat and Power . . . . . . . . . . 4.43 6.55 6.24 6.36 7.16 6.30 6.62 7.28 6.29 6.63

 Natural Gas Feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.47 0.47 0.43

 Lease and Plant Fuel3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.28 1.28 1.28

 Natural Gas Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16 8.39 8.09 8.19 8.95 8.08 8.38 9.04 8.04 8.34

 Metallurgical Coal and Coke4 . . . . . . . . . 0.38 0.62 0.59 0.56 0.63 0.56 0.47 0.56 0.47 0.37

 Other Industrial Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.88 0.94 0.92 0.92 0.97 0.91 0.90 0.95 0.88 0.86

 Coal Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.26 1.56 1.51 1.48 1.60 1.47 1.37 1.51 1.35 1.23

 Renewables5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.42 1.87 1.89 1.92 1.99 2.05 2.15 1.94 2.04 2.21

 Purchased Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82 3.40 3.37 3.27 3.44 3.34 3.03 3.37 3.09 2.71

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.55 22.33 21.79 21.59 23.38 21.84 21.31 23.08 20.98 20.22

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.04 7.00 6.93 6.72 7.07 6.86 6.23 6.77 6.20 5.46

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.59 29.33 28.73 28.31 30.45 28.70 27.54 29.85 27.19 25.67

Delivered Energy Use per Dollar

 of Shipments

 (thousand Btu per 2005 dollar) . . . . . . . . 3.63 3.65 3.58 3.55 3.53 3.35 3.28 3.33 3.11 3.03

Onsite Industrial Combined Heat and

Power

 Capacity (gigawatts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.07 33.91 32.07 35.95 42.07 37.14 48.54 45.61 43.77 57.17

 Generation (billion kilowatthours) ...... 123.62 201.42 186.37 215.73 262.97 222.04 308.82 290.17 271.90 373.87

1

Fuel	consumption	includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes lubricants and miscellaneous petroleum products.

3

Represents natural gas used in the field gathering and processing plant machinery.

4

Includes net coal coke imports.

5

Includes	consumption	of	energy	from	hydroelectric,	wood	and	wood	waste,	municipal	solid	waste,	and	other	biomass.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports. Side cases

were	run	without	the	fully	integrated	modeling	system,	so	not	all	feedbacks	are	captured.		The	reference	case	ratio	of	electricity losses to electricity use was used to compute electricity

losses for the technology cases.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	INDFRZN.D021011A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	INDHIGH.D021011A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 185

Results from side cases

Table D3. Key results for transportation sector technology cases

4 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D3. Key Results for Transportation Sector Technology Cases

Consumption and Indicators 2009

2015 2025 2035

Low

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Low

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Low

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Level of Travel

 (billion vehicle miles traveled)

						Light-Duty	Vehicles	less	than	8,500 . . 2707 2946 2947 2949 3462 3467 3475 4036 4043 4056

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . 67 81 81 81 92 92 92 104 104 105

						Freight	Trucks	greater	than	10,000 . . 207 250 250 250 291 291 291 335 335 335

 (billion seat miles available)

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 1059 1059 1059 1180 1180 1180 1282 1282 1282

 (billion ton miles traveled)

 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677 1886 1886 1886 2143 2143 2143 2328 2328 2328

 Domestic Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 521 521 521 559 559 559 596 596 596

Energy Efficiency Indicators

 (miles per gallon)

 Tested New Light-Duty Vehicle2 . . . . . 28.0 30.4 31.3 31.6 35.0 35.3 36.5 35.8 36.5 37.9

 New Car2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.7 35.5 36.5 37.2 39.7 40.0 41.6 40.1 40.8 42.7

 New Light Truck2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3 25.9 26.6 26.9 29.0 29.6 30.4 29.5 30.6 31.7

 Light-Duty Stock3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.8 21.9 22.1 22.2 25.4 25.7 26.2 27.5 27.9 28.8

 New Commercial Light Truck1 . . . . . . 15.6 16.1 16.4 16.5 17.6 17.9 18.2 17.5 18.1 18.5

 Stock Commercial Light Truck1 . . . . . 14.4 15.2 15.2 15.3 17.0 17.2 17.4 17.5 18.0 18.3

 Freight Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.4 6.6 6.3 6.6 6.9

 (seat miles per gallon)

 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.0 62.8 62.8 63.0 64.8 65.6 66.7 67.7 69.9 71.7

 (ton miles per thousand Btu)

 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.5

 Domestic Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.6

Energy Use (quadrillion Btu)

 by Mode

 Light-Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.13 16.44 16.36 16.25 16.56 16.40 16.10 17.89 17.66 17.14

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.75 0.73 0.71

 Bus Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.33 0.33 0.33

 Freight Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26 5.21 5.11 5.02 5.96 5.73 5.52 6.67 6.35 6.06

						Rail,	Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07

						Rail,	Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.71 0.69 0.67

						Shipping,	Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.25 0.24 0.23

						Shipping,	International . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.81 0.80 0.80

 Recreational Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.31 0.31 0.31

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.66 2.71 2.71 2.70 2.99 2.95 2.91 3.17 3.07 3.00

 Military Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.76 0.76 0.76

 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.67 0.67 0.67

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.68 28.50 28.28 30.01 29.55 28.98 32.50 31.80 30.86

 by Fuel

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.95 0.93 0.94 1.25 1.23 1.30

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.82 17.09 17.02 16.91 16.06 15.93 15.66 16.86 16.69 16.21

						Jet	Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.19 3.50 3.47 3.43 3.71 3.62 3.54

 Distillate Fuel Oil7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.54 6.68 6.57 6.47 7.69 7.45 7.19 8.68 8.35 7.92

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.83 0.82 0.81

 Other Petroleum8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum . . 26.52 27.95 27.76 27.54 29.19 28.76 28.19 31.52 30.89 29.97

 Pipeline Fuel Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.67 0.67 0.67

 Compressed Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.14 0.10 0.10 0.23 0.16 0.16

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.07

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.68 28.50 28.28 30.01 29.56 28.98 32.50 31.80 30.87

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.16 0.15 0.14

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.28 28.74 28.56 28.34 30.10 29.65 29.07 32.66 31.95 31.01

1

Commercial	trucks	8,500	to	10,000	pounds.

2

Environmental Protection Agency rated miles per gallon.

3

Combined car and light truck “on-the-road” estimate.

4

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 5

Includes ethanol (blends of 10 percent or less) and ethers blended into gasoline.

6

Includes only kerosene type.

7

Diesel fuel for on- and off- road use.

8

Includes aviation gasoline and lubricants.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports. Side cases

were	run	without	the	fully	integrated	modeling	system,	so	not	all	feedbacks	are	captured.		The	reference	case	ratio	of	electricity losses to electricity use was used to compute electricity

losses for the technology cases.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	TRNLOW.D021011A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	TRNHIGH.D021011A.
186 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 5

Table D4. Key Results for Integrated Technology Cases

Consumption and Emissions 2009

2015 2025 2035

Low

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Low

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Low

Technology Reference HighTechnology

Energy Consumption by Sector 

(quadrillion Btu)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 11.18 11.02 10.52 11.91 11.32 10.37 12.67 11.70 10.63

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.49 9.08 9.02 8.73 10.13 9.94 9.14 11.36 11.05 9.83

 Industrial1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.85 26.75 26.75 26.81 27.47 28.11 28.45 28.07 28.89 29.92

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.70 28.50 28.25 29.94 29.56 28.98 32.46 31.80 30.85

 Electric Power2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.31 40.15 39.73 38.15 44.46 43.17 39.74 47.68 46.03 41.72

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 102.71 102.02 100.00 109.35 107.95 103.68 116.23 114.19 109.15

Energy Consumption by Fuel

(quadrillion Btu)

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum3 . . . . 36.62 39.33 39.10 38.81 40.27 39.84 39.16 42.33 41.70 40.60

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.31 25.97 25.77 24.94 26.52 25.73 24.05 28.94 27.24 24.85

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.69 19.91 19.73 18.72 22.98 22.61 21.01 24.43 24.30 22.27

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.17 9.17 8.54 9.14 9.14 8.60

 Renewable Energy4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.51 8.41 8.34 8.45 10.14 10.33 10.66 11.15 11.56 12.59

 Other5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.25 0.25 0.23

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 102.71 102.02 100.00 109.35 107.95 103.68 116.23 114.19 109.15

Energy Intensity (thousand Btu

 per 2005 dollar of GDP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.36 6.70 6.65 6.53 5.47 5.39 5.18 4.52 4.44 4.25

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Sector

(million metric tons)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 340 336 328 345 328 307 348 319 293

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 229 229 224 236 237 227 248 251 237

 Industrial1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 1063 1061 1058 1084 1080 1076 1150 1147 1136

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850 1930 1916 1898 1980 1932 1891 2137 2068 1997

 Electric Power6 ................... 2160 2163 2138 2008 2425 2360 2144 2606 2526 2245

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5426 5724 5680 5516 6070 5938 5645 6489 6311 5908

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fuel

(million metric tons)

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2319 2450 2434 2412 2485 2430 2380 2633 2561 2478

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218 1363 1352 1308 1393 1351 1262 1524 1434 1307

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 1899 1882 1785 2180 2144 1991 2320 2304 2111

 Other7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5426 5724 5680 5516 6070 5938 5645 6489 6311 5908

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

(tons per person) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6 17.5 17.4 16.9 17.0 16.6 15.8 16.6 16.2 15.1

1

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

Includes	petroleum-derived	fuels	and	non-petroleum	derived	fuels,	such	as	ethanol	and	biodiesel,	and	coal-based	synthetic	liquids.		Petroleum	coke,	which	is	a	solid,	is	included.

Also	included	are	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	crude	oil	consumed	as	a	fuel,	and	liquid	hydrogen. 4

Includes grid-connected electricity from conventional hydroelectric; wood and wood waste; landfill gas; biogenic municipal solid waste; other biomass; wind; photovoltaic and

solar	thermal	sources;	and	non-electric	energy	from	renewable	sources,	such	as	active	and	passive	solar	systems,	and	wood;	and	both the ethanol and gasoline components of

E85,	but	not	the	ethanol	component	of	blends	less	than	85	percent.		Excludes	electricity	imports	using	renewable	sources	and	nonmarketed renewable energy. 5

Includes non-biogenic municipal waste and net electricity imports.

6

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal solid waste.

Btu = British thermal unit.

GDP = Gross domestic product.

Note:		Includes	end-use,	fossil	electricity,	and	renewable	technology	assumptions.		Totals	may	not	equal	sum	of	components	due	to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are

model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	LTRKITEN.D030111A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and HTRKITEN.D030111A.

Table D4. Key results for integrated technology cases
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 187

Results from side cases

6 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D5. Key Results for Expanded Standards Cases

(Quadrillion	Btu,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Energy Consumption 2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference Expanded

Standards

Expanded

Standards

and Codes

Reference Expanded

Standards

Expanded

Standards

and Codes

Reference Expanded

Standards

Expanded

Standards

and Codes

Residential Energy Consumption

 by Fuel

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.53 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48 0.47

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.37 0.35 0.34

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.87 4.94 4.94 4.92 4.96 4.89 4.81 4.90 4.73 4.58

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

 Renewable Energy1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.43 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.41

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65 4.60 4.57 4.56 4.98 4.69 4.65 5.51 4.91 4.85

 by End Use

 Space Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.78 4.71 4.71 4.69 4.64 4.57 4.46 4.55 4.39 4.20

 Space Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.99 0.93 0.88

 Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.95 1.99 1.99 1.99 1.99 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.61 1.61

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.38 0.36 0.36

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.41 0.41 0.41

 Clothes Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.23 0.26 0.25 0.25

 Freezers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.08

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.71 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.54 0.52 0.52

 Clothes Washers2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

 Dishwashers2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.10

 Color Televisions and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.36 0.32 0.32 0.42 0.35 0.35

 Personal Computers and Related Equipment 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.14 0.14

 Furnace Fans and Boiler Circulation Pumps 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20

 Other Uses3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.03 1.12 1.09 1.09 1.37 1.29 1.29 1.65 1.56 1.56

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 11.02 10.99 10.96 11.32 10.94 10.80 11.70 10.91 10.68

Residential Delivered Energy Intensity

 (million Btu per household) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98.0 90.8 90.6 90.3 83.9 81.1 80.1 79.7 74.3 72.7

 (thousand Btu per square foot) . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.7 51.5 51.3 51.2 44.5 43.0 42.4 40.2 37.5 36.7

Commercial Energy Consumption

 by Fuel

 Distillate Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.34 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.23

 Other Liquid Fuels4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.47 3.47 3.46 3.66 3.62 3.50 3.92 3.86 3.59

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

 Renewable Energy5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51 4.83 4.83 4.83 5.58 5.42 5.37 6.43 6.18 6.05

 by End Use

 Space Heating6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.94 2.02 2.02 2.01 2.04 2.03 1.90 2.05 2.02 1.71

 Space Cooling6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.65 0.60 0.49

 Water Heating6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.56 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.70 0.66 0.66 0.75 0.69 0.69

 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.71 0.71 0.71

 Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.27 0.27

 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.14 1.11 1.11 1.25 1.20 1.20

 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.39 0.37 0.37

 Office Equipment (Personal Computers) . . . . 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.14 0.14 0.21 0.15 0.15

 Office Equipment (non-PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.47 0.45 0.45

 Other Uses7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.89 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.62 3.61 3.61 4.31 4.29 4.29

 Total Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.49 9.02 9.02 9.01 9.94 9.74 9.57 11.05 10.74 10.33

Commercial Delivered Energy Intensity

 (thousand Btu per square foot) . . . . . . . . . . . . 105.9 105.6 105.5 105.4 102.1 100.0 98.2 100.7 97.8 94.0

1

Includes wood used for residential heating.

2

Does not include water heating portion of load..

3

Includes	small	electric	devices,	heating	elements,	such	outdoor	appliances	as	grills	and	mosquito	traps,	motors	not	included	above,	and	kerosene	and	coal. 4

Includes	liquefied	petroleum	gases,	motor	gasoline,	kerosene,	and	residual	fuel	oil. 5

Includes	commercial	sector	consumption	of	wood	and	wood	waste,	landfill	gas,	municipal	solid	waste,	and	other	biomass	for	combined heat and power. 6

Includes fuel consumption for district services.

7

Includes	miscellaneous	uses,	such	as	service	station	equipment,	automated	teller	machines,	telecommunications	equipment,	medical	equipment,	pumps,	emergency	generation,

combined	heat	and	power	in	commercial	buildings,	manufacturing	performed	in	commercial	buildings,	and	cooking	(distillate),	plus	residual	fuel	oil,	liquefied	petroleum	gases,	coal,

motor	gasoline,	and	kerosene.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports. Side cases

were	run	without	the	fully	integrated	modeling	system,	so	not	all	feedbacks	are	captured.

Source:	 	 U.S.	 Energy	 Information	 Administration,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System,	 runs	 REF2011.D020911A,	 BLDEXPAND.D022811A,	 and

BLDEXPANDCS.D022811A.

Table D5. Key results for expanded standards cases

(quadrillion Btu, unless otherwise noted)
188 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D6.Key results for transportation sector light-duty vehicle efficiency cases

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 7

Table D6. Key Results for Transportation Sector Light-duty Vehicle Efficiency Cases

Consumption and Indicators 2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference CAFE 3%

Growth

CAFE 6%

Growth Reference CAFE 3%Growth

CAFE 6%

Growth Reference CAFE 3%Growth

CAFE 6%

Growth

Level of Travel

 (billion vehicle miles traveled)

						Light-Duty	Vehicles	less	than	8,500 . . 2707 2947 2944 2944 3467 3457 3490 4043 4035 4084

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . 67 81 81 81 92 92 92 104 104 105

						Freight	Trucks	greater	than	10,000 . . 207 250 250 250 291 291 291 335 335 336

 (billion seat miles available)

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 1059 1059 1059 1180 1180 1180 1282 1282 1282

 (billion ton miles traveled)

 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677 1886 1884 1881 2143 2142 2151 2328 2322 2337

 Domestic Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 521 522 521 559 558 558 596 592 593

Energy Efficiency Indicators

 (miles per gallon)

 Tested New Light-Duty Vehicle2 . . . . . 28.0 31.3 31.4 31.4 35.3 44.6 55.0 36.5 46.4 58.5

 New Car2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.7 36.5 36.7 36.7 40.0 52.1 70.8 40.8 54.2 75.8

 New Light Truck2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3 26.6 26.7 26.7 29.6 36.7 41.8 30.6 37.4 43.8

 Light-Duty Stock3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.8 22.1 22.1 22.1 25.7 28.6 30.2 27.9 34.0 39.4

 New Commercial Light Truck1 . . . . . . 15.6 16.4 16.4 16.4 17.9 20.7 22.2 18.1 20.8 22.8

 Stock Commercial Light Truck1 . . . . . 14.4 15.2 15.2 15.2 17.2 18.2 18.8 18.0 20.5 22.2

 Freight Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.6 6.6 6.6

 (seat miles per gallon)

 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.0 62.8 62.8 62.8 65.6 65.6 65.6 69.9 69.9 69.9

 (ton miles per thousand Btu)

 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4

 Domestic Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Energy Use (quadrillion Btu)

 by Mode

 Light-Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.13 16.36 16.34 16.34 16.40 14.79 14.53 17.66 14.37 12.90

 Commercial Light Trucks1 . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.63 0.61 0.73 0.63 0.59

 Bus Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.33 0.33 0.33

 Freight Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26 5.11 5.11 5.11 5.73 5.73 5.72 6.35 6.35 6.38

						Rail,	Passenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06

						Rail,	Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.69 0.69 0.69

						Shipping,	Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.24

						Shipping,	International . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.80

 Recreational Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.31 0.31 0.32

 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.66 2.71 2.71 2.71 2.95 2.96 2.96 3.07 3.08 3.08

 Military Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.76 0.76 0.76

 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.67 0.66 0.67

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.50 28.48 28.48 29.55 27.92 27.63 31.80 28.42 26.95

 by Fuel

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 E854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.93 1.22 1.25 1.23 1.56 1.74

 Motor Gasoline5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.82 17.02 16.97 16.97 15.93 13.39 12.93 16.69 12.03 9.82

						Jet	Fuel6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.47 3.47 3.47 3.62 3.62 3.62

 Distillate Fuel Oil7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.54 6.57 6.60 6.60 7.45 8.06 8.13 8.35 9.28 9.56

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82

 Other Petroleum8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum . . 26.52 27.76 27.74 27.74 28.76 27.13 26.76 30.89 27.50 25.76

 Pipeline Fuel Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.67 0.66 0.67

 Compressed Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.16 0.16 0.16

 Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.13 0.07 0.10 0.36

 Delivered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.50 28.48 28.48 29.56 27.92 27.63 31.80 28.42 26.95

 Electricity Related Losses . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.27 0.15 0.20 0.73

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.28 28.56 28.53 28.53 29.65 28.03 27.91 31.95 28.62 27.68

1

Commercial	trucks	8,500	to	10,000	pounds.

2

Environmental Protection Agency rated miles per gallon.

3

Combined car and light truck “on-the-road” estimate.

4

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The annual average ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 5

Includes ethanol (blends of 10 percent or less) and ethers blended into gasoline.

6

Includes only kerosene type.

7

Diesel fuel for on- and off- road use.

8

Includes aviation gasoline and lubricants.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports. Side cases

were	run	without	the	fully	integrated	modeling	system,	so	not	all	feedbacks	are	captured.		The	reference	case	ratio	of	electricity losses to electricity use was used to compute electricity

losses for the technology cases.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	REF2011.D020911A,	CAFE3.D022211A,	and	CAFE6.D022211A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 189

Results from side cases

Table D7. Key results for the transportation sector Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy Standards case

8 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D7. Key Results for Heavy Truck Efficiency Case

Sales, Consumption, Supply, and Prices 2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference

Heavy-duty

Vehicle Fuel

Economy

Standards

Reference

Heavy-duty

Vehicle Fuel

Economy

Standards

Reference

Heavy-duty

Vehicle Fuel

Economy

Standards

Truck Sales by Size Class (millions) .......... 0.31 0.62 0.62 0.75 0.76 0.93 0.93

 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.31 0.31 0.37 0.37 0.46 0.46

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.22 0.22 0.26 0.27 0.32 0.33

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.11

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01

 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.31 0.31 0.38 0.38 0.47 0.47

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.29 0.29 0.36 0.36 0.44 0.44

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Consumption by Size Class

(quadrillion Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26 5.11 5.02 5.72 5.52 6.34 6.19

 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.81 1.05 1.03 1.23 1.14 1.42 1.30

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.56 0.76 0.75 0.91 0.86 1.06 0.98

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.29 0.27

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.04

 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.45 4.06 3.99 4.49 4.38 4.93 4.88

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.34 3.97 3.91 4.42 4.30 4.84 4.80

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03

New Truck Fuel Efficiency by Size Class

(gasoline equivalent miles per gallon) . . . . . . . . 6.14 6.12 6.53 6.53 6.70 6.71 6.85

 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.89 7.85 8.31 7.84 8.46 7.84 8.45

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.96 7.95 8.37 7.95 8.63 7.95 8.63

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.60 7.64 8.16 7.79 8.26 7.84 8.26

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.60 7.63 8.13 7.63 8.19 7.63 8.16

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.94 5.96 6.02 5.96 6.02 5.96 6.02

 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60 5.70 6.06 6.18 6.24 6.40 6.42

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.59 5.68 6.05 6.17 6.23 6.39 6.41

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.41 8.40 8.45 8.40 8.45 8.40 8.45

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.30 5.30 5.51 5.33 5.51 5.33 5.51

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.64 5.63 5.73 5.62 5.73 5.62 5.73

Stock Fuel Efficiency by Size Class

(gasoline equivalent miles per gallon) . . . . . . . . 6.09 6.12 6.23 6.36 6.60 6.61 6.78

 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.95 7.88 7.96 7.83 8.27 7.83 8.41

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.05 7.99 8.07 7.96 8.45 7.95 8.60

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.85 7.72 7.77 7.68 8.00 7.78 8.21

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.03 7.47 7.57 7.61 8.08 7.63 8.17

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.00 5.97 5.98 5.96 6.02 5.96 6.02

 Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.65 5.66 5.76 5.95 6.11 6.24 6.29

 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.58 5.62 5.71 5.92 6.09 6.22 6.28

 Motor Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.14 8.25 8.25 8.37 8.40 8.40 8.44

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.28 5.29 5.31 5.31 5.45 5.33 5.49

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.63 5.63 5.70 5.62 5.73 5.62 5.73

1

Includes lease condensate.

2

Includes	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	refinery	processing	gain,	other	crude	oil	supply,	and	stock	withdrawals.

3

Includes	liquids,	such	as	ethanol	and	biodiesel,	derived	from	biomass,	natural	gas,	and	coal.		Includes	net	imports	of	ethanol	and biodiesel.

- - = Not applicable.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	data	based	on:		Oak	Ridge	National	Laboratory,	Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 28 and Annual	(Oak	Ridge,	TN,	2009);	U.S.	Department	of	Commerce,

Bureau	of	the	Census,	“Vehicle	Inventory	and	Use	Survey,”	EC02TV	(Washington,	DC,	December	2004);	Federal	Highway	Administration, Highway Statistics 2007	(Washington,

DC,	October	2008);	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010);	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National

Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	REF2011.D020911A	and	HDVCAFE.D030411A.
190 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D8. Energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, extended policy cases

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 9

Table D8. Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions for Extended Policy Cases

Consumption and Emissions 2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference No Sunset Extended

Policies Reference No Sunset ExtendedPolicies Reference No Sunset ExtendedPolicies

Energy Consumption by Sector 

(quadrillion Btu)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 11.02 10.94 10.88 11.32 10.99 10.55 11.70 11.20 10.36

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.49 9.02 9.03 9.02 9.94 9.95 9.61 11.05 11.08 10.45

 Industrial1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.85 26.75 26.81 26.65 28.11 28.36 28.01 28.89 29.51 28.49

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.23 28.50 28.52 28.47 29.56 29.54 27.90 31.80 31.81 28.39

 Electric Power2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.31 39.73 39.66 39.50 43.17 42.52 40.92 46.03 45.28 42.70

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 102.02 101.99 101.60 107.95 107.43 103.60 114.19 113.93 106.35

Energy Consumption by Fuel

(quadrillion Btu)

 Liquid Fuels and Other Petroleum3 . . . . 36.62 39.10 39.11 38.99 39.84 39.80 37.91 41.70 41.69 37.83

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.31 25.77 25.78 25.61 25.73 25.66 24.86 27.24 26.70 25.28

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.69 19.73 19.80 19.81 22.61 22.39 21.64 24.30 24.09 23.22

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.17 9.17 8.97 9.14 9.14 8.94

 Renewable Energy4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.51 8.34 8.21 8.10 10.33 10.13 9.93 11.56 12.07 10.83

 Other5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.23

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.79 102.02 101.99 101.60 107.95 107.43 103.60 114.19 113.93 106.35

Energy Intensity (thousand Btu

 per 2005 dollar of GDP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.36 6.65 6.65 6.63 5.39 5.37 5.18 4.44 4.43 4.14

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Sector

(million metric tons)

 Residential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 336 333 332 328 320 313 319 308 294

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 229 229 229 237 238 230 251 253 235

 Industrial1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 1061 1063 1056 1080 1092 1071 1147 1164 1128

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850 1916 1912 1914 1932 1918 1815 2068 2062 1841

 Electric Power6 ................... 2160 2138 2145 2141 2360 2329 2233 2526 2468 2346

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5426 5680 5682 5671 5938 5897 5663 6311 6255 5843

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fuel

(million metric tons)

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2319 2434 2429 2427 2430 2414 2294 2561 2553 2300

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218 1352 1352 1343 1351 1347 1305 1434 1405 1330

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 1882 1889 1889 2144 2123 2052 2304 2285 2201

 Other7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5426 5680 5682 5671 5938 5897 5663 6311 6255 5843

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

(tons per person) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6 17.4 17.4 17.4 16.6 16.5 15.8 16.2 16.0 15.0

1

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

Includes	petroleum-derived	fuels	and	non-petroleum	derived	fuels,	such	as	ethanol	and	biodiesel,	and	coal-based	synthetic	liquids.		Petroleum	coke,	which	is	a	solid,	is	included.

Also	included	are	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	crude	oil	consumed	as	a	fuel,	and	liquid	hydrogen. 4

Includes grid-connected electricity from conventional hydroelectric; wood and wood waste; landfill gas; biogenic municipal solid waste; other biomass; wind; photovoltaic and

solar	thermal	sources;	and	non-electric	energy	from	renewable	sources,	such	as	active	and	passive	solar	systems,	and	wood;	and	both the ethanol and gasoline components of

E85,	but	not	the	ethanol	component	of	blends	less	than	85	percent.		Excludes	electricity	imports	using	renewable	sources	and	nonmarketed renewable energy. 5

Includes non-biogenic municipal waste and net electricity imports.

6

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal solid waste.

Btu = British thermal unit.

GDP = Gross domestic product.

Note:		Includes	end-use,	fossil	electricity,	and	renewable	technology	assumptions.		Totals	may	not	equal	sum	of	components	due	to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are

model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	REF2011.D020911A,	NOSUNSET.D030711A,	and EXTENDED.D031011A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 191

Results from side cases

Table D9. Electricity generation and generating capacity, extended policy cases

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

10 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D9. Electricity Generation and Generating Capacity in Extended Policy Cases

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Net Summer Capacity, Generation

Consumption, and Emissions 2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference No Sunset Extended

Policies Reference No Sunset ExtendedPolicies Reference No Sunset ExtendedPolicies

Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033.4 1075.0 1069.7 1056.4 1118.9 1117.9 1086.3 1221.0 1239.1 1155.5

 Electric Power Sector1 ..................... 1001.9 1025.1 1019.6 1005.9 1050.8 1029.2 994.8 1131.5 1099.4 1014.2

 Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.9 316.4 314.6 308.7 315.0 312.2 304.5 315.3 312.2 304.5

 Coal Gasification Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6

 Conventional Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . 197.2 203.2 203.2 203.2 203.9 203.5 203.2 205.0 204.8 203.3

 Advanced Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 6.0 2.3 0.0 54.6 27.9 4.0

 Conventional Combustion Turbine .......... 137.5 136.7 136.2 134.6 135.8 135.4 131.1 135.8 135.4 131.1

 Advanced Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.9 3.7 3.4 19.5 9.5 4.2 45.8 26.0 11.0

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.0 105.7 105.7 105.7 110.5 110.5 108.1 110.5 110.5 108.1

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam ................ 114.4 99.9 100.3 96.3 92.8 88.4 82.6 88.7 88.3 82.6

 Renewable Sources ..................... 117.0 136.1 133.2 131.5 141.5 142.3 136.5 148.3 167.9 144.2

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.3 0.5 0.2 3.1 2.0 0.9

 Combined Heat and Power2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 50.0 50.1 50.5 68.1 88.7 91.5 89.5 139.7 141.3

 Fossil Fuels/Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.0 32.5 32.7 33.1 40.7 43.2 44.7 57.9 62.3 64.4

 Renewable Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 17.5 17.5 17.4 27.4 45.5 46.8 31.6 77.4 76.9

Cumulative Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 63.7 60.1 58.2 117.2 123.7 112.3 223.4 245.0 181.5

 Electric Power Sector1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 45.3 41.4 39.3 80.6 66.5 52.4 165.4 136.8 71.8

 Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 12.9 12.9 12.9 13.2 12.9 12.9

 Coal Gasification Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

 Conventional Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . 0.0 6.4 6.4 6.4 7.0 6.7 6.4 8.1 7.9 6.5

 Advanced Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 6.0 2.3 0.0 54.6 27.9 4.0

 Conventional Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.0

 Advanced Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.9 3.7 3.4 19.5 9.5 4.2 45.8 26.0 11.0

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 19.4 16.5 14.8 24.8 25.6 19.8 31.6 51.2 27.5

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.3 0.5 0.2 3.1 2.0 0.9

 Combined Heat and Power2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 18.5 18.6 18.9 36.6 57.2 59.9 58.0 108.2 109.7

 Fossil Fuels/Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 8.5 8.7 9.1 16.8 19.2 20.6 33.9 38.4 40.4

 Renewable Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 9.9 9.9 9.8 19.8 38.0 39.3 24.0 69.8 69.3

Cumulative Retirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 25.4 27.1 38.6 35.2 42.8 63.0 39.3 42.8 63.0

Generation by Fuel (billion kilowatthours) ..... 3978 4253 4246 4230 4682 4661 4504 5167 5168 4886

 Electric Power Sector1 ..................... 3811 3998 3991 3972 4300 4239 4063 4633 4529 4236

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 1769 1775 1776 2016 1996 1925 2107 2090 2009

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 38 38 38 40 41 40 42 42 41

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 858 858 846 820 788 727 1033 901 787

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 839 839 839 877 877 858 874 874 855

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 494 480 473 545 537 513 572 618 541

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0

 Distributed Generation ................... 0 1 00310542

 Combined Heat and Power2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 255 256 257 381 422 440 533 639 650

 Fossil Fuels/Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 63 63 62 128 152 161 152 226 224

 Renewable Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 192 193 195 253 270 279 381 413 426

Average Electricity Price

(cents per kilowatthour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 8.9 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.7 9.2 8.9 8.6

1

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes	small	power	producers

and exempt wholesale generators. 2

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors. Includes small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,

commercial,	and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.		Excludes off-grid photovoltaics and other generators not

connected to the distribution or transmission systems.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	REF2011.D020911A,	NOSUNSET.D030711A,	and EXTENDED.D031011A.
192 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D10. Key results for advanced nuclear cost cases

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 11

Table D10. Key Results for Advanced Nuclear Cost Cases

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Net Summer Capacity, Generation,

 Emissions, and Fuel Prices 2009

2015 2025 2035

High

Nuclear

Cost

Reference

Low

Nuclear

Cost

High

Nuclear

Cost

Reference

Low

Nuclear

Cost

High

Nuclear

Cost

Reference

Low

Nuclear

Cost

Capacity

 Coal Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.9 317.4 317.0 316.5 317.6 317.6 317.4 317.9 317.9 317.4

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114.4 101.0 99.9 101.3 93.9 92.8 94.4 89.7 88.7 93.7

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197.2 203.5 203.5 203.4 211.6 209.9 208.3 262.5 259.5 238.4

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137.5 140.4 140.6 140.6 154.8 155.3 156.1 177.0 181.6 181.7

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.0 105.7 105.7 105.7 110.5 110.5 111.3 110.5 110.5 129.1

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117.0 136.2 136.3 136.2 142.2 141.7 142.0 148.7 148.5 146.6

 Distributed Generation (Natural Gas) . . . . . . . 0.0 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.7 1.3 1.7 4.3 3.1 4.7

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 50.0 50.0 50.0 68.8 68.1 68.0 90.3 89.5 89.5

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033.4 1076.9 1075.2 1076.3 1123.0 1119.1 1120.9 1222.5 1221.2 1222.8

Cumulative Additions

 Coal Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.8 13.8 13.5

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 6.6 6.6 6.5 14.8 13.1 11.5 65.6 62.7 41.5

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 5.9 6.1 6.0 21.1 21.6 22.4 43.3 47.9 48.0

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 6.3 6.3 7.1 6.3 6.3 25.0

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 19.3 19.4 19.3 25.3 24.8 25.1 31.8 31.6 29.7

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.7 1.3 1.7 4.3 3.1 4.7

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 18.5 18.5 18.4 37.3 36.6 36.5 58.8 58.0 58.0

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 63.7 63.7 63.8 120.0 117.2 117.7 223.9 223.4 220.3

Cumulative Retirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 23.7 25.4 24.4 34.2 35.2 33.9 38.5 39.3 34.6

Generation by Fuel (billion kilowatthours)

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 1754 1769 1783 2005 2016 2030 2104 2107 2087

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 38 38 38 40 40 40 42 42 42

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 870 858 847 826 820 809 1034 1033 922

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 839 839 839 877 877 882 874 874 1019

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 493 494 491 545 545 542 572 572 569

 Distributed Generation ................... 0 1 1 1333454

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 255 255 254 387 381 380 540 533 534

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3978 4250 4253 4254 4683 4682 4685 5171 5167 5176

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by the Electric

 Power Sector (million metric tons)2

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 33 33 33 36 35 35 37 37 37

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 384 379 375 364 362 358 427 428 393

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742 1698 1714 1727 1939 1951 1967 2047 2049 2030

 Other3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160 2128 2138 2147 2351 2360 2372 2524 2526 2472

Prices to the Electric Power Sector2

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.26 13.98 13.96 13.97 17.39 17.31 17.74 18.29 18.06 18.27

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 4.72 4.67 4.65 5.79 5.76 5.77 6.83 6.80 6.52

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.12 2.11 2.12 2.26 2.24 2.24 2.40 2.40 2.38

1

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in commercial and industrial sectors. Includes small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,	commercial,

and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.		Excludes	off-grid photovoltaics and other generators not connected

to the distribution or transmission systems. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal solid waste.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	HCNUC11.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	LCNUC11.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 193

Results from side cases

Table D11. Key results for electric power sector fossil technology cases

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

12 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D11. Key Results for Electric Power Sector Fossil Technology Cases

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Net Summer Capacity, Generation

Consumption, and Emissions 2009

2015 2025 2035

High

Fossil

Technology

Cost

Reference

Low

Fossil

Technology

Cost

High

Fossil

Technology

Cost

Reference

Low

Fossil

Technology

Cost

High

Fossil

Technology

Cost

Reference

Low

Fossil

Technology

Cost

Capacity

 Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.9 315.3 316.4 316.6 314.7 315.0 314.7 314.7 315.3 330.3

 Coal Gasification Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 5.0

 Conventional Natural Gas Combined-Cycle ..... 197.2 203.3 203.2 203.3 204.0 203.9 204.9 205.9 205.0 205.6

 Advanced Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.7 5.2 6.0 18.5 49.7 54.6 65.7

 Conventional Combustion Turbine ............ 137.5 136.7 136.7 137.3 135.9 135.8 136.6 135.9 135.8 135.7

 Advanced Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.6 3.9 4.7 19.2 19.5 18.3 44.3 45.8 31.9

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.0 105.7 105.7 105.7 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam ................. 114.4 100.6 99.9 100.9 93.4 92.8 88.5 91.0 88.7 85.2

 Renewable Sources/Pumped Storage ......... 138.8 157.8 158.0 157.9 163.9 163.4 161.3 170.6 170.2 165.3

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.6 1.3 4.7 1.4 3.1 16.0

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 50.0 50.0 50.0 68.1 68.1 67.4 90.1 89.5 88.1

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033.4 1074.4 1075.0 1079.0 1118.1 1118.9 1127.9 1216.6 1221.0 1239.3

Cumulative Additions

 Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 12.9 12.9 12.9 12.9 13.2 28.5

 Coal Gasification Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 3.0

 Conventional Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . 0.0 6.5 6.4 6.5 7.2 7.0 8.0 9.1 8.1 8.7

 Advanced Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.7 5.2 6.0 18.5 49.7 54.6 65.7

 Conventional Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 2.1 2.1 3.1 2.1 2.1 3.1 2.1 2.1 3.1

 Advanced Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.6 3.9 4.7 19.2 19.5 18.3 44.3 45.8 31.9

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 19.2 19.4 19.3 25.4 24.8 22.7 32.1 31.6 26.7

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.6 1.3 4.7 1.4 3.1 16.0

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 18.5 18.5 18.5 36.6 36.6 35.9 58.6 58.0 56.6

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 63.4 63.7 66.7 116.1 117.2 131.0 217.0 223.4 246.6

Cumulative Retirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 25.7 25.4 24.4 34.9 35.2 40.0 37.3 39.3 44.3

Generation by Fuel (billion kilowatthours)

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 1792 1769 1763 2002 2016 1990 2083 2107 2179

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 37 38 38 40 40 41 42 42 42

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 838 858 861 822 820 840 1035 1033 983

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 839 839 839 877 877 877 874 874 874

 Renewable Sources/Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . 386 491 493 493 550 544 541 581 572 565

 Distributed Generation ..................... 0 0 1 2 1 3 8 4 5 14

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 255 255 255 381 381 377 537 533 526

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3978 4253 4253 4252 4674 4682 4675 5155 5167 5183

Fuel Consumption by the Electric Power

 Sector (quadrillion Btu)2

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.30 18.21 17.99 17.92 20.44 20.61 20.33 21.35 21.64 22.11

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.48

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.06 6.99 7.15 7.18 6.84 6.82 6.92 8.11 8.07 7.69

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.17 9.17 9.17 9.14 9.14 9.14

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.89 5.03 5.08 5.06 5.87 5.84 5.76 6.52 6.47 6.20

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.19 39.63 39.62 39.57 42.97 43.09 42.84 45.79 45.99 45.82

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by the Electric

 Power Sector (million metric tons)2

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742 1734 1714 1706 1935 1951 1925 2023 2049 2096

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 37 37

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 371 379 381 363 362 367 430 428 408

 Other3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160 2150 2138 2133 2345 2360 2340 2502 2526 2553

1

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors. Includes small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,

commercial,	and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.		Excludes off-grid photovoltaics and other generators not

connected to the distribution or transmission systems. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal solid waste.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	HCFOSS11.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and LCFOSS11.D020911A.
194 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D12. Key results for electric power sector capital cost cases

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 13

Table D12. Key Results for Electric Power Sector Technology Cost Cases

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Net Summer Capacity, Generation

Consumption, and Emissions 2009

2015 2025 2035

Frozen

Plant

Capital

Costs

Reference

Decreasing

Plant

Capital

Costs

Frozen

Plant

Capital

Costs

Reference

Decreasing

Plant

Capital

Costs

Frozen

Plant

Capital

Costs

Reference

Decreasing

Plant

Capital

Costs

Capacity

 Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.9 316.4 316.4 316.7 314.5 315.0 315.4 314.5 315.3 320.5

 Coal Gasification Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6

 Conventional Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . 197.2 203.2 203.2 203.2 203.7 203.9 204.1 205.2 205.0 204.4

 Advanced Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 4.5 6.0 14.4 53.1 54.6 52.3

 Conventional Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . 137.5 136.5 136.7 138.6 135.6 135.8 137.8 135.6 135.8 137.2

 Advanced Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.9 3.9 3.4 18.6 19.5 17.1 44.0 45.8 32.4

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.0 105.7 105.7 105.7 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 117.0

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114.4 100.3 99.9 100.5 91.6 92.8 88.4 90.2 88.7 87.3

 Renewable Sources/Pumped Storage . . . . . . . 138.8 157.8 158.0 162.4 161.8 163.4 168.8 166.2 170.2 202.9

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.0 1.3 6.7 2.1 3.1 24.3

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 50.0 50.0 49.7 68.3 68.1 67.0 90.4 89.5 86.7

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033.4 1075.2 1075.0 1082.2 1112.7 1118.9 1132.7 1214.4 1221.0 1267.6

Cumulative Additions

 Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 12.9 12.9 12.9 12.9 13.2 18.1

 Coal Gasification Combined-Cycle . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

 Conventional Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . 0.0 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.8 7.0 7.3 8.4 8.1 7.5

 Advanced Natural Gas Combined-Cycle . . . . . 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 4.5 6.0 14.4 53.1 54.6 52.3

 Conventional Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . 0.0 2.0 2.1 4.0 2.0 2.1 4.0 2.0 2.1 4.0

 Advanced Combustion Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.9 3.9 3.4 18.6 19.5 17.1 44.0 45.8 32.4

 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 12.9

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 19.2 19.4 23.9 23.2 24.8 30.2 27.6 31.6 64.3

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.0 1.3 6.7 2.1 3.1 24.3

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 18.5 18.5 18.2 36.8 36.6 35.5 58.9 58.0 55.2

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 63.4 63.7 69.9 112.8 117.2 135.1 215.9 223.4 271.7

Cumulative Retirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 24.9 25.4 24.4 37.0 35.2 39.3 38.5 39.3 41.0

Generation by Fuel (billion kilowatthours)

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 1754 1769 1794 2008 2016 2060 2089 2107 2153

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 38 38 38 41 40 40 42 42 42

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 871 858 827 821 820 796 1043 1033 919

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 839 839 839 877 877 877 874 874 925

 Renewable Sources/Pumped Storage . . . . . . . 386 492 493 507 542 544 551 566 572 656

 Distributed Generation ................... 0 0 1 1 2 3 3 5 5 10

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 255 255 253 382 381 374 539 533 515

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3978 4251 4253 4259 4674 4682 4702 5159 5167 5220

Fuel Consumption by the Electric Power

 Sector (quadrillion Btu)2

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.30 17.83 17.99 18.28 20.53 20.61 21.11 21.44 21.64 22.07

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.46 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.47 0.48

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.06 7.25 7.15 6.92 6.84 6.82 6.58 8.14 8.07 7.32

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 8.77 8.77 8.77 9.17 9.17 9.17 9.14 9.14 9.67

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.89 5.04 5.08 5.22 5.79 5.84 5.87 6.39 6.47 7.12

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.19 39.53 39.62 39.82 42.99 43.09 43.39 45.79 45.99 46.86

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by the Electric

 Power Sector (million metric tons)2

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742 1698 1714 1741 1945 1951 1999 2032 2049 2090

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 34 33 33 36 35 36 37 37 37

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 385 379 367 363 362 349 432 428 388

 Other3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160 2128 2138 2153 2355 2360 2395 2514 2526 2527

1

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors. Includes small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,

commercial,	and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.		Excludes off-grid photovoltaics and other generators not

connected to the distribution or transmission systems. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 3

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal solid waste.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	FRZCST11.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and DECCST11.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 195

Results from side cases

Table D13. Key results for electric power sector renewable technology cost cases

14 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D13. Key Results for Renewable Technology Cases

Capacity, Generation, and Emissions 2009

2015 2025 2035

High

Renewable

Technology

Cost

Reference

Low

Renewable

Technology

Cost

High

Renewable

Technology

Cost

Reference

Low

Renewable

Technology

Cost

High

Renewable

Technology

Cost

Reference

Low

Renewable

Technology

Cost

Net Summer Capacity (gigawatts)

 Electric Power Sector1

 Conventional Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . 76.87 77.60 77.52 77.74 78.23 78.59 79.66 79.38 79.85 83.07

 Geothermal2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.42 2.66 2.75 2.57 4.01 4.21 4.41 4.80 6.42 6.81

 Municipal Waste3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.37

 Wood and Other Biomass4 . . . . . . . . . 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.46 2.19 2.19 4.86

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.35 1.35

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.32 0.32 0.33 0.46 0.52 8.25

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.45 49.10 49.10 52.04 52.88 51.76 53.82 58.89 54.83 84.27

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116.98 136.32 136.33 139.32 142.30 141.75 145.35 150.45 148.53 191.98

 End-Use Sector5

 Conventional Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Municipal Waste6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30

 Wood and Other Biomass . . . . . . . . . . 4.86 7.12 7.26 7.64 11.06 15.14 17.31 16.97 18.06 23.18

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.50 7.15 7.73 8.10 8.35 9.51 10.72 8.73 10.68 14.40

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 1.37 1.45 1.61 1.53 1.70 1.90 1.57 1.83 2.14

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.55 16.65 17.46 18.35 21.95 27.36 30.94 28.28 31.58 40.72

Generation (billion kilowatthours)

 Electric Power Sector1

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 1775 1769 1779 2016 2016 1999 2102 2107 2059

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 37 38 38 40 40 41 42 42 42

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 851 858 828 815 820 795 1039 1033 912

 Total Fossil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2626 2663 2665 2645 2871 2876 2834 3182 3182 3013

 Conventional Hydropower .......... 270.20 293.77 293.22 293.54 303.66 305.17 310.02 308.99 310.59 322.88

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21 18.87 19.63 18.20 29.71 31.36 33.01 36.10 49.19 52.54

 Municipal Waste7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.39 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80 14.80

 Wood and Other Biomass4 . . . . . . . . . 10.39 22.44 20.51 34.74 58.98 38.41 66.47 43.98 32.64 82.19

 Dedicated Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.73 7.34 7.06 9.93 12.13 8.54 11.61 10.15 8.15 28.46

 Cofiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.66 15.10 13.45 24.81 46.85 29.87 54.87 33.83 24.49 53.72

 Solar Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.66 2.66 2.66

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.78 0.80 0.82 1.14 1.31 19.69

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.82 142.55 142.52 152.48 154.36 151.48 158.22 174.69 160.88 256.57

 Total Renewable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.82 495.27 493.52 516.60 564.86 544.58 585.89 582.35 572.06 751.32

 End-Use Sector5

 Total Fossil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 176 176 177 238 237 239 368 365 365

 Conventional Hydropower8 . . . . . . . . . 3.34 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49 3.49

 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Municipal Waste6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.96 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56

 Wood and Other Biomass . . . . . . . . . . 27.88 41.74 42.60 44.81 71.86 104.98 119.01 115.84 126.57 161.27

 Solar Photovoltaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.34 10.85 11.99 12.52 12.70 14.86 16.67 13.30 16.79 22.65

 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 1.85 1.97 2.15 2.08 2.34 2.58 2.15 2.53 2.92

 Total Renewable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.76 60.49 62.61 65.54 92.69 128.22 144.31 137.33 151.94 192.89

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by the

Electric Power Sector

(million metric tons)1

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742.2 1720.9 1713.6 1722.6 1954.4 1951.5 1935.5 2045.5 2049.1 2000.8

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.5 33.1 33.3 33.2 35.5 35.0 35.8 36.9 36.7 36.8

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372.6 376.6 379.4 367.3 359.6 362.0 352.6 429.1 428.3 386.2

 Other 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160.3 2142.5 2138.2 2135.1 2361.4 2360.4 2335.9 2523.5 2526.1 2435.8

1

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 2

Includes hydrothermal resources only (hot water and steam).

3

Includes	all	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		Incremental	growth	is	assumed	to	be	for	landfill	gas	facilities.		All	municipal	waste	is	included,	although

a portion of the municipal waste stream contains petroleum-derived plastics and other non-renewable sources. 4

Includes projections for energy crops after 2010.

5

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors; and small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,	commercial,

and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.		Excludes	off-grid photovoltaics and other generators not connected

to the distribution or transmission systems. 6

Includes	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		All	municipal	waste	is	included,	although	a	portion	of	the municipal waste stream contains petroleum-derived

plastics and other non-renewable sources. 7

Includes	biogenic	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	and	municipal	sewage	sludge.		Incremental	growth	is	assumed	to	be	for	landfill gas facilities. 8

Represents own-use industrial hydroelectric power.

9

Includes emissions from geothermal power and nonbiogenic emissions from municipal solid waste.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:	 	 U.S.	 Energy	 Information	 Administration,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System	 runs	 HIRENCST11.D022811B,	 REF2011.D020911A,	 and

LORENCST11.D022811A.
196 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D14. Key results for electric power sector emissions cases

(gigawatts, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 15

Table D14. Key Results for Electric Power Sector Emission Cases

(Gigawatts,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Net Summer Capacity, Generation,

 Emissions, and Fuel Prices 2009

2035

Reference

 Transport

Rule

Mercury

MACT 20

Transport

Rule

Mercury

MACT 5

 Retrofit

Required

20

 Retrofit

Required 5 GHG Price High ShaleEUR

Low Gas

Price

Retrofit

Required

20

Low Gas

Price

Retrofit

Required 5

Capacity

 Coal Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.9 317.9 313.2 308.6 307.8 282.7 191.2 310.8 286.9 253.8

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114.4 88.7 90.3 91.0 91.1 94.3 84.4 97.2 99.5 100.7

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197.2 259.5 261.2 269.0 266.8 278.0 263.3 253.7 268.2 292.5

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137.5 181.6 179.4 175.6 179.3 180.0 149.2 187.4 186.8 190.9

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.0 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 110.5 133.6 108.2 108.2 110.5

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.8

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117.0 148.5 148.2 148.5 150.0 151.3 203.9 138.0 141.1 145.4

 Distributed Generation (Natural Gas) . . . . . . . 0.0 3.1 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.4 1.3 14.1 13.6 10.6

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 89.5 90.6 89.8 90.1 90.5 128.0 98.4 99.2 99.6

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033.4 1221.2 1218.1 1218.2 1221.6 1213.5 1176.8 1229.5 1225.4 1225.8

Cumulative Additions

 Coal Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 13.8 13.8 13.5 14.2 14.7 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5

 Oil and Natural Gas Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 62.7 64.4 72.1 69.9 81.2 66.4 56.8 71.3 95.6

 Combustion Turbine/Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 47.9 45.8 41.9 45.3 44.2 18.7 51.7 50.7 55.0

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 29.5 6.3 6.3 6.3

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 31.6 31.3 31.6 33.1 34.4 87.0 21.1 24.2 28.5

 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 3.1 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.4 1.3 14.1 13.6 10.6

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 58.0 59.1 58.3 58.6 59.1 96.4 66.6 67.5 67.8

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 223.4 223.5 227.2 231.6 244.2 312.9 230.1 247.2 277.5

Cumulative Retirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 39.3 42.5 46.1 47.2 67.8 173.4 38.0 59.2 89.0

Retrofits

 Scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 53.6 59.7 38.1 145.0 119.3 32.4 38.2 127.3 92.8

 Nitrogen Oxides Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 51.6 44.4 43.4 40.6 35.6 34.5 50.9 34.5 26.3

 SCR Post-combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 94.7 71.9 45.5 223.5 198.4 51.7 75.2 203.0 170.3

 SNCR Post-combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 8.3 8.3 32.7 5.2 6.1 13.4 18.4 5.2 5.1

Generation by Fuel (billion kilowatthours)

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 2107 2051 1955 2066 1903 699 1933 1893 1689

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 42 41 41 46 47 37 41 45 43

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 1033 1072 1150 1063 1205 1345 1214 1236 1416

 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 874 874 874 874 874 1052 856 856 874

 Pumped Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0

 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 572 576 583 568 567 842 551 555 553

 Distributed Generation ................... 0 5 5 4 3 3 1 45 43 30

 Combined Heat and Power1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 533 541 535 539 540 785 603 610 611

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3978 5167 5161 5143 5159 5140 4762 5244 5238 5217

Emissions by the Electric Power Sector 2

 Carbon Dioxide (million metric tons) ........ 2160 2526 2494 2424 2507 2390 1082 2443 2422 2265

 Sulfur Dioxide (million tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.72 3.93 3.38 3.37 1.99 1.84 2.26 3.83 1.79 1.65

 Nitrogen Oxides (million tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.99 2.03 2.19 2.20 1.44 1.37 0.93 1.99 1.39 1.30

 Mercury (tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.66 29.32 7.68 7.19 8.34 7.69 9.19 26.51 7.47 6.79

Prices to the Electric Power Sector2

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 6.80 6.86 7.02 6.88 7.08 11.04 5.34 5.26 5.55

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.40 2.41 2.38 2.37 2.29 9.31 2.30 2.27 2.20

1

Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in commercial and industrial sectors. Includes small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,	commercial,

and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid.		Excludes	off-grid photovoltaics and other generators not connected

to the distribution or transmission systems. 2

Includes	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.

EUR = Estimated ultimate recovery.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Source:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration,	AEO2011	National	Energy Modeling System runs REF2011.D020911A,	and	TRMA20.D021811A,	TRMA05.D021811A,

BAMA20.D021811A,	BAMA05.D021811A,	POLMAX.D031411A,	HSHLEUR.D020911A,	LGBAMA20.D021811A,	and	LGBAMA05.D021811A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 197

Results from side cases

Table D15. Liquid fuels supply and disposition, E15 availability cases

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

16 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D15. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition, E15 Availability Cases

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2015 2025 2035

Low E15

Penetration Reference High E15Penetration

Low E15

Penetration Reference High E15Penetration

Low E15

Penetration Reference High E15Penetration

Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 . 61.66 94.58 94.58 94.12 117.38 117.54 117.33 124.91 124.94 124.71

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 86.84 86.83 86.39 107.22 107.40 107.13 113.62 113.70 113.42

Crude Oil Supply

 Domestic Crude Oil Production2 . . . . . . . 5.36 5.82 5.81 5.81 5.88 5.88 5.87 5.89 5.95 5.89

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.39 0.39 0.39

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 3.52 3.51 3.51 3.92 3.92 3.91 3.59 3.65 3.59

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.71 1.81 1.81 1.81 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.91 1.91 1.91

 Net Crude Oil Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.97 8.71 8.70 8.58 8.27 8.25 8.19 8.21 8.25 8.14

 Other Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Total Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 14.53 14.52 14.40 14.15 14.13 14.06 14.10 14.20 14.04

Other Petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59 4.37 4.38 4.36 4.41 4.41 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.49

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 2.22 2.23 2.22 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.94 2.94 2.95

 Net Petroleum Product Imports3 . . . . . . . 0.75 1.14 1.14 1.11 0.81 0.81 0.83 0.66 0.64 0.67

 Refinery Processing Gain4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 1.01 1.01 1.02 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.85 0.88 0.88

 Product Stock Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Other Non-petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . 0.81 1.42 1.42 1.62 2.35 2.40 2.41 3.36 3.28 3.35

 From Renewable Sources5 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 1.12 1.12 1.27 1.92 1.92 1.89 2.58 2.48 2.53

 Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.73 1.01 1.03 1.18 1.60 1.60 1.58 1.86 1.83 1.80

 Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.72 0.95 0.97 1.11 1.44 1.44 1.43 1.59 1.58 1.54

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.28 0.26 0.26

 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.02 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

 Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13

 Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Other Biomass-derived Liquids . . . . . . 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.58 0.52 0.61

 Liquids from Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.51 0.55 0.54

 Other6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.25 0.25 0.31 0.27 0.30 0.33 0.27 0.25 0.28

Total Primary Supply7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.73 20.31 20.32 20.38 20.91 20.94 20.91 21.91 21.94 21.88

Refined Petroleum Products Supplied

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 2.33 2.32 2.32 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.19 2.19 2.19

 E858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.81 0.64 0.28 1.01 0.84 0.42

 Motor Gasoline9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.00 9.40 9.40 9.45 8.67 8.87 9.21 9.08 9.28 9.67

			Jet	Fuel10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.75 1.75 1.75

 Distillate Fuel Oil11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.63 4.14 4.13 4.14 4.49 4.49 4.49 4.87 4.87 4.86

 of which: Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18 3.68 3.68 3.68 4.09 4.09 4.09 4.50 4.51 4.50

 Residual Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.51 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.62 0.62

 Other12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 2.44 2.43 2.42 2.38 2.38 2.37 2.39 2.38 2.36

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 20.45 20.44 20.48 20.97 20.99 20.95 21.90 21.93 21.87

Discrepancy13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.08 -0.13 -0.12 -0.10 -0.06 -0.04 -0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes lease condensate.

3

Includes	net	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	other	hydrocarbons,	alcohols,	ethers,	and	blending	components. 4

The	volumetric	amount	by	which	total	output	is	greater	than	input	due	to	the	processing	of	crude	oil	into	products	which,	in	total,	have	a	lower	specific	gravity	than	the	crude	oil

processed. 5

Includes	ethanol	(including	imports),	biodiesel	(including	imports),	pyrolysis	oils,	biomass-derived	Fischer-Tropsch	liquids,	and renewable feedstocks for the production of green

diesel and gasoline. 6

Includes	alcohols,	ethers,	domestic	sources	of	blending	components,	and	other	hydrocarbons. 7

Total	crude	supply	plus	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	inputs,	refinery	processing	gain,	and	net	product	imports.

8

E85 refers to a blend of 85 percent ethanol (renewable) and 15 percent motor gasoline (nonrenewable). To address cold-starting	issues,	the	percentage	of	ethanol	varies

seasonally. The average annual ethanol content of 74 percent is used for this forecast. 9

Includes ethanol and ethers blended into gasoline.

10Includes only kerosene type.

11Includes distillate fuel oil and kerosene from petroleum and biomass feedstocks.

12Includes	aviation	gasoline,	petrochemical	feedstocks,	lubricants,	waxes,	asphalt,	road	oil,	still	gas,	special	naphthas,	petroleum	coke,	crude	oil	product	supplied,	methanol,	and

miscellaneous petroleum products. 13Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses	and	gains.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	product	supplied	data	and	imported	crude	oil	price	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	imported	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil	Acquisition	Report.”		Other	2009	data:		EIA,	Petroleum

Supply Annual 2009,	 DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	 (Washington,	 DC,	 July	 2010).	 	 Projections:	 	 EIA,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System	 runs	 E15LOW.D030211A,

REF2011.D020911A,	and	E15HIGH.D022811A.
198 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D16. Natural gas supply and disposition, oil and gas technology progress cases

(trillion cubic feet per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 17

Table D16. Natural Gas Supply and Disposition, Oil and Gas Technological Progress Cases

(Trillion	Cubic	Feet	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2015 2025 2035

Slow

Technology Reference RapidTechnology

Slow

Technology Reference RapidTechnology

Slow

Technology Reference RapidTechnology

Natural Gas Prices

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Henry Hub Spot Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 5.16 4.66 4.33 6.83 5.97 5.33 7.69 7.07 6.45

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price1 . . 3.62 4.57 4.13 3.83 6.04 5.29 4.72 6.81 6.26 5.71

 (2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price1 . . 3.71 4.69 4.24 3.93 6.20 5.43 4.84 6.98 6.42 5.86

Dry Gas Production2 ................ 20.96 21.47 22.43 23.02 22.65 23.98 24.78 25.92 26.32 26.89

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.88 19.09 20.00 20.57 20.09 21.31 22.03 21.36 23.05 23.46

 Associated-Dissolved . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.40 1.45 1.48 1.49 1.32 1.36 1.34 1.00 1.02 1.02

 Non-Associated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.48 17.64 18.51 19.08 18.78 19.95 20.69 20.36 22.04 22.44

 Tight Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.59 5.83 5.90 5.76 5.55 5.74 5.55 5.35 5.84 5.59

 Shale Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28 6.32 7.20 8.00 8.66 9.69 10.69 11.14 12.25 12.92

 Coalbed Methane .............. 1.80 1.72 1.67 1.62 1.75 1.72 1.64 1.63 1.72 1.70

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.80 3.77 3.74 3.69 2.82 2.81 2.80 2.24 2.23 2.23

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.70 2.10 2.15 2.17 2.32 2.42 2.51 2.79 3.05 3.21

 Associated-Dissolved . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.73 0.80 0.82

 Non-Associated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.05 1.47 1.51 1.52 1.66 1.74 1.81 2.07 2.26 2.39

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.24 0.24 0.24 1.77 0.21 0.22

Supplemental Natural Gas3 ........... 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.64 2.84 2.69 2.66 1.22 1.08 1.12 -0.03 0.18 0.50

 Pipeline4 ......................... 2.23 2.46 2.33 2.32 0.84 0.74 0.82 -0.17 0.04 0.36

 Liquefied Natural Gas .............. 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.38 0.34 0.30 0.14 0.14 0.14

Total Supply ...................... 23.66 24.38 25.18 25.75 23.94 25.12 25.97 25.96 26.57 27.45

Consumption by Sector

 Residential ....................... 4.75 4.77 4.81 4.84 4.77 4.83 4.88 4.73 4.78 4.82

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 3.32 3.38 3.41 3.46 3.56 3.64 3.74 3.82 3.90

 Industrial5 ........................ 6.14 7.95 8.05 8.14 7.89 8.10 8.29 7.79 8.02 8.28

 Electric Power6 ................... 6.89 6.41 6.98 7.36 5.92 6.66 7.15 7.54 7.88 8.30

 Transportation7 ................... 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.19

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.61 0.62 0.64 0.71 0.65 0.67

 Lease and Plant Fuel8 .............. 1.16 1.17 1.20 1.23 1.14 1.19 1.22 1.26 1.25 1.28

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.71 24.31 25.11 25.67 23.88 25.07 25.92 25.93 26.55 27.43

Discrepancy9 ...................... 0.95 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.02

Lower 48 End of Year Reserves ...... 261.37 273.29 279.40 285.23 290.09 299.51 309.12 306.69 314.16 322.51

1

Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

2

Marketed production (wet) minus extraction losses.

3

Synthetic	natural	gas,	propane	air,	coke	oven	gas,	refinery	gas,	biomass	gas,	air	injected	for	Btu	stabilization,	and	manufactured gas commingled and distributed with natural

gas.4

Includes any natural gas regasified in the Bahamas and transported via pipeline to Florida.

5

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 6

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes

small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 7

Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel.

8

Represents natural gas used in field gathering and processing plant machinery.

9

Balancing item. Natural gas lost as a result of converting flow data measured at varying temperatures and pressures to a standard temperature and pressure and the merger

of	different	data	reporting	systems	which	vary	in	scope,	format,	definition,	and	respondent	type.		In	addition,	2009	values	include net storage injections.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	supply	values:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	consumption

based	on:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	 (Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	 runs

OGLTEC11.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	OGHTEC11.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 199

Results from side cases

Table D17. Liquid fuels supply and disposition, oil and gas technology progress cases

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

18 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D17. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition, Oil and Gas Technological Progress Cases

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2015 2025 2035

Slow

Technology Reference RapidTechnology

Slow

Technology Reference RapidTechnology

Slow

Technology Reference RapidTechnology

Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 61.66 94.85 94.58 94.35 118.13 117.54 117.16 125.83 124.94 124.24

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 87.11 86.83 86.61 108.18 107.40 106.93 114.89 113.70 112.86

Crude Oil Supply

 Domestic Crude Oil Production2 . . . . . . 5.36 5.76 5.81 5.86 5.64 5.88 5.94 5.58 5.95 6.05

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.19 0.39 0.36

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 3.49 3.51 3.53 3.75 3.92 3.93 3.63 3.65 3.77

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.71 1.78 1.81 1.84 1.49 1.55 1.60 1.76 1.91 1.92

 Net Crude Oil Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.97 8.79 8.70 8.63 8.52 8.25 8.15 8.57 8.25 8.01

 Other Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Total Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 14.55 14.52 14.50 14.16 14.13 14.08 14.15 14.20 14.06

Other Petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59 4.38 4.38 4.40 4.29 4.41 4.48 4.33 4.46 4.48

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 2.17 2.23 2.28 2.52 2.68 2.79 2.72 2.94 3.02

 Net Petroleum Product Imports3 . . . . . . 0.75 1.20 1.14 1.11 0.84 0.81 0.77 0.76 0.64 0.60

 Refinery Processing Gain4 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.85 0.88 0.86

 Product Stock Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . -0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Other Non-petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . 0.81 1.40 1.42 1.43 2.40 2.40 2.41 3.42 3.28 3.39

 From Renewable Sources5 . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.90 1.92 1.91 2.59 2.48 2.57

 From Non-renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . 0.05 0.28 0.30 0.31 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.82 0.80 0.82

Total Primary Supply7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.73 20.33 20.32 20.33 20.85 20.94 20.98 21.89 21.94 21.93

Refined Petroleum Products Supplied

 Residential and Commercial . . . . . . . . . 1.04 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.85 0.85 0.85

 Industrial8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.25 5.00 4.99 4.98 4.93 4.94 4.95 4.78 4.77 4.77

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.61 14.31 14.31 14.32 14.92 14.96 14.97 16.07 16.10 16.09

 Electric Power9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.22 0.21 0.21

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 20.46 20.44 20.45 20.94 20.99 21.01 21.91 21.93 21.93

Discrepancy10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.08 -0.13 -0.12 -0.12 -0.09 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 0.01 0.01

Lower 48 End of Year Reserves

(billion barrels)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.88 19.47 19.69 19.85 21.46 21.89 22.07 22.18 22.76 23.01

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes lease condensate.

3

Includes	net	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	other	hydrocarbons,	alcohols,	ethers,	and	blending	components. 4

The	volumetric	amount	by	which	total	output	is	greater	than	input	due	to	the	processing	of	crude	oil	into	products	which,	in	total,	have	a	lower	specific	gravity	than	the	crude	oil

processed. 5

Includes	ethanol	(including	imports),	biodiesel	(including	imports),	pyrolysis	oils,	biomass-derived	Fischer-Tropsch	liquids,	and renewable feedstocks for the production of green

diesel and gasoline. 6

Includes	alcohols,	ethers,	domestic	sources	of	blending	components,	other	hydrocarbons,	natural	gas	converted	to	liquid	fuel,	and coal converted to liquid fuel. 7

Total	crude	supply	plus	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	inputs,	refinery	processing	gain,	and	net	product	imports.

8

Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power,	which	produces	electricity	and	other	useful	thermal	energy.

9

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes

small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 10Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses	and	gains.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	product	supplied	data	and	imported	crude	oil	price	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	imported	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil	Acquisition	Report.”		Other	2009	data:		EIA,	Petroleum

Supply Annual 2009,	 DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	 (Washington,	 DC,	 July	 2010).	 	Projections:	 	 EIA,	 AEO2011 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System	 runs	 OGLTEC11.D020911A,

REF2011.D020911A,	and	OGHTEC11.D020911A.
200 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D18. Liquid fuels supply and disposition, enhanced oil recovery cases

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 19

Table D18. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition, Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery Cases

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2025 2035

Low EOR Reference Low EOR –

GHG Price GHG Price Low EOR Reference Low EOR –GHG Price GHG Price

Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 . . . . . 61.66 117.83 117.54 115.34 115.29 125.24 124.94 120.78 120.80

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 107.81 107.40 104.50 104.41 114.08 113.70 108.79 108.77

Crude Oil Supply

 Domestic Crude Oil Production2 . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36 5.76 5.88 5.88 5.90 5.81 5.95 5.95 5.98

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.39 0.39 0.19 0.19

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 3.80 3.92 3.92 3.94 3.52 3.65 3.86 3.89

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.71 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.90 1.91 1.90 1.90

 Net Crude Oil Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.97 8.36 8.25 7.68 7.66 8.38 8.25 7.00 7.10

 Other Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Total Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 14.13 14.13 13.56 13.57 14.19 14.20 12.95 13.08

Other Petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59 4.41 4.41 4.47 4.47 4.44 4.46 4.13 4.05

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 2.67 2.68 2.93 2.93 2.94 2.94 2.98 2.98

 Net Petroleum Product Imports3 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 0.82 0.81 0.66 0.67 0.63 0.64 0.38 0.31

 Refinery Processing Gain4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.92 0.92 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.88 0.77 0.76

 Product Stock Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Other Non-petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.81 2.40 2.40 2.62 2.62 3.32 3.28 4.35 4.30

 From Renewable Sources5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 1.92 1.92 2.14 2.13 2.51 2.48 3.52 3.48

 From Non-renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.81 0.80 0.82 0.83

Total Primary Supply7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.73 20.94 20.94 20.65 20.65 21.94 21.94 21.43 21.44

Refined Petroleum Products Supplied

 Residential and Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.04 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.85 0.85 0.83 0.83

 Industrial8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.25 4.93 4.94 4.82 4.82 4.77 4.77 4.58 4.58

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.61 14.96 14.96 14.73 14.73 16.09 16.10 15.79 15.80

 Electric Power9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.19

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 20.98 20.99 20.61 20.61 21.93 21.93 21.39 21.40

Discrepancy10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.08 -0.04 -0.04 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.03

Lower 48 End of Year Reserves

(billion barrels)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.88 21.60 21.89 21.88 22.06 22.32 22.76 22.96 23.19

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes lease condensate.

3

Includes	net	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	other	hydrocarbons,	alcohols,	ethers,	and	blending	components. 4

The	volumetric	amount	by	which	total	output	is	greater	than	input	due	to	the	processing	of	crude	oil	into	products	which,	in	total,	have	a	lower	specific	gravity	than	the	crude	oil

processed. 5

Includes	ethanol	(including	imports),	biodiesel	(including	imports),	pyrolysis	oils,	biomass-derived	Fischer-Tropsch	liquids,	and renewable feedstocks for the production of green

diesel and gasoline. 6

Includes	alcohols,	ethers,	domestic	sources	of	blending	components,	other	hydrocarbons,	natural	gas	converted	to	liquid	fuel,	and coal converted to liquid fuel. 7

Total	crude	supply	plus	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	inputs,	refinery	processing	gain,	and	net	product	imports.

8

Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power,	which	produces	electricity	and	other	useful	thermal	energy.

9

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes

small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 10Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses	and	gains.

EOR = Enhanced oil recovery.

GHG = Greenhouse gas.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	product	supplied	data	and	imported	crude	oil	price	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	imported	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil	Acquisition	Report.”		Other	2009	data:		EIA,	Petroleum

Supply Annual 2009,	 DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	 (Washington,	 DC,	 July	 2010).	 	 Projections:	 	 EIA,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System	 runs	 LOWCO2.D030711A,

REF2011.D020911A,	POLMAXLCO2.D032111A,	and	POLMAX.D031411A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 201

Results from side cases

Table D19. Liquid fuels supply and disposition, Outer Continental Shelf resource cases

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

20 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D19. Liquid Fuels Supply and Disposition, Outer Continental Shelf Resource Cases

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2025 2035

High OCS

Costs

Reduced

OCS Access Reference High OCSResource

High OCS

Costs

Reduced

OCS Access Reference High OCSResource

Prices (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil1 . . 61.66 117.71 117.51 117.54 117.12 125.47 125.93 124.94 122.04

 Imported Crude Oil1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 107.67 107.41 107.40 106.91 114.44 115.13 113.70 110.47

Crude Oil Supply

 Domestic Crude Oil Production2 . . . . . . . . 5.36 5.80 5.87 5.88 5.93 5.72 5.57 5.95 7.01

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.47 0.19 0.19 0.39 1.11

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.00 3.89 3.92 3.92 3.91 3.64 3.63 3.65 3.60

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.71 1.50 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.89 1.74 1.91 2.30

 Net Crude Oil Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.97 8.33 8.26 8.25 8.20 8.44 8.61 8.25 7.19

 Other Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Total Crude Oil Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.33 14.13 14.13 14.13 14.13 14.16 14.18 14.20 14.20

Other Petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59 4.43 4.44 4.41 4.40 4.44 4.43 4.46 4.53

 Natural Gas Plant Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.68 2.92 2.93 2.94 2.95

 Net Petroleum Product Imports3 . . . . . . . . 0.75 0.83 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.66 0.63 0.64 0.67

 Refinery Processing Gain4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.87 0.86 0.88 0.91

 Product Stock Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Other Non-petroleum Supply . . . . . . . . . . . 0.81 2.40 2.38 2.40 2.38 3.30 3.29 3.28 3.30

 From Renewable Sources5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.76 1.91 1.91 1.92 1.91 2.50 2.50 2.48 2.50

 From Non-renewable Sources6 . . . . . . . . . 0.05 0.48 0.47 0.49 0.47 0.80 0.79 0.80 0.79

Total Primary Supply7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.73 20.95 20.95 20.94 20.91 21.90 21.90 21.94 22.02

Refined Petroleum Products Supplied

 Residential and Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . 1.04 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85

 Industrial8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.25 4.94 4.94 4.94 4.94 4.77 4.76 4.77 4.78

 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.61 14.97 14.96 14.96 14.95 16.07 16.07 16.10 16.13

 Electric Power9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 20.99 20.98 20.99 20.97 21.91 21.89 21.93 21.97

Discrepancy10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -0.08 -0.04 -0.03 -0.04 -0.06 -0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05

Lower 48 End of Year Reserves

(billion barrels)2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.88 21.79 21.87 21.89 21.88 22.67 22.00 22.76 23.91

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes lease condensate.

3

Includes	net	imports	of	finished	petroleum	products,	unfinished	oils,	other	hydrocarbons,	alcohols,	ethers,	and	blending	components. 4

The	volumetric	amount	by	which	total	output	is	greater	than	input	due	to	the	processing	of	crude	oil	into	products	which,	in	total,	have	a	lower	specific	gravity	than	the	crude	oil

processed. 5

Includes	ethanol	(including	imports),	biodiesel	(including	imports),	pyrolysis	oils,	biomass-derived	Fischer-Tropsch	liquids,	and renewable feedstocks for the production of green

diesel and gasoline. 6

Includes	alcohols,	ethers,	domestic	sources	of	blending	components,	other	hydrocarbons,	natural	gas	converted	to	liquid	fuel,	and coal converted to liquid fuel. 7

Total	crude	supply	plus	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	inputs,	refinery	processing	gain,	and	net	product	imports.

8

Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power,	which	produces	electricity	and	other	useful	thermal	energy.

9

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes

small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 10Balancing	item.	Includes	unaccounted	for	supply,	losses	and	gains.

OCS = Outer continental shelf.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	product	supplied	data	and	imported	crude	oil	price	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)

(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009	imported	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		EIA,	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil	Acquisition	Report.”		Other	2009	data:		EIA,	Petroleum

Supply Annual 2009,	 DOE/EIA-0340(2009)/1	 (Washington,	 DC,	 July	 2010).	 	Projections:	 	 EIA,	 AEO2011	 National	 Energy	 Modeling	 System	 runs	 OCSHCST.D031811A,

OCSACCESS.D032911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	OCSHRES3S.D032911A.
202 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D20. Natural gas supply and disposition, shale gas recovery cases

(trillion cubic feet per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 21

Table D20. Natural Gas Supply and Disposition, Shale Gas Cases

(Trillion	Cubic	Feet	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2025 2035

Low Shale

EUR

Low Shale

Recovery Reference

High

Shale

Recovery

High

Shale EUR

Low Shale

EUR

Low Shale

Recovery Reference

High

Shale

Recovery

High

Shale EUR

Natural Gas Prices

 (2009 dollars per million Btu)

 Henry Hub Spot Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.95 8.53 7.38 5.97 5.16 4.45 9.26 8.17 7.07 6.03 5.35

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price1 . . . . 3.62 7.55 6.54 5.29 4.57 3.94 8.20 7.23 6.26 5.34 4.74

 (2009 dollars per thousand cubic feet)

 Average Lower 48 Wellhead Price1 . . . . 3.71 7.74 6.71 5.43 4.69 4.05 8.41 7.42 6.42 5.48 4.86

Dry Gas Production2 .................. 20.96 20.03 21.46 23.98 25.81 27.50 22.43 24.61 26.32 28.49 30.11

 Lower 48 Onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.88 17.07 18.71 21.31 23.23 24.98 17.17 19.62 23.05 25.51 27.24

 Associated-Dissolved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.40 1.34 1.36 1.36 1.34 1.33 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02

 Non-Associated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.48 15.73 17.35 19.95 21.89 23.64 16.14 18.60 22.04 24.49 26.22

 Tight Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.59 6.54 6.27 5.74 5.56 5.43 6.35 6.20 5.84 5.48 5.26

 Shale Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28 4.37 6.44 9.69 11.88 13.82 5.50 8.24 12.25 15.12 17.13

 Coalbed Methane ................ 1.80 1.99 1.85 1.72 1.63 1.62 2.06 1.91 1.72 1.65 1.62

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.80 2.82 2.80 2.81 2.82 2.78 2.23 2.24 2.23 2.23 2.22

 Lower 48 Offshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.70 2.72 2.52 2.42 2.34 2.28 3.48 3.21 3.05 2.76 2.66

 Associated-Dissolved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64 0.73 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.84 0.80 0.80 0.72 0.70

 Non-Associated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.05 2.00 1.83 1.74 1.67 1.62 2.64 2.41 2.26 2.05 1.96

 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 1.78 1.78 0.21 0.21 0.21

Supplemental Natural Gas4 ............. 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

Net Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.64 2.44 1.89 1.08 0.59 0.26 1.66 0.72 0.18 -0.27 -0.54

 Pipeline5 ........................... 2.23 1.97 1.48 0.74 0.30 0.01 1.52 0.58 0.04 -0.41 -0.68

 Liquefied Natural Gas ................ 0.41 0.48 0.42 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14

Total Supply ........................ 23.66 22.54 23.42 25.12 26.47 27.82 24.15 25.39 26.57 28.28 29.63

Consumption by Sector

 Residential ......................... 4.75 4.66 4.73 4.83 4.90 4.96 4.63 4.70 4.78 4.85 4.91

 Commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 3.29 3.41 3.56 3.66 3.76 3.58 3.69 3.82 3.95 4.06

 Industrial6 .......................... 6.14 7.61 7.81 8.10 8.36 8.62 7.51 7.77 8.02 8.37 8.68

 Electric Power7 ..................... 6.89 5.17 5.61 6.66 7.50 8.30 6.43 7.14 7.88 8.89 9.62

 Transportation8 ..................... 0.03 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.20 0.25

 Pipeline Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.64 0.67 0.69 0.69 0.65 0.68 0.70

 Lease and Plant Fuel9 ................ 1.16 1.05 1.10 1.19 1.26 1.33 1.14 1.22 1.25 1.33 1.39

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.71 22.48 23.37 25.07 26.42 27.78 24.12 25.37 26.55 28.26 29.62

Discrepancy10 ....................... 0.95 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02

Lower 48 End of Year Reserves ........ 261.37 278.92 283.19 299.51 315.25 322.81 295.54 299.40 314.16 331.79 336.03

1

Represents lower 48 onshore and offshore supplies.

2

Marketed production (wet) minus extraction losses.

3

Includes tight gas.

4

Synthetic	natural	gas,	propane	air,	coke	oven	gas,	refinery	gas,	biomass	gas,	air	injected	for	Btu	stabilization,	and	manufactured gas commingled and distributed with natural

gas.5

Includes any natural gas regasified in the Bahamas and transported via pipeline to Florida.

6

Includes	energy	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Includes consumption of energy by electricity-only and combined heat and power plants whose primary business is to sell electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Includes

small power producers and exempt wholesale generators. 8

Compressed natural gas used as a vehicle fuel.

9

Represents natural gas used in field gathering and processing plant machinery.

10Balancing item. Natural gas lost as a result of converting flow data measured at varying temperatures and pressures to a standard temperature and pressure and the merger

of	different	data	reporting	systems	which	vary	in	scope,	format,	definition,	and	respondent	type.		In	addition,	2009	values	include net storage injections.

EUR = Estimated ultimate recovery.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	supply	values:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Natural Gas Monthly,	DOE/EIA-0130(2010/07)	(Washington,	DC,	July	2010).		2009	consumption

based	on:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	 (Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National Energy Modeling System runs

LSHLEUR.D020911A,	LSHLDRL.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	HSHLDRL.D020911A,	and	HSHLEUR.D020911A.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 203

Results from side cases

Table D21. International liquids supply and disposition, world oil price cases

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

22 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D21. International Liquids Supply and Disposition in World Oil Price Cases

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition 2009

2025 2035

Low Oil

Price

Traditional

Low Oil

Price

Reference

Traditional 

High Oil

Price

High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price

Traditional

Low Oil

Price

Reference

Traditional

High Oil

Price

High Oil

Price

Crude Oil Prices1

 (2009 dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil . . . 61.66 51.28 51.28 117.54 185.87 185.87 50.07 50.07 124.94 199.95 199.95

 Imported Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 41.36 41.36 107.40 175.09 175.09 39.66 39.66 113.70 187.79 187.79

 (nominal dollars per barrel)

 Imported Low Sulfur Light Crude Oil . . . 61.66 68.94 68.94 155.46 246.11 246.11 81.59 81.59 199.37 321.76 321.76

 Imported Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.04 55.61 55.61 142.05 231.84 231.84 64.62 64.62 181.43 302.20 302.20

Conventional Production (Conventional)2

 OPEC3

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.61 31.81 37.59 28.64 23.01 27.48 34.74 45.10 33.87 22.96 30.24

 North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.92 4.15 5.35 3.84 3.12 3.72 3.94 5.68 3.98 2.76 3.70

 West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.06 6.54 6.52 5.10 3.93 4.90 6.81 7.21 5.31 3.37 4.86

 South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.31 1.86 2.38 1.73 1.42 1.68 1.62 2.29 1.64 1.18 1.54

 Total OPEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.91 44.35 51.85 39.32 31.47 37.78 47.10 60.29 44.80 30.28 40.33

 Non-OPEC

 OECD

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . 8.26 9.07 9.07 9.78 10.89 10.89 8.45 8.45 9.89 10.70 10.70

 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.96 1.78 1.79 1.78 1.84 1.84 1.71 1.75 1.78 1.87 1.94

 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90 1.35 1.35 1.22 1.20 1.19 1.50 1.57 1.48 1.41 1.52

 OECD Europe4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.62 2.73 2.77 2.67 2.61 2.61 2.48 2.64 2.66 2.51 2.73

									Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.14

 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.49 0.52 0.54 0.51 0.55

 Total OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.52 15.62 15.68 16.13 17.18 17.18 14.79 15.11 16.49 17.13 17.59

 Non-OECD

 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.66 12.43 12.41 10.86 10.59 10.41 12.90 13.63 12.64 12.03 13.15

 Other Europe and Eurasia5 . . . . . . . . . 3.08 4.47 4.47 3.97 3.88 3.81 4.48 4.73 4.47 4.26 4.64

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.93 4.10 4.12 4.02 3.93 3.89 3.83 4.08 4.22 3.99 4.40

 Other Asia6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.70 3.03 3.04 2.99 2.93 2.91 2.63 2.77 2.85 2.71 2.94

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 1.26 1.26 1.24 1.22 1.20 0.98 1.04 1.10 1.05 1.15

 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.34 2.89 2.89 2.85 2.80 2.75 2.82 2.99 3.16 3.03 3.32

 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.05 4.41 4.40 3.87 3.78 3.72 5.02 5.29 4.93 4.71 5.11

 Other Central and South America . . . . 1.87 2.27 2.27 2.24 2.20 2.17 2.35 2.47 2.59 2.48 2.70

 Total Non-OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17 34.86 34.86 32.03 31.32 30.85 35.00 36.99 35.95 34.27 37.41

Total Conventional Production . . . . . . . . . 79.60 94.83 102.39 87.47 79.97 85.81 96.89 112.38 97.24 81.67 95.33

Unconventional Production7

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 1.55 1.55 1.94 3.01 3.01 1.95 1.95 2.90 5.42 5.42

 Other North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.68 2.70 2.70 3.57 5.38 5.38 3.32 3.32 5.27 7.11 7.11

 OECD Europe3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.11 0.11 0.26 0.29 0.29 0.18 0.18 0.28 0.33 0.33

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01 0.19 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.21 0.19 0.19 0.24 0.21 0.21

 Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 0.16 0.16 0.39 0.40 0.40 0.16 0.16 0.44 0.46 0.46

 Central and South America . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14 3.28 3.28 2.61 2.98 2.98 4.70 4.70 3.17 3.60 3.60

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 0.25 0.25 0.64 0.88 0.88 0.50 0.50 1.22 2.61 2.61

 Total Unconventional Production . . . . 4.14 8.23 8.23 9.66 13.15 13.15 11.00 11.00 13.54 19.72 19.72

Total Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.74 103.06 110.62 97.13 93.11 98.96 107.90 123.39 110.78 101.40 115.06
204 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D21. International liquids supply and disposition, world oil price cases (continued)

(million barrels per day, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 23

Table D21. International Liquids Supply and Disposition in World Oil Price Cases (Continued)

(Million	Barrels	per	Day,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply and Disposition 2009

2025 2035

Low Oil

Price

Traditional

Low Oil

Price

Reference

Traditional 

High Oil

Price

High Oil

Price

Low Oil

Price

Traditional

Low Oil

Price

Reference

Traditional

High Oil

Price

High Oil

Price

Consumption8

 OECD

 United States (50 states) . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.81 22.34 22.34 20.99 20.18 20.18 23.76 23.76 21.93 20.91 20.91

 United States Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.28 0.36 0.32 0.30 0.36

 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 2.48 2.47 2.14 2.01 2.01 2.64 2.60 2.24 2.08 2.08

 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 2.57 2.60 2.30 2.18 2.20 3.02 3.03 2.63 2.47 2.51

 OECD Europe3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.49 14.61 14.76 12.82 12.05 12.14 14.91 15.01 12.95 12.00 12.11

						Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37 4.49 4.57 3.98 3.72 3.75 4.37 4.41 3.88 3.52 3.55

 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.32 3.01 3.04 2.63 2.52 2.54 3.45 3.47 3.13 2.87 2.89

 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . 1.19 1.26 1.27 1.13 1.09 1.08 1.30 1.30 1.17 1.10 1.10

 Total OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.73 51.06 51.38 46.29 44.03 44.23 53.72 53.93 48.25 45.25 45.51

 Non-OECD

 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83 2.73 3.02 2.66 2.54 2.71 2.59 3.17 2.78 2.60 3.01

 Other Europe and Eurasia5 . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16 2.41 2.78 2.25 2.12 2.36 2.33 3.03 2.48 2.22 2.70

 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.32 15.60 17.77 14.36 14.06 15.97 16.50 21.16 19.13 16.31 20.68

 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.06 4.80 5.41 4.54 4.28 4.82 4.96 6.31 5.64 4.93 6.12

 Other Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.13 8.01 9.25 7.98 7.59 8.46 8.69 11.21 9.75 8.89 10.94

 Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.64 8.27 9.31 8.76 8.69 9.50 9.01 11.42 11.02 10.32 12.81

 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.31 3.82 4.39 3.76 3.55 3.97 3.96 5.12 4.45 4.04 4.94

 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.46 3.10 3.60 3.20 3.06 3.42 3.16 4.20 3.79 3.57 4.40

 Other Central and South America . . . . . 3.09 3.27 3.72 3.33 3.19 3.52 3.00 3.86 3.51 3.28 3.94

 Total Non-OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.01 52.00 59.24 50.84 49.08 54.73 54.20 69.48 62.54 56.15 69.54

Total Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.74 103.06 110.62 97.13 93.11 98.95 107.92 123.41 110.79 101.40 115.06

OPEC Production9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.45 47.25 54.75 40.77 33.03 39.34 50.88 64.06 46.50 32.08 42.14

Non-OPEC Production9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.29 55.81 55.88 56.37 60.09 59.62 57.02 59.33 64.28 69.32 72.92

Net Eurasia Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.80 16.17 15.49 13.80 13.59 12.87 17.48 17.44 16.78 16.19 17.18

OPEC Market Share (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . 39.9 45.8 49.5 42.0 35.5 39.8 47.2 51.9 42.0 31.6 36.6

1

Weighted average price delivered to U.S. refiners.

2

Includes	production	of	crude	oil	(including	lease	condensate),	natural	gas	plant	liquids,	other	hydrogen	and	hydrocarbons	for	refinery	feedstocks,	alcohol	and	other	sources,

and refinery gains. 3

OPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries - Algeria,	Angola,	Ecuador,	Iran,	Iraq,	Kuwait,	Libya,	Nigeria,	Qatar,	Saudi	Arabia,	the	United	Arab	Emirates,	and

Venezuela. 4

OECD	Europe	=	Organization	for	Economic	Cooperation	and	Development	-	Austria,	Belgium,	Czech	Republic,	Denmark,	Finland,	France,	Germany,	Greece,	Hungary,	Iceland,

Ireland,	Italy,	Luxembourg,	the	Netherlands,	Norway,	Poland,	Portugal,	Slovakia,	Spain,	Sweden,	Switzerland,	Turkey,	and	the	United Kingdom. 5

Other	Europe	and	Eurasia	=	Albania,	Armenia,	Azerbaijan,	Belarus,	Bosnia	and	Herzegovina,	Bulgaria,	Croatia,	Estonia,	Georgia,	Kazakhstan,	Kyrgyzstan,	Latvia,	Lithuania,

Macedonia,	Malta,	Moldova,	Montenegro,	Romania,	Serbia,	Slovenia,	Tajikistan,	Turkmenistan,	Ukraine,	and	Uzbekistan. 6

Other	Asia	=	Afghanistan,	Bangladesh,	Bhutan,	Brunei,	Cambodia	(Kampuchea),	Fiji,	French	Polynesia,	Guam,	Hong	Kong,	Indonesia,	Kiribati,	Laos,	Malaysia,	Macau,	Maldives,

Mongolia,	Myanmar	(Burma),	Nauru,	Nepal,	New	Caledonia,	Niue,	North	Korea,	Pakistan,	Papua	New	Guinea,	Philippines,	Samoa,	Singapore,	Solomon	Islands,	Sri	Lanka,	Taiwan,

Thailand,	Tonga,	Vanuatu,	and	Vietnam. 7

Includes	liquids	produced	from	energy	crops,	natural	gas,	coal,	extra-heavy	oil,	oil	sands,	and	shale.		Includes	both	OPEC	and	non-OPEC producers in the regional breakdown. 8

Includes both OPEC and non-OPEC consumers in the regional breakdown.

9

Includes both conventional and unconventional liquids production.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	low	sulfur	light	crude	oil	price:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Form	EIA-856,	“Monthly	Foreign	Crude	Oil Acquisition Report.” 2009 imported crude

oil	price:		EIA,	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	August	2010).		2009 quantities and projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling

System	runs	LP2011LNO.D022511A,	LP2011MNO.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	HP2011MNO.D022811A,	and	HP2011HNO.D022511A	and	EIA,	Generate World Oil Balance

Model.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 205

Results from side cases

Table D22. Key results for the No Greenhouse Gas Concern case

(million short tons per year, unless otherwise noted)

24 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D22. Key Results for No Greenhouse Gas Concern Case

(Million	Short	Tons	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2015 2025 2035

Reference No GHG

Concern Reference No GHGConcern Reference No GHGConcern

Production1 ............................... 1075 1040 1032 1188 1303 1319 1512

 Appalachia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 274 277 282 293 282 297

 Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 156 158 166 176 177 195

 West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 610 597 739 834 860 1020

Waste Coal Supplied2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 14 14 14 15 14 17

Net Imports3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -38 -40 -40 -19 -18 -18 -16

Total Supply4 .............................. 1049 1014 1006 1183 1300 1315 1513

Consumption by Sector

 Residential and Commercial ................. 3333333

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 22 22 21 21 18 18

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 49 49 48 48 47 47

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power .............. 0 6 6 23 86 66 166

 Coal-to-Liquids Liquids Production ............ 0 5 6 21 80 62 156

 Electric Power6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 928 919 1066 1061 1119 1124

 Total Coal Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 1013 1005 1182 1300 1315 1513

Average Minemouth Price7

 (2009 dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26 32.36 32.72 33.22 33.56 33.92 34.12

 (2009 dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.67 1.62 1.63 1.68 1.71 1.73 1.76

Delivered Prices8

(2009 dollars per short ton)

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.01 157.51 158.07 169.26 169.13 172.38 172.06

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.87 61.78 61.87 63.58 65.56 66.89 68.54

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 30.96 30.98 31.66 35.64 36.68 36.56

 Electric Power6

 (2009 dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.48 40.94 41.24 43.33 44.69 46.36 47.87

 (2009 dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 2.11 2.12 2.24 2.30 2.40 2.46

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.03 44.40 44.72 45.97 46.34 47.87 47.58

 Exports9 ................................. 101.44 123.13 123.47 136.16 137.60 133.36 131.94

Cumulative Electricity Generating

Capacity Additions (gigawatts)10

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 12.4 12.5 17.4 28.0 25.5 47.9

 Conventional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.9 11.2 17.2

 Advanced without Sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

 Advanced with Sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

 End-Use Generators11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.9 1.0 3.9 14.5 11.7 28.1

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 20.0 20.1 48.0 46.6 135.1 125.2

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 1.1 1.1 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3

 Renewables 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 29.3 29.0 44.7 43.7 55.7 52.8

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 63.7 63.6 117.2 125.5 223.4 233.0

Liquids from Coal (million barrels per day) . . . . . . . . 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.19 0.70 0.55 1.33

1

Includes	anthracite,	bituminous	coal,	subbituminous	coal,	and	lignite. 2

Includes waste coal consumed by the electric power and industrial sectors. Waste coal supplied is counted as a supply-side item to balance the same amount of waste coal

included in the consumption data. 3

Excludes imports to Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

4

Production plus waste coal supplied plus net imports.

5

Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Excludes	all

coal use in the coal to liquids process. 6

Includes	all	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Includes reported prices for both open market and captive mines.

8

Prices	weighted	by	consumption	tonnage;	weighted	average	excludes	residential	and	commercial	prices,	and	export	free-alongside-ship (f.a.s.) prices. 9

F.a.s. price at U.S. port of exit.

10Cumulative	additions	after	December	31,	2009.		Includes	all	additions	of	electricity	only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	projected	for	the	electric	power,	industrial,	and

commercial sectors. 11Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors; and small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,	commercial,

and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid. 12Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood,	wood	waste,	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	other	biomass,	solar,	and	wind power. Facilities co-firing biomass and coal

are classified as coal.

- - = Not applicable.

Btu = British thermal unit.

GHG = Greenhouse gas.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	data	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Coal Report 2009,	DOE/EIA-0584(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	October	2010);	EIA,	Quarterly

Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April	2010);	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.

Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	runs	REF2011.D020911A	and	NORSK2011.D020911A.
206 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Results from side cases

Table D23. Key results for coal cost cases

(million short tons per year, unless otherwise noted)

Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011 25

Table D23. Key Results for Coal Cost Cases

(Million	Short	Tons	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2020 2035 Growth Rate, 2009-2035

Low Coal

Cost Reference High CoalCost

Low Coal

Cost Reference High CoalCost

Low Coal

Cost Reference High CoalCost

Production1 ....................... 1075 1154 1100 1030 1435 1319 1007 1.1% 0.8% -0.3%

 Appalachia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 287 279 273 274 282 270 -0.9% -0.8% -0.9%

 Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 157 160 164 122 177 203 -0.7% 0.7% 1.3%

 West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 710 661 594 1038 860 534 2.2% 1.5% -0.4%

Waste Coal Supplied2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 13 14 15 12 14 32 -0.2% 0.6% 3.7%

Net Imports3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -38 -40 -38 -24 -56 -18 15 1.5% -2.8% - -

Total Supply4 ...................... 1049 1126 1076 1021 1391 1315 1054 1.1% 0.9% 0.0%

Consumption by Sector

 Residential and Commercial ......... 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 -0.2% -0.2% -0.2%

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 22 22 22 18 18 18 0.7% 0.6% 0.5%

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 49 49 48 47 47 46 0.2% 0.1% 0.0%

 Coal-to-Liquids Heat and Power . . . . . . 0 7 7 6 70 66 34 - - - - - -

 Coal-to-Liquids Liquids Production . . . . 0 7 6 6 66 62 32 - - - - - -

 Electric Power6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 1037 989 936 1186 1119 922 0.9% 0.7% -0.1%

 Total Coal Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 1125 1076 1021 1391 1315 1054 1.3% 1.1% 0.2%

Average Minemouth Price7

 (2009 dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . . . 33.26 25.55 32.85 42.40 16.37 33.92 67.62 -2.7% 0.1% 2.8%

 (2009 dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . . . 1.67 1.29 1.65 2.12 0.85 1.73 3.34 -2.6% 0.2% 2.7%

Delivered Prices8

(2009 dollars per short ton)

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.01 140.19 165.95 189.18 119.48 172.38 253.08 -0.7% 0.7% 2.2%

 Other Industrial5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.87 54.01 62.45 72.80 44.43 66.89 100.64 -1.4% 0.1% 1.7%

 Coal to Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 26.63 35.63 46.32 20.25 36.68 57.03 - - - - - -

 Electric Power6

 (2009 dollars per short ton) . . . . . . . . 43.48 35.14 41.57 50.96 28.09 46.36 79.12 -1.7% 0.2% 2.3%

 (2009 dollars per million Btu) . . . . . . . 2.20 1.82 2.15 2.62 1.48 2.40 3.95 -1.5% 0.3% 2.3%

 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.03 37.94 45.00 54.91 29.08 47.87 81.58 -1.8% 0.2% 2.2%

 Exports9 ......................... 101.44 111.44 132.67 150.29 94.32 133.36 181.30 -0.3% 1.1% 2.3%

Cumulative Electricity Generating

Capacity Additions (gigawatts)10

 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 14.7 14.7 14.6 30.4 25.5 19.2 - - - - - -

 Conventional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 16.0 11.2 10.9 - - - - - -

 Advanced without Sequestration . . . . 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 - - - - - -

 Advanced with Sequestration . . . . . . . 0.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 - - - - - -

 End-Use Generators11 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 1.2 1.2 1.1 11.8 11.7 5.7 - - - - - -

 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - - - - - -

 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 28.8 26.7 26.9 135.6 135.1 126.1 - - - - - -

 Nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 - - - - - -

 Renewables12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 34.4 34.1 34.1 56.6 55.7 52.2 - - - - - -

 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 - - - - - -

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 85.1 82.7 82.8 229.8 223.4 204.7 - - - - - -

Liquids from Coal (million barrels per day) 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.55 0.55 0.27 - - - - - -
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 207

Results from side cases

Table D23. Key results for coal cost cases (continued)

(million short tons per year, unless otherwise noted)

26 Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2011 - May 16, 2011

Table D23. Key Results for Coal Cost Cases (Continued)

(Million	Short	Tons	per	Year,	Unless	Otherwise	Noted)

Supply, Disposition, and Prices 2009

2020 2035 Growth Rate, 2009-2035

Low Coal

Cost Reference High CoalCost

Low Coal

Cost Reference High Coal

Cost

Low Coal

Cost Reference High CoalCost

Cost Indices

(constant dollar index, 2009=1.000)

 Transportation Rate Multipliers

 Eastern Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 0.920 1.019 1.120 0.760 1.004 1.260 -1.0% 0.0% 0.9%

 Western Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 0.890 0.983 1.090 0.790 1.058 1.320 -0.9% 0.2% 1.1%

 Mine Equipment Costs

 Underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 0.909 1.005 1.111 0.782 1.005 1.289 -0.9% 0.0% 1.0%

 Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.000 0.895 0.989 1.093 0.769 0.989 1.269 -1.0% -0.0% 0.9%

 Other Mine Supply Costs

 East of the Mississippi: All Mines . . . . 1.000 0.904 1.000 1.105 0.778 1.000 1.282 -1.0% 0.0% 1.0%

 West of the Mississippi: Underground 1.000 0.904 1.000 1.105 0.778 1.000 1.282 -1.0% 0.0% 1.0%

 West of the Mississippi: Surface . . . . . 1.000 0.904 1.000 1.105 0.778 1.000 1.282 -1.0% 0.0% 1.0%

Coal Mining Labor Productivity

(short tons per miner per hour) . . . . . . . . . 5.61 7.97 5.97 4.40 13.18 6.12 2.58 3.3% 0.3% -2.9%

Average Coal Miner Wage

(2009 dollars per hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.13 23.62 26.13 28.87 20.33 26.13 33.50 -1.0% 0.0% 1.0%

1

Includes	anthracite,	bituminous	coal,	subbituminous	coal,	and	lignite. 2

Includes waste coal consumed by the electric power and industrial sectors. Waste coal supplied is counted as a supply-side item to balance the same amount of waste coal

included in the consumption data. 3

Excludes imports to Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

4

Production plus waste coal supplied plus net imports.

5

Includes	consumption	for	combined	heat	and	power	plants,	except	those	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public.		Excludes	all

coal use in the coal to liquids process. 6

Includes	all	electricity-only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	whose	primary	business	is	to	sell	electricity,	or	electricity	and	heat,	to	the	public. 7

Includes reported prices for both open market and captive mines.

8

Prices	weighted	by	consumption	tonnage;	weighted	average	excludes	residential	and	commercial	prices,	and	export	free-alongside-ship (f.a.s.) prices. 9

F.a.s. price at U.S. port of exit.

10Cumulative	additions	after	December	31,	2009.		Includes	all	additions	of	electricity	only	and	combined	heat	and	power	plants	projected	for	the	electric	power,	industrial,	and

commercial sectors. 11Includes combined heat and power plants and electricity-only plants in the commercial and industrial sectors; and small on-site	generating	systems	in	the	residential,	commercial,

and	industrial	sectors	used	primarily	for	own-use	generation,	but	which	may	also	sell	some	power	to	the	grid. 12Includes	conventional	hydroelectric,	geothermal,	wood,	wood	waste,	municipal	waste,	landfill	gas,	other	biomass,	solar,	and	wind power. Facilities co-firing biomass and coal

are classified as coal.

- - = Not applicable.

Btu = British thermal unit.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Data for 2009 are model results and may differ slightly from official EIA data reports.

Sources:		2009	data	based	on:		U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Coal Report 2009,	DOE/EIA-0584(2009)	(Washington,	DC,	October	2010);	EIA,	Quarterly

Coal Report, October-December 2009,	DOE/EIA-0121(2009/4Q)	(Washington,	DC,	April	2010);	U.S.	Department	of	Labor,	Bureau	of	Labor	Statistics,	Average	Hourly	Earnings of

Production	Workers:		Coal	Mining,	Series	ID	:	ceu1021210008;	and	EIA,	AEO2011 National Energy Modeling System run REF2011.D020911A. Projections:		EIA,	AEO2011	National

Energy	Modeling	System	runs	LCCST11.D020911A,	REF2011.D020911A,	and	HCCST11.D020911A.
This page intentionally left blank
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 209

Appendix E

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

The National Energy Modeling System

The projections in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011 (AEO2011) are generated from the National Energy Modeling System (NEMS) 

[1], developed and maintained by the Office of Energy Analysis (OEA), formerly known as the Office Integrated Analysis and 

Forecasting (OIAF), of the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) [2]. In addition to its use in developing the Annual 

Energy Outlook (AEO) projections, NEMS is also used to complete analytical studies for the U.S. Congress, the Executive Office 

of the President, other offices within the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and other Federal agencies. NEMS is also used by 

other nongovernment groups, such as the Electric Power Research Institute, Duke University, Georgia Institute of Technology, 

and OnLocation, Inc. In addition, the AEO projections are used by analysts and planners in other government agencies and 

nongovernment organizations.

The projections in NEMS are developed with the use of a market-based approach to energy analysis. For each fuel and consuming 

sector, NEMS balances energy supply and demand, accounting for economic competition among the various energy fuels and 

sources. The time horizon of NEMS is the period through 2035, approximately 25 years into the future. In order to represent 

regional differences in energy markets, the component modules of NEMS function at the regional level: the nine Census divisions 

for the end-use demand modules; production regions specific to oil, natural gas, and coal supply and distribution; 22 subregions of 

the North American Electric Reliability Council regions and subregions for electricity [3]; and the 5 Petroleum Administration for 

Defense Districts (PADDs) for refineries.

NEMS is organized and implemented as a modular system. The modules represent each of the fuel supply markets, conversion 

sectors, and end-use consumption sectors of the energy system. NEMS also includes delivered prices of energy to end users 

and the quantities consumed, by product, region, and sector. The delivered fuel prices encompass all the activities necessary to 

produce, import, and transport fuels to end users. The information flows also include other data on such areas as economic activity, 

domestic production, and international petroleum supply.

The Integrating Module controls the execution of each of the component modules. To facilitate modularity, the components do 

not pass information to each other directly but communicate through a central data structure. This modular design provides the 

capability to execute modules individually, thus allowing decentralized development of the system and independent analysis and 

testing of individual modules. The modular design also permits the use of the methodology and level of detail most appropriate 

for each energy sector. NEMS calls each supply, conversion, and end-use demand module in sequence until the delivered prices 

of energy and the quantities demanded have converged within tolerance, thus achieving an economic equilibrium of supply and 

demand in the consuming sectors. A solution is reached annually through the projection horizon. Other variables, such as petroleum 

product imports, crude oil imports, and several macroeconomic indicators, also are evaluated for convergence.

Each NEMS component represents the impacts and costs of legislation and environmental regulations that affect that sector. 

NEMS accounts for all combustion-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, as well as emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen 

oxides (NOx), and mercury from the electricity generation sector.

The version of NEMS used for AEO2011 represents current legislation and environmental regulations as of January 31, 2011, such as: 

the October 13, 2010, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) waiver that allows the use of E15 in light-duty vehicles (LDVs) 

built in 2007 or later; EPA guidelines regarding compliance of surface coal mining operations in Appalachia, issued on April 1, 2010; 

the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), which was enacted in mid-February 2009; the Energy Improvement and 

Extension Act of 2008 (EIEA2008), signed into law on October 3, 2008; the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008; and the 

Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA2007), signed into law on December 19, 2007. The AEO2011 models do not 

represent the Clean Air Mercury Rule, which was vacated and remanded by the D.C. Circuit Court of the U.S. Court of Appeals on 

February 8, 2008, but it does represent State requirements for reduction of mercury emissions.

The AEO2011 Reference case reflects the temporary reinstatement of the NOx and SO2 cap-and-trade programs included in the 

Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) as a result of the ruling issued by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia 

on December 23, 2008. The potential impacts of proposed Federal and State legislation, regulations, or standards—or of sections 

of legislation that have been enacted but require funds or implementing regulations that have not been provided or specified—are 

not reflected in NEMS. However, many pending provisions are examined in alternatives cases included in AEO2011 or in other 

analyses completed by EIA.

In general, the historical data used for the AEO2011 projections are based on EIA’s Annual Energy Review 2009, published in August 

2010 [4]; however, data were taken from multiple sources. In some cases, only partial or preliminary data were available for 2009. 

CO2 emissions were calculated by using CO2 coefficients from the EIA report, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 

2009, published in April 2011 [5]. Historical numbers are presented for comparison only and may be estimates. Source documents 

should be consulted for the official data values. Footnotes to the AEO2011 appendix tables indicate the definitions and sources of 

historical data.
210 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

The AEO2011 projections for 2010 and 2011 incorporate short-term projections from EIA’s October 2010 Short-Term Energy Outlook 

(STEO). For short-term energy projections, readers are referred to monthly updates of the STEO [6].

Component modules

The component modules of NEMS represent the individual supply, demand, and conversion sectors of domestic energy markets 

and also include international and macroeconomic modules. In general, the modules interact through values representing prices or 

expenditures for energy delivered to the consuming sectors and the quantities of end-use energy consumption.

Macroeconomic Activity Module

The Macroeconomic Activity Module (MAM) provides a set of macroeconomic drivers to the energy modules and receives 

energy-related indicators from the NEMS energy components as part of the macroeconomic feedback mechanism within NEMS. 

Key macroeconomic variables used in the energy modules include gross domestic product (GDP), disposable income, value of 

industrial shipments, new housing starts, sales of new LDVs, interest rates, and employment. Key energy indicators fed back to the 

MAM include aggregate energy prices and costs. The MAM uses the following models from IHS Global Insight: Macroeconomic 

Model of the U.S. Economy, National Industry Model, and National Employment Model. In addition, EIA has constructed a Regional 

Economic and Industry Model to project regional economic drivers, and a Commercial Floorspace Model to project 13 floorspace 

types in 9 Census divisions. The accounting framework for industrial value of shipments uses the North American Industry 

Classification System (NAICS).

International Energy Module

The International Energy Module (IEM) uses assumptions of economic growth and expectations of future U.S. and world petroleum 

liquids production and consumption, by year, to project the interaction of U.S. and international liquids markets. The IEM computes 

world oil prices, provides a world crude-like liquids supply curve, generates a worldwide oil supply/demand balance for each 

year of the projection period, and computes initial estimates of crude oil and light and heavy petroleum product imports to the 

United States by PADD regions. The supply-curve calculations are based on historical market data and a world oil supply/demand 

balance, which is developed from reduced-form models of international liquids supply and demand, current investment trends in 

exploration and development, and long-term resource economics for 221 countries and territories. The oil production estimates 

include both conventional and unconventional supply recovery technologies.

In interacting with the rest of NEMS, the IEM changes the world oil price—which is defined as the price of foreign light, lowsulfur crude oil delivered to Cushing, Oklahoma (Petroleum Allocation Defense District 2)—in response to changes in expected 

production and consumption of crude oil and product liquids in the United States.

Residential and Commercial Demand Modules

The Residential Demand Module projects energy consumption in the residential sector by housing type and end use, based on 

delivered energy prices, the menu of equipment available, the availability and cost of renewable sources of energy, and housing 

starts. The Commercial Demand Module projects energy consumption in the commercial sector by building type and non-building 

uses of energy and by category of end use, based on delivered prices of energy, availability of renewable sources of energy, and 

macroeconomic variables representing interest rates and floorspace construction.

Both modules estimate the equipment stock for the major end-use services, incorporating assessments of advanced technologies, 

including representations of renewable energy technologies, and the effects of both building shell and appliance standards, 

including the recent consensus agreement reached between manufacturers and environmental interest groups. The Commercial 

Demand Module incorporates combined heat and power (CHP) technology. The modules also include projections of distributed 

generation. Both modules incorporate changes to “normal” heating and cooling degree-days by Census division, based on a 10-

year average and on State-level population projections. The Residential Demand Module projects an increase in the average square 

footage of both new construction and existing structures, based on trends in new construction and remodeling.

Industrial Demand Module

The Industrial Demand Module (IDM) projects the consumption of energy for heat and power, feedstocks, and raw materials in 

each of 21 industries, subject to the delivered prices of energy and the values of macroeconomic variables representing employment 

and the value of shipments for each industry. As noted in the description of the MAM, the value of shipments is based on NAICS. 

The industries are classified into three groups—energy-intensive manufacturing, non-energy-intensive manufacturing, and 

nonmanufacturing. Of the eight energy-intensive industries, seven are modeled in the IDM, with energy-consuming components 

for boiler/steam/cogeneration, buildings, and process/assembly use of energy. The use of energy for petroleum refining is modeled 

in the Petroleum Market Module (PMM), as described below, and the projected consumption is included in the industrial totals.

A generalized representation of cogeneration and a recycling component also are included. A new economic calculation for CHP 

systems was implemented for AEO2011. The evaluation of CHP systems now uses a discount rate, which depends on the 10-year 

Treasury bill rate plus a risk premium, replacing the previous calculation that used simple payback. Also, the base year of the IDM 

was updated to 2006 in keeping with an update to EIA’s 2006 Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey [7].
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 211

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Transportation Demand Module

The Transportation Demand Module projects consumption of fuels in the transportation sector, including petroleum products, 

electricity, methanol, ethanol, compressed natural gas, and hydrogen, by transportation mode, vehicle vintage, and size class, 

subject to delivered prices of energy fuels and macroeconomic variables representing disposable personal income, GDP, 

population, interest rates, and industrial shipments. Fleet vehicles are represented separately to allow analysis of other legislation 

and legislative proposals specific to those market segments. The Transportation Demand Module also includes a component to 

assess the penetration of alternative-fuel vehicles. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT2005) and EIEA2008 are reflected in the 

assessment of impacts of tax credits on the purchase of hybrid gas-electric, alternative-fuel, and fuel-cell vehicles. Representations 

of corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards and of biofuel consumption in the module reflect standards enacted by the 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and EPA, and provisions in EISA2007.

The air transportation component of the Transportation Demand Module explicitly represents air travel in domestic and foreign 

markets and includes the industry practice of parking aircraft in both domestic and international markets to reduce operating costs, 

as well as the movement of aging aircraft from passenger to cargo markets. For passenger travel and air freight shipments, the 

module represents regional fuel use in regional, narrow-body, and wide-body aircraft. An infrastructure constraint, which is also 

modeled, can potentially limit overall growth in passenger and freight air travel to levels commensurate with industry-projected 

infrastructure expansion and capacity growth.

Electricity Market Module

There are three primary submodules of the Electricity Market Module—capacity planning, fuel dispatching, and finance and pricing. 

The capacity expansion submodule uses the stock of existing generation capacity; the menu, cost, and performance of future 

generation capacity; expected fuel prices; expected financial parameters; expected electricity demand; and expected environmental 

regulations to project the optimal mix of new generation capacity that should be added in future years. The fuel dispatching 

submodule uses the existing stock of generation equipment types, their operation and maintenance costs and performance, fuel 

prices to the electricity sector, electricity demand, and all applicable environmental regulations to determine the least-cost way 

to meet that demand. The submodule also determines transmission and pricing of electricity. The finance and pricing submodule 

uses capital costs, fuel costs, macroeconomic parameters, environmental regulations, and load shapes to estimate generation 

costs for each technology.

All specifically identified options promulgated by the EPA for compliance with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA90) 

are explicitly represented in the capacity expansion and dispatch decisions; those that have not been promulgated (e.g., fine 

particulate proposals) are not incorporated. All financial incentives for power generation expansion and dispatch specifically 

identified in EPACT2005 have been implemented. Several States, primarily in the Northeast, have recently enacted air emission 

regulations for CO2 that affect the electricity generation sector, and those regulations are represented in AEO2011. The AEO2011

Reference case reflects the temporary reinstatement of the NOx and SO2 cap-and-trade programs included in CAIR due to the 

ruling issued by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia on December 23, 2008. State regulations on 

mercury also are reflected in AEO2011.

Although currently there is no Federal legislation in place that restricts greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, regulators and the 

investment community have continued to push energy companies to invest in technologies that are less GHG-intensive. The 

trend is captured in the AEO2011 Reference case through a 3-percentage-point increase in the cost of capital when evaluating 

investments in new coal-fired power plants and new coal-to-liquids (CTL) plants without carbon capture and storage (CCS).

Renewable Fuels Module

The Renewable Fuels Module (RFM) includes submodules representing renewable resource supply and technology input information 

for central-station, grid-connected electricity generation technologies, including conventional hydroelectricity, biomass (dedicated 

biomass plants and co-firing in existing coal plants), geothermal, landfill gas, solar thermal electricity, solar photovoltaics (PV), and 

wind energy. The RFM contains renewable resource supply estimates representing the regional opportunities for renewable energy 

development. Investment tax credits (ITCs) for renewable fuels are incorporated, as currently enacted, including a permanent 

10-percent ITC for business investment in solar energy (thermal nonpower uses as well as power uses) and geothermal power 

(available only to those projects not accepting the production tax credit [PTC] for geothermal power). In addition, the module 

reflects the increase in the ITC to 30 percent for solar energy systems installed before January 1, 2017, and the extension of the 

credit to individual homeowners under EIEA2008.

PTCs for wind, geothermal, landfill gas, and some types of hydroelectric and biomass-fueled plants also are represented. They 

provide a credit of up to 2.1 cents per kilowatthour for electricity produced in the first 10 years of plant operation. For AEO2011, new 

wind plants coming on line before January 1, 2013, are eligible to receive the PTC; other eligible plants must be in service before 

January 1, 2014. As part of the ARRA, plants eligible for the PTC may instead elect to receive a 30-percent ITC or an equivalent 

direct grant. AEO2011 also accounts for new renewable energy capacity resulting from State renewable portfolio standard (RPS) 

programs, mandates, and goals, as described in Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011 [8].
212 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Oil and Gas Supply Module

The Oil and Gas Supply Module represents domestic crude oil and natural gas supply within an integrated framework that captures 

the interrelationships among the various sources of supply—onshore, offshore, and Alaska—by all production techniques, including 

natural gas recovery from coalbeds and low-permeability formations of sandstone and shale. The framework analyzes cash flow 

and profitability to compute investment and drilling for each of the supply sources, based on the prices for crude oil and natural 

gas, the domestic recoverable resource base, and the state of technology. Oil and natural gas production activities are modeled for 

12 supply regions, including 6 onshore, 3 offshore, and 3 Alaskan regions.

The Onshore Lower 48 Oil and Gas Supply Submodule evaluates the economics of future exploration and development projects for 

crude oil and natural gas at the play level. Crude oil resources are divided into known plays and undiscovered plays, including highly 

fractured continuous zones, such as the Austin chalk and Bakken shale formations. Production potential from advanced secondary 

recovery techniques (such as infill drilling, horizontal continuity, and horizontal profile) and enhanced oil recovery (such as CO2

flooding, steam flooding, polymer flooding, and profile modification) are explicitly represented. Natural gas resources are divided 

into known producing plays, known developing plays, and undiscovered plays in high-permeability carbonate and sandstone, tight 

gas, shale gas, and coalbed methane.

Domestic crude oil production quantities are used as inputs to the PMM in NEMS for conversion and blending into refined 

petroleum products. Supply curves for natural gas are used as inputs to the Natural Gas Transmission and Distribution Module 

(NGTDM) for determining natural gas wellhead prices and domestic production.

Natural Gas Transmission and Distribution Module

The NGTDM represents the transmission, distribution, and pricing of natural gas, subject to end-use demand for natural gas and 

the availability of domestic natural gas and natural gas traded on the international market. The module tracks the flows of natural 

gas and determines the associated capacity expansion requirements in an aggregate pipeline network, connecting the domestic 

and foreign supply regions with 12 U.S. lower 48 demand regions. The 12 regions align with the 9 Census divisions, with three 

subdivided and Alaska handled separately. The flow of natural gas is determined for both a peak and off-peak period in the year, 

assuming a historically based seasonal distribution of natural gas demand. Key components of pipeline and distributor tariffs are 

included in separate pricing algorithms. An algorithm is included to project the addition of compressed natural gas retail fueling 

capability. The module also accounts for foreign sources of natural gas, including pipeline imports and exports to Canada and 

Mexico, as well as liquefied natural gas (LNG) imports and exports.

Petroleum Market Module

The PMM projects prices of petroleum products, crude oil and product import activity, and domestic refinery operations, subject 

to demand for petroleum products, availability and price of imported petroleum, and domestic production of crude oil, natural gas 

liquids, and biofuels—ethanol, biodiesel, biomass-to-liquids (BTL), CTL, and gas-to-liquids (GTL). Costs, performance, and first 

dates of commercial availability for the advanced alternative liquids technologies [9] are reviewed and updated annually.

The module represents refining activities in the five PADDs, as well as a less detailed representation of refining activities in the rest of the 

world. It models the costs of automotive fuels, such as conventional and reformulated gasoline, and includes production of biofuels for 

blending in gasoline and diesel. Fuel ethanol and biodiesel are included in the PMM, because they are commonly blended into petroleum 

products. The module allows ethanol blending into gasoline at 10 percent or less by volume (E10), 15 percent by volume (E15) in States 

that lack explicit language capping ethanol volume or oxygen content, and up to 85 percent by volume (E85) for use in flex-fuel vehicles.

The PMM includes representation of the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS) included in EISA2007, which mandates the use of 

36  billion gallons of renewable fuel by 2022. Both domestic and imported ethanol count toward the RFS. Domestic ethanol 

production is modeled for three feedstock categories: corn, cellulosic plant materials, and advanced feedstock materials. Cornbased ethanol plants are numerous (more than 180 are now in operation, with a total operating production capacity of more than 

13 billion gallons annually), and they are based on a well-known technology that converts starch and sugar into ethanol. Ethanol 

from cellulosic sources is a new technology with only a few small pilot plants in operation.

Fuels produced by gasification and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and through a pyrolysis process are also modeled in the PMM, based 

on their economics relative to competing feedstocks and products. The five processes modeled are CTL, GTL, BTL, coal- and 

biomass-to-liquids, and pyrolysis.

Coal Market Module

The Coal Market Module (CMM) simulates mining, transportation, and pricing of coal, subject to end-use demand for coal 

differentiated by heat and sulfur content. U.S. coal production is represented in the CMM by 41 separate supply curves—

differentiated by region, mine type, coal rank, and sulfur content. The coal supply curves respond to capacity utilization of mines, 

mining capacity, labor productivity, and factor input costs (mining equipment, mining labor, and fuel requirements). Projections of 

U.S. coal distribution are determined by minimizing the cost of coal supplied, given coal demands by region and sector, environmental 

restrictions, and accounting for minemouth prices, transportation costs, and coal supply contracts. Over the projection horizon, 

coal transportation costs in the CMM vary in response to changes in the cost of rail investments.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 213

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

The CMM produces projections of U.S. steam and metallurgical coal exports and imports in the context of world coal trade, 

determining the pattern of world coal trade flows that minimizes production and transportation costs while meeting a specified set 

of regional world coal import demands, subject to constraints on export capacities and trade flows. The international coal market 

component of the module computes trade in 3 types of coal for 17 export regions and 20 import regions. U.S. coal production and 

distribution are computed for 14 supply regions and 16 demand regions.

Annual Energy Outlook 2011 cases

Table E1 provides a summary of the cases produced as part of AEO2011. For each case, the table gives the name used in AEO2011, 

a brief description of the major assumptions underlying the projections, the mode in which the case was run in NEMS (either fully 

integrated, partially integrated, or standalone), and a reference to the pages in the body of the report and in this appendix where 

the case is discussed. The text sections following Table E1 describe the various cases. The Reference case assumptions for each 

sector are described in Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011 [10]. Regional results and other details of the projections are 

available at website www.eia.gov/oiaf/aeo/supplement.

Macroeconomic growth cases

In addition to the AEO2011 Reference case, Low Economic Growth and High Economic Growth cases were developed to reflect the 

uncertainty in projections of economic growth. The alternative cases are intended to show the effects of alternative growth 

assumptions on energy market projections. The cases are described as follows:

•	 In the Reference case, population grows by 0.9 percent per year, nonfarm employment by 1.0 percent per year, and labor 

productivity by 2.0 percent per year from 2009 to 2035. Economic output as measured by real GDP increases by 2.7 percent 

per year from 2009 through 2035, and growth in real disposable income per capita averages 1.6 percent per year.

•	 The Low Economic Growth case assumes lower growth rates for population (0.6 percent per year) and labor productivity 

(1.6 percent per year), resulting in lower nonfarm employment (0.7 percent per year), higher prices and interest rates, and 

lower growth in industrial output. In the Low Economic Growth case, economic output as measured by real GDP increases by 

2.1 percent per year from 2009 through 2035, and growth in real disposable income per capita averages 1.5 percent per year.

•	 The High Economic Growth case assumes higher growth rates for population (1.2 percent per year) and labor productivity 

(2.4 percent per year), resulting in higher nonfarm employment (1.4 percent per year). With higher productivity gains and 

employment growth, inflation and interest rates are lower than in the Reference case, and consequently economic output 

grows at a higher rate (3.2 percent per year) than in the Reference case (2.7 percent). Disposable income per capita grows by 

1.63 percent per year, compared with 1.57 percent in the Reference case.

Oil price cases

The world oil price in AEO2011 is defined as the average price of light, low-sulfur crude oil delivered in Cushing, Oklahoma, and is similar to 

the price for light, sweet crude oil traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange. AEO2011 also includes a projection of the U.S. annual average 

refiners’ acquisition cost of imported crude oil, which is more representative of the average cost of all crude oils used by domestic refiners.

The historical record shows substantial variability in world oil prices, and there is arguably even more uncertainty about future 

prices in the long term. AEO2011 considers five oil price cases (Reference, Low Oil Price, Traditional Low Oil Price, High Oil Price, 

and Traditional High Oil Price) to allow an assessment of alternative views on the course of future oil prices. The Low Oil Price case 

and Traditional Low Oil Price case use the same price path, as do the High Oil Price case and Traditional High Oil Price.

The Low and High Oil Price cases reflect a wide range of potential price paths, resulting from variation in demand for countries outside 

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) for liquid fuels due to different levels of economic growth. The 

Traditional Low and Traditional High Oil Price cases define the same wide range of potential price paths, but they also reflect different 

assumptions about decisions by members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) regarding the preferred 

rate of oil production and about the future finding and development costs and accessibility of conventional oil resources outside 

the United States. Because the Low, Traditional Low, High, and Traditional High Oil Price cases are not fully integrated with a world 

economic model, the impact of world oil prices on international economies is not accounted for directly.

•	 In the Reference case, real world oil prices rise from a low of $78 per barrel (2009 dollars) in 2010 to $95 per barrel in 2015, then 

increase more slowly to $125 per barrel in 2035. The Reference case represents EIA’s current judgment regarding exploration 

and development costs and accessibility of oil resources outside the United States. It also assumes that OPEC producers will 

choose to maintain their share of the market and will schedule investments in incremental production capacity so that OPEC’s 

conventional oil production will represent about 42 percent of the world’s total liquids production.

•	 In the Low Oil Price case, world crude oil prices are only $50 per barrel (2009 dollars) in 2035, compared with $125 per barrel in 

the Reference case. In the Low Oil Price case, the low price results from lower demand for liquid fuels in the non-OECD nations. 

Lower demand is derived from lower economic growth relative to the Reference case. In this case, GDP growth in the non-OECD 

is reduced by 1.5 percentage points in each projection year beginning in 2015 relative to Reference case. The OECD projections 

are only affected by the price impact.
214 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Case name Description

Integration 

mode

Reference 

in text

Reference in 

Appendix E

Reference Baseline economic growth (2.7 percent per year from 2009 

through 2035), world oil price, and technology assumptions. 

Complete projection tables in Appendix A. World light, sweet 

crude oil prices rise to about $125 per barrel (2009 dollars) in 

2035. Assumes RFS target to be met as soon as possible. 

Fully integrated -- --

Low Economic 

Growth

Real GDP grows at an average annual rate of 2.1 percent from 

2009 to 2035. Other energy market assumptions are the same as 

in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix B.

Fully integrated p. 58 p. 213

High Economic 

Growth

Real GDP grows at an average annual rate of 3.2 percent from 

2009 to 2035. Other energy market assumptions are the same as 

in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix B.

Fully integrated p. 58 p. 213

Low Oil Price 

(primary low 

price case)

Low prices result from low demand for liquid fuels in the nonOECD nations. Lower demand is measured by lower economic 

growth relative to the Reference case. In this case, GDP growth in 

the non-OECD region is reduced by 1.5 percentage points in each 

projection year relative to Reference case assumptions from 2015 

to 2035. World light, sweet crude oil prices fall to about $50 per 

barrel in 2035, compared with $125 per barrel in the Reference 

case (2009 dollars). Other assumptions are the same as in the 

Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix C. 

Fully integrated p. 23 p. 213

Traditional 

Low Oil Price

More optimistic assumptions for economic access to non-OPEC 

resources and OPEC behavior than in the Reference case. Prices 

are the same as those used in the Low Oil Price case. Partial 

projection tables in Appendix C. 

Fully integrated p. 24 p. 218

High Oil Price 

(primary high 

price case)

High prices result from high demand for liquid fuels in the nonOECD nations. Higher demand is measured by higher economic 

growth relative to the Reference case. In this case, GDP growth in 

the non-OECD region is raised by 1.0 percentage points in each 

projection year relative to Reference case assumptions from 2015 

to 2035. World light, sweet crude oil prices rise to about $200 per 

barrel (2009 dollars) in 2035. Other assumptions are the same as 

in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix C. 

Fully integrated p. 23 p. 218

Traditional 

High Oil Price

More pessimistic assumptions for economic access to non-OPEC 

resources and OPEC behavior than in the Reference case. Prices 

are the same as those used in the High Oil Price case. Partial 

projection tables in Appendix C. 

Fully integrated p. 24 p. 218

No Sunset Begins with the Reference case and assumes extension of all 

existing energy policies and legislation that contain sunset 

provisions, except those requiring additional funding (e.g., loan 

guarantee programs) and those that involve extensive regulatory 

analysis, such as CAFE improvements and periodic efficiency 

standard updates. Partial projection tables in Appendix D

Fully integrated p. 18 p. 223

Extended Policies Begins with the No Sunset case but excludes extension of blender 

and other biofuel tax credits that were included in No Sunset 

case. Assumes expansion of the maximum industrial ITC and CHP 

credits and extension of the program. Includes assumptions of the 

“Expanded Standards and Codes case” described below. Assumes 

new LDV CAFE standards (to 46 miles per gallon by 2025) and 

tailpipe emissions proposal consistent with the CAFE 3% Growth 

case described below. Partial projection tables in Appendix D. 

Fully Integrated p. 18 p. 223

Expanded Standards Begins with Reference case assumptions for standards. Adds 

additional rounds of efficiency standards for currently covered 

products as well as new standards for products not yet covered. 

Efficiency levels assume improvement similar to those in ENERGY 

STAR or Federal Energy Management Plan (FEMP) guidelines. 

Partial projection tables in Appendix D. 

Residential and 

commercial only

p. 32 p. 219

Table E1. Summary of the AEO2011 cases
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 215

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Case name Description

Integration 

mode

Reference 

in text

Reference in 

Appendix E

Expanded Standards 

and Codes

Begins with Expanded Standards case and adds multiple rounds 

of national building codes by 2026. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Residential and 

commercial only

p. 32 p. 219

Residential: 

2010 Technology

Future equipment purchases based on equipment available in 

2010. New and existing building shell efficiencies fixed at 2010 

levels. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

With 

commercial

p. 64 p. 218

Residential: 

High Technology

Earlier availability, lower costs, and higher efficiencies assumed 

for more advanced equipment. Building shell efficiencies for 

new construction meet ENERGY STAR requirements after 2015. 

Consumers evaluate efficiency investments at a 7-percent real 

discount rate. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

With 

commercial

p. 64 p. 218

Residential: 

Best Available 

Technology

Future equipment purchases and new building shells based 

on most efficient technologies available by fuel. Building shell 

efficiencies for new construction meet the criteria for most 

efficient components after 2010. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

With 

commercial

p. 64 p. 218

Commercial: 

2010 Technology

Future equipment purchases based on equipment available 

in 2010. Building shell efficiencies fixed at 2010 levels. Partial 

projection tables in Appendix D.

With residential p. 66 p. 218

Commercial: 

High Technology

Earlier availability, lower costs, and higher efficiencies for more 

advanced equipment. Energy efficiency investments evaluated at a 

7-percent real discount rate. Building shell efficiencies for new and 

existing buildings increase by 17.4 and 7.5 percent, respectively, 

from 2003 values by 2035. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

With residential p. 66 p. 218

Commercial: 

Best Available 

Technology

Future equipment purchases based on most efficient technologies 

available by fuel. Building shell efficiencies for new and existing 

buildings increase by 20.8 and 9.0 percent, respectively, from 

2003 values by 2035. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

With residential p. 66 p. 218

Industrial: 

2010 Technology

Efficiencies of plant and equipment fixed at 2010 levels. Partial 

projection tables in Appendix D.

Standalone p. 184 p. 219

Industrial: 

High Technology

Earlier availability, lower costs, and higher efficiencies for more 

advanced equipment. Partial projection tables in Appendix D. 

Standalone p. 184 p. 219

Transportation: 

Low Technology

Advanced technologies are more costly and less efficient than in 

the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Standalone p. 71 p. 219

Transportation: 

High Technology

Advanced technologies are less costly and more efficient than in 

the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D. 

Standalone p. 71 p. 219

Transportation: 

CAFE 3% Growth

Implements a 3-percent annual increase in fuel economy 

standards for LDVs from 2017 to 2025, with CAFE standard 

reaching 46 miles per gallon in 2025. Standards are held constant 

after 2025. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 25 p. 220

Transportation: 

CAFE 6% Growth

Implements a 6-percent annual increase in fuel economy 

standards for LDVs from 2017 to 2025, with CAFE standard 

reaching 59 miles per gallon in 2025. Standards are held constant 

after 2025. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 25 p. 220

Transportation: 

Heavy-Duty Vehicle 

Fuel Economy 

Standards

Implements increased fuel economy standards for heavy-duty 

vehicles for model years 2014 through 2018. Standards are held 

constant after 2018. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 29 p. 220

Electricity: 

Low Fossil 

Technology Cost

Capital and operating costs for all new fossil-fired generating 

technologies start 20 percent below the Reference case level and 

decline to 40 percent below the Reference case in 2035. Partial 

projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 41 p. 220

Electricity: 

High Fossil 

Technology Cost

Costs for all new fossil-fired generating technologies do not 

improve due to learning from 2011 levels in the Reference case. 

Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 193 p. 220

Table E1. Summary of the AEO2011 cases (continued)
216 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Case name Description

Integration 

mode

Reference 

in text

Reference in 

Appendix E

Electricity: 

Low Nuclear Cost

Capital and operating costs for new nuclear capacity start 20 

percent lower than in the Reference case and fall to 40 percent 

lower in 2035. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 41 p. 220

Electricity: 

High Nuclear Cost

Costs for new nuclear technology do not improve due to learning 

from 2011 levels in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 192 p. 220

Electricity: 

Frozen Plant 

Capital Costs

Base overnight costs for all new electricity generating technologies 

are frozen at 2015 levels. Costs decline due to learning, but do not 

decline due to commodity price changes. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 41 p. 221

Electricity: 

Decreasing Plant 

Capital Costs

Base overnight costs for all new electric generating technologies 

fall more rapidly than in the Reference case, starting 20 percent 

below the Reference case costs in 2011 and falling to 40 percent 

below in 2035. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 41 p. 221

Electricity: 

Transport Rule 

Mercury MACT 5 

Assumes that the Transport Rule limits on SO2 and NOx and 

90-percent mercury MACT are enacted. A 5-year capital recovery 

period is assumed for the retrofits. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 48 p. 221

Electricity: 

Transport Rule 

Mercury MACT 20

Same environmental rules as above, but assuming a 20-year 

capital recovery period for retrofits. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 48 p. 221

Electricity: 

Retrofit Required 5

Assumes that all coal-fired plants are required to install flue gas 

desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers by 2020 to comply with acid 

gas reduction requirements and that all plants install selective 

catalytic reduction (SCR) in order to meet future NOx and ozone 

requirements. Assumes a 5-year capital recovery period for 

retrofits. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 49 p. 221

Electricity: 

Retrofit Required 20

Same requirements on environmental controls as above, but 

assuming a 20-year capital recovery period for retrofits. Partial 

projection tables in Appendix D. 

Fully integrated p. 48 p. 221

Electricity: 

Low Gas Price 

Retrofit Required 5

Same assumptions as the Retrofit Required 5 case, plus 

assumption of increased domestic shale gas availability and 

utilization rate as in the High Shale EUR case described below. 

Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 49 p. 221

Electricity: 

Low Gas Price 

Retrofit Required 20

Same assumptions as the Retrofit Required 20 case, plus 

assumption of increased domestic shale gas availability and 

utilization rate as in the High Shale Estimated Ultimate Recovery 

(EUR) case described below. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 49 p. 221

Renewable Fuels: 

Low Renewable 

Technology Cost

Costs for new nonhydropower renewable generating technologies 

start 20 percent lower in 2011 and decline to 40 percent lower 

than Reference case levels in 2035. Capital costs of renewable 

liquid fuel technologies start 20 percent lower in 2011 and decline 

to approximately 40 percent lower than Reference case levels in 

2035. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 195 p. 219

Renewable Fuels: 

High Renewable 

Technology Cost

Costs for new nonhydropower renewable generating technologies 

do not improve from 2011 levels over the projection. Capital costs 

of renewable liquid fuel technologies do not improve from 2011 

levels over the projection. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 195 p. 219

Oil and Gas: 

Slow Technology

Improvements in exploration and development costs, production 

rates, and success rates due to technological advancement are 50 

percent lower than in the Reference case. Partial projection tables 

in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 78 p. 221

Oil and Gas: 

Rapid Technology

Improvements in exploration and development costs, production 

rates, and success rates due to technological advancement are 50 

percent higher than in the Reference case. Partial projection tables 

in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 78 p. 222

Table E1. Summary of the AEO2011 cases (continued)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 217

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Case name Description

Integration 

mode

Reference 

in text

Reference in 

Appendix E

Oil and Gas: 

Reduced OCS 

Access

No lease sales occur in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, 

Atlantic, and Alaska Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) through 2035. 

Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 35 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

High OCS Resource

Oil and natural gas resources in the Pacific, Eastern Gulf of Mexico, 

Atlantic, and Alaska OCS are assumed to be three times higher 

than in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 35 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

High OCS Costs

Costs for exploration and development of oil and natural gas 

resources in the OCS are assumed to be 30 percent higher than in 

the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 35 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

Low Shale EUR

EUR per shale gas well is assumed to be 50 percent lower than in 

the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 38 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

High Shale EUR

EUR per shale gas well is assumed to be 50 percent higher than in 

the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 38 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

Low Shale Recovery 

Estimated undeveloped technically recoverable shale gas resource 

base is 50 percent lower than in the Reference case, with recovery 

rate per well unchanged from the Reference case, resulting in 

fewer wells needed to fully recover the resource. Partial projection 

tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 38 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

High Shale Recovery 

Estimated undeveloped technically recoverable shale gas resource 

base is 50 percent higher than in the Reference case, with recovery 

rate per well unchanged from the Reference case, resulting in more 

wells needed to fully recover the resource. Partial projection tables 

in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 38 p. 222

Oil and Gas: 

Low E15 Penetration

Consumers and retailers adopt E15 at a minimal rate in States that 

do not prohibit E15 blends. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully Integrated p. 197 p. 224

Oil and Gas: 

High E15 

Penetration

All States that currently limit or prohibit E15 remove the 

restrictions by 2015. Consumers and retailers adopt widespread 

E15 blending. Partial projection tables in Appendix D. 

Fully Integrated p. 197 p. 224

Coal: 

Low Coal Cost

Regional productivity growth rates for coal mining are 

approximately 2.7 percent per year higher than in the Reference 

case, and coal mining wages, mine equipment, and coal 

transportation rates are between 22 and 25 percent lower by 2035 

than in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 85 p. 222

Coal: 

High Coal Cost

Regional productivity growth rates for coal mining are 

approximately 2.7 percent per year lower than in the Reference 

case, and coal mining wages, mine equipment, and coal 

transportation rates are between 25 and 28 percent by higher 

by 2035 than in the Reference case. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 85 p. 222

Integrated 

2010 Technology

Combination of the Residential, Commercial, and Industrial 2010 

Technology cases and the Electricity High Fossil Technology Cost, 

High Renewable Technology Cost, and High Nuclear Cost cases. 

Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 78 p. 223

Integrated 

High Technology

Combination of the Residential, Commercial, Industrial, and 

Transportation High Technology cases and the Electricity Low 

Fossil Technology Cost, Low Renewable Technology Cost, and Low 

Nuclear Cost cases. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 78 p. 223

No GHG Concern No GHG emissions reduction policy is enacted, and market 

investment decisions are not altered in anticipation of such a 

policy. Partial projection tables in Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 87 p. 223

GHG Price 

Economywide 

Applies a price for CO2 emissions throughout the economy. The 

CO2 price assumed starts at $25 per ton beginning in 2013 and 

increases to $75 per ton in 2035. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D. 

Fully integrated p. 49 p. 223

Table E1. Summary of the AEO2011 cases (continued)
218 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

•	 In the Traditional Low Oil Price case, the OPEC countries increase their conventional oil production to obtain a 52-percent share of 

total world liquids production, and oil resources outside the U.S. are more accessible and/or less costly to produce (as a result of 

technology advances, more attractive fiscal regimes, or both) than in the Reference case. With these assumptions, conventional 

oil production outside the United States is higher in the Traditional Low Oil Price case than in the Reference case. Prices are the 

same as in the Low Oil Price case.

•	 In the High Oil Price case, world oil prices reach about $200 per barrel (2009 dollars) in 2035. In the High Oil Price case, the 

high prices result from higher demand for liquid fuels in the non-OECD nations. Higher demand is measured by higher economic 

growth relative to the Reference case. In this case, GDP growth in the non-OECD region is raised by 1.0 percentage points 

relative to Reference case in each projection year, starting in 2015. The OECD projections are only affected by the price impact.

•	 In the Traditional High Oil Price case, OPEC countries are assumed to reduce their production from the current rate, sacrificing 

market share, and oil resources outside the United States are assumed to be less accessible and/or more costly to produce than 

in the Reference case. Prices are the same as in the High Oil Price case.

Buildings sector cases

In addition to the AEO2011 Reference case, three standalone technology-focused cases using the Residential and Commercial 

Demand Modules of NEMS were developed to examine the effects of changes in equipment and building shell efficiencies. 

Residential and commercial sector assumptions for the 2010 Technology case and the High Technology case are also used in the 

appropriate Integrated Technology cases.

Residential sector assumptions for the three technology-focused cases are as follows:

•	 The 2010 Technology case assumes that all future equipment purchases are based only on the range of equipment available in 

2010. Existing building shell efficiencies are assumed to be fixed at 2010 levels (no further improvements). For new construction, 

building shell technology options are constrained to those available in 2010.

•	 The High Technology case assumes earlier availability, lower costs, and higher efficiencies for more advanced equipment [11]. For 

new construction, building shell efficiencies are assumed to meet ENERGY STAR requirements after 2015. Consumers evaluate 

investments in energy efficiency at a 7-percent real discount rate.

•	 The Best Available Technology case assumes that all future equipment purchases are made from a menu of technologies that 

includes only the most efficient models available in a particular year for each fuel, regardless of cost. For new construction, 

building shell efficiencies are assumed to meet the criteria for the most efficient components after 2010.

Commercial sector assumptions for the three technology-focused cases are as follows:

•	 The 2010 Technology case assumes that all future equipment purchases are based only on the range of equipment available in 

2010. Building shell efficiencies are assumed to be fixed at 2010 levels.

•	 The High Technology case assumes earlier availability, lower costs, and/or higher efficiencies for more advanced equipment 

than in the Reference case [12]. Energy efficiency investments are evaluated at a 7-percent real discount rate. Building shell 

efficiencies for new and existing buildings in 2035 are assumed to be 17.4 percent and 7.5 percent higher, respectively, than their 

2003 levels—a 25-percent improvement relative to the Reference case.

•	 The Best Available Technology case assumes that all future equipment purchases are made from a menu of technologies that 

includes only the most efficient models available in a particular year for each fuel, regardless of cost. Building shell efficiencies 

for new and existing buildings in 2035 are assumed to be 20.8 percent and 9.0 percent higher, respectively, than their 2003 

values—a 50-percent improvement relative to the Reference case.

The Residential and Commercial Demand Modules of NEMS were also used to complete the High and Low Renewable Technology 

Cost cases, which are discussed in more detail below, in the renewable fuels cases section. In combination with assumptions for 

electricity generation from renewable fuels in the electric power sector and industrial sector, these sensitivity cases analyze the 

Case name Description

Integration 

mode

Reference 

in text

Reference in 

Appendix E

Low EOR The quantity of CO2 available for CO2-enhanced oil recovery 

(EOR) from industrial sources with high-purity CO2 emissions is 

reduced from the Reference case. All other assumptions are the 

same as the Reference case. Partial projection tables in Appendix 

D.

Fully integrated p. 45 p. 223

Low EOR/GHG 

Price Economywide

Same as the Low EOR case but with the same carbon price as 

in the GHG Price Economywide case. Partial projection tables in 

Appendix D.

Fully integrated p. 45 p. 223

Table E1. Summary of the AEO2011 cases (continued)
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 219

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

impacts of changes in generating technologies that use renewable fuels and in the availability of renewable energy sources. For the 

Residential and Commercial Demand Modules:

•	 The Low Renewable Technology Cost case assumes greater improvements in residential and commercial PV and wind systems than 

in the Reference case. The assumptions result in capital cost estimates that are 20 percent below Reference case assumptions 

in 2011 and decline to at least 40 percent lower than Reference case costs in 2035.

•	 The High Renewable Technology Cost case assumes that costs and performance levels for residential and commercial PV and 

wind systems remain constant at 2010 levels through 2035.

The No Sunset and Extended Policies cases described below in the cross-cutting integrated cases discussion also include 

assumptions in the Residential and Commercial Demand Modules of NEMS. The Extended Policies case builds on the No Sunset 

case and adds multiple rounds of appliance standards and building codes. In the two cases described below, those standards and 

codes are examined on their own. Essentially, these cases are similar to the Extended Policies case, but without the tax-credit 

extension assumptions of the No Sunset case.

•	 The Expanded Standards case includes updates to appliance standards, as prescribed by the timeline in DOE’s multiyear 

plan, and introduces new standards for products currently not covered by DOE. Efficiency levels for the updated residential 

appliance standards are based on current ENERGY STAR guidelines. Efficiency levels for updated commercial equipment 

standards are based on the technology menu from the AEO2011 Reference case and FEMP-designated purchasing 

specifications for Federal agencies.

•	 The Expanded Standards and Codes case begins with the Expanded Standards case and adds national building codes to reach 

30-percent improvement relative to the IECC 2006 for residential households and ASHRAE 90.1-2004 for commercial buildings 

by 2020, with additional rounds of improved codes in 2023 and 2026.

Industrial sector cases

In addition to the AEO2011 Reference case, two standalone cases using the IDM of NEMS were developed to examine the effects 

of less rapid and more rapid technology change and adoption. Because they are standalone cases, the energy intensity changes 

discussed in this section exclude the refining industry. Energy use in the refining industry is estimated as part of the PMM in NEMS. 

Different assumptions for the IDM were also used as part of the Integrated Low and High Renewable Technology Cost cases, 

Integrated Technology cases, No Sunset case, and Extended Policies case. For the industrial sector:

•	 The 2010 Technology case holds the energy efficiency of new plant and equipment constant at the 2010 level over the projection 

period. Changes in aggregate energy intensity may result both from changing equipment and production efficiency and from 

changing composition of output within an individual industry. Because the level and composition of overall industrial output are 

assumed to be the same as in the Reference, 2010 Technology, and High Technology cases, the change in energy intensity in the 

two technology side cases is attributable to process and efficiency changes and increased use of CHP.

•	 The High Technology case assumes earlier availability, lower costs, and higher efficiency for more advanced equipment [13] 

and a more rapid rate of improvement in the recovery of biomass byproducts from industrial processes (0.7 percent per year, 

as compared with 0.4 percent per year in the Reference case). The same assumption is incorporated in the integrated Low 

Renewable Technology Cost case, which focuses on electricity generation. Although the choice of the 0.7-percent annual rate 

of improvement in byproduct recovery is an assumption in the High Technology case, it is based on the expectation of higher 

recovery rates and substantially increased use of CHP in that case.

The 2010 Technology and High Technology cases were run with only the IDM, rather than in fully integrated NEMS runs. 

Consequently, no potential feedback effects from energy market interactions are captured, and energy consumption and production 

in the refining industry, which are modeled in the PMM, are excluded.

•	 The No Sunset and Extended Policies cases include an assumption for CHP that extends the existing industrial CHP ITC through the 

end of the forecast. Additionally, the Extended Policies case includes expansion of the ITC for all industrial CHP capacities and 

raises the maximum credit that can be claimed. These assumptions are based on the current proposals in S. 1639 and H.R. 4751.

Transportation sector cases

In addition to the AEO2011 Reference case, two standalone cases using the NEMS Transportation Demand Module were developed 

to examine the effects of advanced technology costs and efficiency improvement on technology adoption and vehicle fuel economy 

[14]. For the transportation sector:

•	 In the Low Technology case, the characteristics of conventional technologies, advanced technologies, and alternative-fuel LDVs, 

heavy-duty vehicles, and aircraft reflect more pessimistic assumptions about cost and efficiency improvements achieved over 

the projection. More pessimistic assumptions for fuel efficiency improvement are also reflected in the rail and shipping sectors.

•	 In the High Technology case, the characteristics of conventional and alternative-fuel LDVs reflect more optimistic assumptions 

about incremental improvements in fuel economy and costs. In the freight truck sector, the High Technology case assumes more 
220 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

rapid incremental improvement in fuel efficiency for engine and emissions control technologies. More optimistic assumptions 

for fuel efficiency improvements are also made for the air, rail, and shipping sectors.

The Low and High Technology cases were run with only the Transportation Demand Module rather than as fully integrated NEMS 

runs. Consequently, no potential macroeconomic feedback related to vehicles costs or travel demand was captured, nor were 

changes in fuel prices incorporated.

Three additional integrated cases were developed to examine the potential energy impacts associated with the implementation of 

stricter fuel economy standards for LDVs and heavy-duty trucks, including:

•	 A CAFE 3% Growth case that examines the impact of increasing fuel economy standards by 3 percent annually for model years 

2017 through 2025, reaching a combined standard of 46 miles per gallon for new LDVs by 2025. The standards are held 

constant beyond model year 2025.

•	 A CAFE 6% Growth case that examines the impact of increasing fuel economy standards by 6 percent annually for model years 

2017 through 2025, reaching a combined standard of 59 miles per gallon for new LDVs by 2025. The standards are held constant 

beyond model year 2025.

•	 A Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy Standards case that simulates the expected fuel economy impact of the fuel economy 

standards for heavy-duty vehicles (Class 2b through Class 8) for model years 2014 through 2018 proposed by the EPA 

and NHTSA.

Electricity sector cases

In addition to the Reference case, several integrated cases with alternative electric power assumptions were developed to analyze 

uncertainties about the future costs and performance of new generating technologies. Two of the cases examine alternative 

assumptions for nuclear power technologies, and two examine alternative assumptions for fossil fuel technologies. Reference case 

values for technology characteristics are determined in consultation with industry and government specialists; however, there is 

always uncertainty surrounding the major component costs. The electricity cases analyze what could happen if costs of new plants 

were either lower or higher than assumed in the Reference case. The cases are fully integrated to allow feedback between the 

potential shifts in fuel consumption and fuel prices.

Nuclear technology cost cases

•	 The cost assumptions for the Low Nuclear Cost case reflect a 20-percent reduction in the capital and operating costs for 

advanced nuclear technology in 2011, relative to the Reference case, and fall to 40 percent below the Reference case in 2035. 

The Reference case projects a 35-percent reduction in the capital costs of nuclear power plants from 2011 to 2035; the Low 

Nuclear Cost case assumes a 51-percent reduction from 2011 to 2035.

•	 The High Nuclear Cost case assumes that capital costs for advanced nuclear technology remain fixed at the 2011 levels assumed 

in the Reference case. The capital costs are still tied to key commodity price indices, but no cost improvement from “learning-bydoing” effects is assumed.

Fossil technology cost cases

•	 In the Low Fossil Technology Cost case, capital costs and operating costs for all coal- and natural-gas-fired generating technologies 

are assumed to start 20 percent lower than Reference case levels and fall to 40 percent lower than Reference case levels in 2035. 

Because learning in the Reference case reduces costs with manufacturing experience, costs in the Low Fossil Technology Cost 

case are reduced by 43 to 58 percent between 2011 and 2035, depending on the technology.

•	 In the High Fossil Technology Cost case, capital costs for all coal- and natural-gas-fired generating technologies remain fixed at the 

2011 values assumed in the Reference case. Costs are still adjusted year to year by the Commodity Price Index, but no learningrelated cost reductions are assumed.

Additional details about annual capital costs, operating and maintenance costs, plant efficiencies, and other factors used in the 

Low and High Fossil Technology Cost cases are provided in Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011 [15].

Electricity plant capital cost cases

Costs to build new power plants have risen dramatically in the past few years, driven primarily by significant increases in the costs 

of construction-related materials, such as cement, iron, steel and copper. For the AEO2011 Reference case, initial overnight costs 

for all technologies were updated to be consistent with cost estimates for 2010. A cost adjustment factor based on the projected 

producer price index for metals and metal products is also applied throughout the projection, allowing overnight costs to fall in 

the future if the index drops or to rise if the index increases. Although there is significant correlation between commodity prices 

and power plant costs, there may be other factors influencing future costs that increase the uncertainties surrounding the future 

costs of building new power plants. For AEO2011, two additional cost cases were run that focus on the uncertainties of future plant 

construction costs. These cases use exogenous assumptions for the annual adjustment factors, rather than linking to the metals 

price index. The cases are discussed in the Issues in focus article, “Electricity Plant Cost Uncertainties.”
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 221

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

•	 In the Frozen Plant Capital Costs case, base overnight costs for all new electric generating technologies are assumed to be frozen 

at 2015 levels. Cost decreases due to learning can still occur. In this case, costs do decline slightly over the projection, but by 

2035 are roughly 25 percent above Reference case costs for the same year.

•	 In the Decreasing Plant Capital Costs case, base overnight costs for all new electricity generating technologies are assumed to 

fall more rapidly than in the Reference case. The base overnight costs are assumed to be 20 percent below the Reference case, 

through a reduction in the annual cost index. Costs are also assumed to decline more rapidly, so that by 2035 the cost factor is 

40 percentage points below the Reference case value.

Electricity environmental regulation cases

Over the next few years, electricity generators will have to begin steps to comply with a large number of new environmental 

regulations currently in various stages of promulgation. The AEO2011 Reference case does not include regulations that are still 

under development. However, the Issues in focus article “Power sector environmental regulations on the horizon” discusses the 

status of the different rules and examines potential impacts through a number of cases.

•	 The Transport Rule Mercury MACT 5 case assumes that the Air Transport Rule limits on SO2 and NOx and a 90-percent mercury 

MACT (maximum achievable control technology) are enacted. A 5-year recovery period for investments in environmental 

control projects is assumed.

•	 The Transport Rule Mercury MACT 20 case assumes the same rules as above, but a 20-year recovery period for investments in 

environmental control projects is assumed.

•	 The Retrofit Required 5 case represents stringent requirements for reductions in airborne emissions from coal-fired power plants. 

It assumes that utility boilers fall under the MACT rule, which requires all plants to install FGD scrubbers by 2020 in order to 

comply with acid gas reduction requirements. It also requires that all plants install SCR in order to meet future NOx and ozone 

emission reduction requirements. If the investment in an FGD and SCR is not economical, the plant is retired. Investments in 

retrofits are assumed to be recovered over a 5-year period.

•	 The Retrofit Required 20 case assumes the same requirements as above, but investments in retrofits are assumed to be recovered 

over a 20-year period.

•	 The Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5 case is identical to the Retrofit Required 5 case but adds an assumption of increased 

availability domestic shale availability and utilization rate, as in the High Shale EUR case. Increased access to natural gas lowers 

the natural gas prices paid by the electric power sector.

•	 The Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 20 case is identical to the Low Gas Price Retrofit Required 5 case, but investments in retrofits 

are assumed to be recovered over a 20-year period.

Renewable fuels cases

In addition to the AEO2011 Reference case, two integrated cases with alternative assumptions about renewable fuels were 

developed to examine the effects of less aggressive and more aggressive improvement in the cost of renewable technologies. The 

cases are as follows:

•	 In the Low Renewable Technology Cost case, the levelized costs of energy resources for generating technologies using renewable 

resources are assumed to start at 20 percent below Reference case assumptions in 2011 and decline to 40 percent below the 

Reference case costs for the same resources in 2035. In general, lower costs are represented by reducing the capital costs of 

new plant construction. Biomass fuel supplies also are assumed to be 40 percent less expensive than in the Reference case 

for the same resource quantities used in the Reference case. Assumptions for other generating technologies are unchanged 

from those in the Reference case. In the Low Renewable Technology Cost case, the rate of improvement in recovery of biomass 

byproducts from industrial processes is also increased.

•	 In the High Renewable Technology Cost case, capital costs, operating and maintenance costs, and performance levels for wind, 

solar, biomass, geothermal, and renewable liquid fuel technologies are assumed to remain constant at 2011 levels through 2035. 

Costs are still tied to key commodity price indexes, but no cost improvement from “learning-by-doing” effects is assumed. 

Although biomass prices are not changed from the Reference case, this case assumes that dedicated energy crops (also known 

as “closed-loop” biomass fuel supply) do not become available.

Oil and gas supply cases

The sensitivity of the AEO2011 projections to changes in the assumed rates of technological progress in oil and natural gas supply 

are examined in two cases:

•	 In the Slow Technology case, parameters representing the effects of technological progress on production rates, exploration 

and development costs, and success rates for conventional and unconventional oil and natural gas drilling are 50 percent 

less optimistic than those in the Reference case. Key Canadian supply parameters also are modified to simulate the assumed 

impacts of slow oil and natural gas technology penetration on Canadian supply potential. All other parameters in the model are 

kept at the Reference case values.
222 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

•	 In the Rapid Technology case, parameters representing the effects of technological progress on production rates, exploration and 

development costs, and success rates for conventional and unconventional oil and natural gas drilling in the Reference case are 

improved by 50 percent. Key supply parameters for Canadian oil and natural gas also are modified to simulate the assumed 

impacts of more rapid oil and natural gas technology penetration on Canadian supply potential. All other parameters in the 

model are kept at Reference case values, including technology parameters for other modules, parameters affecting foreign 

oil supply, and assumptions about imports and exports of LNG and natural gas trade between the United States and Mexico. 

Specific detail by region and fuel category is provided in Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011 [16].

Seven additional cases examine key uncertainties affecting exploration and development of offshore and shale gas resources and 

their impacts on future domestic natural gas supply.

•	 In the Reduced OCS Access case, no new lease sales occur in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, Atlantic, and Alaska OCS 

through 2035.

•	 In the High OCS Resource case, oil and natural gas resources in undeveloped areas of the OCS (namely the Pacific, Eastern Gulf 

of Mexico, Atlantic, and Alaska) are assumed to be 3 times higher than in the Reference case.

•	 In the High OCS Costs case, the costs of exploration and development of oil and natural gas resources in the OCS are assumed to 

be 30 percent higher than in the Reference case.

•	 In the Low Shale EUR case, the estimated ultimately recovery (EUR) per shale gas well is assumed to be 50 percent lower than 

in the Reference case, increasing the per-unit cost of developing the resource. The total unproved technically recoverable shale 

gas resource is decreased to 423 trillion cubic feet.

•	 In the High Shale EUR case, the EUR per shale gas well is assumed to be 50 percent higher than in the Reference case, decreasing 

the per-unit cost of developing the resource. The total unproved technically recoverable shale gas resource is increased from 

827 trillion cubic feet in the Reference case to 1,230 trillion cubic feet.

•	 In the Low Shale Recoverability case, the total unproved technically recoverable shale gas resource base is the same as in the Low 

Shale EUR case (423 trillion cubic feet), but instead of decreasing the EUR per well, the estimate of the number of wells that 

need to be drilled to fully recover the shale gas in each play is assumed to be 50 percent lower than in the Reference case. This 

means that the per-unit cost of developing the resource is the same as in the Reference case.

•	 In the High Shale Recoverability case, the total unproved technically recoverable shale gas resource base is the same as in the 

High Shale EUR case (1,230 trillion cubic feet), but instead of increasing the EUR per well, the estimate of the number of wells 

that need to be drilled to fully recover the shale gas in each play is assumed to be 50 percent higher than in the Reference case. 

This means that the per-unit cost of developing the resource is the same as in the Reference case.

Coal market cases

Two alternative coal cost cases examine the impacts on U.S. coal supply, demand, distribution, and prices that result from 

alternative assumptions about mining productivity, labor costs, mine equipment costs, and coal transportation rates. The alternative 

productivity and cost assumptions are applied in every year from 2011 through 2035. For the coal cost cases, adjustments to the 

Reference case assumptions for coal mining productivity are based on variation in the average annual productivity growth of 

2.7 percent observed since 2000. Transportation rates are lowered (in the Low Coal Cost case) or raised (in the High Coal Cost 

case) from Reference case levels to achieve a 25-percent change in rates relative to the Reference case in 2035. The Low and 

High Coal Cost cases represent fully integrated NEMS runs, with feedback from the macroeconomic activity, international, supply, 

conversion, and end-use demand modules.

•	 In the Low Coal Cost case, the average annual growth rates for coal mining productivity are higher than those in the Reference 

case and are applied at the supply curve level. As an example, the average annual growth rate for Wyoming’s Southern Powder 

River Basin supply curve is increased from -0.5 percent in the Reference case for the years 2011 through 2035 to 2.2 percent in 

the Low Coal Cost case. Coal mining wages, mine equipment costs, and other mine supply costs all are assumed to be about 

22 percent lower in 2035 in real terms in the Low Coal Cost case than in the Reference case. Coal transportation rates, excluding 

the impact of fuel surcharges, are assumed to be 25 percent lower in 2035.

•	 In the High Coal Cost case, the average annual productivity growth rates for coal mining are lower than those in the Reference 

case and are applied as described in the Low Coal Cost case. Coal mining wages, mine equipment costs, and other mine supply 

costs in 2035 are assumed to be about 28 percent higher than in the Reference case, and coal transportation rates in 2035 are 

assumed to be 25 percent higher.

Additional details of the productivity, wage, mine equipment cost, and coal transportation rate assumptions for the Reference and 

alternative coal cost cases are provided in Appendix D.

Cross-cutting integrated cases

In addition to the sector-specific cases described above, a series of cross-cutting integrated cases are used in AEO2011 to analyze 

specific cases with broader sectoral impacts. For example, two integrated technology progress cases combine the assumptions 
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 223

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

from the other technology progress cases to analyze the broader impacts of more rapid and slower technology improvement rates. 

In addition, two cases also were run with alternative assumptions about expectations of future regulation of GHG emissions.

Integrated technology cases

The Integrated 2010 Technology case combines the assumptions from the Residential, Commercial, and Industrial 2010 Technology 

cases and the Electricity High Fossil Technology Cost, High Renewable Technology Cost, and High Nuclear Cost cases. The 

Integrated High Technology case combines the assumptions from the Residential, Commercial, and Industrial High Technology cases 

and the Electricity Low Fossil Technology Cost, Low Renewable Technology Cost, and Low Nuclear Cost cases.

Greenhouse gas cases

Although currently no Federal cap-and-trade legislation or carbon allowance pricing for CO2 emissions is in place in the United 

States, the EPA announced a proposal in September 2009 to regulate emissions under the CAAA90. Under the proposal, industrial 

facilities with emission over 25,000 metric tons per year would be required to obtain permits that would demonstrate they are 

using the best practices and technologies to minimize GHG emissions. The rule also proposes new CAAA90 thresholds for 

permits to new or existing industrial facilities for GHG emissions under the New Source Review (NSR) and Title V operating 

permits programs. As a result, regulators and the investment community are beginning to push energy companies to invest in less 

GHG-intensive technologies. To reflect the market reaction to potential future GHG regulation, a 3-percentage-point increase is 

assumed in the cost of capital for investments in new coal-fired power plants without CCS and new CTL plants without CCS in the 

Reference case and all other AEO2011 cases except the No GHG Concern and GHG Price Economywide cases. Those assumptions 

affect cost evaluations for the construction of new capacity but not the actual operating costs when a new plant begins operation

Two alternative GHG cases are used to provide a range of other potential outcomes, from no concern about future GHG legislation 

to the imposition of a specific economy-wide carbon allowance price. In the GHG Price Economywide case, an economy-wide carbon 

allowance price is examined. The price begins at $25 per metric ton CO2 in 2013 and rises to $75 per metric ton CO2 in 2035 (2009 

dollars). This trajectory is consistent with the cost containment provisions in both the Kerry-Lieberman and Waxman-Markey GHG 

legislation. No assumptions are made for offsets, bonus allowances for CCS, or specific allocation of allowances in these cases.

The No GHG Concern case, which was run without any adjustment for concern about potential GHG regulations, is similar to what 

was run in previous AEOs (without the 3-percentage-point increase). In the No GHG Concern case, the same cost of capital is used 

to evaluate all new capacity builds, regardless of type.

CO2 availability cases

Two alternative CO2 availability cases are used to provide sensitivity analysis of oil production from CO2-EOR, depending on the availability 

of relatively inexpensive CO2 both with a carbon price and without one. The Low EOR case assumes that industrial CO2 available from 

CTL and BTL plants is reduced by 50 percent from the Reference case. The Low EOR/GHG Price Economywide case assumes that the CO2

availability is reduced and a carbon price exists that provides incentives for emitters to install carbon capture capabilities.

No Sunset case

In addition to the AEO2011 Reference case, a case was run assuming that selected policies with sunset provisions like the PTC, 

ITC, and tax credits for energy-efficient equipment in the buildings and industrial sectors will be extended indefinitely rather than 

allowed to sunset as the law currently prescribes.

For the residential sector, these extensions include: (a) personal tax credits for selected end-use equipment, including furnaces, 

heat pumps, and central air conditioning; (b) personal tax credits for PV installations, solar water heaters, small wind turbines, and 

geothermal heat pumps; (c) manufacturer tax credits for refrigerators, dishwashers, and clothes washers, passed on to consumers 

at 100 percent of the tax credit value.

For the commercial sector, business ITCs for PV installations, solar water heaters, small wind turbines, geothermal heat pumps, 

and CHP are extended to the end of the projection. The business tax credit for solar technologies remains at the current 30-percent 

level without reverting to 10 percent as scheduled.

In the industrial sector, the existing ITC for industrial CHP, which currently ends in 2016, is extended to 2035.

For the refinery sector, blending credits are extended; the $1.00 per gallon biodiesel tax credit is extended; the $0.54 per gallon 

imported ethanol tariff is extended; and the $1.01 per gallon cellulosic biofuels PTC is extended.

For renewables, the PTC of 2.1 cents per kilowatthour (or 30 percent for wind, geothermal, biomass, hydroelectric, and landfill gas 

resources), which currently are set to expire at the end of 2012 for wind and 2013 for other eligible resources, are extended to 2035; 

and the 30-percent solar power ITC, which currently is scheduled to revert to 10 percent, is extended indefinitely.

Extended Policies case

Assumptions for tax credit extensions are the same as in the No Sunset case described above. Further, updates to Federal appliance 

efficiency standards are assumed to occur at regular intervals, and new standards for products not currently covered by DOE 
224 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

are introduced. Finally, proposed rules by NHTSA and the EPA for national tailpipe CO2-equivalent emissions and fuel economy 

standards for LDVs, including both passenger cars and light-duty trucks, are harmonized and incorporated in this case.

Updates to appliance standards are assumed to occur as prescribed by the timeline in DOE’s multiyear plan, and new standards for 

products currently not covered by DOE are introduced by 2019. The efficiency levels chosen for the updated residential appliance 

standards are based on current ENERGY STAR guidelines. The efficiency levels chosen for updated commercial equipment standards 

are based on the technology menu from the AEO2011 Reference case and either FEMP-designated purchasing specifications for 

Federal agencies or ENERGY STAR guidelines. National building codes are added to reach 30-percent improvement relative to 

IECC 2006 for residential households and ASHRAE 90.1-2004 for commercial buildings by 2020, with additional rounds of 

improvements in 2023 and 2026.

In the industrial sector, tax credits are further extended to cover all systems sizes rather than applying only to systems under 

50 megawatts, and the maximum credit (cap) is increased from $15,000 to $25,000 per system. These extensions are consistent 

with previously proposed legislation (S. 1639) or pending legislation (H.R. 4751).

For transportation, the Extended Policies case assumes that the standards are further increased, so that the minimum fuel economy 

standard achieved by LDVs increases to 45.6 miles per gallon in 2035.

E15 cases

Two alternative E15 cases were established to reflect the potential variability in consumer demand for E15, which depends on 

multiple factors and ultimately affects the conversion rate of gasoline stations from E10 to E15.

•	 In the Low E15 Penetration case, the infrastructure and regulatory barriers to E15 adoption are more pronounced, and penetration 

of E15 in all demand regions grows at a slower rate, reaching a lower maximum level than in the Reference case. E15 penetration 

never rises to one-third of the maximum potential penetration level in any of the U.S. Census Divisions.

•	 In the High E15 Penetration case, E15 adoption occurs at a faster rate and reaches a higher overall level than in the Reference case. 

Any State that currently has laws or regulations that prohibit the use of ethanol blends above 10 percent or gasoline with an 

oxygenate content in excess of 3.5 percent is assumed to remove those restrictions by 2015. In addition, E15 penetration rises 

to 99 percent of the potential maximum level in all regions by 2020, indicating that infrastructure or regulatory barriers do not 

inhibit the use of E15 in gasoline markets.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 225

NEMS overview and brief description of cases

Endnotes for Appendix E

Links current as of April 2011

1. U.S. Energy Information Administration, The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2009, DOE/EIA-0581(2009) 

(Washington, DC: March 2009), website www.eia.gov/oiaf/aeo/overview.

2. On October 1, 2010, the U.S. Energy Information Administration was reorganized along functional lines. The new Office of 

Energy Analysis has been assigned all analysis responsibilities for EIA, including short- and mid-term functions as well as fuelspecific analysis. The referenced documents on the EIA website will be changed gradually over the next year to reflect the new 

organizational structure.

3. The disaggregation to 22 subregions for electricity planning and dispatch is new for AEO2011. Disaggregation of the Electricity 

Market Module (EMM) is intended to reduce errors that result from aggregation and averaging, to better represent environmental 

and regional issues, and thus to improve the projections of capacity additions and fuels consumed for generation.

4. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, DOE/EIA-0384(2009) (Washington, DC: August 2010), 

website www.eia.gov/emeu/aer.

5. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2009, DOE/EIA-0573(2009) 

(Washington, DC, April, 2011), website www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report.

6. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Short-Term Energy and Summer Fuels Outlook,” website www.eia.gov/emeu/steo/

pub. Portions of the preliminary information were also used to initialize the NEMS Petroleum Market Module projection.

7. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey,” website www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs.

8. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011, DOE/EIA-0554(2011) (Washington, DC: 

April 2011), website www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/.

9. Alternative liquids technologies include all biofuel technologies plus CTL and GTL.

10. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011, DOE/EIA-0554(2011) (Washington, 

DC: April 2011), website www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/.

11. High technology assumptions for the residential sector are based on U.S. Energy Information Administration, EIA—Technology 

Forecast Updates—Residential and Commercial Building Technologies—Advanced Case Second Edition (Revised) (Navigant Consulting, 

Inc., September 2007), and EIA—Technology Forecast Updates—Residential and Commercial Building Technologies—Advanced Case: 

Residential and Commercial Lighting, Commercial Refrigeration, and Commercial Ventilation Technologies (Navigant Consulting, Inc., 

September 2008).

12. High technology assumptions for the commercial sector are based on Energy Information Administration, EIA—Technology 

Forecast Updates—Residential and Commercial Building Technologies—Advanced Case Second Edition (Revised) (Navigant Consulting, 

Inc., September 2007), and EIA—Technology Forecast Updates—Residential and Commercial Building Technologies—Advanced Case: 

Residential and Commercial Lighting, Commercial Refrigeration, and Commercial Ventilation Technologies (Navigant Consulting, Inc., 

September 2008).

13. These assumptions are based in part on Energy Information Administration, Industrial Technology and Data Analysis Supporting 

the NEMS Industrial Model (FOCIS Associates, October 2005).

14. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Documentation of Technologies Included in the NEMS Fuel Economy Model for Passenger 

Cars and Light Trucks (Energy and Environmental Analysis, September 2003).

15. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011, DOE/EIA-0554(2011) (Washington, 

DC: April 2011), website www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/.

16. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2011, DOE/EIA-0554(2011) (Washington, 

DC: April 2011), website www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/assumptions/.
This page intentionally left blank
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 227

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2010 213

Appendix F

Regional Maps

Figure F1. United States Census Divisions

Pacific

East South Central

South Atlantic

Middle

Atlantic

New

England

West

South

Central

West

North

Central East

North

Central

Mountain

AK

WA

MT

ID WY

NV

UT

CO

AZ

NM

TX

OK

IA

KS MO

IL

IN

KY

TN

MS AL

FL

GA

SC

NC

WV

PA NJ

MD

DE

NY

CT

VT ME

RI

MA

NH

VA

WI

MI

OH

NE

SD

ND MN

AR

LA

OR

CA

HI

Middle Atlantic

New England

East North Central

West North Central

Pacific

West South Central

East South Central

South Atlantic

Mountain

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting.

Appendix F

Regional Maps

Figure F1. United States Census Divisions
228 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Regional maps

Figure F1. United States Census Divisions (continued)

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.

Division 1

New England

Connecticut

Maine

Massachusetts

New Hampshire

Rhode Island

Vermont

Division 2

Middle Atlantic

New Jersey

New York

Pennsylvania

Division 3

East North 

Central

Illinois

Indiana

Michigan

Ohio

Wisconsin

Division 4

West North 

Central

Iowa

Kansas

Minnesota

Missouri

Nebraska

North Dakota

South Dakota

Division 5

South Atlantic

Delaware

District of

 Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Maryland

North Carolina

South Carolina

Virginia

West Virginia

Division 6

East South 

Central

Alabama

Kentucky

Mississippi

Tennessee

Division 7

West South 

Central

Arkansas

Louisiana

Oklahoma

Texas

Division 8

Mountain

Arizona

Colorado

Idaho

Montana

Nevada

New Mexico

Utah

Wyoming

Division 9

Pacific

Alaska

California

Hawaii

Oregon

Washington
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 229

Regional maps

Figure F2. Electricity market module regions

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.

12

11

10

19

22

21

20

15

14

9

13

7

5

6

1

2

4 3

16

17

8

18

1. ERCT ERCOT All

2. FRCC FRCC All

3. MROE MRO East

4. MROW MRO West

5. NEWE NPCC New England

6. NYCW NPCC NYC/Westchester

7. NYLI NPCC Long Island

8. NYUP NPCC Upstate NY

9. RFCE RFC East

10. RFCM RFC Michigan

11. RFCW RFC West

12. SRDA SERC Delta

13. SRGW SERC Gateway

14. SRSE SERC Southeastern

15. SRCE SERC Central

16. SRVC SERC VACAR

17. SPNO SPP North

18. SPSO SPP South

19. AZNM WECC Southwest

20. CAMX WECC California

21. NWPP WECC Northwest

22. RMPA WECC Rockies
230 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Regional maps

Figure F3. Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts

216 U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2010

Figure F3. Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts

AK

WA

NV

AZ

OR

CA

HI

V

MT

WY

ID

UT

CO

IV

OK

IA

KS

MO

IL

IN

KY

TN

WI

MI

OH

NE

SD

ND MN

II

NM

TX

MS

AL AR

LA III

NJ

CT

VT ME

RI

MA

NH

FL

GA

SC

NC

WV

MD

DE VA

NY

PA I

PAD District I - East Coast

PAD District II - Midwest

PAD District III - Gulf Coast

PAD District IV - Rocky Mountain

PAD District V - West Coast

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 231

Regional maps

Figure F4. Oil and gas supply model regions

Figure F4. Oil and Gas Supply Model Regions

Atlantic

WA MT

ID WY

NV

UT CO

AZ NM

TX

OK

IA

KS MO

IL

IN

KY

TN

MS AL

FL

GA

SC

NC

WV

PA NJ

MD

DE

NY

CT

ME

RI

MA

NH

VA

WI

MI

OH NE

SD

ND MN

AR

LA

OR

CA

VT

Northeast (1)

Gulf of Mexico

Gulf Coast (2)

Midcontinent (3)

Rocky Mountain (5)

West Coast (6)

Pacific

Offshore

North Slope

AK

TX

TX

NM

TX

Southwest (4)

Onshore

North Slope

Other

Alaska

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Foreca

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis. 
232 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Regional maps

Figure F5. Natural gas transmission and distribution model regions

218 U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Outlook 2010

Figure F5. Natural Gas Transmission and Distribution Model Regions

Pacific

(9)

Mountain

(8)

CA

(12)

AZ/NM

(11)

W. North Central

(4)

W. South Central

(7)

E. South

Central

(6)

E. North

Central

(3)

S. Atlantic

(5)

FL

(10)

Mid.

Atlantic

(2)

New

Engl.

(1)

W. Canada

E. Canada

MacKenzie

Alaska

Canada

Offshore

and LNG

Mexico

Bahamas

Primary Flows

Secondary Flows

Pipeline Border Crossing

LNG Imports

Pacific

(9)

Mountain

(8)

CA

(12)

AZ/NM

(11)

W. North Central

(4)

W. South Central

(7)

E. South

Central

(6)

E. North

Central

(3)

S. Atlantic

(5)

FL

(10)

Mid.

Atlantic

(2)

New

Engl.

(1)

W. Canada

E. Canada

MacKenzie

Alaska

Canada

Offshore

and LNG

Mexico

Bahamas

Primary Flows

Secondary Flows

Pipeline Border Crossing

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 233

Regional maps

Figure F6. Coal supply regions

Figure F6. Coal Supply Regions

WA

OR ID

CA

NV

UT

TX

OK

AR

MO

LA

MS

AL

GA

FL

TN

SC

NC

KY VA

WV

WY

CO

SD

ND

MI

MN

WI

IL

IN OH

MD

PA NJ

DE

CT

MA

NH

VT

NY

ME

RI

MT

NE

IA

KS

MI

AZ

NM

500 0

SCALE IN MILES

APPALACHIA

Northern Appalachia

Central Appalachia

Southern Appalachia

INTERIOR

NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS

Eastern Interior

Western Interior

Gulf Lignite

Dakota Lignite

Western Montana

Wyoming, Northern Powder River Basin

Wyoming, Southern Powder River Basin

Western Wyoming

OTHER WEST

Rocky Mountain

Southwest

Northwest

KY

AK

1000 0

SCALE IN MILES

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.
234 U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011

Regional maps

Figure F7. Coal demand regions

Figure F7. Coal Demand Regions

CT,MA,ME,NH,RI,VT

OH

1. NE

3. S1

4. S2

5. GF

6. OH

7. EN

AL,MS

MN,ND,SD

IA,NE,MO,KS

TX,LA,OK,AR

MT,WY,ID

CO,UT,NV

AZ,NM

9. AM

11. C2

12. WS

13. MT

14. CU

15. ZN

WV,MD,DC,DE

2. YP

Region Code Region Content

NY,PA,NJ

VA,NC,SC

GA,FL

IN,IL,MI,WI

Region Code Region Content

14. CU

13. MT

16. PC

15. ZN

12. WS

11. C2

9. AM 5. GF

8. KT

4. S2

7. EN

6. OH

2. YP

1. NE

3. S1

10. C1

8. KT KY,TN 16. PC AK,HI,WA,OR,CA

10. C1

CT,MA,ME,NH,RI,VT

OH

1. NE

3. S1

4. S2

5. GF

6. OH

7. EN

AL,MS

MN,ND,SD

IA,NE,MO,KS

TX,LA,OK,AR

MT,WY,ID

CO,UT,NV

AZ,NM

9. AM

11. C2

12. WS

13. MT

14. CU

15. ZN

WV,MD,DC,DE

2. YP

Region Code Region Content

NY,PA,NJ

VA,NC,SC

GA,FL

IN,IL,MI,WI

Region Code Region Content

14. CU

13. MT

16. PC

15. ZN

12. WS

11. C2

9. AM 5. GF

8. KT

4. S2

7. EN

6. OH

2. YP

1. NE

3. S1

10. C1

8. KT KY,TN 16. PC AK,HI,WA,OR,CA

10. C1

urce: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecas

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Analysis.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Annual Energy Outlook 2011 235

Table G1. Heat Rates

Fuel Units Approximate

Heat Content

Coal1

 Production ........................ million Btu per short ton 19.933 

 Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per short ton 19.800 

 Coke Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per short ton 26.327 

 Industrial ......................... million Btu per short ton 21.911 

 Residential and Commercial .......... million Btu per short ton 21.284 

 Electric Power Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per short ton 19.536 

 Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per short ton 24.786 

 Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per short ton 25.550 

Coal Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per short ton 24.800 

Crude Oil

 Production ........................ million Btu per barrel 5.800 

 Imports1 .......................... million Btu per barrel 5.989 

Petroleum Products and Other Liquids

 Consumption1 ...................... million Btu per barrel 5.261 

 Motor Gasoline1 ................... million Btu per barrel 5.119 

				Jet	Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per barrel 5.670 

 Distillate Fuel Oil1 .................. million Btu per barrel 5.775 

 Diesel Fuel1 ...................... million Btu per barrel 5.766 

 Residual Fuel Oil .................. million Btu per barrel 6.287 

 Liquefied Petroleum Gases1 .......... million Btu per barrel 3.558 

 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per barrel 5.670 

 Petrochemical Feedstocks1 .......... million Btu per barrel 5.506 

 Unfinished Oils .................... million Btu per barrel 6.118 

 Imports1 .......................... million Btu per barrel 5.520 

 Exports1 .......................... million Btu per barrel 5.782 

 Ethanol ........................... million Btu per barrel 3.539 

 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . million Btu per barrel 5.376 

Natural Gas Plant Liquids

 Production1 ........................ million Btu per barrel 3.692 

Natural Gas1

		Production,	Dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Btu	per	cubic	foot 1,026

		Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Btu	per	cubic	foot 1,026

				End-Use	Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Btu	per	cubic	foot 1,027

				Electric	Power	Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Btu	per	cubic	foot 1,025

		Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Btu	per	cubic	foot 1,025

		Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Btu	per	cubic	foot 1,009

Electricity Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 			Btu	per	kilowatthour 3,412																				

1

Conversion factor varies from year to year. The value shown is for 2009.

 Btu = British thermal unit.

			Sources:	U.S.	Energy	Information	Administration	(EIA),	Annual Energy Review 2009,	DOE/EIA-0384(2009)	(Washington,	DC,

August	2010),	and	EIA,	AEO2011	National	Energy	Modeling	System	run	REF2011.D020911A.

Appendix G

Conversion factors

Table G1. Heat rates
This page intentionally left blank