National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center

Natural Resource Report NPS/UCBN/NRR—2007/019

Interpreting Biological Diversity at 

Craters of the Moon National 

Monument and Preserve
ON THE COVER

A view from the south side of Inferno Cone.
Interpreting Biological Diversity at 

Craters of the Moon National 

Monument and Preserve

Resource Report NPS/UCBN/NRR—2007/019

Sarah E. Slaton and Levi T. Novey

National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

P. O. Box 29

Arco, Idaho 83213

December 2007

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Natural Resource Program Center

Fort Collins, Colorado
The Natural Resource Publication series addresses natural resource topics that are 

of interest and applicability to a broad readership in the National Park Service and 

to others in the management of natural resources, including the scientific community, the public, and the NPS conservation and environmental constituencies. 

Manuscripts are peer-reviewed to ensure that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended audience, and is 

designed and published in a professional manner.

Natural Resource Reports are the designated medium for disseminating high priority, current natural resource management information with managerial application. 

The series targets a general, diverse audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or address sensitive issues of management applicability. Examples of the 

diverse array of reports published in this series include vital signs monitoring plans; 

monitoring protocols; “how to” resource management papers; proceedings of 

resource management workshops or conferences; annual reports of resource programs or divisions of the Natural Resource Program Center; resource action plans; 

fact sheets; and regularly-published newsletters.

Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations and data in this report 

are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect views and policies of 

the U.S. Department of the Interior, NPS. Mention of trade names or commercial 

products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the National Park Service.

Printed copies of reports in these series may be produced in a limited quantity and 

they are only available as long as the supply lasts. This report is also available from 

the Natural Resource Publications Management website (http://www.nature.nps.

gov/publications/NRPM) on the Internet or by sending a request to the address on 

the back cover.

Please cite this publication as:

Slaton, S.E. and L.T. Novey. 2007. Interpreting Biological Diversity at Craters of the 

Moon National Monument and Preserve. Natural Resource Report NPS/UCBN/

NRR—2007/019. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS D-93, December 2007

National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve
Contents

List of Photographs....................................................................................... iv

List of Tables and Maps.................................................................................. v

Acknowledgements...................................................................................... vi

Preface .........................................................................................................vii 

Introduction...................................................................................................1 

Vital Signs......................................................................................................3

 Aspen......................................................................................................3

 Interpretive Opportunity: Aspen ........................................................4

 Bats.........................................................................................................6

 Interpretive Opportunity: Bats ...........................................................7

 Related Interpretive Interests: Lava Tubes, 

 Invertebrates, Bushy-tailed Woodrats, Pika, Surface 

 Animals, Birds, Non-vascular Plants ..............................................8

 Interpretive Opportunity: Lichens ....................................................13

 Invasive/exotic Plants..............................................................................14

 Land Cover and Use...............................................................................16

 Limber Pine............................................................................................20

 Interpretive Opportunity: Limber Pines ............................................22

 Interpretive Opportunity: Dwarf Mistletoe .......................................22

 Related Interpretive Interests: Clark’s Nutcracker..............................25

 Interpretive Opportunity: Clark’s Nutcracker....................................26

 Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation.................................................................27

 Interpretive Opportunity: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation...................29

 Related Interpretive Interests: Soil, Climate, Special Status

 Plant Species, Special Status Animal Species, Kipukas, 

 Fire ............................................................................................30

 Interpretive Opportunity: Lava Flowers ............................................31

 Interpretive Opportunity: Plants and Wildlife ...................................33

 Interpretive Opportunity: Hairy Plants..............................................34

 Interpretive Opportunity: Kipukas....................................................35

 Sage-grouse...........................................................................................38

 Interpretive Opportunity: Greater Sage-grouse ................................40

Conclusion...................................................................................................41

Literature Cited............................................................................................42

Interpreting Biological Diversity iii
Photographs

Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides)............................................................3 

Townsend’s Big-eared Bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) .....................................6 

Blind Cave Leiodid Beetle (Glacicavicola bathyscioides)...................................8 

Bushy-tailed Woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) .......................................................9 

Bushy-tailed Woodrat midden........................................................................9

Pika (Ochotona princes) ...............................................................................10 

Violet Green Swallows (Tachycineta thalassina).............................................11

Mosses on lava rocks ...................................................................................12 

Lichen growing on lava rocks.......................................................................13 

Rush Skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea)........................................................14 

Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula) ....................................................................14 

Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum).....................................................................14

An aerial photo of the Monument interior ...................................................18 

An aerial photo of the visitor center area .....................................................19

An example of a healthy limber pine (Pinus flexilis) ......................................20 

Dwarf mistletoe infestation (Arceuthobium cyanocarpum) ...........................22 

Effects of dwarf mistletoe: “Witches’ broom”..............................................22 

White Pine Blister Rust (Cronartium ribicola).................................................23

Clark’s Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) .............................................25, 26 

An example of sagebrush-steppe vegetation................................................27 

Dwarf Monkeyflower (Mimulus nanus).........................................................31

Obscure Phacelia (Phacelia inconspicua) .......................................................31 

Picabo Milkvetch (Astragalus onicifomis) ......................................................32 

Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus)................................................................33

Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva) ..........................................................................33

Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)................................................................................33

Dwarf Buckwheat (Eriogonum Ovalifolium)..................................................34

Rubber Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) .........................................34

Round Knoll Kipuka .....................................................................................35 

A fire at Craters of the Moon.......................................................................37

Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus)........................................38

iv National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Note: All photographs are National Park Service photographs unless otherwise noted.

 Illustrations were made be Andrea Carlson.
Contents

Tables

Table 1. Vital Sign Connections to Interpretive Themes..........................1

Table 2. Approximate Acreage of Major Vegetation Types....................16 

Maps

Map 1. Vegetation Classifications for Craters of the Moon

 National Monument and Preserve ...........................................28

Interpreting Biological Diversity 
vi National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

This manual is a cooperative effort between the Upper Columbia Basin Network 

Inventory and Monitoring Program, Craters of the Moon National Monument 

and Preserve, and the AmeriCorps Program sponsored by Palouse-Clearwater 

Environmental Institute. Funding to produce this manual was provided by the 

Upper Columbia Basin Network.

National Park Service interpreters, geologists, botanists, biologists, and other 

resource managers helped to develop this manual and provided background 

information, research findings, and interpretive product ideas concerning the 

biological diversity at Craters of the Moon.

I would like to acknowledge and thank John Apel, Gordon Dicus, Lisa Garrett, 

Michael Munts, Levi Novey, Doug Owen, Tom Rodhouse, Ted Stout, and Paige 

Wolken for all their review comments and edits. 

I would also like to thank Lennie Ramacher for his expertise and his positive 

encouragement throughout the writing process as well as Rebekah Fenton for 

her inspiration and technical support. A special thanks goes again to Levi Novey 

for his positive encouragement, graphic expertise, and other additions to this 

manual. 

And I could never forget my fellow AmeriCorps members who have supported 

me throughout this project along with my closet geologist boss Rachael Goetzelman.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Acknowledgements
Interpreting Biological Diversity vii

Preface

Preface

NPS Mission and Interpretive Connections

 The mission of the National Park Service 

(NPS) is “to conserve the natural and cultural resources and values of the national 

park system for the enjoyment of this and 

future generations” (NPS 1999). Like a village, the national parks require a variety of 

specialists in order to function properly and 

to fulfill long-term goals. NPS employees 

and volunteers contribute to the fulfillment 

of this mission in a variety of ways. Our job 

as interpreters, or the teachers/philosophers 

in our “village,” is to provide opportunities 

for people to learn about the Monument and 

understand how they can care for it.

One of the best ways to help people make 

connections with these awesome resources is 

by providing interpretive opportunities. What 

exactly are interpretive opportunities? There 

is a simple equation that interpreters use, it is 

as follows:

 (KR + KA) x AT = IO

 KR = Knowledge of the Resource

 KA = Knowledge of the Audience

 AT = Appropriate Techniques

 IO = Interpretive Opportunity 

It’s important that interpreters learn as much 

as they can about the resources they are interpreting. This is knowledge of the resource 

(KR). Communicating knowledge of the resources is the foundation of what interpreters 

do, but providing the information alone does 

not mean that visitors will then care about the 

resources (Lacome 2003).

Interpreters must learn to articulate this 

knowledge in such a way as to help the visitor 

link resources in the park to meaningful ideas 

and concepts. Once interpreters have made 

their own connections with park resources it 

is much easier for them to gain perspective on 

how others might connect to the resource in 

their own way. According to Lacome (2003), 

“interpretation appropriately acknowledges 

multiple perspectives, creates balance and 

depth, and fosters dialogue, rather than presenting a single truth.”

Once a comprehensive knowledge of the 

resource(s) has been established it is important to acquire knowledge of the audience 

(KA). It’s important to keep in mind demographic information about visitors. How old 

are they? Where are they from? How long are 

they here? What sorts of park activities have 

they or are they going to participate in?

Meeting visitors “where they are” is imperative to helping them make connections with 

the resource(s). It is easy to forget that visitors 

would not have come here unless there was 

something about the place that already had 

some value to them. Having an understanding 

of the knowledge of the audience enables us 

to use our information about the resource(s) 

in appropriate and meaningful ways that will 

benefit visitors (Lacome 2003).

The use of appropriate techniques (AT) can 

help make park resources more relevant to 

visitors. Lacome (2003) states, “the “technique” of interpretation is the fun and creative part.” Your choice of techniques can 

affect which meanings of the resource(s) (KR) 
viii National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

connect with your audience (KA) (Lacome 

2003). 

When choosing an appropriate technique 

an interpreter must use skills that effectively 

present information, utilize methods that 

engage and involve the audience, maintain 

organization and style, and also display appropriate enthusiasm about the resource(s). 

Sometimes an appropriate technique is letting 

the resource speak for itself; interpreters do 

not always have to think of multiple creative 

ways to help spark connections (Lacome 

2003). 

When this equation is properly applied the 

result is an interpretive opportunity (IO), 

creating a meaningful experience for visitors, 

which encourages them to learn more or care 

more about a resource. As interpreters it is 

important to foster and allow for those intellectual and emotional opportunities to take 

place (Lacome 2003). 

These interpretive opportunities can lead to 

curiosity, curiosity to reflection, reflection to 

understanding, understanding to appreciation, and appreciation to preservation. One 

key way to facilitate these visitor connections 

is to relate the resources to concepts visitors 

are already familiar with.

Upper Columbia Basin Network

Connection

To effectively carry out the NPS mission, the 

Director of the NPS approved the Natural 

Resource Challenge in 1999 to encourage 

national parks to focus on the preservation of 

the nation’s natural heritage through science, 

natural resource inventories and expanded 

resource monitoring (NPS 1999). As part of 

the Challenge, the national park system was 

divided into 32 inventory and monitoring 

networks. The parks of the Upper Columbia 

Basin Network (UCBN) include Big Hole 

National Battlefield (BIHO), City of Rocks 

National Reserve (CIRO), Craters of the 

Moon National Monument and Preserve 

(CRMO), Hagerman Fossil Beds National 

Monument (HAFO), John Day Fossil Beds 

National Monument (JODA), Lake Roosevelt 

National Recreation Area (LARO), Minidoka 

Internment National Monument (MIIN), 

Nez Perce National Historical Park (NEPE), 

and Whitman Mission National Historic Site 

(WHMI). 

Each network is required to prepare a vital 

signs monitoring plan. The purpose of this 

plan is to establish prioritized vital signs (i.e., 

indicators of ecosystem health/integrity), 

explain the approach used to develop sampling designs and protocols, and outline the 

administrative and budgetary framework of 

the Network. In addition, the report includes 

a management plan that guides the long-term 

management of data essential to the monitoring program. 

The UCBN monitoring plan identifies a suite 

of 14 vital signs chosen for monitoring that 

will be implemented in the UCBN over the 

next five years. Water quality monitoring is 

fully integrated within the UCBN monitoring 

program. The water quality monitoring protocol includes monitoring of aquatic macroinvertebrates, surface water dynamics, and 

water chemistry.
Interpreting Biological Diversity ix

Preface

Craters of the Moon National

Monument and Preserve Monitoring

Connections

Eleven of the fourteen UCBN monitoring program vital signs will be monitored at 

CRMO. These eleven vital signs are: 

1. Aspen

2. Aquatic macroinvertebrates

3. Bats

4. Invasive/exotic plants

5. Land cover and use

6. Limber Pine

7. Riparian vegetation

8. Sagebrush-steppe vegetation

9. Sage-grouse

10. Stream/river channel characteristics

11. Water chemistry

Of these eleven vital signs, seven were selected to be included in this training manual 

based on their relevance to visitors (noted 

above in bold face). The four vital signs not 

addressed are of relevance as well, but are less 

likely to be interpreted based on their physical locations within the Monument.

Like a doctor, monitoring the status and trend 

of these vital signs over a long-term period 

of time will provide scientific information for 

making management decisions and assist resource managers in assessing the overall ecological condition of the park. Monitoring protocols are being written and implemented for 

each vital sign. These protocols are “detailed 

study plans that explain how data is to be collected, managed, analyzed, and reported.”
 National Park Service

Introduction

This document brings together information about the Craters of the Moon resource 

management and interpretive programs as 

well as the Upper Columbia Basin Network 

inventory and monitoring program to help 

interpreters increase their knowledge of 

biological resources, vital signs, and suggested 

techniques for interpreting these resources 

and programs at Craters of the Moon. 

“Interpretive Opportunity” side boxes are 

presented throughout the document and give 

suggestions for interpretive techniques. It’s 

important for interpreters to not only gain the 

necessary knowledge of the resource and to 

assess the audience’s knowledge as discussed 

previously, but also to be aware of a variety 

of appropriate techniques that can be used to 

interpret those resources. 

A long-range interpretive plan was completed 

by CRMO in 2007. It describes the primary 

interpretive themes for the Monument and 

provides recommendations for the future 

of the Monument’s interpretive program. 

(CRMO 2007d). 

The six primary themes encompass ideas and/

or concepts that are critical to visitor understanding and appreciation of the significance 

of Craters of the Moon. Each primary theme 

has a set of subthemes that help further explain specific concepts. Two of the six primary themes focus on the biological resources 

in Monument, as opposed to the geological 

or historical components of the Monument 

(CRMO 2007d). The two biological resource 

themes relate to: 1) ecosystems and sagebrush-steppe, and 2) kipukas. In this manual 

each vital sign was placed into one or both of 

these biological resource theme categories to 

better explain the connection to interpretation (Table 1).

Vital Sign Ecosystems and 

Sagebrush-steppe Kipukas

Aspen X

Bats X

Invasive/Exotic Plants X X

Land Cover and Use X

Limber Pine X

Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation X X

Sage Grouse X X

Table 1. Vital Sign Connections to Interpretive Themes
 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

The biological resource themes chosen for 

use in the CRMO interpretive plan are explained in detail below:

Ecosystem & Sagebrush-steppe

Primary Theme: 

The geology of Craters of the Moon has created unique and unexpected habitats that 

provide for the survival of a surprising diversity of plant and animal species. This vast lava 

and sagebrush plain also provides for critical 

human needs throughout the region. 

Subthemes:

• Plants and wildlife have found ingenious 

ways to survive and thrive through the extreme seasonal and more gradual long term 

climatic changes in this desert region. Many 

plants and animals utilize the relatively cool 

and moist cracks and lava tube caves in order 

to survive. 

• Due to habitat degradation elsewhere, populations of sage grouse, and other sagebrush 

obligate species, are increasingly isolated in 

areas with relatively healthy sagebrush-steppe 

plant communities, like Craters of the Moon.

• The vast quantities of water stored by the 

lava rock aquifer below the Snake River Plain 

provides for human livelihood and survival 

throughout southern Idaho.

Kipukas

Primary Theme:

Searing lava flows that initially destroyed 

everything in their path today protect some 

of the last islands of intact sagebrush-steppe 

communities on the Snake River Plain.

Subthemes:

• Because many of the smaller kipukas in the 

Monument have been isolated from human 

activities, they provide important examples of 

what is “natural.”

• The relatively pristine kipukas also provide 

important information to scientists about 

how disturbed plant and animal communities 

elsewhere may be restored to natural conditions.

These themes can be used in conjunction 

with the “Interpretive Opportunity” side 

boxes throughout the document. These side 

boxes are provided to help interpreters brainstorm techniques and other theme ideas for 

their own interpretive programs. The themes 

stated above represent a few of the overall 

concepts interpreters hope to pass along to 

visitors and the public at large at Craters of 

the Moon (CRMO 2007d).
Interpreting Biological Diversity 

Vital Signs

Aspen

Background

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) are one 

of the few broad leaved trees found at Craters of the Moon. These deciduous trees have 

rounded leaves that are bright green until the 

fall, when they turn yellow or orange. They 

grow in stands or groves as a result of a clonal 

reproduction and they are able to reproduce 

many genetically identical trees from a single 

root system (Johnson 1999). 

Normally, quaking aspens are found in shallow and rocky soils, including infertile dry 

sands, rich loams (mixtures of sand, clay, and 

silt), and waterlogged mineral soils, and peats 

(partially carbonized vegetable matters). The 

soil at Craters of the Moon is often anything 

but moist (Rook 2006). However, sites with 

suitable soil moisture do exist in a few areas 

of the Monument. 

Quaking aspen are often found in upland sites 

away from permanent stream courses. Aspen 

stands are very moisture dependent and the 

moisture that they obtain here is primarily 

due to snow melt. Winter winds often pile 

snow in large drifts. Areas where these large 

drifts occur are suitable for aspen. Aspen 

stands are found primarily in the northern 

end of the Monument, in the foothills of the 

Pioneer Mountains, and on the north facing 

slope of Big Cinder Butte and in Snow Drift 

Crater. Very small aspen stands are also found 

along the edge of lava flows in places such as 

in Wapi Park.

Quaking aspen were chosen as a vital sign indicator for the Monument for several reasons. 

Aspen populations have been on the decline 

in the western United States for several decades. Within Idaho the loss is estimated at 

sixty-one percent. Across the west scientists 

are studying the status of aspen and searching 

for trends just as we are. Some scientists have 

theorized that their decline is due to climate 

change (Garrett et al. 2007).

Aspen are sparse in Craters of the Moon, 

but when they do occur they are some of the 

richest biologically areas in the intermountain 

west. These areas are biologically rich because their moist soil and shade contribute to 

the growth of a high diversity of herbaceous 

plants. This in turn provides shelter and food 

sources for animals in the area (Garrett et al. 

2007).

Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides)
 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Monitoring Efforts

Monitoring protocols have been established 

to monitor aspen along with all of the other 

vital signs. Each vital sign monitoring protocol has a set of parameters that are measured 

to determine the current status and any 

trends that may be occurring. For example, 

for aspen, three parameters are tracked: 

1. The density of live and dead trees stems 

is measured. This is important because a low 

density of live aspen, or a trend towards dead 

stems, could indicate a die-off of the entire 

aspen clone. 

The best place to interpret and view Aspen 

is on the south side of the Broken Top Loop 

Trail. There is a grove on the east side of Big 

Cinder Butte. Aspen have many interesting 

growing characteristics but they also have some 

interesting uses. Native Americans would use 

the white powder found on their trunks as a 

natural sunscreen and as a fungicide. The inner 

bark also has aspirin like qualities, and 15% 

of its bark performs photosynthesis while its 

leaves quake (i.e., rotate) in the sun allowing 

sunlight to hit other leaves to help conduct 

photosynthesis as well. Also, quaking aspens 

shoot off rhizomes to start new trees so when 

visitors think they are seeing a forest of individual trees, they are really just seeing a single 

organism. Simply put, aspen are just clones of 

each other. In fact, one single clone in Utah, 

known as “Pando,” stretches across over 105 

acres and is thought to be the largest individual 

organism on earth. 

Concepts:

Adaptations (quaking 

aspen leaves help 

conduct photosynthesis 

in the tight shaded groves).

Interpretive Opportunity: Aspen

2. Conifer density within aspen stands is 

also estimated because high levels of conifer 

encroachment in aspen stands (greater than 

25% cover) affect the reproduction of aspen 

and the stand may eventually convert entirely 

to a conifer stand. 

3. Lastly, regeneration or growth of young 

saplings is observed to determine whether or 

not reproduction in aspen population is occurring (Garrett et al. 2007). 

Permanent transects (specific areas within 

stands that are measured repeatedly over 

time) have been chosen and mapped with a 

global positioning system (GPS) instruments. 

On-site transects record the diameter, height, 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 

Vital Signs: Aspen

and density of aspen. These measurements 

will take place every five years to document 

change (Garrett et al. 2007). Once these protocols have implemented for several years, we 

can begin to assess the overall health of aspen 

in the Monument. 
 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Bats

Background

Fourteen species of bats are found in Idaho 

and eleven of these species are present at 

Craters of the Moon during certain times of 

the year. Some bats prefer shelter in cracks 

or crevices in the lava, while others favor the 

conditions found in lava tubes (caves), and 

still others choose tree roosts. 

Species that are most likely to utilize cracks 

and crevices for sleeping during the day include the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), 

and the long-legged bat (Myotis volans). The 

hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) utilizes aspen 

and conifer foliage for roosts. The only full 

time lava tube dwellers (not to say they do not 

leave the caves) are the Townsend’s big-eared 

bat (Corynorhinus townsendii), the big brown 

bat (Eptesicus fuscus), and the California bat 

(Myotis californicus). The other five species, 

the long-eared bat (Myotis evotis), the fringed 

bat (Myotis thysanodes), the yuma bat (Myotis 

yumanensis), the pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus), and the western small-footed bat (Myotis ciliolabrum) are variable in their roosting 

habitats and utilize both cracks and crevices 

as well as lava tubes, and occasionally buildings (Madison et al. 2004). 

Cave dwelling bat species use caves for winter hibernation (sites known as hibernacula) 

and for raising their young in summer months 

(maternity colonies), although the same cave 

is not always used for both. Bats select sites 

within caves which provide stable air temperatures within a fairly narrow range. During 

both hibernation and raising of young, bats 

are very sensitive to human disturbance from 

people entering caves. At CRMO, as well as 

many other areas, cave access is restricted 

during these periods. 

Townsend’s big-eared bat is of special management concern both nationally and at 

Craters of the Moon. It is a medium size bat 

with extremely long ears and small glandular 

lumps on each side of its snout. Maternity 

colonies of this species form during spring 

to raise pups in caves and mines, and they 

utilize the habitat for winter hibernation as 

well. Both Townsend’s big-eared bat maternity colonies and hibernacula occur within 

the Monument (CRMO 2005). Though this 

species is widely distributed throughout the 

West, few maternity colonies and hibernacula 

have been documented elsewhere due to 

their enigmatic habits; therefore Craters of 

the Moon serves as an ideal place to preserve 

Townsend’s big-eared bats. 

Townsend’s big-eared bats travel long distances to forage at night, particularly in agricultural fields. They can travel over ten miles 

during a single evening. Ninety percent of 

Townsend’s Big Eared Bat

(Corynorhinus townsendii) 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 

Vital Signs: Bats

their diet is composed of insects, and they 

prefer feeding on moths. A bat population 

can consume thousands of insect pests in one 

evening. 

The overall decline in bat populations is bad 

news for Idaho farmers, because bats help 

control pest insects that destroy or damage 

crops. Spraying of these agricultural products 

with pesticides can have a detrimental effect 

on bat populations (Texas Parks & Wildlife 

Department 2007). 

Monitoring Efforts

Townsend’s big-eared bats are a major focus 

of bat monitoring at Craters of the Moon. 

Monitoring efforts include:

1. Recording the current status and trends 

of the Townsend’s big-eared bat occupancy 

of lava tube caves through acoustic monitoring. This monitoring records and graphically 

displays the pattern of sound waves (inaudible to people) particular to individual species of bats, enabling us to detect changes in 

Townsend’s big-eared bat populations without disturbing the animals in their roosts.

Interpretive Opportunity: Bats

A fun activity visitors can participate in is called 

Bat and Moth. This activity is aimed more for 

kids and might make for a good junior ranger 

activity, but adults can play as well. Some bats 

make a high pitched squeaking sound to find 

insects. These sounds (usually too high-pitched 

for human ears to hear) bounce off objects in their 

path. Bats are able to determine what an object 

is and their distance from it, simply by listening to their own echoes. Bats also make noises 

that humans can hear including clicking sounds, 

whinings, and squeaks. Participants are going to 

mimic this process called echolocation. Have participants make a circle holding hands while a few 

participants are inside the circle. One person inside the circle is blindfolded and they are the bat. 

The other participants inside the circle are moths. 

This activity is similar to “Marco Polo” except 

it is “Bat Moth.” So the blindfolded person says 

“bat” and the moths return the call with “moth.” 

The bat is pretending to send out a high-pitched 

sound while the moths are pretending to be the 

bat’s echo bouncing off the moth back to the bat’s 

ears. Once moths are tagged they join the outer 

circle. Make sure you have plenty of room to do 

this activity and that people on the outside of the 

circle are keeping the participants on the inside 

safe. 

Concepts: 

Adaptations (echolocation).
 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

2. Monitoring efforts will also document 

occupancy status and trends of bat species in 

riparian areas during the summer pup-rearing 

season. Riparian areas are of importance as 

they provide foraging and commuting habitat 

(Garrett et al. 2007). 

Bat detection will be accomplished by use of 

a solar-powered ANABAT. An ANABAT bat 

detector records the number of calls or minutes of activities per unit time (e.g. minutes, 

hours, nights) by echolocating bats (Garrett 

et al. 2007). 

Half of the bat species in the western US are 

considered at risk. In areas with numerous 

riparian corridors they can also serve as a 

sign of environmental change. Bats comprise 

a significant portion of the mammal species 

diversity to Craters of the Moon. They also 

benefit residents of Idaho by controlling pest 

insect populations.

Related Intepretive Interests

Lava Tubes

Over three hundred documented caves are 

within the Monument (CRMO 2007b) and 

most are lava tubes that were formed when 

molten lava flowed through subterranean 

channels. When eruptions ceased, the lava 

drained away leaving long shaped caves. Other caves are formed from deep cracks in lava 

rock along the Great Rift or by small domed 

“blisters,” left by big bubbles of gas just below 

the surface. 

Many of the lava tubes provide year round 

refuge for animals. Several species of bats, 

invertebrates, rodents, and many other animals occupy or visit caves during some season 

for shelter or water. Lava tubes are generally 

cool and moist, holding a temperature of 40-

60 degrees Fahrenheit year round. In some 

lava tubes wind blown snow and snow melt 

infiltrating from the surface create deposits 

of ice upon which water collects during the 

summer. Even during the driest months of 

summer, moisture condenses inside many 

lava tubes and collects in tiny pools. These 

sources are typically the only free water available to animals on the lava fields during the 

dry season.

Invertebrates

Hundreds of different invertebrates populate 

lava tubes. Invertebrates found in lava tubes 

can be anything from mites and spiders, to 

centipedes, millipedes, crickets, beetles, and 

even blind beetles. All of these invertebrates 

have adapted to life in lava tubes in their own 

ways.

Blind Cave Leiodid Beetle

(Glacicavicola bathyscioides)

The blind cave leiodid beetle (Glacicavicola 

bathyscioides) is one of a kind. It is only found 

in lava tubes in Idaho. This species is found 

in areas of caves where natural light is absent. 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 

Vital Signs: Bats

The Idaho blind cave beetle does not have 

eyes and is typically found deep in lava tubes 

that are not regularly disturbed by people.

Bushy-tailed Woodrats

Along with bats and invertebrates, several 

rodent species inhabit caves. Lava fields 

within Craters of the Moon provide an ideal 

habitat for bushy-tailed woodrats (Neotoma 

cinerea). They commonly build their nests in 

lava tubes. These rodents prefer green vegetation, but will eat twigs, nuts, seeds, and 

mushrooms while caching large quantities of 

green or dried vegetation in crevices or cracks 

of the lava tubes. Bushy-tailed woodrats are 

often preyed upon by larger bird and mammal 

predators and when alarmed they will engage 

in hind foot-drumming as a warning to others 

(eNature 2005).

Bushy-tailed woodrat

(Neotoma cinerea)

Bushy-tailed

Woodrat

midden

One of the most characteristic aspects of 

bushy-tailed woodrat behavior is middenbuilding. They build their middens (areas of 

trash disposal) in the lava tubes. These middens consist of plant material, feces, and other materials, which are cemented with crystallized urine. The urine crystallization process 

results from the high amounts of dissolved 

calcium carbonate and calcium oxalates that 

are obtained by the woodrats in their diet. 

Nests are often found within the midden and 

this is where the females raise their young. 

They nest in the middens but cache their food 

elsewhere. Bushy-tailed woodrats are awake 

and moving around all year in the Monument 

and do not hibernate (Trapani 2003.) 

Most bushy-tailed woodrats do not venture 

more than 500 yards from their home and 

they are unsocial solitary rodents, except 

between mothers and daughters. They help 

each other with resources by overlapping 

their territories. As a result, more male bushytailed woodrats are likely to visit since there 

are two females present when territories overlap (Trapani 2003).

Bushy-tailed woodrats are attracted to shiny 

objects and often steal shiny items from 

campsites or buildings. Paleontologists and 

paleoclimatologists study the middens produced by bushy-tailed woodrats because they 

preserve easily dated plant fossils and animal 

bones that can be of great help in trying to 

understand and piece together the paleo-environment (Trapani 2003). 
10 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Pika

Pika (Ochotona princes) are small mammals 

related to rabbits that live in high elevation alpine areas and within the lava fields at Craters 

of the Moon. They are more often heard than 

seen, and make a conspicuous high pitched 

call that sounds a bit like “eek.” High temperature is their main limit to distribution. 

They can only persist at lower and warmer 

elevations when cooler thermal refugia are 

available. At Craters of the Moon, the cooler 

cracks in the lava provide such thermal refugia and pika are only active on the surface 

when temperatures are relatively cool. Temperatures ranging from 77.9-84.9 degrees 

Fahrenheit or higher can be lethal in as little 

as six hours (Beever 2002).

Thick fur that protects pika against cold 

temperatures in the winter makes them vulnerable to warm temperatures. The thick 

fur coat inhibits evaporative cooling during 

high temperatures. Pikas have emerged as 

potential sentinels of global warming. Localized extirpations of pika (extinction of local 

populations) have been documented in several Great Basin mountain ranges. As temperatures warm, pika must retreat to higher 

elevations, seeking cooler temperatures. Pika 

may be limited to the higher elevation areas 

of CRMO due to temperature increases as 

the lower elevation declines but the elevation 

threshold has not yet been identified. Given 

the predicted warming scenarios for the 21st 

century, it is possible that pika will be extinct 

in the wild by the end of the century. NPS 

staff have conducted surveys of pika in the 

Monument to determine the species’ status. 

Long-term monitoring may follow the survey 

efforts (Beever 2005).

Surface Animals

Although there is a general lack of food and 

light in the lava tubes, some surface animals 

ranging from deer to sage-grouse may visit 

the entrances of lava tubes for shelter and water. Foxes, bobcats, badgers, and even mountain lions may den in or near the entrance to a 

lava tube. Visitors are much more likely to see 

smaller mammals like ground squirrels, chipmunks, or other rodents in a lava tube than 

a bear or other large mammal. Though now 

extirpated from the Snake River Plain, grizzly 

bear skeletal remains have been found in lava 

tubes at Craters of the Moon. 

Birds

Along with the eleven species of bats found 

in the Monument, many birds also make their 

homes at Craters of the Moon. Ravens, violet green swallows, rock doves, great horned 

owls, rock wrens, and mountain bluebirds 

often nest in cracks and crevices that may 

Pika

(Ochotona princes)

Rocky Mountain PBS
Interpreting Biological Diversity 11

Vital Signs: Bats

include cave entrances. Birds are some of the 

most visible animals at Craters of the Moon. 

Even in the heat of a summer afternoon or 

the bitter cold of a January morning, ravens 

and Clark’s Nutcrackers can be seen in many 

areas of the Monument. 216 species of birds 

have been documented here. Birds at the park 

include year-round residents, migrants, and 

some arctic and alpine birds that winter here 

(CRMO 2007a). 

Much of the Monument is covered by sagebrush shrubland and many specialist species 

can be found here. Birds such as Brewer’s 

Sparrows, Sage Sparrows, Sage Thrasher, and 

Sage-grouse are dependent on large intact 

sagebrush-steppe habitat, and are found in 

much higher numbers here than in similar 

areas with more human activity. Limber pine, 

rocky mountain juniper, and Utah juniper 

stands growing in lava flows, as well as cinder gardens and kipuka areas offer habitat 

to woodpeckers, flycatchers, chickadees, 

nuthatches, warblers, sparrows, and finches. 

These patches of trees in the midst of a vast 

sea of shrub lands and barren lava flows are 

a beacon to many migrating birds, such as 

warblers, sparrows, and flycatchers, which 

reside here for brief periods in the spring and 

fall (CRMO 2007a). 

During the long, cold winters that are characterized by blowing snow and temperatures 

well below freezing, birds are still found at 

Craters of the Moon. Ravens, nutcrackers, 

and chickadees live here all year. Mountain 

and arctic birds that stay for the winter include Black and Gray Crowned Rosy-finches, 

Rough-legged Hawks, Northern Shrikes, 

Snow Buntings, and in some years even 

Snowy Owls or Gyrfalcons. 

Several non-native birds make their homes 

at Craters as well. Some species such as the 

Chukar (Alectoris chukar) and Gray Partridge 

(Perdix perdix) may not have a significant 

impact on native species. Others can be a serious problem for native species. These exotic 

invaders include Rock Doves (Columba livia), 

found primarily in lava tubes, and European 

starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and House Sparrows (Passer domesticus), which evict native 

birds from their nests. 

Non-vascular Plants

The most common non-vascular plant species found in the lava tubes at Craters of the 

Moon are lichens and mosses. Lichens are 

organisms consisting of an outer fungal body 

that encloses photosynthetic algae. They represent a symbiotic relationship between fungus and algae. Several types of lichen can be 

found on lava rocks with an array of colors. 

Lichens are especially sensitive to air pollution. They have been used since the 1960s to 

study the past and current status of air quality. 

The effects that have been studied include the 

Violet Green Swallows (Tachycineta thalassina)
12 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

presence or absence of sensitive species, species diversity, morphological changes, changes in photosynthetic and respiration rates, 

nitrogen fixation ability, death or injury to 

cells or tissues, and accumulation of pollutants within lichen tissues. This information is 

valuable because lichens obtain most of their 

nutrients from the atmosphere. Lichens can 

be studied in conjunction with vascular plants 

to determine whether a contaminant source is 

coming from the air or from the soil. Since lichens grow slowly, live long, and do not shed 

leaves or other parts, they concentrate the 

substances they are exposed to and provide a 

long-term reflection of environmental factors 

(Pearson & Rope 1990). The federal Clean 

Air Act designated the Craters of the Moon 

Wilderness Area as a Class 1 area in 1977. 

This designation affords special protections 

in the form of higher air quality standards and 

protection of air quality related values such as 

visibility. 

Lichens help create soil for other plants to 

grow in by breaking off small fragments of 

rock, which are then either overtaken by moss 

and kept in place or blown off into crevices. 

The algae component of lichen produces an 

acid, which slowly dissolves the rock; the fungus then absorbs the water and prevents the 

sun from drying the algae out (Ebi 2006).

Mosses serve another role at Craters of the 

Moon. Mosses are “nature’s second line of 

attack in its war against rocks” (Kornfeld 

2000). Essentially after lichens have become 

established, mosses can move in and hold 

on to any loose soil that the lichen creates. 

Mosses are most likely to be seen in larger 

lava tubes at the Monument because they 

prefer damp shady places. Mosses depend on 

external moisture but they have evolved special methods of dealing with long dry periods 

(Kornfeld 2000).

Lichens and mosses are not only important 

because they are the primary and only nonvascular plants found in the caves, but also 

because they are an environmental indicator 

of air pollution and without lichens, mosses 

might not be able to grow. Certain lava tube 

dwelling mites and spiders are dependent on 

mosses for shelter. Mosses also help provide 

camouflage for other invertebrates and store 

important minerals and nutrients (Kornfeld 

2000).

Mosses on

lava rocks.
Interpreting Biological Diversity 13

Lichens can be seen throughout the 

Monument and on every guided walk. 

Great viewing spots include 1) inside the 

lava tubes (caves), 2) along the Broken 

Top Loop Trail, and 3) on rocks on the 

right side of the trail just before the overlook on the Evening Stroll Trail. There is 

a great saying to help visitors remember 

what lichen are and where they are found: 

“Alice Algae took a lichen to Freddy Fungus but their romance is on the rocks.”

Interpretive Opportunity: Lichens

Concepts:

Symbiotic relationship (between 

an algae and a fungus), new life 

(lichen breaks down rock to form 

soil which helps start new life).

Vital Signs: Bats
14 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Invasive/Exotic Plants

Background

Invasive exotic plants can be defined as extremely competitive introduced plant species 

that are not native to a particular area. Most 

originated on other continents and when 

introduced to North America (intentionally or accidentally by humans) were able to 

spread rapidly in the absence of the insects 

and/or diseases which had kept them in check 

in their native lands. These plants threaten 

native plant communities by outcompeting 

native plants for water and nutrients and ultimately displacing native plants and altering 

ecosystems. Invasive/exotic plants are being 

spread throughout the West by humans, wildlife, and wind dispersal. 

Ten species of plants, designated as noxious 

weeds in Idaho (harmful to human interests), have been identified in the Monument 

as of 2007: spotted knapweed (Centaurea 

biebersteinii), diffuse knapweed (Centaurea 

diffusa), Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens), rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea), 

leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), Canada thistle 

(Cirsium arvense), musk thistle (Carduus nutans), Scotch thistle (Onopordum acanthium), 

dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica), field 

bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), and Dyer’s 

woad (Isatis tinctoria). These noxious weeds 

have been targeted for mapping, treatment, 

and prevention programs. Many other nonnative plants which have not been designated 

as noxious also occur within the Monument. 

Disturbed areas such as roadsides, intensively 

grazed areas, and recently burned areas are

particularly susceptible to invasion by exotics (CRMO 2005), although some exotics like 

Rush Skeletonweed and Cheat grass have 

demonstrated an ability to invade areas with 

healthy undisturbed soils and vegetation.

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and 

the National Park Service (NPS) have initiated integrated noxious weed programs to target them for mapping, treatment, and prevention initiatives. Efforts to control these species 

include the use of mechanical and chemical 

techniques, as well as limited use of biological 

control agents. Education and public

Rush Skeletonweed

(Chondrilla juncea)

Cheatgrass

(Bromus tectorum)

Leafy Spurge

(Euphorbia esula)
Interpreting Biological Diversity 15

awareness are emphasized by both agencies. 

Cooperative weed management areas have 

been developed across the state to facilitate 

cooperative efforts of local, state, federal 

government as well as private landowners 

and organizations. Involvement in Cooperative Weed Management Areas has resulted 

in strong community commitment and costeffective management of noxious weeds 

(CRMO 2005).

Other invasive/exotic plants, such as Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), are also extremely 

detrimental to sagebrush-steppe. Cheatgrass is a common and widespread invader 

throughout the West and was introduced in 

the early 1900s when domestic sheep grazed 

the area. Cheatgrass is extremely competitive and readily invades and dominates disturbed land. It can also be a component of 

undisturbed or otherwise healthy sagebrushsteppe. For example, Cheatgrass has been 

documented in several kipukas having no history of disturbances such as livestock grazing 

or fire. This annual grass outcompetes native 

vegetation and perpetuates a more frequent 

fire regime, which further discourages the 

regrowth of native species and encourages 

more Cheatgrass (CRMO 2005). 

Cheatgrass invasions have been a key management concern for the NPS and BLM. 

The CRMO Monument Management Plan 

proposes more aggressive disturbed land 

rehabilitation and restoration techniques. Approximately 80,000 acres of annual grassland 

and low-elevation sagebrush-steppe dominated by cheatgrass have been identified in 

the BLM areas of the Monument as needing 

management intervention to restore functional sagebrush communities (CRMO 2005). 

Monitoring Efforts

Invasive/exotic plants are becoming more 

and more of a threat to natural and cultural 

resources. Early detection and control when 

infestations are small is the usually only way 

to eradicate these species. Monitoring efforts 

include:

1. Early detection and documentation of 

initial populations and new occurrences of 

invasive/exotic plants before they become 

established.

2. Once occurrences have been detected, 

current estimates and trends of the established weeds are documented for removal by 

means of GPS (Garrett et al. 2007).

The invasive/exotic plant protocol is still 

under development. Current efforts include 

recording the presence and location of invasive/exotic plants through global positioning 

systems (GPS) and adding these records to a 

comprehensive Geographic Information System (GIS) database. These tools allow analysis 

of the distribution of weeds and guide invasive/exotic plant crews to previously mapped 

infestations where they can spot spray or use 

other control techniques to control invaders. 

Invasive/exotic plant management and control programs are essential and are a high 

priority at Craters of the Moon and on many 

other public lands. The presence/absence of 

invasive/exotic plants is a vital sign for Craters 

of the Moon because they are the greatest 

threat to natural resources.

Vital Signs: Invasive/Exotic Plants
16 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Land Cover and Use

Background

The resiliency of a protected area is closely 

tied to the ecological integrity of the surrounding landscape. Conditions of the 

surrounding landscape and activities on that 

landscape influence the efficacy of protected 

area management efforts to maintain or enhance biodiversity (Schonewald-Cox 1988). 

Land cover composition, configuration, and 

connectivity help shape the complex of species occurring in an area, movements of individual organisms, and energy and material 

flows (Dunning et al. 1992; Taylor et al. 1993). 

Monitoring long-term changes in land cover 

composition, configuration, and connectivity 

will help establish broader context for protected areas like Craters of the Moon, and can 

help natural resource managers determine 

patterns in land use change which may threaten the area’s future ecological integrity.

A common way to examine land cover is to 

map the cover of different vegetation types. 

Table 2 shows the approximate acreage for 

nine of the major vegetation types found in 

Craters of the Moon.

Vegetation Type Approximate Acreage

 in Monument

Low-elevation Sagebrush-steppe 157,000

Annual Grassland (exotic) 31,000

Perrenial Grassland 

(seeding and native) 153,000

Mid-elevation Sagebrush-steppe 9,400

Lava (bare and vegetated) 399,000

Mountain Shrub 400

Aspen 60

Conifer (Douglas fir) 140

Riparian 670

Table 2. Approximate Acreage of Major Vegetation Types
Interpreting Biological Diversity 17

Vegetation Types Defined

1. Low-Elevation Sagebrush-steppe: Usually 

consists of basin and Wyoming big sagebrush 

and threetip sagebrush, although, it may overlap with mid-elevation sagebrush-steppe.

2. Annual Grasslands (exotic): Non-native 

grasses.

3. Perennial Grassland (seeded and native): 

Non-Native grasses like crested wheatgrass or 

native bunch grasses.

4. Mid-Elevation Sagebrush-steppe: Places 

where mountain big sagebrush and antelope 

bitterbrush are interspersed with sagebrush 

generally occur at higher elevations in the 

Monument, where temperatures are cooler 

and where there is also more precipitation.

5. Lava (bare and vegetated): Any lava dominated surface.

6. Mountain Shrub: Communities dominated by mountain big sagebrush, low sagebrush, 

and mountain snowberry. This vegetation 

occupies slopes and ridges of the Pioneer 

Mountains. 

7. Aspen: Aspen groves found predominantly 

in upland sites.

8. Conifer: Douglas fir stands found on 

relatively steep, north-facing slopes of older 

cinder cones and the Pioneer mountains, and 

open stands of limber pine and juniper.

9. Riparian: Places where springs, streams, 

lakes, and marshes on the lower slopes of the 

Pioneer Mountains support wetlands.

Historical evidence indicates that, prior to the 

establishment of the Monument on May 2, 

1924 by President Calvin Coolidge, land use 

in the area included limited mining, livestock 

grazing, hunting, and even limited logging 

(Blakesley 1988). 

On November 9, 2000, a Presidential Proclamation expanded Craters of the Moon 

National Monument from roughly 54,000 

acres to approximately 753,000 acres. President Clinton signed this proclamation to 

ensure protection of the entire Great Rift 

volcanic rift zone and its associated features. 

The Proclamation directed the National Park 

Service (NPS) and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to cooperate in managing 

the area, with each agency having management authority over specific portions (CRMO 

2007f). In general the exposed lava fields are 

administered as part of the National Park 

System and the surrounding lands with more 

extensive vegetative cover are administered 

by BLM as part of the National Landscape 

Conservation System.

On August 21, 2002 Congress passed a law 

designating the NPS portion of the expanded 

Monument as a National Preserve with hunting authorized. While the BLM and the NPS 

operate under different laws, regulations and 

policies (which apply to different portions 

of the Monument and Preserve), they jointly 

developed a framework for cooperative management of the area in the form of the Monument Management Plan completed in 2006 

(CRMO 2007f). 

Now Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve includes approximately 

738,000 acres of BLM and NPS administered 

Vital Signs: Land Cover and Use
18 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

federal land. Within the greater Monument 

boundary lie 8,000 acres of state land, and 

7,000 acres of private land (CRMO 2007f). 

Hunting continues on the NPS Preserve and 

BLM Monument and livestock grazing will 

continue on the BLM Monument. Large areas of agricultural land and small but expanding areas of residential development occur 

near Monument boundaries.

Monitoring Efforts

The Upper Columbia Basin Network will 

use aerial photography and satellite imagery 

to monitor land cover and use at Craters of 

the Moon. Land cover distribution is an 

important description of the Monument’s 

landscape. Changes in land cover both within 

and adjacent to the Monument can strongly 

influence park resources. Monitoring efforts 

will strive to:

1. Determine long-term trends in land cover 

distribution within and adjacent to the Monument.

2. Determine patterns of relevant land cover 

types within and adjacent to the Monument, 

and evaluate how changes over time in these 

patterns influence the Monument’s natural 

resources (Garrett et al. 2007).

To measure these objectives aerial photos 

and/or satellite imagery will be obtained and 

compared every five years. This data will be 

analyzed and basic land use classes such as 

urban/developed, agricultural, residential, 

and basic land cover types will be identified. 

Land cover and land use serves as a vital 

sign at Craters of the Moon because changes 

in land cover and uses influence a host of 

biological, physical, and chemical resources 

within the Monument. A reduction of an 

important land cover type or a modification 

in the composition of a set of land cover types 

can result in changes to a broad range of resources in the Monument. Long-term monitoring of land cover distribution and composition, through mapping and pattern analysis 

techniques, will provide Craters of the Moon 

natural resource managers with another set of 

information tools to apply toward maintaining and enhancing the Monument’s biodiversity (Garrett et al. 2007).

An aerial photo of the

Monument interior.
Interpreting Biological Diversity 19

An aerial photo of the visitor

center area.

Vital Signs: Land Cover and Use
20 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Limber Pine

Background

Limber pine (Pinus flexilis) is the dominant 

tree on lava flows in the northern third of 

the Monument. Limber pines are long-lived, 

slow-growing trees of small to medium size. 

They grow at elevations between 3,000 ft. and 

12,500 ft., but do not typically occur at elevations below 6,000 ft. except where barren 

rocky conditions exist (Steele 1990). 

Limber pines grow best on certain types 

of soils and in the central Idaho mountains 

they are found largely on rocky ground with 

soils derived from sedimentary rocks (Steele 

1990). However, at Craters of the Moon 

limber pines can be found growing with roots 

deep in the cracks on the lava and alongside 

windswept cinder cones. Within portions 

of the Monument, such as the north side of 

Inferno Cone, limber pines are well adapted 

and almost grow dense enough to form a 

closed canopy forest. In most areas, however, 

they grow in open stands or just as scattered 

solitary trees. 

Young limber pines are often found growing 

in places where as a sapling they were protected somewhat from high winds; as adults 

they can survive and grow in these harsh 

elements with a well established root system. 

Limber pines account for a large percentage of the tree cover within the Monument 

(CRMO 2007c). 

Limber pine branches are very flexible (hence 

the scientific name Pinus flexilis). The flexibility in the branches allows for easy movement 

in strong winds and effortless snow shed in 

heavy snow without doing damage to the tree 

itself. 

Though they are adapted to harsh conditions, 

high winds often cause branch flagging. Frequent strong winds pick up soil and cinders 

in the summer, and ice and snow in the winter act as abrasives. These wind blown materials abrade the terminal buds on the windward 

side of the tree leaving more successful limbs 

on the leeward side of the tree; making the 

trees appear like a flag blowing in the wind. 

Limber pines are monoecious: male and 

An example of a healthy limber pine (Pinus flexilis).
Interpreting Biological Diversity 21

Vital Signs: Limber Pine

female cones are born separately on the same 

tree. As with most pines, the male cones that 

contain the pollen dominate the lower part of 

the tree and the female cones develop at the 

end of the main branches in the upper part of 

the tree. The female cones have scales and are 

shaped like a pine cone but they are the larger 

of the two. The male cones are more budlike in their structure in the spring, and then 

turn into small clusters of spirals that may be 

green or yellow in the summer and fall (Steele 

1990). On a healthy limber pine this is the 

ideal structure of cone distribution.

The arrangement of cones helps eliminate 

self-pollination but allows the pollen from the 

male cones to pollinate female cones of other 

limber pines in the area.

Dwarf Mistletoe

Dwarf mistletoe can be a damaging parasite to 

limber pine and several other pines. Limber 

pine dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium cyanocarpum) is the species that specifically affects 

the limber pines at Craters of the Moon. It is 

one of the most important parasites of high 

elevation five needle pines in the west, second 

only to white pine blister rust (Cronartium 

ribicola) (Taylor 1999). 

Mistletoe is dependent on limber pine for 

water and nutrients. It triggers the host tree to 

supply more water and nutrients to a particular area on the tree where it has established 

residency. As water and nutrients are sent to 

that infection site a slight swelling begins to 

appear. This is the first symptom of dwarf 

mistletoe. Swellings become visible one to 

two years after infection begins. As water and 

nutrients are routed to the infection sites, new 

growth begins to occur. Witches’ brooms are 

the most striking symptom of dwarf mistletoe; they occur at these new growth sites. 

Witches’ broom is a very dense branching 

pattern evident in many of the limber pines 

surrounding the scenic loop drive (Taylor 

1999).

Overall, dwarf mistletoe reduces the vigor 

and growth of infected trees by appropriating water and nutrients, and disturbing the 

normal physiological processes of the tree. 

Heavy dwarf mistletoe infections increase the 

susceptibility of the trees to attacks by bark 

beetles (although bark beetles have rarely 

been observed at Craters of the Moon) and to 

other environmental stresses. In some cases, 

it may kill the tree by slowly robbing it of food 

and water. Death occurs slowly in most cases, 

usually over a span of decades, and depends 

on the severity of infection and on the vigor 

and size of the tree (CRMO 2007c).

Several factors influence the spread of this 

parasite. They can range from stand composition and tree spacing to bird and animal impact. Nearly all spreads are local and 

result from the discharge of seeds. Birds and 

animals are responsible for most of the long 

distance seed distribution when seeds stick 

to their bodies and are discarded later onto 

susceptible trees (Taylor 1999). Dwarf mistletoe infestations of limber pine are common 

around the loop road but appear much less 

common and even rare in limber pine at 

lower elevation areas of the Monument 

There are no chemical or biological controls 

available at this time to contain this parasite. 

Taylor (1999) states that, “The greatest opportunity to control dwarf mistletoe is through 

the removal of infected limber pines and the 

encouragement of mistletoe-free regenera-
22 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Interpretive Opportunity: Dwarf Mistletoe

Interpretive Opportunity: Limber Pine

In order to illustrate a limber pine’s flexibility you can 

tie a small limber pine branch into a knot. The branch 

will bend easily and not harm the tree. You can also have 

visitors “shake hands” with a limber pine so they can feel 

first hand its flexibility (Be sure to untie the branch after 

the demonstration). 

Concepts: 

Survival, endurance, perseverance, and adaptability.

There are many places in the Monument to view dwarf 

mistletoe & witches’ broom. Dwarf mistletoe will most likely 

be seen by visitors during guided walks on the Evening Stroll 

Trail and the Broken Top Loop Trail. The first limber pine 

visitors see on the right side of the trail during the broken 

top loop is an example of a healthy limber pine. Once visitors reach the top of the first hill there is a great example of a 

dwarf mistletoe infestation and its result, witches’ broom. 

Concepts:

Dependency 

(Dwarf Mistletoe 

depends on Limber 

Pines in this ecosystem).
Interpreting Biological Diversity 23

tion.” Control efforts at Craters of the Moon 

in the 1960s removed 6,000 limber pine trees, 

but was still unsuccessful in eliminating the 

disease. Today, National Park Service management policies recognize dwarf mistletoe 

as a native parasitic organism that has been 

a part of the Craters of the Moon limber 

pine ecology for thousands of years (CRMO 

2007c).

White Pine Blister Rust

A bigger concern than dwarf mistletoe at 

Craters of the Moon is white pine blister rust 

(Cronartium ribicola), a non-native fungus. 

This organism was introduced from Europe 

in the early 20th Century, and affects five 

needle pines throughout North America. At 

Craters of the Moon, white pine blister rust 

was first detected in 2006.

The infection intensity of white pine blister 

rust varies but can be very severe. According 

to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, white 

pine blister rust is most severe when late 

summers (July-September) are cool (below 

67 degrees Fahrenheit) and damp. Therefore, 

this infection is usually found farther north in 

Idaho and Montana, though white pine blister rust has been found as far south as New 

Mexico (Anderson 1977). In the Monument, 

white pine blister rust has only been found 

in limber pines within the Little Cottonwood 

and Leach Creek Drainages.

White pine blister rust has a complex life 

cycle. This cycle requires two hosts, a pine, 

and either a currant or gooseberry plant. 

Recent studies have also found that alternate 

hosts can now contribute to this infection, 

(i.e. Indian paint brush (Castilleja coccinea) 

and snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus)). Five 

needle pine species of all ages are susceptible; 

White Pine Blister Rust (Cronartium ribicola)

however seedlings and young trees are often less resistant to this infection and have a 

higher fatality rate (Laskowski 2007).

White pine blister rust generally starts on the 

plant surface and eventually works its way 

into the pine through openings in the needles 

or through a wound. The fungus then grows 

into a twig and infects the branch which will 

Vital Signs: Limber Pine
24 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

begin to swell. After two to three years the 

rust forms spores in a blister type shape that 

will eventually rupture. When the blisters 

rupture they release bright orange colored 

spores that infect the alternate host (currants, 

gooseberry, etc.). While hosted on these alternate plants the rust produces more spores 

that are released into the air and infect other 

susceptible pines in the area. The rust is then 

shed from the alternate host when the plant 

naturally drops its leaves in the fall (Laskowski 2007).

The rust infection can kill a tree slowly over 

several years. Once the fungus is inside the 

needle and it grows down into the branch 

it can ultimately reach the main stem of the 

tree. The rust can then kill the cambium (the 

tissue in the plant that produces new cells) 

causing what scientists refer to as a canker 

(a fungal disease that causes localized damage to the bark). This canker prevents water and nutrients from passing through that 

particular area, therefore, resulting in the loss 

of branches (Laskowski 2007). According to 

Michele Laskowski, “If the canker forms on 

the main stem, it will cause top kill and often 

ultimately causes the tree to die.”

It can take 3-6 years for the infection to kill a 

large tree. Since blister rust is an introduced 

species, genetic resistance of native limber 

pines is limited and mortality rates are typically high. On average, over a third of the 

limber pine in the northern Rocky Mountains 

have been killed by blister rust, and about 75 

percent of the remaining live trees are infected with it (CRMO 2007c).

In the summer of 2006, the first white pine 

blister rust infections were found within the 

Monument. While the infected trees appear 

to be small in number and isolated, National 

Park Service personnel are surveying other 

limber pine stands at Craters of the Moon to 

determine how widespread the infection is 

within the Monument. Monitoring may enable resource managers to detect and hopefully eradicate white pine blister rust as it is 

found.

This introduced disease could eliminate 

much of the limber pine population within 

Craters of the Moon. Since many plant and 

animal species at Craters of the Moon rely 

on food and shelter provided by limber pines 

these losses would have a cascading effect on 

the ecosystem.
Interpreting Biological Diversity 25

Monitoring Efforts

Limber pine monitoring efforts focus primarily on white pine blister rust because of its 

potential to eradicate all limber pines in the 

Monument. Limber pine monitoring objectives include:

1. Conducting early detection status surveys 

for possible blister rust infections.

2. Estimating trends in the proportion, 

severity, and survivorship of infected limber 

pines. Determining the proportion of infected trees and the severity of the infections 

provides an understanding of the magnitude 

of the problem and the vulnerability of limber 

pines in the Monument (Garrett et al. 2007).

These objectives are measured by taking surveys of limber pines from May through July. 

This is the best time for viewing the orange 

spore sacs, and aecial blisters (fruiting bodies of the rust fungi) produced by the active 

canker (Garrett et al. 2007).

Limber pines are a significant species within 

the Monument and play a vital role in the 

ecosystem. They serve as a vital sign of the 

ecosystem due to their links to the different species found at Craters of the Moon. 

One significant role that limber pines play 

is as a food source for animals. Their large 

seeds within the pine cones provide food 

for Clark’s Nutcrackers and several different 

squirrels. Limber pines were also important 

in this area historically. The Shoshone-Bannock consumed these pine nuts as an important part of their diet (Sharashkin 2004). 

Limber pines also provide shelter for several 

animal species. Many squirrels build nesting 

cavities in these pines as well as seek shelter 

beneath their canopies. Limber pines provide 

places for migratory birds to rest when crossing the Snake River Plain and also help with 

watershed protection. The presence of their 

roots helps stabilize cinder cones, snow, soil, 

and in some cases even rocks. These trees 

survive in a harsh environment and have 

proven to thrive here despite winds, invasive/

exotic plants, heat, drought and heavy snows 

(Garrett et al. 2007).

Related Interpretive Interests

Clark’s Nutcracker

The Clark’s Nutcracker is one of many species that rely on limber pine at Craters of the 

Moon. The Clark’s Nutcracker (Nucifraga 

columbiana) has a unique dependent relationship with limber pines. Essentially limber 

pines could not exist without Clark’s Nutcrackers and vice versa. Craters of the Moon 

contains pines that provide suitable habitat 

and food sources for these birds. The birds’ 

primary food comes from the trees and the 

The Clark’s Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana)

Vital Signs: Limber Pine
26 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

birds helps the trees reproduce by dispersing 

their seeds.

Clark’s Nutcrackers are gray medium sized 

birds with long, sharp, tweezer-like beaks. 

Their tweezer-like beaks allow them to extract the pine nuts from the female limber 

pine cones, which serve as a primary food 

source. Clark’s Nutcrackers have excellent 

spatial memory. This characteristic enables 

them to cache thousands of seeds in the fall 

and then relocate these caches during the 

winter (Seattle Audubon Society 2006).

They also have a pouch beneath their tongue 

that can store fifteen to seventeen pine nuts 

at a time. These birds can transport pine 

nuts for at least fourteen miles from the food 

source before they cache them. It’s been 

estimated that Clark’s Nutcrackers can cache 

about 25,000 pine nuts in a year. Cache sites 

that these birds choose often are on windswept ridges with southerly aspects where 

not as much snow accumulates and where the 

ground is more exposed in the early spring 

(Steele 1990). They can generally find their 

caches up to nine months later (Seattle Audubon Society 2006). Caches that are not found 

at Craters of the Moon often germinate and 

limber pine seedlings appear in following 

years. These two species work symbiotically 

and could not survive without the other.

Interpretive Opportunity: Clark’s Nutcracker

Clarks Nutcrackers can be seen all throughout the 

Monument. Many interpreters carry a laminated 

picture of the Clarks Nutcracker for visitor viewing. 

If you can find a female pinecone on the ground you 

can challenge a visitor to carefully extract a pine nut 

without breaking the cone. This can illustrate how 

the Clark’s Nutcracker beak is tweezer-like to be 

able to extract the pine nuts.

Concepts: 

Mutualism (Neither of these species could exist at 

Craters of the Moon without the other). 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Photo by 

John and Karen Hollingsworth
Interpreting Biological Diversity 27

Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation

Background

Sagebrush-steppe vegetation is the predominant vegetation type covering much of the 

Snake River Plain. Sagebrush-steppe ecosystems occur within high desert regions which 

have hot dry summers and cold relatively wet 

winters. The plant communities found within 

these ecosystems generally consist of shrubs 

intermixed with perennial grasses and forbs. 

The shrubs include several species of sagebrush, antelope bitterbrush, and rabbit brush.

The Snake River Plain is a dry region due to 

the rain shadow effect of mountain ranges to 

the west. As winter storms hit the mountains 

that surround the plain, air rises and the temperature cools causing water vapor to condense and fall mostly on the windward side of 

the mountains leaving the leeward side dry. 

Annually these mountain ranges can block 

6-14 inches of precipitation that would otherwise have reached this area (Yzquierdo 2005). 

Sagebrush-steppe thrives in these conditions 

and is the most extensive vegetation community in the Monument (Map 1). Sagebrushsteppe covers all areas where adequate soil 

deposition or development has occurred 

(CRMO 2005). 

The structure and composition of most 

sagebrush-steppe vegetation has undergone 

major changes since European settlers arrived (Yzquierdo 2005). With the reduction 

of sagebrush-steppe in southern Idaho from 

cultivation, fire, and weed invasion, some of 

the sagebrush communities in the Monument 

are among the best remaining examples of 

this vegetation type on the Snake River Plain 

(CRMO 2005). 

An example of sagebrush-steppe vegetation.

At first glance sagebrush-steppe may appear 

to create a monotonous landscape within the 

Monument; however, a remarkable diversity 

of plant and community types are evident in 

the short growing season of spring and early 

summer. Many factors influence the density, 

cover, and health of vegetation: differences in 

soil depth and development; the precipitation 

gradient which ranges from 10 to 16 inches; 

the elevation gradient ranging from 4,000 to 

7,500 feet; historical and current land management practices; invasive species; and fire 

frequency. In turn, vegetation structure and 

composition influence the ability of the community to resist invasive species infestation; 

its susceptibility to, as well as recovery from, 

fire; and land management activities imposed 

upon the landscape (CRMO 2005).

Vital Signs: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation
28 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Map 1. Vegetation Classifications for Craters of the Moon 

 National Monument and Preserve

Note: Sagebrush-steppe is one of the predominant vegetation 

types and is seen here in green.

Monitoring Efforts

Sagebrush-steppe ecosystems are one of 

the most threatened ecosystems in the Intermountain West. Determining trends in 

sagebrush-steppe communities is essential for 

understanding these communities and creating management strategies to better preserve 

these vulnerable ecosystems. Monitoring efforts include:

1. Estimating the current status and trends in 

particular plants species (e.g. Artemisia spp.) 

in this ecosystem as well as understory vegetation (e.g. perennial grasses etc.).

2. Documenting diversity and species composition (Garrett et al. 2007). 

Since sagebrush-steppe vegetation makes up 

a large majority of the vegetation coverage in 

the Monument, and is home to many plant 

and animal species of concern, it is critical 

to the Monument’s overall health; it serves 

as a vital sign. A sagebrush-steppe vegetation 

monitoring protocol is in development.

Significant portions of sagebrush-steppe 

vegetation in the monument are managed as 

rangeland for livestock grazing, and the BLM 

monitors grazing effects on rangeland resources. Also, much of the vegetation has the 

potential to be altered by, or has already been 

altered by changing fire regimes. Monitoring 

helps resource managers detect changes that 

could result from declines in native flora and 

fauna, decreased soil stability, and a reduction 

in hydrologic functions (which could in turn 

affect the Eastern Snake River Plain Aquifer).

Sagebrush-steppe vegetation provides food 

and cover for plants and animals to thrive 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 29

in this harsh landscape. Dominate shrubs 

provide shade and coverage for many forbs 

that could not otherwise survive. Shrubs also 

provide shelter for animals. Ground squirrels, 

chipmunks, foxes, and many birds utilize this 

vegetation. Bitterbrush provides an important 

source of nutrition for the area’s deer herd. 

Sagebrush-steppe vegetation is a vital part of 

the Monument that should be monitored and 

protected so that future generations can enjoy 

the diversity of life that these landscapes offer.

Vital Signs: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation

Interpretive Opportunity: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation

Sagebrush steppe vegetation covers a large amount 

of the area viewed by visitors. One good location to 

interpret sagebrush-steppe vegetation is on the Broke 

Top Loop Trail at the overlook. It is a good spot to 

discuss sagebrush adaptations such as the tiny hairs 

that cover the leaves to hold moisture, along with their 

extensive lateral root systems that go approximately 2-4 

inches below surface soil to capture surface moisture 

and their deep tap roots (approximtelyy 16 feet deep) 

that tap into moisture below the surface. Carrying a 

measuring tape and pulling out 16 feet of tape can help 

visitors visualize the actual size of these roots. Visitors 

can also look at the sagebrush and you can explain that 

its pale color allows it to reflect light. These are just two 

adaptations that many of the sagebrush steppe vegetation plants have.

Concepts:

Adaptations, survival.
30 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Related Intepretive Interests

Soils

Soil has a profound effect in the sagebrushsteppe environment. The soils of the Monument are variable, reflecting the differences 

and interactions between parent material, 

topography, vegetation, climate, fire history, 

and time. The most significant differences 

involve the presence or absence of recent lava 

flows and cinder deposits, the degree of soil 

development on older volcanic substrates 

and the deposition of windblown soil (loess) 

(CRMO 2005). 

Surface lava flows, which occupy two-thirds 

of the Monument, are made up of basalt lava 

rock. The soils on the younger basalt flows 

and cinder beds are limited to the initial 

decomposition of rock and cinders and more 

importantly to the deposition of windblown 

loess within crevices, cracks, and fissures. 

Plants at Craters of the Moon often establish 

and grow in little to no soil. As time progresses, soil development continues and more 

vegetation is established (CRMO 2005). 

During recent geologic time (the last ice age), 

the region has periodically received layers of 

windblown dust from sources further west. 

These loess deposits have resulted in many 

of the deeper soils on the eastern Idaho 

foothills and the leeward sides of lava flows 

within the Eastern Snake River Plain (CRMO 

2005). Loess deposits have allowed for a large 

diversity of plants to grow thus providing a 

diversity of food for animals as well. Loess 

is a tan-colored material of silt size and was 

ground up by glaciers in the mountains and 

carried down into the plains by the rivers that 

drain them. From there winds re-deposited 

the sediments far beyond the reach of rivers. 

Loess is made up of several different rock 

compositions thus creating a soil that can 

support a large array of plant systems (CRMO 

2000b). 

The loess soils in the Monument and surrounding area developed from rocks deposited during a sequence of geologic events 

that began almost 600 million years ago. For 

approximately 500 million years, ancient seas 

intermittently covered the region, depositing 

limestone and other sedimentary rocks typical of ocean floors. Beginning about 17 million years ago, fault block mountain building 

has pushed up the rocks, exposing them to 

weathering and soil development processes. 

The many mountain ranges in the Basin and 

Range Province have developed in this way. 

Recent earthquake activity is evidence that 

these mountain-building processes continue 

today (CRMO 2005).

Climate

Extremes of weather and climate prevail 

at Craters of the Moon across seasons and 

elevations. From the foothills of the Pioneer 

Mountains in the northern end of the Monument to the Snake River in the south, weather 

conditions vary significantly. As elevation 

decreases from north to south, temperatures 

increase and precipitation decreases. The 

average annual precipitation ranges from 16 

inches at the Monument Visitor Center to 

just under 10 inches near the Snake River at 

Minidoka Dam (CRMO 2006). Most of the 

precipitation occurs in the winter as snow.

In February, average snow depth ranges from 

26 inches at the north end of the Monument 

to just 2 inches at the south end of the Monu-
Interpreting Biological Diversity 31

Interpretive Opportunity: Lava Flowers

Choose two volunteers to be wind blown seeds. Have 

one “grow” from a crack and have the other attempt to 

“grow” on the surface of the lava. Interview the seeds 

and have them describe the conditions they are encountering. Based on the feedback from the seeds have 

the audience choose which seed has the greatest potential to flourish and why (presence of soil, moisture, 

and protection from the wind). Now point out to the 

audience the growth pattern of all the plants around 

them...they are all growing in the cracks!

Concepts:

Microclimates, soil quality, survival.

Dwarf Monkeyflower (Mimulus nanus)

ment. The intense summer sun bakes the 

black lava, generating surface temperatures 

greater than 170 degrees Fahrenheit on the 

hottest days. Dry winds are a common occurrence, especially in the afternoon, and 

may reach 40-50 miles per hour. July through 

October the average monthly precipitation is 

less than one inch. Winter transforms Craters 

of the Moon into a dramatic landscape of 

black lava covered with white snow, while fall 

and spring are milder (CRMO 2006). Despite 

harsh weather conditions many plant and 

animal species can thrive in this landscape.

Special Status Plant Species

There are two special status plant species 

found in the Monument, Obscure Phacelia 

(Phacelia inconspicua) and Picabo Milkvetch 

(Astragalus onicifomis). Obscure Phacelia is 

one of Idaho’s rarest plants, with only six area 

occurrences statewide. It occurs on the north 

and east-facing slopes of volcanic mountains 

and buttes. Picabo Milkvetch can be found 

in sandy soils in the north-central portion of 

the Eastern Snake River Plain (CRMO 2005). 

Areas of likely habitat within and surrounding 

the Monument have been systematically surveyed for both obscure phacelia and Picabo 

milkvetch. 

Obscure Phacelia (Phacelia inconspicua)

Vital Signs: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation
32 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Picabo Milkvetch (Astragalus onicifomis)

Special Status Animal Species

In the summer of 2007 sixty-five animal species were listed as being of special status in 

Idaho, warranting special management attention. Of these, a few attract the most public 

attention.

The reintroduction of wolves in central Idaho 

and Yellowstone in the mid-1990s and their 

current status often generate inquiries. Gray 

wolves (Canis lupus) are known to have infrequently occurred in the vicinity of the Monument. In the spring and winter of 2001, a pack 

was observed and tracked by wolf researchers 

just north of the Monument. The pack was 

thought to have been following migrating 

elk and deer. In addition, individual wolves 

and wolf sign have been observed within 

the boundary of the Monument, with several sightings in this area since 2000 (CRMO 

2005).

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nests 

have been documented just west of the Monument near Carey Lake. Transient, wintering 

Bald Eagles have been sighted throughout 

Blaine, Butte, Minidoka, and Power Counties, 

including parts of the Monument (CRMO 

2005). Bald Eagle populations are considered 

recovered and consequently were removed 

from the Endangered Species list by the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service in 2007. 

Pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus chihi) populations 

have experienced severe declines throughout 

their range. This small rabbit generally prefers 

mature sagebrush stands with a dense canopy 

cover. Pygmy rabbits have been documented 

in several areas of the Monument. Records 

ranging from the 1930s through 2006 indicate 

locations from the south to the north but no 

verified sightings have occurred in recent 

years. 

The Monument also contains several cave 

and cave-related species of concern, including seven species of bats. As of 1999, three 

maternity colonies of Townsend’s big-eared 

bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) had been identified in Idaho, with two of these occurring 

in the Monument. Numerous hibernacula 

(chambers where animals hibernate, in our 

case lava tubes) have been identified in the 

Monument for these and other bat species. 

Six other cave roosting bats are classified as 

species of concern as well. In addition to bats, 

other cave species of concern, include two 

cave obligate harvestmen (Speleomaster lexi 

and Speleomaster pecki), a cave obligate mite 

(Flabellorhagidia pecki), and the blind cave 

leiodid beetle (Glavcicavicola bathyscioides) 

(CRMO 2005). 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 33

Vital Signs: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation

Interpretive Opportunity: Plants and Wildlife

A good way to introduce visitors to the variety of flora and fauna at Craters of the Moon 

is with a game called “What am I?” Distribute 

cards with pictures and descriptions of some 

common plants and animals to visitors. Attached to each card is a loop of string that is 

used to hang the card around each participant’s neck but facing away from them, so the 

participant can’t view the card’s contents. The 

goal of the game is for participants to figure out 

what plant or animal they are by asking questions (e.g., Am I an animal? Do I have fur? Do 

I eat plants?) Because this activity depends on 

interaction, encourage participants to move 

around and ask questions of others; also, encourage those without cards to provide help 

and hints to others. Give participants five or 

ten minutes to figure out what plant or animal 

they are, then bring the group back together to 

discuss survival methods and/or adaptations 

of a few of the plants or animals. This activity works well with all ages as well as mixed 

groups, and can be incorporated into interpretive walks and programs.

Concepts:

Adaptation, survival, 

diversity of life.

Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus)

Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva)

Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)
34 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Interpretive Opportunity: Hairy Plants

Many of the plants and shrubs of the high desert 

grow hairs on their leaves to protect themselves from 

the hot, arid conditions of the high desert. Provide a 

hand lens and encourage visitors closely examine the 

leaves of a dwarf buckwheat, scorpionweed, or rubber rabbitbrush, all of which are coated in white hairs. 

The hairs provide a variety of benefits: capturing water from rain or dew; inhibiting evaporation by stilling the wind as it blows across the leaf’s surface; and 

by giving the leaves a whitish color, reflect light/heat 

away from the plant, again inhibiting evaporation. By 

providing a hand lens and asking visitors to describe 

the plant’s leaves, visitors will find adaptive qualities 

they otherwise might have missed and perhaps look 

more critically at other plants.

Concepts:

Adaptation, climate.

Rubber Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus)

Dwarf Buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium)
Interpreting Biological Diversity 35

Vital Signs: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation

Kipukas

Kipukas are essentially islands of sagebrushsteppe vegetation surrounded by younger 

lava. Some kipukas contain relatively undisturbed native sagebrush-steppe communities. 

There are over 500 kipukas in the Monument. 

Most kipukas have been protected from 

alteration due to their remoteness and large 

lava buffers. However, other kipukas have 

been disturbed by fire, livestock grazing, recreation, or invasive/exotic plant invasion. The 

condition of resources within these kipukas is 

being surveyed by the National Park Service 

(CRMO 2005). 

Several very large kipukas are known locally 

as parks. Laidlaw Park, Paddelford Flat, and 

Little Park dominate the central portion of 

the Monument. These “parks” technically 

meet the definition of a kipuka, but are referred to as “parks” due to their larger size, 

accessibility, and land use. There is road access to and within these parks, and livestock 

grazing has been a historical use since at least 

the 1920s. All three parks are dominated by 

sagebrush-steppe vegetation, as well as areas 

dominated by annual and perennial grasslands due to the effects of recent wildfires 

(CRMO 2005).

The abundance of native species and the 

quality of these sagebrush steppe communities depends on management practices 

and cumulative effects of environmental 

responses. For example, the northern parts 

of Laidlaw Park have not been overgrazed, 

retain sufficient shrubs native forbs and 

grasses, and support sage-grouse. However, 

historic overgrazing, frequent wildfires, aroga 

moth infestations, cheatgrass invasion, and 

noxious weeds have negatively affected Paddelford Flat and the southern portions of 

Laidlaw Park. In addition, the southern part 

of Laidlaw Park receives less rainfall than 

the northern part, making it less resilient to 

disturbance (CRMO 2005). 

Kipukas are most likely to be pointed out and 

interpreted on the Evening Stroll Overlook 

and the Broken Top Loop Overlook. Round 

Knoll can be seen well from both of these 

sites. You can help visitors visualize a kipuka 

by having them imagine making a hill out of 

a plate of mashed potatoes and then pouring gravy around the base of the mound of 

potatoes. So essentially the mashed potato 

island is a kipuka and the gravy at the base 

represents lava. While this illustration is helpful and might help visitors understand what a 

kipuka can look like, it should be noted that 

some kipukas are very flat.

Concepts:

Preservation 

Interpretive Opportunity: Kipukas

Round Knoll Kipuka
36 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Fire

One of the most common disturbances that 

can completely alter sagebrush-steppe communities is fire. Between 1970 and 2002, approximately 330,000 acres have been burned 

by wildfires within the boundary of the expanded Monument, primarily on BLM-administered land. About a third of this acreage 

has burned two or more times (CRMO 2005). 

Peak fire years occurred in 1971 (29,000 

acres), 1981 (22,000 acres), 1992 (61,000 

acres), 1996 (31,000 acres), and 1999 (87,000 

acres). About half of Laidlaw Park and Paddelford Flat and nearly all of Little Park have 

remained unburned in the last decade. Relatively small fires have burned on vegetated 

lava and in kipukas, notably Little Prairie in 

1992 (1,900 acres) and Echo Crater in 2000 

(632 acres). Overall, fires within the original Monument boundaries represent only 8 

percent of the total area burned since 1970 

(CRMO 2005). 

Fire plays a key role in determining the diversity and condition of vegetation communities. 

Large tracts of sagebrush have been lost due 

to extensive wildfires, and fires have perpetuated invasive/exotic annual grasslands. However, fire also plays an important role in the 

maintenance of some vegetation types, including aspen and mountain shrubs (CRMO 

2005). 

Native Americans historically used fire to 

manipulate vegetation and wildlife. Since the 

1900s, sheepherders used fire in the Monument to reduce shrub cover and encourage 

herbaceous plant growth. Well-documented 

records prior to 1950 are not available; however, traditional practices throughout southern Idaho are known to have included the use 

of fire to eliminate sagebrush and promote 

grass growth (CRMO 2005).

In 1982, the BLM made a proposal to burn 

approximately 19,000 acres to break up 

continuous tracts of sagebrush; create more 

diverse wildlife habitat; reduce fuel loads; 

and improve forage for domestic livestock 

and wildlife. The burning of approximately 

half of this acreage was accomplished by 

1992, at which time large wildfires occurred 

in the area and the use of prescribed fire 

was curtailed. The use of prescribed fire was 

re-initiated in 2001, when small areas within 

the Monument were burned to reduce cheatgrass, in conjunction with herbicide and seeding treatments (CRMO 2005). 

The length and timing of the fire season is 

highly dependent on annual weather and fuel 

conditions. Generally, the season can extend 

from mid-May through mid-October. Warm, 

dry, and windy weather associated with thunderstorm cells can result in lightning activity 

with or without rain. Ignition of vegetation 

can occur from natural sources, primarily 

lightning, or from human sources such as vehicles, campfires, or cigarettes (CRMO 2005). 

Areas most at risk for large, destructive wildfires are the rangelands in the southern part 

of the Monument where fuel loading is high 

due to an abundance of cheatgrass in the understory. Ignitions on vegetated lava are rare; 

however, there is a risk that fires near the edge 

of the lava can lie low for a period of time and 

then ignite adjacent rangelands if weather 

conditions become hot or windy. Fires in 

isolated kipukas remain localized and small, 

because the surrounding lava limits spread 

(CRMO 2005). 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 37

The northern end of Laidlaw Park, in particular, and other isolated areas in the Monument contain good examples of sagebrushsteppe vegetation, which could potentially be 

lost or degraded by invasive/exotic or noxious 

weeds following a fire. In areas of the Monument north of the highway, mountain shrubs, 

aspen, and Douglas fir communities might 

benefit somewhat from fire; however, watershed protection in Little Cottonwood Creek 

(which provides potable water in the Monument) and the protection of research and 

group campsite facilities necessitate aggressive suppression (CRMO 2005).

Fire management in the Monument is directed by the current Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Land Use Plans, the Fire Management Plan for South Central Idaho, and 

the Craters of the Moon National Monument 

Wildland Fire Management Plan within the 

original Monument boundaries. Under these 

plans, all wildfires are suppressed except for 

naturally ignited fires in designated wilderness, which may be managed for resource 

benefit (CRMO 2005).

Vital Signs: Sagebrush-steppe Vegetation

A fire at Craters of the Moon.
38 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Sage-grouse

Background

The Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) relies heavily on sagebrush-steppe 

vegetation. Since 1950, 148 sage-grouse leks 

(display areas where males perform mating rituals while females look on) have been 

documented within the Monument. Between 

1979 and 1983, 83 leks were active, and between 1999 and 2003, there were 53 active 

leks. These observations (made by the Idaho 

Department of Fish and Game) indicate a 36 

percent decrease in sage-grouse leks over the 

past 25 years (CRMO 2005). 

The decline in the sage-grouse population 

may be a result of several different factors. 

It could be the result of human impact due 

to habitat alteration (habitat fragmentation, 

fire suppression, hunting, domestic livestock 

grazing, etc.). It could be related to an increase in predators, or it could even be associated with weather or climate change over 

time. The decline may also be due to a combination of all of these factors (Van Kooten et 

al. 2007). 

Sage-grouse leks are essential to the survival 

of this species. A lek is a central location 

where males seek to draw the attention of 

females. Scientists use leks to estimate population sizes, and they are therefore important 

for inventorying and monitoring populations 

as well. Leks generally occur in open areas 

(approx. .1 to 5 hectares in size) that are surrounded by sagebrush with a 15% to 38% 

canopy cover and a grass and forb understory. 

The presence of these plant species is essential to the success of these leks (Van Kooten et 

al. 2007). 

Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus)

Loss of habitat or fragmentation of habitat 

alone could account for the decline of the 

sage-grouse population (Van Kooten et al. 

2007). Leks are important to overall breeding, but it is critical that the leks are close to 

breeding grounds. Nesting sites are vital to 

reproductive success but they are also where 

most fatalities in sage-grouse populations occur. 

Wildfires can also have an effect on sage 

grouse habitat. If fires are too infrequent or 

too intense it can change the landscape drastically. Van Kooten et al. (2007) states that, “in 

the case of infrequent fires, due to fire suppression, more intense fires can eventually 

devastate an area turning it from a perennial 

range (suitable habitat) to annual grasslands, 

primarily cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), that 

is considered detrimental to sage-grouse.”

The state of Idaho considers sage-grouse a 

game species and regulates hunting within the 

BLM Monument and the NPS Preserve. Scientists suggest that when hunting does occur 

that “takes” be limited to 10% of the population and that hunting should cease when a 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 39

population is below 300 breeding birds (Van 

Kooten et al. 2007). 

Both hunting and livestock grazing and their 

effects on sage-grouse populations are controversial. Recent studies have not provided a 

direct relationship between livestock grazing 

and the decline in sage-grouse populations. 

However, “indirect evidence suggests that 

grazing by livestock or wild herbivores may 

have negative impacts on sage grouse populations,” states Van Kooten et al. (2007). 

Predation is also an issue for sage-grouse 

populations and evidence shows that predation is the largest single source of mortality 

for these populations. Major nest predators 

include ground squirrels (Spermophilus spp.), 

ravens (Corvus spp.), and coyotes (Canis latrans); whereas, Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) are known primarily for adult predation. Humans often try to control predator 

populations, therefore, potentially producing 

an effect on sage-grouse populations. However, little information about the effects of 

predator control on sage-grouse populations 

is available (Van Kooten et al. 2007).

Monitoring Efforts

Monitoring sage-grouse has been a cooperative effort with the Idaho Department of Fish 

and Game (IDFG). State wildlife managers 

already have a lek monitoring program, providing an opportunity to work collaboratively 

and share information. Current sage-grouse 

monitoring efforts include:

1. Working with the IDFG to estimate trends 

in the occupancy and abundance of male 

sage-grouse leks through annual lek counts in 

and adjacent to the Monument.

2. Identifying potential critical sage-grouse 

habitat areas within the Monument and conducting periodic status surveys in these areas 

to estimate occupancy and abundance (Garrett et al. 2007). 

Sage-grouse leks are currently monitored by 

the IDFG. IDFG shares this information and 

is working with the UCBN, and the University 

of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, on 

developing a GIS-based model of potential 

sage-grouse habitat. Vegetation maps are then 

produced which help identify potential seasonal habitat since sage-grouse utilize different habitats based on the season. 

Habitat is vital to the survival of sage-grouse 

since there has been a concurrent decrease in 

sage-grouse numbers and sagebrush steppe 

habitat throughout much of the western United States. Sage-grouse serve as a vital sign at 

Craters of the Moon for several reasons. The 

Monument provides lek and nesting habitat 

that is rapidly disappearing in environments 

outside the Monument. Sage-grouse have 

different habitat requirements during each 

season and depend on sagebrush as a source 

of their diet in the winter; therefore habitat 

preservation is critical here because Craters 

of the Moon provides an important stronghold in the evermore fragmented sagebrushsteppe vegetation outside the Monument

(Garrett et al. 2007).

Vital Signs: Sage-grouse
40 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Interpretive Opportunity: Sage-grouse

This interpretive opportunity is a good one to pair 

with sagebrush-steppe vegetation. Sage-grouse tend 

to eat leaves, buds, stems, flowers, fruits, and insects 

found in sagebrush-steppe vegetation. You could 

point out an example of sagebrush and pass around 

a leaf from the plant and have visitors smell it. It has 

a strong distinct smell and as a result most animals 

won’t eat it. However, sage-grouse enjoy it because 

of its taste and because it is composed of 24% protein. They are one of the few animals that can eliminate the tar found in the sagebrush plant. 

Concepts:

Adaptations
Interpreting Biological Diversity 41

Conclusion

Hopefully this document has familiarized you with the biological resources at Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, their importance, and has helped spark ideas about how to interpret 

this information to visitors. It is essential that we care for the resources of Craters of the Moon and that 

we provide visitors with opportunities to care about the resources so that they will help us in the preservation of this majestic Monument.

Each vital sign is an indicator of the Monument’s overall health, and they are all interrelated. For example, a decline in sagebrush-steppe vegetation can allow for invasive/exotic plants to increase, which 

could fragment sage-grouse habitat and result in population declines, which in turn could change the 

land cover pattern altering ecosystems throughout the Monument. Each vital sign can positively affect 

or adversely affect other vital signs. 

This is why the Upper Columbia Basin Network Inventory and Monitoring Program is important to 

assessing the health of the resources for which the Monument was established. Creating protocols that 

will be used to monitor changes on a regular basis is crucial. Inventorying and then monitoring these 

vital signs over a long period of time is the only way to assess improvements, declines, and/or threats to 

these vital signs. 

This is the most current information available but it is important to keep updated on changes on the information presented in this document. For more information on the UCBN Inventory and Monitoring 

plan visit http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/ucbn. This site provides access to current inventory 

and monitoring information as well as updated revisions to protocols and reports.
42 National Park Service

Literature Cited

Anderson, R. L., and T. H. Nicholls. 1977. How to identify white pine blister rust and remove cankers. 

Online. (http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/howtos/ht_wpblister/control.htm). 

Accessed 24 June 2007.

Beever, Erik A., 2002. Persistence of pikas in two low-elevation national monuments in the western 

United States. Park Science, 21(2): 23.

Blakesley, J. A., and G. R. Wright. 1988. A review of scientific research at Craters of the Moon National 

Monument. University of Idaho. Moscow, ID.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2000a. Reconnaissance survey – 

expansion of Craters of the Moon National Monument. Online. 

(http://www.nps.gov/archive/crmo/expansion/expansion2f.htm). Accessed 3 July 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2000b. Teachers guide to Broken Top 

Loop. Online. (http://www.nps.gov/archive/crmo/btl/stop4.htm). Accessed 10 July 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2005. Craters of the Moon National 

Monument and Preserve Proposed Management Plan/Final Environmental Impact Statement 

(PMP). USDI National Park Service. Arco, ID.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2006. Craters of the Moon – 

weather. Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/naturescience/weather.htm). 

Accessed 17 June 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007a. Craters of the Moon – birds. 

Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/naturescience/birds.htm). Accessed 3 July 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007b. Craters of the Moon – caves. 

Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/naturescience/cave.htm). Accessed 3 July 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007c. Craters of the Moon – 

diseases. Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/naturescience/diseases.htm). 

Accessed 24 June 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007d. Craters of the Moon 

National Monument and Preserve - long-range interpretive plan (LRIP). Department of 

Interpretive Planning, Harpers Ferry Center.
Interpreting Biological Diversity 43

Literature Cited

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007e. Craters of the Moonnon-native species. Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/naturescience/nonnativespecies.htm). 

Accessed 3 July 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007f. Craters of the Moon - record 

of decision. Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/parkmgmt/record-of-decision.htm).

 Accessed 24 June 2007.

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO). 2007g. Craters of the moon – trees. 

Online. (http://www.nps.gov/crmo/naturescience/treesandshrubs.htm). Accessed 24 June 2007.

D&R Technologies. 2006. Townsend’s big-eared bat. Idaho Bat Control. Online 

(http://www.batcontrol-et.com/Idaho_bat_control.htm). Accessed 3 July 2007.

Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ). 2005. Idaho’s treasure; the Eastern Snake River Plain 

Aquifer. State of Idaho Oversight Monitor. Idaho National Laboratory Oversight & Radiation 

Control Program, Idaho State Department of Environmental Quality, Boise, ID.

Dunning, J. B., B. J. Danielson, and H. R. Pulliam. 1992. Ecological processes that affect populations in 

complex landscapes. Oikos 65:169-175.

Ebi, K. 2006. Lichen on lava rock, Craters of the Moon. Online 

(http://www.livingwilderness.com/landscape/craters-moon-lichen.html). Accessed 3 July 2007.

eNature. 2005. Wildlife lists - bushy-tailed woodrat. Online. 

(http://www.enature.com/flashcard/show_flash_card.asp?recordNumber=MA0081). 

Accessed 3 July 2007.

Garrett, L. K., T. J. Rodhouse, G. H. Dicus, C. C. Caudill, and M. R. Shardlow. 2007. Upper 

Columbia Basin Network vital signs monitoring plan. Natural Resource Report 

NPS/UCBN/NRR—2007/002. National Park Service, Fort Collins, CO.

Johnson, D. E. 1999. Biogeography of quaking aspen. San Francisco State University Department of 

Geography 316. Online. (http://bss.sfsu.edu/geog/bholzman/courses/fall99projects/aspen.htm). 

Accessed 10 July 2007.

Kornfeld, A. 2000. Natural perspective - mosses and allies. Online. 

(http://www.perspective.com/nature/plantae/bryophytes.html). Accessed 18 July 2007.

Lacome, B. 2003. The interpretation equation: More than the sum of its parts. Brochure. 

Washington, DC. Eastern National. 
44 National Park Service

Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

Laskowski, M. 2007. High elevation white pines - white pine blister rust. USDA Forest Service. Online. 

(http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/highelevationwhitepines/Threats/blister-rust-threat.htm). 

Accessed 24 June 2007.

Madison, E., T. Rodhouse, and L. Garrett. 2004. 2003 Mammal inventory Craters of the Moon 

National Monument and Preserve. Report for Subagreement No. 20 to Cooperative Agreement 

No. CA9000-95-018. University of Idaho and National Park Service Upper Columbia Basin 

Network. Moscow, Idaho. Online (http://www.nature.nps.gov/im/units/ucbn/Documents/ 

CRMO_InventoryReport_Mamm_2004.pdf). Accessed 19 June 2007.

National Park Service (NPS). 1999. Natural resource challenge: the National Park Service’s

action plan for preserving natural resources. US Department of the Interior National

Park Service, Washington D.C. Online (http://www.nature.nps.gov/challengedoc.html).

National Park Service (NPS). 2007. Interpretation and education - what is interpretation?” 

Online. (http://www.nps.gov/learn/). Accessed 26 June 2007.

Naumann, R. 1999. Lasionycteris noctivagans – silver-haired bat. Animal Diversity Web. Online. 

(http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lasionycteris_noctivagans. 

html). Accessed 18 July 2007.

Pearson, L. C., and S. K. Rope. 1990. Lichen as air pollution biomonitors in a semiarid environment in 

Idaho. The Bryologist 93:50-61.

Rook, E. J. S. 2006. Populus tremuloides - quaking aspen. Online. 

(http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/trees/populustrem.html). Accessed 10 July 2007.

Schonewald-Cox, C. M. 1988. Boundaries in the protection of nature reserves: Translating 

multidisciplinary knowledge into practical conservation. BioScience 38:480-486.

Seattle Audubon Society. 2006. Bird web - Clark’s nutcracker. Online. 

(http://www.birdweb.org/birdweb/bird_details.aspx?id=314). Accessed 24 June 2007.

Sharashkin, L. and M. Gold. 2004. Pine nuts: species, products, markets and potential for US 

production. In Northern Nut Growers Association 95th Annual Report. Proceeding for the 95th 

annual meeting, Columbia, MO. Online. 

(http://www.ringingcedars.com/materials/pinenuts-nnga.pdf). Accessed 24 June 2007.

Steele, R. 1990. Limber Pine. In Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, vol. 1. Agriculture 

Handbook 654. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. Online. 

(http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/pinus/flexilis.htm). 

Accessed 24 June 2007.
Interpreting Biological Diversity 45

Literature Cited

Stearns, H. T. 1963. Geology of Craters of the Moon National Monument. 

Caxton Printers, Ltd. Caldwell, ID.

Taylor, J. E., and R. L. Mathiason. 1999. Limber pine dwarf mistletoe. Forest Insect and Disease 

Leaflet 171. USDA Forest Service. Online. (http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/nr/fid/fidls/f171.htm). 

Accessed 24 June 2007. 

Taylor, P. D., L. Fahrig, K. Henein, and G. Merriam. 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of landscape 

structure. Oikos 73:43-48.

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 2007. “Townsend’s Big-eared Bat (Plecotus townsendii). Online. 

(http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/townsendbigear/). Accessed 3 July 2007.

Trapani, J. 2003. Neotoma cinerea – bushy-tailed woodrat. Animal Diversity Web. Online. 

(http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Neotoma_cinerea.html). 

Accessed 3 July 2007.

Van Kooten, C. G., A. J. Eagle, and M. E. Eiswerth. 2007. Determinants of threatened sage grouse in 

Northeastern Nevada. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 12:53-70.

Yzquierdo, M. 2005. What is Range? Sagebrush steppe. University of Idaho. Online. 

(http://www.cnrhome.uidaho.edu/default.aspx?pid=85874). Accessed 14 June 2007.

Recommended Resources for Further Information:

1. Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve Proposed Management Plan/Final 

Environmental Impact Statement. Published by the National Park Service & the Department of 

the Interior. Available at http://www.id.blm.gov/planning/craters/index.htm. 

2. Vital Signs Monitoring Plan. Published by the Upper Columbia Basin Network and the 

National Park Service. Available at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/ucbn/ 

3. Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve Long-Range Interpretive Plan. Published by 

the National Park Service and the Department of the Interior. 
Interpreting Biological Diversity 46

The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural 

heritage; provides scientific and other information about those resources; and honors its special 

responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated Island Communities.

NPS D-93, December 2007
National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center

Natural Resource Program Center

1201 Oakridge Drive, Suite 150

Fort Collins, CO 80525

www.nature.nps.gov

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICATM