1

The Economic Status of Women of Color: A Snapshot 

Numbers and statistics alone cannot completely capture the myriad challenges facing working women of color, but they 

play a key role in informing the policies and actions that help mitigate them. In addition to shedding light on the gaps 

that remain, statistics also help us understand the progress women have made in approaching parity with men in the 

workforce. This issue brief provides statistics and information on the status of Black, Hispanic, and Asian working women 

in the United States across the following areas:

• Contribution to family income

• Unemployment

• Families in poverty

• Educational attainment and related unemployment rates and earnings 

• Occupational distribution

• Earnings and the gender wage gap 

• The impact of the gender wage gap on retirement income 

Women of color represent an increasing share of the labor force as the demographic composition of the U.S. 

has changed considerably, driven primarily by the immigration of Hispanics and Asians. The U.S. is projected to 

become even more racially and ethnically diverse in the coming years. People belonging to a group other than White 

alone, non-Hispanic (i.e. Blacks, Asians, Hispanics, and other smaller populations) are projected to account for more than 

half of all Americans by 2044. Between 2014 and 2060, the population of two or more races will have the fastest growth, 

increasing from only 2.5 percent of the total population to 6.2 percent. Among people of one race, Asians are projected 

to have the fastest growth, increasing from 5.4 percent in 2014 to 9.3 percent by 2060. People of Hispanic origin1 are 

projected to rise from 17.4 percent to 28.6 percent of the nation’s population by 2060.i 

Women’s changing roles in the workplace have reshaped the landscape of the American labor force. In 1975, 

there were about 37 million women in the labor force, representing 40.0 percent of the labor force. Forty years later, our 

nation has about 74 million women in the labor force, representing 46.8 percent of the labor force.ii Of the women in the 

labor force in 20152, about 63.8 percent were White, non-Hispanic;3 13.9 percent were Black; and 5.8 percent were Asian.iii 

Women of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity made up 15.1 percent of the female labor force.iv

Women are much more likely to participate in the labor force than in the past. In 2015, 56.7 percent of women in 

the United States age 16 and over participated in the labor force, up from 46.3 percent in 1975.v In 2015, Black women 

continued to have the highest labor force participation rate among women—59.7 percent—compared with 56.4 percent of 

White, non-Hispanic women; 55.2 percent of Asian women; and 55.7 percent of Hispanic women.vi

1 Hispanic is an ethnicity. People who identify as Hispanic may be of any race. 2 This fact sheet presents data by race as follows: White, non-Hispanic; Black; and Asian. Smaller race populations and people of two or more races are 

not included. Except when not available, data presented for Whites do not include people of Hispanic ethnicity. Data for Blacks and Asians includes a 

small proportion of Hispanics. Data are also presented for people of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, who may be of any race.

3 White women, including those of Hispanic origin, represent 77.0% of the female labor force.
Issue brief

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This issue brief highlights the different profiles of the larger populations of women of color in the U.S. labor force. It 

assembles selected Federal government data and statistical resources to present a picture of the economic status 

of Black, Asian, and Hispanic women in the labor force and notes some changes over time. Sufficient data were not 

available on the relatively smaller women populations of American Indians and Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, and 

other Pacific Islanders, and women of two or more races in the labor force, so they are not included.

WOMEN’S CONTRIBUTION TO FAMILY INCOME 

Women make important contributions to their families as earners, householders, and as mothers participating in the labor 

force. This section highlights the racial and ethnic variation in the share of families led by single female householders and 

the share of mothers who participate in the labor force. 

Married-Couple Families4

Women’s earnings account for a significant and growing portion of family income. In 2013, married working women 

contributed, on average, 37.3 percent of their families’ total income, up from 26.3 percent in 1975.vii Today, married women 

are also more likely to be the sole or primary income earners for their families than in the past. For example, among 

married-couple families in which wives have earnings, 38.1 percent of wives earned more than their husbands in 2013, 

compared to 23.7 percent in 1987.viii

Families with Single Female Householders 

Black and Hispanic women were even more likely than White, 

non-Hispanic or Asian women to be single householders. Among 

all families in 2014, single women were the householders in: 

• 43.3 percent of Black families;

• 26.7 percent of Hispanic families; 

• 13.3 percent of White, non-Hispanic families; and 

• 12.5 percent of Asian families.ix

Families with children under 18 were more likely to be headed by 

single women in all but Asian families. Among families with children 

under 18 in 2014, single women were the householders in: 

• 54.1 percent of Black families; 

• 30.6 percent of Hispanic families; 

• 19.1 percent of White, non-Hispanic families; and 

• 12.2 percent of Asian families.x

4 Data refer to opposite-sex married couples where wives have earnings but husbands may not.

Key Terms

Family: a group of two or more people 

(one of whom is the householder) 

residing together and related by birth, 

marriage, or adoption. Children may or 

may not be present.

Householder: refers to the person 

(or one of the people) in whose name 

the housing unit is owned or rented or, 

if there is no such person, any adult 

member, excluding roomers, boarders, 

or paid employees. If the house is owned 

or rented jointly by a married couple, the 

householder may be either spouse.

Single: includes people whose marital 

status is never married, divorced, 

widowed, separated, or married with 

spouse absent. A cohabitating partner 

may be present.
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Mothers’ Participation in the Labor Force5

Black mothers were much more likely to be in the labor force than White6, Asian, or Hispanic mothers 

with children under 18. Black mothers in the labor force in 2015 included: 

• 79.1 percent of Black mothers whose youngest child was between ages 6 to 17;

• 77.6 percent of Black mothers whose youngest child was between ages 3 to 5; and

• 70.3 percent of Black mothers whose youngest child was under the age of 3.xi

5 Data refer to mothers of all marital statuses. 6 The labor force participation rate for White mothers, includes those of Hispanic ethnicity, as rates for White, non-Hispanic mothers were 

not available.

Notes: Racial groups include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not included. 

Hispanics may be of any race. 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 Current Population Survey.
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WOMEN’S UNEMPLOYMENT AND THE RECOVERY

Since 2010, the unemployment rate for women has steadily declined to an annual average of 5.2 percent in 

2015.xii While the Great Recession officially ended in June 2009,xiii the annual unemployment rates for men and women 

did not peak until 2010. The annual unemployment rate for women increased from 4.5 percent in 2007, the year when the 

recession started, to a peak of 8.6 in 2010.xiv

Unemployment rates

The annual unemployment rates for women of all major races and of Hispanic ethnicity—White, non-Hispanic; 

Black; Asian; and Hispanic women—have declined during the recovery but remain above their pre-recession 

rates.7 The annual unemployment rates for Black women and Hispanic women remain the most elevated from the start 

of the Great Recession. Historically, Black women have experienced the highest unemployment rates among women, and 

this has remained true throughout the recession and recovery. The annual unemployment rates in 2015 were as follows: 

• 8.9 percent for Black women; 

• 7.1 percent for Hispanic women;

• 4.0 percent for White, non-Hispanic women; and

• 3.7 percent for Asian women.xv 

Duration of unemployment

Like their unemployment rates, the unemployment duration for women of color has trended downward during the 

recovery but has not yet returned to pre-recession levels.xvi In 2015, unemployed Black women experienced longer 

periods of unemployment than other women workers. The median durations of unemployment in 2015 were as follows: 

• 14.0 weeks for Black women;

• 10.8 weeks for Hispanic women

• 10.7 weeks for Asian women; and

• 10.0 weeks for White8 women.xvii

7 This fact sheet presents data on annual unemployment rate estimates given that monthly seasonally adjusted unemployment rates are not available 

for Asian or Hispanic women.

8 These data reflect the median duration of unemployment for White women, including those of Hispanic ethnicity, as data for White, non-Hispanic 

women were not available.
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Notes: Blacks and Asians include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not included. 

Hispanics may be of any race. The Great Recession began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009 

according to the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 Current Population Survey, Unpublished Tables.
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FAMILIES IN POVERTY 

Historically, women have been more likely to be poor than men.xviii 

Women’s higher likelihood to live in poverty also affects their families. 

Families led by single Black or Hispanic women had the highest poverty 

rates in 2014.xix Families in poverty have difficulty paying for basic 

expenses, such as rent, food, and clothing, and are at greater risk for 

homelessness than families above the poverty threshold. Moreover, poverty 

may have long-term negative effects on children’s physical health, cognitive 

abilities, emotional and behavioral outcomes, and productivity.

Poverty of Single Female Householders in 

Families 

In families with children or other relatives in 2014, single female 

householders were almost twice as likely to be in poverty (30.6 percent) as 

single male householders (15.7 percent), and about five times more likely to 

be in poverty than householders in married-couple families (6.2 percent). In 

2014, the poverty rates of female householders, no spouse present were as 

follows:

• 37.9 percent for Hispanics;

• 37.2 percent for Blacks; 

• 23.7 percent for White, non-Hispanic; and 

• 18.9 percent for Asians.xx

Poverty Threshold

The U.S. Census Bureau uses a 

set of income thresholds that vary 

by family size and composition to 

determine who is living in poverty. If 

a family’s total income before taxes 

is less than the family’s threshold, 

then that family is considered to be 

in poverty (the measure excludes 

noncash benefits and capital 

gains). For example, in 2014 the 

poverty threshold for a single 

parent living with two children 

under the age of 18 was $19,073 

and for a single parent with three 

children, it was $24,091.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current 

Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social 

and Economic Supplement.
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Notes: In married-couple families the householder may be either spouse. Male householder and female householder 

families may have a cohabitating partner. Children may or may not be present. Blacks and Asians include people of 

Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
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Poverty of Families with Children under Age 18

Among families with children under age 18 in 2014, mother-only families had higher poverty rates than other 

families.9 The poverty rates for families with children under age 18 were as follows: 

• 39.8 percent for mother-only families; 

• 22.0 percent for father-only families; and 

• 8.2 percent for married-couple families.xxi 

The poverty rates of mother-only families with children under age 18 were: 

• 46.3 percent for Hispanic families;

• 45.6 percent for Black families;

• 32.0 percent for White, non-Hispanic families; and

• 28.9 percent for Asian families.xxii

Even families where the householder works full-time, year-round may experience poverty.10 This was especially 

true for mother-only families with children under age 18 in 2014, including: 

• 19.8 percent of Hispanic families; 

• 17.5 percent of Black families;

• 13.0 percent of Asian families; and 

• 7.5 percent of White, non-Hispanic families.xxiii 

Except for Hispanic families in 2014, the poverty rate was higher among married-couple families with children where 

the wife worked, but the husband did not, compared to those where the husband worked but the wife did not work. For 

example, 27.0 percent of married-couple Asian families with children where the wife worked but the husband did not were 

in poverty, compared to 11.1 percent of those where the husband worked but the wife did not.xxiv

9 In mother-only or father-only families, the parent may have a cohabiting partner; the children may or may not be identified as the child of his or her 

cohabiting partner. Data refer to opposite-sex married-couple families.

10 In addition to the householder, other workers may be present.
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Notes: In married-couple families the householder may be either spouse. Data refer to opposite-sex 

married-couple families. In mother-only or father-only families, the parent may have a cohabitating 

partner; the children may or may not be identified as the child of his or her cohabitating partner. Blacks 

and Asians include people of Hispanic ethinicity. People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics 

may be of any race. Poverty rates for father-only Asian families were not available.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
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EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND RELATED UNEMPLOYMENT RATES AND 

EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE AGE 25 YEARS AND OVER

In 2015, women were nearly half of college graduates in the labor force.xxv This section crosswalks educational 

attainment with the unemployment rates, earnings, and the gender wage gaps associated with different levels of 

education, revealing wide variation among women of different races and ethnicities. 

Educational Attainment 

In 2015, Asian women in the labor force were significantly more likely to have graduated from college than other 

women in the labor force. The percentages of women in the labor force age 25 and over that held a bachelor’s degree 

or advanced degree were as follows:

• 59.2 percent of Asian women;

• 45.2 percent of White, non-Hispanic women;

• 30.4 percent of Black women; and

• 22.2 percent of Hispanic women.xxvi

Meanwhile, half of Hispanic women in the labor force had no college education, and they were at least three times 

more likely to have less than a high school diploma compared to Black, Asian, or White, non-Hispanic women. 

The percentages of women in the labor force age 25 and over with no college education (less than a high school diploma 

or high school graduate, no college) were as follows: 

• 50.3 percent of Hispanic women;

• 34.1 percent of Black women;

• 25.0 percent of White, non-Hispanic women; and

• 24.0 percent of Asian women.xxvii
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Notes: Advanced degree includes people with master’s, professional and doctoral degrees. Blacks and Asians 

include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 Current Population Survey. 
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Education and Unemployment

Higher levels of education are generally associated with a lower likelihood of unemployment. For example, in 

2015, the unemployment rates for women with no high school diploma were more than three times higher than that of 

college graduates. Black women see the largest decrease in unemployment as they gain higher levels of education. 

Despite returns to education related to unemployment, Black women were still more likely to be unemployed at almost 

every level of education compared to White non-Hispanic, Asian, and Hispanic women. The exception was for Black 

women with a doctoral degree, who had a lower unemployment rate than Asian women with the same level of education, 

2.6 percent and 4.0 percent, respectively. The 2015 unemployment rates for Black women in the labor force age 25 years 

and over by level of education were as follows:

• 16.8 percent without a high school diploma;

• 9.2 percent with a high school diploma or equivalent, no college;

• 7.0 percent with some college or an associate degree; and

• 4.0 percent with a bachelor’s degree or higher.xxviii

The decreasing trend in unemployment rates associated with higher levels of education is inconsistent for Asian women in 

the labor force ages 25 years and over. For example, the unemployment rate for Asian women with a doctoral degree was 

4.0 percent in 2015, slightly higher than the unemployment rate of Asian women with a bachelor’s degree (2.9 percent), 

some college or associate degree (2.8 percent), high school diploma (3.5 percent) and with less than a high school 

diploma (3.5 percent). The only educational level for Asian women with a higher unemployment rate than doctoral degree 

holders was for those with 1 to 3 years of high school (5.4 percent). Asian women have lower unemployment rates than 

other women with the same level of education up to those with an associate degree.xxix

Education and Earnings

Earnings vary significantly by level of education, and the data show a clear correlation between education level 

and the median weekly earnings of full-time workers. Individuals with higher levels of education generally have better 

access to higher paying jobs—such as those in management, professional, and related occupations—than do individuals 

with less education. In 2015, the earnings of White, non-Hispanic, Black, Asian and Hispanic women with a bachelor’s 

degree or higher were more than twice the earnings of their counterparts without a high school diploma. For example, in 

2015, the median weekly earnings of full-time Asian women workers by level of education were as follows: 

• $443 with less than a high school diploma;

• $577 with a high school diploma or equivalent, no college;

• $681 with some college or an associate degree; and

• $1,162 with a bachelor’s degree or higher.xxx

Despite returns to education, Black and Hispanic women had lower median weekly earnings at each educational 

level compared to their Asian and White, non-Hispanic counterparts.xxxi
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Notes: Based on median weekly earnings of wage and salary workers 25 years and over. Advanced degree 

includes people with master’s, professional and doctoral degrees. Blacks and Asians include people of 

Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 Current Population Survey. 

Education and the Wage Gap11

While people with more education tend to have higher earnings, the relationship between the level of educational 

attainment and wage parity between women and men varies widely by race and ethnicity. In 2015: 

• Black women with bachelor’s degrees experienced the smallest gender wage gap, earning 91.2 percent of what their 

male counterparts earned. 

• White, non-Hispanic women with advanced degrees experienced the largest gender wage gap, earning 72.1 percent of 

their male counterparts’ earnings. 

11 Data on the wage gap by education are based on 2015 median weekly earnings of full-time, wage and salary workers.
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• Asian women experienced the largest increase in the gender wage gap when comparing that of women with less than 

a high school diploma to that of women with advanced degrees. Asian women with less than a high school diploma 

earned 89.5 percent of their Asian male counterparts’ earnings; meanwhile Asian women with advanced degrees 

earned only 78.0 percent of what their male counterparts earned.xxxii

Notes: Advanced degree includes people with master’s, professional, and doctoral degrees. Blacks and 

Asians include people of Hispanic ethnicity. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 Current Population Survey. 
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OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION

In spite of a strengthening economy, women continue to be overrepresented in lower-paying occupations.

Persisting occupational segregation by gender is a contributor to the wage gap between women and men. The following 

section also illustrates the occupational differences between women of color and White, non-Hispanic women. While this 

section shows employment differences of women across large occupational categories, it is important to note that the 

share of women employed in specific occupations within these categories varies widely by race and ethnicity.

xxxiii 

In 2015, employed White, non-Hispanic and Asian women were more likely to work in the highest paying 

occupational grouping for women ─ management, professional, and related occupations ─ than Black or 

Hispanic women.xxxiv Among these groups of women, employed Asian women have consistently been the most likely 

to work in management, professional, and related occupations.xxxv In 2015, the management, professional, and related 

occupations employed the following shares of women workers:

• 50.2 percent of employed Asian women;

• 47.5 percent of employed White, non-Hispanic women;

• 35.2 percent of employed Black women; and

• 26.6 percent of employed Hispanic women.xxxvi 

In 2015, Hispanic women were the only group of women that had their largest share of employment in the lowest 

paying occupational grouping ─ service occupations.xxxvii Hispanic women have historically had the largest proportion 

of workers employed in service occupations compared to other women.xxxviii In 2015, service occupations employed the 

following shares of women workers: 

• 31.8 percent of employed Hispanic women;

• 27.7 percent of employed Black women;

• 20.0 percent of employed Asian women; and

• 7.4 percent of White, non-Hispanic women.xxxix 

Sales and office occupations had the second highest median weekly wages for full-time working women in 

2015, and employed the second largest share of women workers for each race/ethnicity.xl In 2015, sales and office 

occupations employed the following shares of women workers: 

• 30.4 percent of employed Hispanic women;

• 30.0 percent of employed White, non-Hispanic women;

• 29.2 percent of employed Black women; and

• 23.2 percent of employed Asian women.xli
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Notes: Blacks and Asians include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not 

included. Hispanics may be of any race. Median weekly earnings are for full-time wage and salary women 

workers in 2015.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 Current Population Survey, Unpublished Tables.
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EARNINGS AND THE WAGE GAP BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN 

More than 50 years after the enactment of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the enactment of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 

of 1964, women still earn less than men. The section that follows highlights the median annual earnings and the gender 

wage gap of full-time, year-round workers.12

Median Annual Earnings 

In 2014, the inflation-adjusted median annual earnings of women workers were $39,621, up from $23,852 in 1963.

Women’s earnings increased at a higher rate than men’s over this time period (66.1 percent versus 24.5 percent). Men’s 

median annual earnings were $50,383 in 2014, up from $40,464 in 1963. Over time, women’s earnings have varied 

greatly by race and ethnicity, with Hispanic women earning the least, and Asian women the most. In 2014, the median 

annual earnings of women working full-time, year-round were as follows: 

• $30,293 for Hispanics; 

• $33,533 for Blacks; 

• $41,822 for White, non-Hispanics; and

• $46,334 for Asians.xlii

Wage Gap 

In 2014, women continued to have lower median annual earnings than men of the same race or ethnicity. Women 

who worked full-time, year-round earned 78.6 percent of men’s earnings in 2014. The median annual earnings ratios of 

women to men within the same racial and ethnic groups were as follows: 

• 75.4 percent for White, non-Hispanics;

• 81.4 percent for Asians;

• 82.4 percent for Blacks; and

• 87.7 percent for Hispanics.xliii

Hispanic women’s earnings as a percentage of Hispanic men’s earnings were relatively high due to the low 

median annual earnings of Hispanic men. However, the median annual earnings of Hispanic women working full-time, yearround were only 54.6 percent of the earnings of White, non-Hispanic men.xliv 

12 Note that there are two common approaches used to estimate earnings. This section of the fact sheet shows U.S. Census Bureau estimates, which 

are based on median annual earnings of workers who worked full-time and year-round, including the self-employed. Another common approach to 

measure earnings is used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). BLS estimates are based on median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary 

workers, excluding the self-employed. While both approaches are correct, annual and weekly estimates of earnings measure different things and 

therefore may differ.

The earnings comparisons in this section are on a broad level and do not control for many factors that can be significant in explaining earnings 

differences, such as work experience, job skills and responsibilities and others.
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Notes: Based on median annual earnings of full-time, year-round workers, 15 years old and over. Blacks and Asians 

include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Earnings ratios show female to male comparisons within same race/ethnicity.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Wage gap (stripes)

Earnings ratio (solid)

White, non-Hispanic Black Asian Hispanic

The median annual earnings of women of color have also historically trailed those of the largest reference 

group—White, non-Hispanic men.13 The wage gaps of Black and Hispanic women compared to White, non-Hispanic 

men have witnessed marginal improvements over time. Women’s to men’s median annual earnings compared to White, 

non-Hispanic men in 2014 were as follows: 

• 54.6 percent for Hispanics;

• 60.5 percent for Blacks; and 

• 83.5 percent for Asians.xlv

13 The comparability of historical data has been affected at various times by methodological and other changes in the Current Population Survey. Ratios 

of median annual earnings are based on full-time, year-round workers 15 years old and over beginning in March 1980, and 14 years old and over as of 

March of the following year for previous years. Before 1989 earnings were for civilian workers only.
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Notes: Earnings ratios are based on median annual earnings of full-time, year-round workers, 15 years old and 

over beginning in March, 1980, and age 14 years old and over as of March of the following year for previous years. 

Before 1989 earnings are for civilian workers only. The comparability of historical data has been affected at various 

times by methodological and other changes in the Current Population Survey. *Data from 2013 onwards reflect 

redesigned income questions. Blacks and Asians include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races 

are not included beginning 2002. Ratios for Asians from 1988 until 2001 included Pacific Islanders. Hispanics may 

be of any race. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Curent Population Survey, 1988 to 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
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THE IMPACT OF THE GENDER WAGE GAP ON THE RETIREMENT INCOME OF 

OLDER WOMEN

When a woman who has been affected by the gender wage gap throughout her working life retires, her lower cumulative 

earnings mean that she will likely collect less from Social Security,xlvi less from a retirement plan, and will have less money 

in the bank or invested in financial assets than her male counterparts. Furthermore, many women work in jobs where 

they do not have access to retirement plans because they work part-time, or they work for a small business that does not 

offer one. 

Older women are less likely than older men to have significant income from pensions other than Social Security. In 

2012, only 22.0 percent of unmarried women age 65 or older were receiving their own private pensions, compared to 

27.7 percent of unmarried men. Social Security comprises a particularly significant portion of the retirement income of 

unmarried women age 65 and over. In 2013, 49 percent of elderly, unmarried women receiving Social Security benefits 

relied on Social Security for 90 percent or more of their income. With longer life expectancies than men, women tend to 

live more years in retirement and have a greater chance of exhausting their savings and assets.xlvii This confluence of 

factors puts women at greater risk for experiencing poverty in old age.

Older women in poverty

Among women 65 years and older, Black women were the most likely to live in poverty in 2014. The poverty rates 

for women 65 years of age and older, disaggregated by race and ethnicity, were as follows: 

• 20.9 percent for Black women;

• 19.6 percent for Hispanic women; 

• 16.0 percent for Asian women; and 

• 9.9 percent for White, non-Hispanic women.xlviii 

Women 65 years and older who live alone are much more likely to be in poverty. In 2014, among women 65 years of 

age and above who lived alone, Asian women were the most likely to live in poverty. Disaggregated by race and ethnicity, 

the poverty rates for women 65 years of age and older who live alone were as follows:

• 36.7 percent for Asian women; 

• 35.6 percent for Hispanic women; 

• 29.9 percent for Black women; and 

• 16.6 percent for White, non-Hispanic women.xlix 
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Notes: Blacks and Asians include people of Hispanic ethnicity. People of two or more races are not 

included. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
Endnotes

Page 22

ENDNOTES

i U.S. Census Bureau (March 2015). “Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 

2060.”Accessed March 17, 2016, https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.

pdf.

ii U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU01000002, LNU01000000; accessed March 17, 

2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate.

iii Ibid. Estimates by race will not sum to totals because the data are not presented for all races. LABSTAT Database 

(Series ID LNU01000002, LNU01000008, LNU01032342; accessed January 12, 2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate

and unpublished tabulations.

iv Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU01000002, LNU01000011; accessed January 12, 2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgibin/srgate.

v Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU01300002; accessed January 12, 2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate. 

vi Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU01300008, LNU01332342, LNU01300011; accessed January 12, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate and unpublished tabulations.

 vii U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1971–2014 Annual Social and Economic (March) supplements to the Current Population 

Survey (unpublished tabulations). 

viii Ibid. “Wives Who Earn More than Their Husbands, 1987–2013.” Accessed March 17, 2016, http://www.bls.gov/cps/

wives_earn_more.htm.

ix U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. “POV14: Families by 

Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” Accessed March 17, 2016, https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/

cpstables/032015/pov/pov14_100.htm.

x Ibid. “POV15: Families With Related Children Under 18 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” 

Accessed March 17, 2016, https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov15_100.htm.

xi U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Unpublished tabulations.

xii Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU04000002; accessed January 12, 2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate.

 xiii The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) determined the official start and end dates for the Great 

Recession. See “Business Cycle Dating Committee, National Bureau of Economic Research” (September 20, 2010). 

http://www.nber.org/cycles/sept2010.html.

xiv U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU04000001, LNU04000002; accessed February 25, 

2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate.

xv Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series ID, LNU04000008, LNU04032342, LNU04000011; accessed January 12, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate (and unpublished tabulations).

xvi Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series ID, LNU03008393, LNU03017232, LNU03034321, LNU03034335; accessed February 

25, 2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate.

 xvii Ibid. Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Table 31. “Unemployed persons by age, sex, race, Hispanic 

or Latino ethnicity, marital status, and duration of unemployment.” Accessed March 17, 2016, http://www.bls.gov/cps/

cpsaat31.htm.

xviii U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. “Table 7. Poverty, by 

Sex.” Accessed March 17, 2016, https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/historical/people.html. 

xix Ibid. “POV04: Families by Age of Householder, Number of Children, and Family Structure.” Accessed March 17, 2016, 

https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov04_100.htm.
Endnotes

Page 23

 xx Ibid. “POV05: People in Families by Relationship to Householder, Age of Householder, Number of Related Children 

Present, and Family Structure.” Accessed March 17, 2016, https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/

pov05_100.htm. 

xxi Ibid. “POV04: Families by Age of Householder, Number of Children, and Family Structure.” Accessed March 17, 2016, 

https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov04_100.htm. 

 xxii Ibid. 

 xxiii Ibid. “POV15: Families With Related Children Under 18 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” 

Accessed March 17, 2016, https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov15_100.htm. 

xxiv Ibid. 

xxv U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics LABSTAT Database (Series LNU01027662, LNU01027682; accessed January 12, 

2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate.

xxvi U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Unpublished tabulations.

xxvii Ibid.

xxviii Ibid.

xxix Ibid.

xxx Ibid. Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Table 9. “Quartiles and deciles of earnings of full-time wage 

and salary workers by selected characteristics.” Accessed March 17, 2016, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.t09.

htm and unpublished tabulations.

xxxi Ibid.

xxxii Ibid. 

xxxiii Ibid. Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Unpublished tabulations.

xxxiv Ibid. Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Table 8. “Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and 

salary workers by occupation and sex, annual averages.” Accessed March 17, 2016, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/

wkyeng.t08.htm. LABSTAT Database (Series LNU02032696, LNU02032738, LNU02032780; accessed January 12, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate and unpublished tabulations.

xxxv Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series LNU02032696, LNU02032738, LNU02032780; accessed January 12, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate and unpublished tabulations.

xxxvi Ibid. 

xxxvii Ibid. Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Table 8. “Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and 

salary workers by occupation and sex, annual averages.” Accessed March 17, 2016, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/

wkyeng.t08.htm and LABSTAT Database (Series LNU02032699, LNU02032741,LNU02032783; accessed January 12, 

2016), http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate and unpublished tabulations.

xxxviii Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series LNU02032699, LNU02032741,LNU02032783; accessed January 12, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate and unpublished tabulations.

xxxix Ibid. 

xl Ibid. Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Averages. Table 8. “Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and 

salary workers by occupation and sex, annual averages.” http://www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.t08.htm and Table 10. 

“Employed persons by occupation, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and sex.” http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat10.htm and 

unpublished tabulations.
Endnotes

Page 24

xli Ibid. LABSTAT Database (Series LNU02032700, LNU02032742, LNU02032784; accessed January 12, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate and unpublished tabulations.

xlii U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. Table P-38. “FullTime, Year-Round Workers by Median Earnings and Sex.” Accessed March 17, 2016, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/

income/data/historical/people/.

xliii U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. Table P-40. 

“Women’s Earnings as a Percentage of Men’s Earnings by Race and Hispanic Origin.” Accessed March 17, 2-016, 

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/. 

xliv Ibid. Calculations from Table P-38. “Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Median Earnings and Sex”.

xlv Ibid. 

xlvi The Social Security system is progressive in that lower-wage earners receive a higher percentage benefit than higher 

wage earners. U.S. Social Security Administration (June 2015). Social Security is Important to Women. Accessed March 

17, 2016,https://www.ssa.gov/news/press/factsheets/women.htm.

xlvii Ibid.

xlviii U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. “POV01: Age and 

Sex of All People, Family Members and Unrelated Individuals Iterated by Income-to-Poverty Ratio and Race.” 

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov01_100.htm.

xlix Ibid. 

CONTACT US

Website: www.dol.gov/wb/

E-mail: Womens.Bureau@dol.gov

Mail:

WOMEN’S BUREAU

U.S. Department of Labor

200 Constitution Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20210

Phone: 1-800-827-5335 or (202) 693-6710

Women’s Bureau

April 2016