Water and Land Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum 

(WALROS) 

Users’ Handbook, Second Edition 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Reclamation September 2011 
Mission Statements 

The U.S. Department of the Interior protects America’s 

natural resources and heritage, honors our cultures and 

tribal communities, and supplies the energy to power our 

future. 

The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage, 

develop, and protect water and related resources in an 

environmentally and economically sound manner in the 

interest of the American public. 
Water and Land Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum (WALROS) 

Users’ Handbook, Second Edition 

prepared by 

Aukerman, Haas, and Associates, LLC 

Contract Number GS-10F-0207N 

Delivery Order R09PS80061 

September 29, 2009 

prepared for 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Reclamation 

Policy and Administration 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, Colorado 
The Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WALROS) Handbook (Handbook) is designed to be flexible and adaptive. As 

more people and agencies apply WALROS in different locations and circumstances, we will collectively learn from experience and be 

able to improve WALROS. Your comments, questions, and suggestions are encouraged. Contact information and citation for this 

Handbook are provided in Appendix A. 

The original document was published in July 2004 and was titled Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users Guidebook. The 

acronym used for this planning tool was WROS. Since that time, a variety of governmental and private entities and individuals in the 

United States and abroad, have applied WROS to many waterbodies and their adjacent and surrounding lands. Refer to Appendix B for 

a comprehensive list of places where WROS or WALROS have been applied. Since 2004, many lessons have been learned. Because 

of the wide and varied application of the WROS planning and management tool and the lessons learned, the Bureau of Reclamation 

determined that a second edition was necessary to, among other things, (1) share the lessons learned, (2) demonstrate the application 

of WALROS as a regional planning and management tool, and (3) express that the WALROS tool can be used to appropriately classify 

the recreation opportunities and experiences available on lands that surround or are adjacent to a reservoir, natural lake, or within 

corridors and watersheds. 

This Handbook is also intended to be dynamic, reflecting the input from professionals and stakeholders over time. The second edition 

of this Handbook and associated PowerPoint/Training Manual will be maintained on the Bureau of Reclamation’s website: 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 
Table of Contents 

page 

Executive Summary .............................................................................................................. viii
 

Frequently Asked Questions................................................................................................... xi
 

Chapter 1 — Overview ............................................................................................................ 2
 

The Foundation of WALROS..................................................................................................... 3
 

The Average Visitor Does Not Exist......................................................................................3
 

Do Not Try To Be All Things to All People...........................................................................4
 

Managers Provide Recreation Opportunities..........................................................................4
 

A Seamless System of Recreation Opportunities Should Exist...............................................5
 

Aspects of WALROS................................................................................................................. 6
 

The Goal of WALROS..........................................................................................................6
 

The WALROS Classifications...............................................................................................6
 

Recreation activities ........................................................................................................6
 

Recreation settings...........................................................................................................7
 

Recreation experiences ..................................................................................................11
 

Recreation benefits ........................................................................................................14
 

Photos showing examples of the urban classification...........................................................16
 

Photos showing examples of the suburban classification .....................................................17
 

Photos showing examples of the rural developed classification ...........................................18
 

Photos showing examples of the rural natural classification................................................19
 

Photos showing examples of the semiprimitive classification...............................................20
 

Photos showing examples of the primitive classification......................................................21
 

The Standard for WALROS Decisionmaking ............................................................................22
 

Sound Professional Judgment ..............................................................................................22
 

Preponderance of the Evidence............................................................................................23
 

Rule of Reasonableness.......................................................................................................23
 

Sliding Scale Rule of Analysis ............................................................................................23
 

Scale of Degree.........................................................................................................................24
 

Design Criteria Used in Developing WALROS.........................................................................26
 

The Planning and Management Value of WALROS..................................................................27
 

Examples of How WROS Has Been Successfully Used.............................................................28
 

Resource Management Planning for Boating Capacity at Public Meetings...........................28
 

Interagency Cooperation and Problem Solving ....................................................................29
 

Regional Planning ...............................................................................................................29
 

Recreation Master Planning, Environmental Impact Report, and Commercial Services
 

Planning ..................................................................................................................30
 

Land Use Planning ..............................................................................................................30
 

iii 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Demonstrating Changes and Success in Preserving Recreation Opportunities and 

Visitors’ Experiences over Time ..............................................................................30
 

Road Closures and Land Uses .............................................................................................31
 

Expanding Regional Diversity and Facility Location ...........................................................31
 

Reservoir WROS Designations............................................................................................32
 

Assistance in Determining a Recreation Strategy within a Variety of Water Operation
 

Alternatives .............................................................................................................32
 

Improving Management of River Recreation Resources ......................................................33
 

Chapter 2 —Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines....................................35
 

Physical Setting Attribute Guidelines ........................................................................................38
 

Social Setting Attribute Guidelines............................................................................................40
 

Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines....................................................................................43
 

Visitor Capacity Guidelines.......................................................................................................52
 

Reasonable Flat-Water Recreation Boating Capacity Coefficients .......................................52
 

Chapter 3 —Inventory............................................................................................................55
 

Define the Scope of the Inventory .............................................................................................56
 

Define the Planning Area for the WALROS Inventory ........................................................57
 

Decide the Level of Resolution or Appropriate Scale of the Base Map ................................58
 

Decide the Time Period for Applying WALROS.................................................................59
 

Decide If WALROS Will Be Used in a Resource Management Planning Process................59
 

Determine the Effective WALROS Area under Consideration.............................................59
 

Identify Any Other Important Factors that May Influence the WALROS Inventory.............60
 

Develop a Basic Profile of the Surrounding Recreation Region ...........................................61
 

The WALROS Inventory Attributes and Protocol......................................................................62
 

Physical Inventory...............................................................................................................64
 

Social Inventory ..................................................................................................................65
 

Management Inventory........................................................................................................66
 

Map the Current Supply of Recreation Opportunities ................................................................67
 

Delineation of Current Overall WALROS Class........................................................................72
 

Inconsistency Mitigation ...........................................................................................................78
 

Chapter 4 —Planning .............................................................................................................81
 

Planning ...................................................................................................................................82
 

Planning Process............................................................................................................................83
 

Scoping ...............................................................................................................................83
 

Planning Criteria .................................................................................................................84
 

Inventory.............................................................................................................................85
 

Formulate Alternatives ........................................................................................................88
 

Evaluate Alternatives ..........................................................................................................88
 

Select Alternative ................................................................................................................97
 

Implement and Monitor.......................................................................................................97
 

Evaluate and Adapt .............................................................................................................98
 

Applying WALROS as a Regional Planning and Management Tool..........................................98
 

Identify the Location, Size, and Boundaries of the Region...................................................99
 

iv 
Table of Contents 

Identify the Sites to Be Compared within the Region...........................................................99
 

Gather Information from Each Site for Comparison...........................................................100
 

Conduct a WALROS Field Inventory for Each Site...........................................................100
 

Compare Sites ...................................................................................................................100
 

Example of Applying WALROS as a Regional Planning and Management Tool.....................101
 

Comparing Regions.................................................................................................................106
 

Tables 

No. page 

Table 1.1.—A general representation of recreation activities by WALROS class........................8
 

Table 1.2.—Examples of recreation setting attributes .................................................................9
 

Table 1.3.—A general description of recreation settings by WALROS class...............................9
 

Table 1.4.—Examples of recreation experiences by WALROS class ........................................12
 

Table 1.5.—A general description of the recreation experiences by WALROS class.................13
 

Table 1.6.—Examples of recreation benefits.............................................................................15
 

Table 1.7.—Three levels of WALROS analysis........................................................................24
 

Table 1.8.—The scale of degree of major development used in WALROS ...............................25
 

Table 1.9.—Comparison of Lake Cachuma 2003 and 2010 WROS inventory site scores and 

classifications.....................................................................................................31
 

Table 1.10.—Inventory of the current supply of water recreation opportunities in the Yakima
 

River Basin based on the WALROS system.......................................................33
 

Table 2.1 —The scale of degree used in WALROS ..................................................................37
 

Table 2.2.—Physical setting attribute guidelines.......................................................................39
 

Table 2.3.—Social setting attribute guidelines ..........................................................................41
 

Table 2.4.—Managerial setting attribute guidelines ..................................................................44
 

Table 2.5.—A range of reasonable boating capacity coefficients ..............................................53
 

Table 2.6.—A boating capacity range decision tool ..................................................................54
 

Table 3.1.—A WALROS inconsistency mitigation tool............................................................79
 

Table 4.1.—Hypothetical comparison of reservoirs based on the percent of water surface acres
 

by WALROS class.............................................................................................87
 

Table 4.2.—An example evaluation matrix for comparing management alternatives using 

WALROS ..........................................................................................................89
 

Table 4.3.—Comparison of water surface acres in each WROS Class: Region V and Lake 

Cachuma..........................................................................................................102
 

Table 4.4.—Comparison of regional recreation physical and managerial profile variables:
 

Region V and Lake Cachuma...........................................................................103
 

Table 4.5.—Comparison of regional recreation social profile variables: Region V and Lake
 

Cachuma..........................................................................................................104
 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Figures 

No. page 

Figure 1.1.—The components of a recreation opportunity. .........................................................5
 

Figure 1.2.—The Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum. ........................................6
 

Figure 3.1.—Sample cover sheet for inventory protocol. ..........................................................63
 

Figure 3.2.—Physical inventory protocol sheet.........................................................................64
 

Figure 3.3.—Social inventory protocol sheet. ...........................................................................65
 

Figure 3.4.—Management inventory protocol sheet..................................................................66
 

Figure 3.5.—A tool for displaying the setting attribute ratings and overall WALROS 

classification. .....................................................................................................72
 

Figure 3.6.—WALROS inventory scale. ..................................................................................73
 

Figure 3.7.—Millerton Lake WALROS classifications. ............................................................74
 

Figure 3.8.—Shasta Lake WALROS classifications. ................................................................75
 

Figure 3.9.—Lake Perris WALROS classifications. .................................................................76
 

Figure 3.10.—New Melones Lake WALROS classifications. ...................................................77
 

Figure 4.1.—Generic agency planning process. ........................................................................82
 

Figure 4.2.—The cover of Reclamation’s 2007 Estimating Future Recreation Demand: A
 

Decision Guide for the Practitioner....................................................................86
 

Figure 4.3.—Use of WALROS to compare alternatives............................................................89
 

Figure 4.4.—The cover of Reclamation’s 2008 Outdoor Recreation Business Plan Guidebook.91
 

Figure 4.5.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 1A. ..................92
 

Figure 4.6.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 1B. ..................93
 

Figure 4.7.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 2......................94
 

Figure 4.8.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 3......................95
 

Figure 4.9.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, No Action Alternative........96
 

Appendices 

Appendix A Contact Information, Acknowledgements, and Citation 

Appendix B List of Locations Where WROS Has Been Applied 

Appendix C Glossary 

Appendix D Sample Form to Develop a Regional Recreation Profile

Appendix E Directory of Sources 

Appendix F Estimating Recreation Demand (Excerpt) 

Appendix G Visitor Capacity on Public Lands and Waters: Making Better Decisions 

(Excerpt) 

vi 
Executive Summary 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Executive Summary
 

Kayaking is one type of 

recreational activity that was not 

common half a century ago. 

Half a century ago, when people said they were going camping, 

fishing, or boating, it was clear what they intended. Today, due to 

many factors such as new technology and equipment, more 

facilities, and diverse public tastes and preferences, there are many 

types of camping, fishing, and boating activities. The outdoor 

recreation industry and profession have become much more 

complex and sophisticated. 

Research has shown that recreationists not only seek to participate 

in recreation activities, but also seek specific recreation settings in 

order to enjoy a special kind of recreation experience and 

subsequent benefits. These four components (activities, settings, 

experience, and benefits) constitute a recreation opportunity; that 

is, the opportunity for a person to participate in a particular 

recreation activity in a specific setting in order to enjoy a 

particular recreation experience and the benefits this affords. For 

example, one family might desire camping in a modern, full service 

campground on a reservoir in order to spend quality time with the 

family, to rest and relax, and to see nature’s beauty. Another family 

might desire camping in a rural location where they can test their 

fishing skills, enjoy solitude, and see nature’s beauty. Both families 

want to go camping, but in very different settings leading to 

different kinds of experiences and benefits; that is, they are seeking 

different kinds of recreation opportunities. 

The components of a recreation opportunity 

Recreation activity + Setting = Experience >>> Benefits 

Many activities Physical attributes 

Social attributes 

Managerial attributes 

Many dimensions 

Multiple senses 

Individual 

Community 

Economic 

Environmental 

Managers manage Recreationists consume Society gains 

The preceding insert depicts the linkage of the four components that 

define a recreation opportunity. It also conveys that a manager 

manages recreation activities and settings, while a recreationist 

consumes a recreation experience, and society benefits from an 

active outdoor public. 

viii 
Executive Summary 

The Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 

Urban ♦ Suburban ♦ Rural developed ♦ Rural natural ♦ Semiprimitive ♦ Primitive 

The Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WALROS, 

above) is a tool to understand the type and location of six types of 

water-related recreation opportunities, otherwise known as 

WALROS classes. The six WALROS classes range across a 

spectrum of urban, suburban, rural developed, rural natural, 

semiprimitive, and primitive recreation opportunities. A particular 

“package” of activities, setting attributes, experiences, and benefits, 

defines each WALROS class. 

WALROS enables an inventory and mapping of the six recreation 

opportunities by using expert opinion. An inventory protocol can be 

used to assess the physical, managerial, and social attributes of the 

setting. The chart below illustrates attributes that differentiate the 

six WALROS classes. 

Outdoor recreation activities are 

available to a variety of users. 

Physical attributes Social attributes Managerial attributes 

• Degree of major development 

• Distance from major 

development 

• Degree of natural resource 

modification 

• Sense of closeness to a 

community 

• Degree that natural ambiance 

dominates the area 

• Degree of visitor presence 

• Degree of visitor concentration 

• Degree of recreation diversity 

• Degree of solitude and 

remoteness 

• Degree of nonrecreational 

activity 

• Degree of management 

structures 

• Distance to developed 

recreation facilities and services 

• Distance to developed public 

access facilities 

• Frequency of seeing 

management personnel 

The overarching goal of WALROS is to provide planners and 

managers with a framework and procedure for making better 

decisions in order to conserve a spectrum of high-quality and 

diverse water and land recreation opportunities. WALROS 

improves our understanding of the complexity of outdoor recreation 

management, strengthens sound professional judgment, and enables 

a manager to make better and more defensible decisions. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

WALROS is an indispensable tool for inventorying, planning, and 

managing water and land resources where recreation is an important 

public use that benefits local communities. More specifically, 

WALROS is valuable for the following reasons: 

•	 inventorying and mapping the currently available recreation 

opportunities; 

•	 helping tourists and recreationists choose where to recreate; 

•	 assessing the effects of proposed land use and water
 

management changes;
 

•	 improving public input and communication with stakeholders; 

•	 improving management efficiency and effectiveness; 

•	 improving regional analysis and interagency collaboration; and 

•	 improving the defensibility of management decisions. 

This handbook provides the operational details for applying 

WALROS. Chapter 1—Overview provides a foundation and 

overview of WALROS and discusses the important standards for 

WALROS decisionmaking. Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and 

Managerial Attribute Guidelines provides a set of guidelines for 

each of the six WALROS classes across more than 124 setting 

attributes. Chapter 3—Inventory presents the information needed 

to inventory water and land resources and map the location of 

current WALROS classes. Chapter 4—Planning discusses how 

WALROS integrates and supplements the key steps of a public 

resource planning process. Moreover, it recognizes the value of 

WALROS as a regional planning tool. In addition to these chapters, 

there are several appendices that provide important information 

related to visitor capacity and visitor demand. 

x 
Frequently Asked Questions
 

Frequently Asked Questions
 

1. Will WALROS help managers and local government officials 

make better decisions? Yes, WALROS is a framework and 

procedure to help make better decisions. It can be used by counties, 

state and Federal agencies, planning commissions, city councils, 

nonprofit organizations, private marinas, community organizations, 

friends, and stakeholder groups. WALROS is not intended to make 

decisions or take the place of sound professional judgment. 

However, it is intended to help yield decisions that are principled, 

reasoned, systematic, deliberate, traceable, and legally defensible. 

2. Does WALROS give managers flexibility? WALROS is 

flexible. It recognizes that there will be special circumstances and 

situations in which flexibility and adaptation is necessary. There 

may be instances in which the mapping criteria or certain standards 

will not work. That is acceptable. On the other hand, maintaining 

the integrity of WALROS as a professional tool is very important. 

Reasonable care and clear justification should be should be used in 

making changes and adaptations to WALROS. 

3. Will WALROS constrain any water or land uses or 

operations? WALROS will not constrain any resource use, 

purpose, or public or private priorities of water or land resources. 

Rather, it will help to optimize the net public benefits for reservoir 

and land operations. WALROS is a tool that helps integrate 

recreation considerations into complex water and land use allocation 

decisions. Furthermore, it helps to recognize and assess the 

consequences of proposed alternatives. 

4. Will water drawdown or flows affect WALROS? Water 

drawdown and flows can affect the type and amount of recreation 

opportunities on a water resource and the WALROS classification. 

For example, the water surface acres classified as “rural natural” in 

early spring (high water level) may change to “rural developed” by 

late summer. For many reservoirs, it would be useful to have two or 

more WALROS maps (e.g., early, middle, and late season) to help 

understand potential changes in recreation opportunities. The 

reservoir drawdown effect on WALROS should not be construed as 

a constraint or limitation; it should be perceived as one of many 

factors that contribute to the diversity of WALROS. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Recreation activities such as 

hunting are seasonal. 

5. Can WALROS change by season? Yes. Features such as ice, 

snow, road closures, wildlife migration, and special activity seasons 

(e.g., waterfowl hunting) can affect WALROS. In most resource 

settings, there is considerable change from season to season, and 

change can occur within a season. Having a WALROS map for 

each of the primary seasons of interest would help to understand the 

recreation situation. 

6. How does WALROS help protect important natural and 

cultural resources? Such resources are identified early during the 

mapping of the WALROS classifications. These areas are provided 

special deliberation in terms of the types and amounts, if any, of 

recreation opportunities that may be appropriate. Special 

management and mitigation measures, along with heightened 

monitoring, may be required. It is important to understand that the 

loss of an important natural or cultural resource is also, in effect, the 

loss of a recreation opportunity. It is the loss of an opportunity to 

experience and enjoy these very special or unique features. 

7. Can the public understand WALROS? The public can 

understand that there is a range or spectrum of recreation settings 

from urban cities to remote primitive settings. Most can also relate 

to participating in a favorite activity in a specific setting and being 

rewarded with a memorable experience. 

Most importantly, water and land resources can be mapped using 

the six WALROS classifications. Maps are effective visual 

planning and management tools for use at public meetings, at 

entrance stations, on bulletin boards, and in visitor brochures. 

Agency professionals, however, may use WALROS as a tool to 

classify public recreation areas, and in some cases, the visiting 

public may not understand the WALROS class names. Urban 

residents, for example, may not be familiar with primitive recreation 

opportunities. 

8. How does WALROS relate to tourism? While academic 

distinctions label people fishing in streams next to their homes as 

recreationists and people who travel 50 miles or more as tourists, these 

distinctions serve little purpose in the WALROS system. Tourists 

pursuing outdoor recreation opportunities are also recreationists. 

Throughout this handbook, the words “tourist” and “recreationist” are 

used interchangeably. Thus, WALROS is a system designed to 

evaluate water- and land-based tourism opportunities. 

9. Can recreationists and tourists use WALROS? Yes, 

WALROS can provide an informative map for the public, indicating 

xii 
Frequently Asked Questions
 

the supply of available recreation opportunities in an area. A major 

problem in managing public lands and waters is that recreationists 

and tourists do not have adequate visitor information and are not 

aware of what recreation opportunities are available and where. 

While many maps show facilities and transportation, few convey the 

type of experience available or the method of management within 

the area. 

Often, visitor crowding and conflicts are really a visitor distribution 

problem caused by visitors’ lack of awareness of alternative 

locations and times to visit. WALROS can help to show the 

diversity of water and land recreation opportunities in a particular 

resource setting or across a larger region. 

10. Can a WALROS classification be subdivided into subclasses 

or zones? WALROS reflects a national spectrum of opportunities 

from urban cities to remote primitive areas. Each of the six 

classifications can be viewed as a small spectrum within a larger 

national spectrum. At times, it may be advantageous to subdivide 

one of the WALROS classifications to more effectively deal with a 

particular field situation. Division of a WALROS class is 

acceptable as long as the new subclasses or zones are compatible 

with the integrity of the overall WALROS class. 

11. How does WALROS deal with exceptions or unique field 

situations? WALROS recognizes that it is not practical or 

desirable for a national system to try to address every field situation. 

It should not be used to replace sound professional judgment and 

reasonable decisions. On the other hand, WALROS provides 

guidelines for analyzing special situations and making good 

decisions. For any special or unusual managerial decisions, the 

circumstances and rationale used should be documented in the 

administrative record. 

12. How does WALROS interface with site-level planning? 

WALROS is a landscape-level tool that applies to large geographic 

areas of water and land resources. WALROS provides guidance for 

the entire spectrum of opportunities in its management guidelines, 

yet recognizes that another planning level might be necessary to 

make site-specific decisions about the type, location, design, or 

appropriateness of facilities or actions. Site design plans, 

interpretive plans, monitoring plans, and engineering and 

architectural plans would compliment WALROS and provide the 

necessary detail. 

Fishing is a recreational activity 

that is possible in almost all 

areas. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

13. How does WALROS accommodate special management 

areas or units? WALROS is a landscape-level tool that applies to 

large geographic areas of water and land resources. Yet, it 

recognizes and accommodates special circumstances at the site 

level. Some areas within a WALROS zone may need additional 

site-specific management direction to accommodate their special 

needs, circumstances, or opportunities. WALROS encourages 

managers to “tier down” and provide additional management 

direction. Examples of such special areas or management units 

include the following: 

•	 security areas • conflict mitigation areas 

•	 wildlife nesting areas • overnight areas 

•	 administrative sites • no-wake zones 

•	 seasonal resource closures • destination areas 

•	 communities and other • cultural resource areas 

development •	 hazardous areas 

•	 special recreation use areas •	 recreation day use areas 

•	 travel corridors •	 public access sites 

•	 designated concessions/ (e.g., trailheads, boat 

marinas ramps) 

14. Does WALROS require a special planning process? No. By 

analogy, if the main stem of a tree could represent an agency’s 

planning process, WALROS is part of the recreation branch that 

brings recreation information into the main stem. WALROS is a 

tool that helps to integrate recreation considerations into a larger 

comprehensive planning effort where multiple uses and allocation 

decisions are necessary. Although the Bureau of Reclamation 

(Reclamation) has taken the lead in developing WALROS, it has 

been designed to interface with any local, State, or Federal agency 

planning process. Chapter 4 describes Reclamation’s planning 

process and illustrates how WALROS is applied. 

15. Can WALROS help make daily management decisions? 

Yes. Management provides recreation opportunities, including type 

and location, depicted on the WALROS inventory map. When there 

are special requests for public uses (e.g., large group camping, 

special events, educational programs), the WALROS map can help 

a manager decide on the appropriateness of a request. WALROS 

provides a logical and defensible means to consider daily 

management decisions, and can help managers make better 

decisions. 

xiv 
Frequently Asked Questions
 

Furthermore, the managerial guidelines in chapter 2 are very useful 

for daily or annual operation and maintenance activities, budget 

planning and justification, assigning volunteer work crews, 

responding to media and local tourism boards, dealing with visitor 

capacity and conflict issues, and mitigating unforeseen impacts. 

16. How does WALROS help justify budgets and personnel? A 

key component of WALROS is a set of management guidelines for 

many of the activities requiring time or effort (e.g., budget and 

personnel). The maintenance and patrol standards, for example, 

will differ between a semiprimitive and a rural developed WALROS 

class. While many of the guidelines are of a qualitative nature, 

continuing research and professional experience will help in the 

development of quantitative standards over time. 

17. What if current conditions are not consistent with the 

WALROS guidelines? WALROS helps to determine where the 

current conditions differ from management guidelines. 

Inconsistencies are often found in the initial application of 

WALROS to an area. However, these inconsistencies will decline 

as management makes the appropriate adjustments. Inconsistencies 

can be mapped and prioritized on a scale of negligible, minor, 

moderate, or major consequence. WALROS does not obligate or 

direct any action. Instead, it helps to identify the type and location 

of inconsistencies and mitigate them over time. Chapter 3 provides 

more guidance on inconsistencies. 

18. What size of an area is practical for WALROS? WALROS 

is designed for large geographic areas of water and land resources 

(e.g., Reclamation projects, National Forest lands, wildlife refuges, 

wild and scenic rivers, State parks, reservoirs and adjacent lands). It 

can also be applied to very small areas (e.g., 5-10 acres, half a mile 

of trail or river), but its practicality in these cases may be limited 

because the particular management program could remain 

unchanged. 

19. Should WALROS be applied beyond an agency’s 

jurisdiction? Oftentimes there would be an advantage to do so. In 

order to make a decision for a particular locale, it is helpful to 

consider nearby areas as well, because recreationists typically visit 

more than one site and participate in more than one activity on any 

given outing. 

Recreationists visit a geographic area called a “visitation range,” 

which is analogous to an animal’s home range or a river’s 

watershed. From their overnight locations, visitors take short 

excursions to experience different locations throughout the 

xv 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

visitation range. For example, a family might camp for several days 

at a full service State park campground on a large lake: one day 

fishing 10 miles downstream; one day hiking upstream to a popular 

vista; and one day canoeing a designated water trail. Thus, a 

recreation management decision in one location may affect the 

quality or nature of the recreation opportunity in another location 

within a certain visitation range. 

Another question answers this question: What is the visitation 

range for most of the recreationists and tourists visiting the area? In 

other words, to determine the answer, it is essential to ask: What 

other factors are necessary in determining the final decision? It may 

depend, for instance, on whether the proposed study area is of a 

practical size for a WALROS study or the number of agencies that 

would need to collaborate. 

20. Can WALROS be applied to water and land resources in 

other countries and international protected areas? Yes. 

WALROS is a tool with universal appeal that has been applied or is 

under development in Ireland, Jamaica, Belize, China, and Thailand. 

Its overarching goal is to provide planners and managers with a 

framework for making better decisions and conserving a spectrum 

of high quality, diverse recreation opportunities. WALROS 

improves our understanding of the complexity of outdoor recreation 

and tourism management, strengthens sound professional judgment, 

and enables a manager to make better and more defensible 

decisions. 

Many international protected areas have significant marine, forest, 

wildlife, and water resources. Some of these areas are extremely 

popular for tourists and adventure travelers and can become both a 

bane and a blessing for a local community or an entire nation. The 

management challenges and opportunities associated with visitation 

to the world’s protected areas, whether by recreationists or by 

tourists, are virtually the same. 

The underlying foundation and strategy employed by WALROS to 

conserve water and land resources and recreation opportunities have 

universal application. They also provide the flexibility for 

managers to tailor parts of WALROS (e.g., terms, pictures, 

descriptions, standards) to more closely reflect their unique local 

social, cultural, and environmental situation. 

xvi 
Chapter 1 — Overview 
Overview
 

Top, some visitors need special 

facilities. Bottom, reasonable 

access is an important issue. 

The outdoor recreation profession has become much more 

sophisticated in the 48 years since the government’s first 

comprehensive assessment in 1962, entitled the Outdoor Recreation 

Resources Review Commission Report (ORRRC Report). 

According to that report: 

Water is a focal point of outdoor recreation. Urban or rural, water is a 

magnet. Wherever they live, people show a strong urge for water-oriented 

recreation. There are many other reasons (purposes) for water resource 

programs, and recreation use often is incidental and unplanned. To say this, 

however, is to note how great the opportunities are. 

Today, the Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) recognizes that 

water recreation and associated land and water-based management 

is no longer a matter of simply building a boat ramp, dock, parking 

area, and restroom. Water and land recreation management 

involves a thorough understanding of the resource and its capability, 

current and future visitors, the type of experiences sought, regional 

recreation supply and demand, resource management planning, 

economic/noneconomic valuation, visitor capacity, and other 

dimensions. 

The Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WALROS), 

originally the Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS), is 

a tool that planners and managers can use to make better decisions. 

WROS was modeled after the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 

(ROS) system, but it placed more emphasis on water resources, 

including reservoirs, lakes, rivers, bays, estuaries, wetlands, major 

springs, coastal zones, and protected marine areas. WALROS has 

taken the finest proven features of ROS and WROS and updated, 

refined, and tailored them for use on land and water. 

This handbook provides operational guidance on how to implement 

WALROS in inventorying, planning, and managing recreation 

opportunities on and adjacent to water and land resources. 

Moreover, it is intended to be flexible enough to accommodate 

changing public recreation use, new information from monitoring or 

science, recreation technologies, demand, demographics, and 

practical field experience gained by its application. 

2 
The Foundation of WALROS
 

This handbook contains four chapters and several appendices. 

Chapter 1—Overview provides important background information 

on the WALROS system. Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and 

Managerial Attribute Guidelines provides a set of management 

guidelines for recreation-related elements in each of the WALROS 

classes. Chapter 3—Inventory describes the procedural steps to 

map the current water and land recreation opportunities that an area 

is providing and identifies inconsistencies where management 

action might be appropriate. Chapter 4—Planning provides an 

overview of how WALROS inventory information can interface 

with a resource management planning and a recreation planning 

process. Also described in this chapter is the use of WALROS as a 

valuable regional planning tool. This description is based on 

extensive application and testing of WALROS as a regional 

planning tool in California. The appendices provide valuable 

information related to, among other things, visitor capacity and 

visitor demand. 

The Foundation of WALROS
 

The following sections describe several popular concepts in the 

outdoor recreation profession, which serve as the foundation for 

WALROS. 

The Average Visitor Does Not Exist 

Recreation science has revealed the great diversity in what outdoor 

recreationists expect upon arriving at a recreation site. It also 

reveals a particular recreation experience they desire, perceive, and 

enjoy while recreating. Not only is there diversity between the 

participants in different recreation activities, such as boaters, 

anglers, and campers, there is also diversity among participants 

within each activity itself. Comparing the recreation experience of 

sailing on a 200-acre urban reservoir for few hours to that of sailing 

a 50-mile-long rural reservoir for several days dramatically 

illustrates the diversity within this activity. The same is true for 

other recreation activities in urban versus rural primitive settings. 

In much the same way that retailers can segment consumers into 

groups based on some shared buying preferences, outdoor 

recreationists can be segmented into groups based on the recreation 

experiences they desire. 

Different boats have different 

requirements. 

3 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition
 

Chapter 1— Overview
 

Do not try to be all things 

to all people. A specific 

parcel of land, park, 

forest, lake, reservoir, 

river, or other site is a 

single resource within a 

regional and national 

system of land and water 

recreation opportunities. 

Managers provide 

opportunities for visitors 

to participate in a type of 

recreation activity in a 

specific setting that is 

defined by its important 

physical, social, and 

management attributes, 

to realize a particular 

type of experience and 

subsequent benefits. 

Recreationists also differ in other characteristics such as their place 

of residence, travel distance, recreational equipment, socioeconomic 

situation, racial and ethnic background, education, and knowledge 

of available opportunities. 

The resulting implication is that planning and managing for a 

mythical “average user” will leave out or fail to accommodate the 

diversity of public interest in water and land resources. The 

conservation of recreation diversity is a fundamental purpose of the 

WALROS system. 

Do Not Try To Be All Things to All People 

A specific parcel of land, park, forest, lake, reservoir, river, or other 

site is a single resource within a regional and national system of 

land and water recreation opportunities. Each resource area can 

have special capabilities and opportunities to make an important 

contribution to the integrity of the larger system. Thus, no one 

water or land area can be all things to all people. Managers must 

identify the recreational role or niche of the resource area within the 

local, regional, and in some cases, national context. The implication 

is that it is not practical to plan and manage each land and water 

resource so that it provides all opportunities for all visitors. Each 

resource should serve a particular recreational role or fill a niche 

within a larger system of diverse recreation opportunities. The 

conservation of recreation diversity across a larger spectrum will 

benefit the public and increase interagency efficiency. 

Managers Provide Recreation 

Opportunities 

The understanding of recreation continues to evolve. In the 1960s, 

for example, recreation was viewed principally as an activity, such 

as boating or skiing. However, in the 1970s, recreation science 

determined that a particular type of recreation experience motivates 

recreationists and that a recreation activity is a means to an 

experiential end. It also determined that the conditions of the 

resource and management of the recreation setting could influence 

the kind of experience a person is likely to have. In the 1990s, 

recreation science further determined that recreation experiences 

lead to benefits for individuals, families, and communities while 

providing benefits to the economy and the environment. 

4 
The Foundation of WALROS
 

Today, it is professionally accepted that recreation managers 

provide recreation opportunities. Thus, managers provide 

opportunities for visitors to participate in a certain type of recreation 

activity within a specific setting. The setting is defined by its 

important physical, social, and management attributes that 

contribute to the realization of a particular type of experience and 

subsequent benefits. Figure 1.1 depicts the key components of a 

recreation opportunity and the linkage to one another. 

Figure 1.1.—The components of a recreation opportunity. 

Recreation activity + Setting = Experience >>> Benefits 

Many activities Physical attributes 

Social attributes 

Managerial attributes 

Many dimensions 

Multiple senses 

Individual 

Community 

Economic 

Environmental 

Managers manage Recreationists consume Society gains 

As conveyed in figure 1.1, managers manage recreation activities 

and settings so that recreationists can consume a high quality, safe 

and enjoyable recreation experience. Managers have the ability to 

change the activities and settings in an area to enhance the visitor’s 

experience and maximize public benefits. 

A Seamless System of Recreation 

Opportunities Should Exist 

The American public is much more interested in enjoying 

high-quality recreation opportunities than in understanding the 

names and missions of each local, State, and Federal agency that 

manages water resources. While public respect and understanding 

for an agency’s mission is desirable and important, agencies should 

also strive to collaborate and contribute to the conservation of a 

larger system or network of recreation opportunities. 

The implication is that planning and managing for a seamless 

system of water and land-based recreation opportunities requires a 

set of recreation terms, concepts, and tools that all recreation 

providers understand. This does not suggest that agencies need to 

change or replace existing approaches to planning or managing 

recreation. However, there is an advantage to employing a common 

system (i.e., terms, concepts, and tools) to inventory, plan, and 

manage recreation opportunities across agency jurisdictions. 

WALROS is an interagency tool to help ensure a seamless system 

of recreation opportunities. 

The implication is that 

planning and managing 

for a seamless system of 

water- and land-based 

recreation opportunities 

requires a set of 

recreation terms, 

concepts, and tools that 

all recreation providers 

understand. 

5 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

6 

Aspects of WALROS 

This section provides an overview of the important aspects of the 

WALROS system. 

The Goal of WALROS 

As indicated in the preceding section, there is diversity among 

recreationists, water and land resource settings, and the agencies 

that manage these resources. This diversity is positive and should 

therefore be conserved. Likewise, recreation managers recognize 

that each specific resource area (e.g., forest, park, lake, river, 

reservoir, refuge, and wilderness) is unique and contributes to a 

larger system of diverse recreation opportunities. 

Thus, the overarching goal of WALROS is to provide planners and 

managers with a framework and procedure for making better 

decisions in order to conserve a spectrum of high-quality and 

diverse water- and land-based recreation opportunities. 

The WALROS Classifications 

WALROS is a spectrum of six classifications of recreation 

opportunities. There are six integrated packages containing 

appropriate activities, settings, experiences, and benefits for each 

WALROS class. Figure 1.2 identifies the classifications and 

components of a recreation opportunity. 

Figure 1.2.—The Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum. 

Recreation Activities 

Recreation activities are the leisure pursuits most commonly 

understood and referred to in literature. There are hundreds of 

examples of recreation activities, and the list continues to grow due 

WALROS is a spectrum 

of six classifications of 

recreation opportunities, 

that is, six integrated 

packages containing 

appropriate activities, 

settings, experiences, 

and benefits for each 

WALROS class. 

A spectrum of six WALROS classifications 

Spectrum descriptors 

Urban ♦ Suburban ♦ Rural 

developed ♦ Rural natural ♦ Semiprimitive ♦ Primitive 

Recreation activities 

Recreation setting 

• Physical attributes 

• Social attributes 

• Managerial attributes 

Recreation Experiences 

Recreation Benefit 

 Integrated packages 
Aspects of WALROS
 

to technological innovations and changing public interests. 

However, it is impossible to provide all activities in a single 

location. A manager must decide which activities are appropriate 

for a particular area. WALROS helps managers decide the 

appropriateness of various recreation activities by offering a general 

illustration of those that may be appropriate in each WALROS 

class, as shown in table 1.1. It is important to note that table 1.1 

illustrates the general framework of WALROS. In some specific 

situations, a particular activity may or may not be appropriate. 

Consequently, sound professional judgment and due consideration 

of the local situation may be necessary to decide whether a certain 

recreation activity is appropriate under the circumstances. 

Recreation Settings 

A recreation setting consists of physical, social, and managerial 

attributes. It is the combination of these attributes that shape a 

specific activity into a particular experience. Refer to appendix C 

for a glossary of key terms used in this handbook. Managers spend 

most of their time and effort managing the recreation setting. The 

guidelines in Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial 

Attribute Guidelines provide detailed guidance for achieving 

optimum results. 

Table 1.2 illustrates various physical, social, and managerial 

attributes that can affect the desired recreation experience of an 

area. The table is not intended to be an exhaustive list or to suggest 

that each of these attributes must be considered. However, some 

attributes can be listed in more than one column (e.g., historic 

resources). 

In the context of WALROS, the totality of these setting attributes 

converts a recreation activity into a recreation experience with 

subsequent benefits. Table 1.3 provides a short paragraph 

describing the general nature of the setting attributes for each class. 

The purpose of this description is to introduce WALROS. Chapter 

2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines— 

provides the guidelines for some 124 setting attributes. 

Top: Wildlife contribute to a 

visitor’s experience. Bottom: 

Dramatic and expansive views 

are attractive to people. 

7 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Table 1.1.—A general representation of recreation activities by WALROS class 

Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Water-based activities 

Water skiing/wake 

boarding 

Jet boating 

Personal water craft 

riding 

No-wake motor boating 

Fishing 

Houseboating 

Rafting 

Canoeing 

Kayaking 

Swimming 

Diving/snorkeling 

Parasailing 

Land-based activities 

Developed 

campground use 

Rustic campground use 

Backpacking 

Off-highway vehicle 

use 

Horseback riding 

Wildlife viewing 

Hunting 

Golfing 

Swim beach use 

Snowmobiling 

Picnicking 

Interpretive program 

activities 

Hiking 

Biking 

8 
Aspects of WALROS 

Table 1.2.—Examples of recreation setting attributes 

Physical attributes Social attributes Managerial attributes 

Terrestrial vegetation 

Aquatic vegetation 

Water quality 

Soils/rocks/cliffs 

Topography/slope 

Fish and wildlife 

Natural sounds 

Visual resources 

Water flows 

Water elevations, drawdown 

Lightscapes 

Endangered species 

Human development 

• Industrial/commercial 

• Municipal/residential 

• Manmade structures 

• Infrastructure 

Water surface acreage 

River length, width, gradient 

River flows 

Natural hazards 

Air quality 

Natural beauty 

Geologic formations 

Climate and winds 

Canals and shipping locks 

Recreationists (type, number) 

Visitor expectations 

Patterns of visitation 

Visitor behaviors 

Visitor safety issues 

Visitor conflicts 

Vandalism and litter 

Automobiles and trains 

Historic sites 

Cultural resources 

Adjacent private land uses 

Special uses 

Special values 

Density of use 

Types, size, and speed of boats 

Shoreline activity 

Airplanes 

Commercial shipping 

Type and level of noise 

Nuisance behavior 

Unlawful activities 

Agricultural activities 

Recreation facilities 

Water storage facilities 

Water delivery systems 

Rules/regulations 

Interpretation 

Fees and charges 

Site design 

Health and safety closures 

Length of season 

Recreation maintenance 

Recreation programs 

Law enforcement/security 

Signage 

Restoration activities 

Administrative sites 

Reservoir drawdown 

Water safety lights/markers 

Timed flow releases 

Fishery management 

Vegetative management 

Access roads/launches 

Accessible facilities 

Personnel and volunteers 

Level of patrol 

Permits 

Table 1.3.—A general description of recreation settings by WALROS class 

Urban setting: An urban WALROS area can be found in extensively developed and populated cities and 

metropolitan spaces where virtually the entire landscape contains manmade structures. Municipal, industrial, 

commercial, and residential land uses dominate, and the sights, sounds, and smells are typical of a city environment. 

Natural features may be found in small neighborhood parks, commercial courtyards, streetscapes, riverways, 

residential gardens, or landscaping. The water resources tend to be highly channelized, manipulated, or altered to 

contain large fluctuations in water flow and to protect public safety and property. Management presence is common 

and obvious (e.g., personnel, rules, facilities, signs, services, conveniences, and security). Recreation use is very 

extensive and involves much diversity, socialization, and concentration. Furthermore, the urban setting offers a 

sense of security and conveniences. The sights, sounds, and smells of recreation and nonrecreational use 

(e.g., municipal, industrial, commercial) are dominant in an urban setting. Examples of the urban WALROS class 

include parks such as Central Park in New York City, the San Antonio Riverwalk, Denver’s South Platte River, the 

Potomac River in the District of Columbia, Tampa Bay, Baltimore Harbor, San Francisco Bay, the Chicago Waterfront 

on Lake Michigan, and urban trails with open spaces within metropolitan areas (refer to page 16). 

Suburban setting: A suburban WALROS area is on the fringe of the urban area. The sights, sounds, and smells of 

development and built structures are widespread. The built environment tends to be commercial and residential. 

The sights, sounds, and smells of commerce and everyday living are very obvious and prevalent. Natural-appearing 

settings can be found in community parks, greenways, trails, open space, natural areas, wetlands, estuaries, and 

tidal marshes. The water resources tend to be highly channelized, manipulated, or altered to contain large 

fluctuations in water flow and for the protection of public safety and property. Recreation management is prevalent 

(e.g., personnel, rules, facilities, signs, services, conveniences, security). Recreation use, diversity, socialization, 

concentration, sense of security, and conveniences are also prevalent and obvious. The sights, sounds, and smells 

of recreation and nonrecreation use (e.g., municipal, industrial, residential) are obvious but not dominant in a 

suburban setting. Examples of suburban WALROS areas can be found on the outer edges of most metropolitan 

areas in the United States and include parks, greenbelts, and trail systems (refer to page 17). 

9 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Table 1.3 (cont’d).—A general description of recreation settings by WALROS class. 

Rural developed setting: A rural developed WALROS area is beyond a metropolitan area and the suburban ring of 

development. Rural developed areas may serve as “bedroom” communities for urban areas and may contain 

working farms, ranches, and towns. In this setting, primary road networks are common. Although development will 

be prevalent and common, the setting has a pastoral sense because of an interspersing of forests, water resources, 

hills, valleys, canyons, wetlands, open spaces, and agricultural lands. Naturally appearing shoreline edges are 

common, although various water controls or other structures are also common. Recreation management is prevalent 

and common but not as extensive as in an urban setting (e.g., personnel, rules, facilities, signs, services, 

conveniences, security). Recreation use, diversity, socialization, concentration, sense of security, and conveniences 

are less common than in a developed suburban or urban setting. The sights, sounds, and smells of recreation and 

nonrecreation use are common, yet interspersed with locations and times when the urbanized visitor may experience 

a sense of tranquility and escape from everyday challenges. Examples of rural developed areas include areas with 

country estates, second homes and cabins, dams, power stations, primary and secondary roads, communication 

lines, resorts, marinas, small communities, full service campgrounds, county and State parks, farms, ranches, and 

small commercial and industrial establishments (refer to page 18). 

Rural natural setting: A rural natural WALROS area is a considerable distance from metropolitan areas and 

communities. Natural features are predominant on the landscape, and the presence of development is occasional or 

infrequent. Agriculture, tourism, and outdoor recreation are often primary industries. Many rural natural areas are 

large enclaves of public lands and waters. Natural resources dominate the landscape. The sights, sounds, and 

smells of development are infrequent. Natural-looking settings border the water resources. Water controls or other 

structures are occasional along the shoreline. Management is occasionally noticeable in the form of patrols, facilities, 

signage, conveniences, and full services. Visitors desire a sense of tranquility and escape from their daily routine. 

Opportunity for visitors to see, hear, and smell nature is prevalent and common, as are occasions to enjoy periods of 

solitude. Recreation use, diversity, socialization, concentration, sense of security, and conveniences are periodic and 

occasional. Examples of rural natural areas include unincorporated rural areas with secondary and unpaved roads, 

small cabins, single residences, farms and ranches, rustic campgrounds, rural county and State parks, powerline 

rights-of-way, small stores and fuel services stations, and areas bordering or surrounded by large expanses of public 

lands and waters (refer to page 19). 

Semiprimitive setting: A semiprimitive WALROS area is a large expanse of natural resources that is far from any 

city or metropolitan area and a considerable distance from small communities, subdivisions, or developments. 

Natural resources dominate the landscape. Development is minor, and the sights and sounds of human activity are 

few. However, a semiprimitive setting may include evidence of human activity such as distant farming operations, 

powerlines, livestock, small buildings, old roadways, historic structures, and historic logging or mining. These water 

resources are often within large expanses of public lands and waters. Management, in the form of patrols, facilities, 

and signage, is seldom noticeable and the visitors are expected to have their own equipment and skills enabling 

navigation and enjoyment of this setting. Visitors desire a sense of tranquility and an escape from their daily routine. 

Facilities are rustic and blend well into the setting. Resource protection is highly important. The opportunity for 

visitors to see, hear, and smell nature is widespread. Visitors sense solitude and remoteness. Examples of 

semiprimitive settings are large expanses of State and Federal lands and waters that are commonly designated as 

Wild and Scenic Rivers, Wilderness Areas, backcountry lakes, headwaters, marine reserves, roadless areas, or other 

types of protected areas (refer to page 20). 

Primitive setting: A primitive WALROS area is a large expanse of natural resources far from development and 

settlement. Sights, sounds, or smells of human activity are rare and seldom sensed. The water resources and 

shorelines appear natural, showing little evidence of past human use. Management relies on visitor cooperation and 

stewardship, and management activities often focus on resource protection, restoration, and monitoring. A sense of 

remoteness, wildness, solitude, and self-reliance is dominant among visitors. Visitor comforts, conveniences, and 

concentrations are not appropriate to a primitive setting. Examples of primitive settings are large expanses of 

Federal lands and waters that are miles from development and settlement. The settings are commonly designated 

as Wild and Scenic Rivers, Wilderness Areas, backcountry lakes, headwaters, marine reserves, roadless areas, or 

other types of Federal or international protected areas. The backcountry in Yellowstone National Park and the South 

Arm of Yellowstone Lake are examples of primitive settings (refer to page 21). 

10 
Aspects of WALROS
 

Recreation Experiences 

A recreation experience is the psychological and physiological 

response to participating in a particular recreation activity and 

setting. The experience is the output of management’s efforts, 

which represents what the recreationist consumes. WALROS helps 

planners and managers focus on the recreation experience and 

provide a general description of the experience for each WALROS 

class. 

Recreation science has contributed to identifying the important 

dimensions of a recreation experience. These dimensions are often 

referred to as motivations, psychological outcomes, or multiple 

satisfactions. Recreation science also recognizes that humans use 

all five senses to perceive or experience a situation. In other words, 

a recreation experience can be affected by what one sees 

(e.g., wildlife or litter), hears (e.g., natural sounds or engine noises), 

smells (e.g., grasses and trees versus barbecue smoke and pollution), 

touches (e.g., water and beach sand versus broken glass), and tastes 

or inhales (e.g., water and food versus exhaust fumes). Tables 1.4 

and 1.5 provide a general description of the important dimensions 

and senses that define the recreation experience in each WALROS 

class. It is important to bear in mind that these generalizations may 

need to be adjusted in order to subjectively reflect a particular local 

or regional situation. Thus, WALROS encourages flexibility and 

adaptability based on sound professional judgment. 

Socializing and a sense of a competition with others are experiences that many recreation users desire. 

11 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Table 1.4.—Examples of recreation experiences by WALROS class 

WALROS Spectrum 

Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Often common across spectrum 

Enjoy the outdoors Important in all settings 

Get refreshed 

Have fun and pleasure 

Enjoy friends and family 

Have a change of pace 

Get away from usual demands of life 

Reduce stress 

Opportunity to contemplate 

Enjoy physical exercise 

Bond with family and friends 

Help others develop skills 

Often varies across spectrum 

Experience the sights, sounds, and 

smells of nature 

Learn about nature and culture 

Chance to dream and reflect 

Gain a sense of adventure and 

challenge 

Sense of awe, wonder, and humility 

View wildlife and natural wonders 

Experience challenges and risks 

Gain a sense of self reliance, 

freedom, choice 

Experience tranquility and 

peacefulness 

Experience solitude 

Experience new and different things 

Sense of physical exertion 

Feel inspired 

Less Important More Important 

Often varies across spectrum 

Opportunity to watch and be around 

other people 

Opportunity to socialize 

Opportunity to meet new people 

Sense of competition with others 

Exhilaration of speed and thrills 

Test one's skills and equipment 

Feel safe and secure in the outdoors 

Enjoy comforts and conveniences in 

the outdoors 

Opportunity for a brief respite from 

everyday life 

More Important Less Important 

12 
Aspects of WALROS
 

Table 1.5.—A general description of the recreation experiences by WALROS class 

Urban recreation experience: The area provides very limited opportunities to see, hear, or smell the natural 

resources (e.g., forests, wildlife, aesthetics) because of the extensive level of development, human activity, and 

natural resource modification. Watching and meeting other visitors is expected and desired, while large group 

activities such as guided fishing, tour boat sightseeing, and beach sports are popular. There may be opportunities 

to briefly relieve stress and alter everyday routines. Socializing with large groups, family, and friends is important. 

In addition, a high sense of safety, security, comfort, and convenience is central and dominant. The mix of 

recreation activities may be diverse, ranging from those of relaxation and contemplation (e.g., sunbathing, reading, 

nature walking) to physical exertion. Thrills, excitement, and challenge (e.g., parasailing, jet boating, water skiing) 

are often attractive to short-time visitors, large affinity groups, tourists, and school groups. The area may serve as 

a transportation corridor for transient visitors or as a staging area for others traveling to nonurban settings. Thus, 

the urban area is popular with local residents and with nonresident first-time tourists. 

Suburban recreation experience: The area provides little opportunity to see, hear, or smell the natural 

resources (e.g., forests, wildlife, aesthetics) because of the widespread and prevalent level of development, 

human activity, and natural resource modification. Moreover, watching and meeting other visitors is expected and 

desired. The area provides an opportunity to briefly relieve stress and alter everyday routines. Socializing with 

family and friends is also important since large groups and families are common. A high sense of safety, security, 

comfort, and convenience is central and dominant. The mix of recreation activities may be diverse, ranging from 

relaxation and contemplation (e.g., sunbathing, reading, and nature walking) to physical exertion, thrills, 

excitement, and challenge (e.g., parasailing, jet boating, and water skiing). Learning about natural or cultural 

history, ecology, and reservoir and river operations is important to some people. Thus, the suburban area is a 

popular attraction to many local residents. 

Rural developed recreation experience: The area provides occasional or periodic opportunities to see, hear, or 

smell the natural resources (e.g., forests, wildlife, aesthetics), but development, human activity, and natural 

resource modifications are common and frequently encountered. The area is less developed and more tranquil 

than a suburban setting. The opportunity to experience brief periods of solitude is important but changes from day 

to day. In a rural-developed area, everyday sights and sounds are also important. Socialization within and outside 

one’s group is typical, and the presence of other visitors is expected. The opportunity to relieve stress, alter 

everyday routines, and achieve a moderate level of comfort and convenience along with a sense of safety and 

security is important. The array of recreation activities may be diverse, ranging from relaxation and contemplation 

(e.g., sunbathing, sailboating, shoreline fishing) to physical exertion and challenge (e.g., competing in shoreline 

and water sports, tournament fishing, ice fishing, water skiing, snowmobiling, motocross racing, and kayaking). 

The rural developed area is typically attractive for day use by weekend visitors from local metropolitan areas, 

nearby communities, short-term campers, recreational vehicle users, large groups, and adventure tourists within a 

day’s drive. 

Rural natural recreation experience: The area provides frequent opportunities to see, hear, or smell the natural 

resources (e.g., forests, wildlife, and aesthetics), as development, human activity, and natural resource 

modifications are only occasional and infrequent. It is noticeably more natural, less developed, and more tranquil 

than an urban setting. Socialization with others outside one’s group is not very important, although the presence 

of others is expected and tolerated. The opportunity to relieve stress and get away from an infrastructure 

environment is important; a high sense of safety, security, comfort, and convenience is not important or expected. 

Moreover, a sense of independence, freedom, moments of solitude, tranquility, and the appreciation of nature are 

also important. Various experiences tend to be more resource dependent, diverse, and may include relaxation 

and contemplation. Such activities include camping, sunbathing, canoeing, sailing, and boat fishing. Other 

activities involve socialization and physical exertion (e.g., competitive tournament fishing, kayaking, waterskiing, 

hunting, and float boat fishing). The rural natural area is typically attractive to extended weekend and long-term 

visitors who desire to experience the outdoors and get away from large numbers of other people. The rural natural 

area is popular with overnight visitors using recreation vehicles, tents, and rustic cabins. 

13 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Table 1.5 (cont’d).—A general description of the recreation experiences by WALROS class. 

Semiprimitive recreation experience: The area provides widespread and prevalent opportunities to see, hear, 

or smell the natural resources (e.g., forests, wildlife, and aesthetics) since development, human activity, and 

natural resource modifications are seldom encountered. The opportunity to experience a natural ecosystem with 

little human imprint, a sense of challenge, an adventure, a risk, a sense of self-reliance, and a feeling of solitude 

are all important characteristics. However, management is important on the water and at destination sites even 

though the recreation experiences tend to be more resource based. A sense of independence, freedom, 

tranquility, relaxation, appreciation of nature, testing skills, and stewardship is typical. The opportunity often 

requires more trip planning, preparation, travel distance of one or more days, physical effort, and duration. The 

semiprimitive area provides opportunities for the more adventure-based enthusiasts (e.g., fly and float fishing, 

hunting, backcountry camping, canoeing, rafting, and nature viewing). Overnight visits typically involve tents in 

settings with few conveniences and facilities, although extended stays may be accommodated. Adventure 

recreationists and ecotourists are attracted to this setting. However, inexperienced recreationists or visitors new to 

the area may be uncomfortable with the remoteness and the necessary requirement of self-reliance. 

Primitive recreation experience: The area provides many opportunities to see, hear, or smell the natural 

resources (e.g., forests, wildlife, and aesthetics) since development, human activity and natural resource 

modifications are rare. The opportunity to experience natural ecosystems with very little and no apparent human 

imprint is paramount. The natural views, sounds, and smells dominate the area. A sense of solitude, 

peacefulness, tranquility, challenge, adventure, risk, and self-reliance is highly important, as is the lack of sight, 

sound, and smells of other humans. A sense of freedom, tranquility, humility, relaxation, appreciation of nature, 

and stewardship is central and dominant. The primitive recreation experience provides opportunities for humanpowered activities such as canoeing, kayaking, fly-fishing, hunting, floating, and backpacking. The high-speed 

noise of motorized conveyances is typically inappropriate for this area. Visitation often requires considerable trip 

planning and preparation, travel distance, physical exertion, and duration. Overnight visitors use tents in settings 

with no conveniences or facilities. Adventure travelers and ecotourists from distant locations are often attracted to 

the undisturbed wildland setting. 

Recreation benefits are 

improvements resulting 

from participating in 

quality outdoor 

recreation and tourism. 

These improvements or 

benefits may accrue to 

the individual 

recreationist and family 

or to the workplace, 

community, economy, or 

environment. 

Recreation Benefits 

Recreation benefits are improvements resulting from participating in 

quality outdoor recreation and tourism. These improvements or 

benefits may accrue to the individual recreationist and family or to 

the workplace, community, economy, or environment. WALROS 

does not explicitly include a step to measure or inventory recreation 

benefits, but does encourage managers to (1) engage local 

communities in identifying important recreation benefits in the 

planning process, (2) include a description of the important benefits 

in the management plan, and (3) reference benefits in various public 

education and community publications. The recreation benefits 

section will strengthen in the future as WALROS is used, field 

tested, and further refined. Table 1.6 lists some of the benefits that 

accrue from recreation and tourism. 

14 
Aspects of WALROS
 

Table 1.6.—Examples of recreation benefits 

The following photo collages provide examples of recreation 

activities and setting attributes by WALROS class. 

Individual or personal benefits Community benefits 

Physical exercise 

Family togetherness 

Self confidence 

Skill development 

Reflection/contemplation 

Increased wellness/happiness 

Increased quality of life 

Sense of place 

Improved work performance 

Community pride and spirit 

Community attraction/appeal 

Youth development 

Increased quality of life 

Economic benefits Environmental benefits 

Support of local merchants 

Economic stimulation 

Increased revenue from outside the area 

Increased property values 

Increased tax revenue 

Increased investor appeal 

Increased knowledge of resources 

Increased respect for environment 

Increased stewardship/involvement 

Increased collaboration 

Increased political/social support 

Increased conservation of nature 

15 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Photos Showing Examples of the Urban Classification 

16 
Aspects of WALROS
 

Photos Showing Examples of the Suburban Classification
 

17 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Photos Showing Examples of the Rural Developed Classification 

18 
Aspects of WALROS 

Photos Showing Examples of the Rural Natural Classification 

19 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Photos Showing Examples of the Semiprimitive Classification 

20 
Aspects of WALROS
 

Photos Showing Examples of the Primitive Classification
 

21 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

The Standard for WALROS 

Decisionmaking 

WALROS is a framework that is flexible and adaptable to specific 

field situations. WALROS does not replace management discretion 

and decisionmaking. Rather, it is a tool to help make decisions that 

are principled, reasoned, systematic, logical, traceable, and 

defensible. 

While local planners and managers are empowered to adapt 

WALROS to the local situation, it is important that these decisions 

be carefully considered in order to maintain the integrity of 

WALROS. This section provides guidance on decisionmaking 

based on several fundamental principles found in decision science 

and State and Federal law (e.g., Administrative Procedure Act, the 

National Environmental Policy Act [NEPA], etc.). These guiding 

principles are applied by the judicial system throughout the United 

States. The standard for WALROS decision-making incorporates 

(1) sound professional judgment, (2) preponderance of the evidence, 

(3) a rule of reasonableness, (4) a sliding scale rule of analysis, and 

(5) a scale of degree. 

Sound professional 

judgment is defined as a 

reasonable decision that 

has given full and fair 

consideration to the 

appropriate information, 

is based on principled 

and reasoned analysis 

and on the best available 

science and expertise, 

and complies with 

applicable laws. 

Sound Professional Judgment 

Sound professional judgment is defined as a reasonable decision 

that has given full and fair consideration to the appropriate 

information, is based on principled and reasoned analysis and on the 

best available science and expertise, and complies with applicable 

laws. 

The terms in the definition of sound professional judgment are 

derived from judicial doctrine and legal terminology. A reasonable 

decision is one that is fit and appropriate under the circumstances. 

It is a decision that natural resource decisionmakers of ordinary 

prudence and competence would not view as excessive or 

immoderate under similar circumstances. It is important to 

remember that the judiciary does not compare a manager’s decision 

against some single absolute right decision conceived by the court. 

That is, the court’s function is not to make administrative decisions 

but rather to judge the reasonableness of an agency decision using 

judicial doctrine such as reasonable care, due diligence, and 

sufficient evidence. 

22 
The Standard for WALROS Decisionmaking
 

Full and fair consideration of the appropriate information is the 

condition of considering the whole situation and making an 

impartial decision. Principled and reasoned analysis is the 

condition of not being arbitrary and capricious. Being arbitrary and 

capricious is one of the most frequent allegations in natural 

resource-related litigation. Best available science and expertise is 

the condition of using the best information and experience that is 

reasonably available to improve certainty. Complies with 

applicable laws is the expectation that a decisionmaker must duly 

consider and be in conformance with relevant laws and regulations 

(e.g., NEPA, Endangered Species Act). 

Preponderance of the Evidence 

Preponderance of the evidence is defined as a condition whereby 

most of the information, data, trends, professional opinion, and 

other facts and circumstances of a situation support the 

reasonableness of a particular decision or course of action more than 

another decision or course of action. It is a situation where the 

weight of evidence of one course of action is greater than the weight 

of evidence of another course of action. 

Rule of Reasonableness 

The rule of reasonableness is defined as a decision that professional 

recreation managers of ordinary prudence and competence would 

not view as excessive or immoderate under similar circumstances. 

Sliding Scale Rule of Analysis 

This sliding scale rule states that the level of analysis used to 

implement WALROS should be commensurate with the potential 

consequences of the decision; that is, managers need flexibility to 

make decisions based on a level of analysis that is commensurate 

with the purpose and potential consequences of the decision. For 

example, the greater the possibility that a decision may significantly 

alter natural resource conditions, the heritage of an area, local 

economies, water operations, or the type or quality of the water 

recreation opportunity, the greater the level of analysis and 

deliberation. A sliding-scale rule of analysis (table 1.7) can range 

from slight to ordinary to extraordinary and can vary by the (1) level 

and type of information necessary, (2) tools and techniques used, 

(3) time and effort required, (4) level of certainty and risk, and 

(5) level of scientific input. 

Sound professional judgment is 

used to make decisions. 

“No wake” or slow zones can 

contribute to a quality 

experience. 

Managers need flexibility 

to make decisions based 

on a level of analysis that 

is commensurate with the 

purpose and potential 

consequences of the 

decision. 

Moorings can provide an 

important service to the public. 

23 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

WALROS uses a three-level sliding scale analysis (table 1.7) that 

parallels the judiciary’s interpretation of due diligence by a 

responsible official: slight, ordinary, and extraordinary levels of 

analysis. The sliding scale should serve as a guide for managers. 

Table 1.7.—Three levels of WALROS analysis 

Sliding scale of 

WALROS analysis 

Type of use for the 

WALROS analysis 

Level of detail 

and precision Description of the WALROS inventory 

Level 1 

Coarse filter 

General administrative 

inventory; visitor 

brochures; routine visitor, 

resource, and 

maintenance decisions, 

etc. 

Slight or low 

level of detail, 

intensity, effort, 

data, time, and 

precision. 

A knowledgeable recreation staff person 

can conduct a level 1 inventory with 

available information, no original data 

collection or field inventory, and in a 

relatively short period (e.g., 1–2 days of 

effort). 

Level 2 

Moderate filter 

Regional inventories and 

plans; environmental 

assessments; commercial 

service plans; assessments of impacts from 

proposed small to 

moderate scale changes 

in facilities, land and 

water uses, visitor 

regulations, etc. 

Ordinary or 

moderate level 

of detail, 

intensity, effort, 

data, time, and 

precision. 

Level 2 should involve a small 

interdisciplinary team of recreation experts, 

a field inventory using the WALROS 

inventory protocol, development of a 

current and comprehensive water resource 

base map, and original data collection, if 

possible. Level 2 can be conducted with 

modest effort (e.g., 2–4 days of effort after 

selecting and training the team). 

Level 3 

Fine filter 

Environmental Impact 

Statement – compliance 

planning, resource 

management plans, 

general management 

plans, assessments of 

impacts from proposed 

moderate to large scale 

changes in facilities, 

resource use, visitor 

management, etc. 

Extraordinary or 

high level of 

detail, intensity, 

effort, data, 

time, and 

precision. 

Level 3 should involve a larger 

interdisciplinary team of recreation experts, 

several long-time visitors to the particular 

area, an intensive field inventory using the 

WALROS inventory protocol, a detailed 

and current base map, visitor survey 

information, and resource data collection, if 

possible. Level 3 requires substantial 

effort (e.g., 10–20 days of effort after 

selecting and training the team and 

excluding the visitor survey task). 

Scale of Degree 

The scale of degree in WALROS is analogous to a yardstick used to 

measure inches and feet. For the yardstick to be effective, society 

needed to agree upon and standardize the measurement of an inch 

and foot. Similarly, the scale of degree in WALROS is intended to 

help standardize the measurement of attributes for each WALROS 

class. The scale of degree contains several qualitative terms and a 

quantitative expression. The terms listed under the six WALROS 

classes in table 1.8 are synonymous and used interchangeably in the 

WALROS guidelines (chapter 2) and inventory protocol (chapter 3). 

24 
Scale of Degree 


In the WALROS inventory stage, a team of experts will select and 

inventory a series of sites on the waterbody. At each inventory site, 

the team is asked to circle the degree, extent, or magnitude that the 

following attributes are present at this site. In response, each team 

member circles the set of terms along the scale of degree in table 1.8 

that best represents his or her view. For example, structures and 

human activity in an urban setting are characterized as dominant, 

extensive, a great deal, extreme, or apparent in 80 percent or more 

of the setting. Conversely, evidence of other recreation use in a 

primitive setting is characterized as very minor, rare, very little, or 

apparent on 3 percent or less of the area. Use of the scale of 

degree in the WALROS Inventory Protocol is described in 

Chapter 3—Inventory. 

Table 1.8.—The scale of degree of major development used in WALROS 

Accessible facilities are 

important. 

Urban Suburban Rural developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

80-100% 50-80% 20-50% 10-20% 3-10% 0-3% 

Dominant Very prevalent Prevalent Occasional Minor Very minor 

Extensive Widespread Common Infrequent Little Very little 

A great deal Very obvious Apparent Periodic Seldom Rare 

Extremely Very Moderately Somewhat Slightly Not at all 

In Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and 

Managerial Attribute Guidelines, the scale 

of degree is used in the guidelines to 

indicate the degree, extent, or magnitude of 

the attribute’s appropriateness in each 

WALROS class. For example, the presence 

of full-service bath facilities is 

characterized as extensive in an urban 

setting, but as not at all appropriate in a 

primitive setting. Note that there are a few 

attributes in chapter 2 and in the WALROS 

Inventory Protocol (e.g., degree of solitude, 

degree of natural ambiance) where the scale 

has been reversed to ensure logic and 

integrity of the recreation opportunity. 

A variety of recreation activities can occur within a setting. 

25 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

Design Criteria Used in Developing 

WALROS 

Varieties of important considerations were identified early in the 

development of the WROS in 2004. Since that time, additional 

criteria have been developed to encompass the value of using 

WALROS in land, regional water resource, and river recreation 

planning. Properly formulated design criteria help ensure that 

WALROS is efficient, effective, and valuable to water resource 

planners and managers. The design criteria used to help develop 

WALROS include the following: 

•	 interfacing with Reclamation’s Resource Management 

Planning process and other NEPA-compliant planning 

processes used by other agencies; 

•	 applicability to local or regional recreation planning; 

•	 interfacing with the ROS system used by the U.S. Forest 

Service and Bureau of Land Management (BLM); 

•	 consistency with the prevailing expert opinion in the recreation 

profession; 

• relative ease and affordability to use; 

•	 ability to integrate with other planning tools, databases, and 

processes; 

•	 appeal and understandability to the recreating public, 

communities, stakeholders, and private-sector businesses; 

•	 applicability to land-based physical, social, and managerial 

attributes that may support water-based recreation or stand 

alone as land-based; 

•	 providing objective criteria for reasoned and deliberate 

decision making; 

•	 accommodating flexibility and adaptation to special field 

situations; 

•	 using the best available social and biophysical science; 

•	 supplying only those facilities, services, and opportunities that 

are consistent with the appropriate WALROS class; 

•	 accommodating change and adaptation through monitoring, 

research, and experience; 

Parks and beaches provide for 

multiple recreation uses. 

26 
The Planning and Management Value of WALROS
 

•	 applying reasonably well to a variety of recreation settings
 

across the nation;
 

•	 helping to ensure a high-quality, safe, and enjoyable recreation
 

experience; and
 

•	 helping to prioritize facility, infrastructure, program
 

development, and management actions.
 

The Planning and Management Value of 

WALROS 

WALROS is an inventory, planning, and management tool. As 

such, it is valuable to the managing agencies, local communities, WALROS is an recreationists, and the private sector (e.g., tourism industry) inventory, planning, and especially for its applicability to the following tasks: management tool. 

•	 inventory and map water and/or land recreation opportunities; 

•	 integrate recreation into the agency planning process; 

•	 compare recreation demand to the supply of available 

recreation opportunities; 

•	 provide a visual map (compatible with geographic information 

systems [GIS]) of proposed planning alternatives; 

•	 evaluate the benefits and costs of proposed alternatives; 

•	 identify and manage a tourism niche for communities and the 

private sector; 

•	 plan and manage a regional system of water and/or land 

recreation opportunities; 

•	 identify and protect important natural and cultural resources; 

•	 increase public awareness of recreation choices and available 

opportunities; 

•	 decide the type and location of visitor management activities; 

•	 prioritize, design, and locate facilities; 

•	 develop visitor capacities; 

•	 justify budget and personnel needs; 

Fishing is one of many activities 

that may occur in all six of the 

WALROS spectrums. 

27 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

•	 legally justify planning and management decisions; 

•	 provide interagency communication, consistency, 

collaboration, and coordination; 

•	 conserve a diversity of water and land recreation opportunities; 

and 

•	 ensure high-quality recreation experiences and benefits for 

current and future visitors and the local community. 

Examples of How WROS Has Been 

Successfully Used 

Since the original WROS Guidebook was published in 2004, 

WROS has been applied to many waterbodies for a variety of 

reasons. Following are several examples of where WROS has been 

applied, plus a brief discussion of its use and value. 

Resource Management Planning for 

Boating Capacity at Public Meetings 

The California Department of Parks and Recreation used WROS to 

help develop the Resource Management Plan (RMP) and 

Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact Report 

(EIS/EIR) for Millerton Lake State Recreation Area. As part of this 

planning process, they used WROS to inventory, map, and classify 

the lake and its surrounding lands. Using the WROS classifications 

and boating capacities contained in this handbook, they established 

boating capacities for different areas of the lake and its 

surroundings. They also used WROS in public meetings to present 

alternatives to the public. They found WROS to be an excellent tool 

to help the public easily understand the possible implications of 

each alternative’s effect on their recreation experience. Among 

other things, the alternative selected by the public and planning 

team added diversity of recreation experiences within the planning 

area. It assigned limits on boats for each WROS classified area on 

and around the lake. The selected alternative also recommended 

that a proposed marina not be built due to its location and impact on 

carrying capacities in adjacent areas that were best suited for more 

natural types of recreation experiences. 

28 
Examples of How WROS Has Been Successfully Used 


The value of using WROS for RMP, boating capacity, and public 

meetings was stated by Robert Epperson, Resource Manager in 

Reclamation’s Mid-Pacific Region (since retired): 

Due mostly to the use of WROS, the RMP was cited for excellence by 

Commissioners of California State Parks and Recreation. We 

received a number of comments during our various public meetings on 

the Millerton RMP expressing how easy it was to understand the 

planning goals through the WROS description. It seems to be a 

process that makes a complex planning process filled with tradeoffs, 

intuitively understandable to the layperson. It seems to have been 

appreciated as well by the Commissioners. 

Interagency Cooperation and Problem

Solving 

Under the direction of the BLM’s Lake Havasu Office and 

Reclamation, WROS was applied to an approximately 60-mile 

corridor of the Colorado River/Lake Havasu from Davis Dam to 

Parker Dam. The original objective was to bring together some 30 

management agencies and two Indian tribes across three States in 

order to build cooperation in solving management problems within 

the river corridor. WROS was highly successful in achieving this 

objective. Agency planners and managers congregated on boats to 

conduct WROS site inventories along the entire river corridor. 

During this gathering, they discussed various management problems 

and opportunities. They compared alternative solutions using 

possible changes in WROS site classes and in recreation 

opportunities. A major outcome of this WROS exercise was the 

establishment of the Tri-States Waterways Group. This group is 

currently involved in cooperative interagency recreation planning 

and management of the river corridor and the Tri-State Region. 

Regional Planning 

Reclamation and the California Department of Parks and Recreation 

selected 30 waterbodies in the Central Valley from Los Angeles to 

the Oregon border and subdivided the reservoirs and rivers into five 

regions. Subsequently, these waterbodies were inventoried using 

WROS. The purpose of the inventories was to provide regional 

information that could be used in recreation planning of individual 

reservoirs and rivers. The information provided a database that 

allowed managers and planners to compare their waterbodies to 

others in the region and avoid planning in a vacuum. Several 

Federal, State, and local agencies have used their own WROS 

29 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition
 

Chapter 1— Overview
 

Multi-disciplinary teams are 

important during the WALROS 

planning process. 

waterbody inventories as well as the WROS regional information 

from other waterbodies in their recreation and resource plans. The 

WROS regional information also allows comparison of recreation 

opportunities and management between and across regions. The 

report from this major study is titled: Applying the Water 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum on a Regional Scale—Five 

Regions within the California Central Valley, 2010. 

Recreation Master Planning, 

Environmental Impact Report, and 

Commercial Services Planning 

Using a Level 1 WROS inventory of lands within Reclamation’s 

Canyon Ferry-Goose Bay Planning Area, Montana, Reclamation 

was able to recommend site plans that allowed a diversity of 

recreation opportunities, experiences, and commercial services on 

the planning site and the entire reservoir. The ensuing reports are 

titled: Recreation Master Plan Goose Bay Planning Area; Master 

Plan, Commercial Services Plan, and Financial Feasibility 

Evaluation; and Goose Bay Environmental Assessment 2010. 

Copies of the reports may be obtained by contacting the Montana 

Area Office of the Bureau of Reclamation in Billings, Montana. 

Land Use Planning 

After comparing WROS to the ROS, the BLM’s Havasu office 

selected WROS over the former because WROS worked better for 

inventorying BLM lands for recreation purposes. The WROS land 

inventory proved highly successful for identifying recreation 

opportunities and was used to help develop BLM’s Recreation 

Lands Master Plan. 

Demonstrating Changes and Success in 

Preserving Recreation Opportunities and 

Visitors’ Experiences over Time 

In 2003, Santa Barbara County Parks, California and Reclamation 

conducted a WROS inventory of Cachuma Lake in order to provide 

information on the recreation opportunities and visitor experiences 

offered. The information from the survey was beneficial to the 

development of Santa Barbara’s Cachuma Lake Recreation 

Management Plan. The implementation of the plan resulted in 

30 
Examples of How WROS Has Been Successfully Used 


management actions aimed at preserving certain recreation 

experiences and opportunities. Seven years later, in 2010, WROS 

was once again applied across the lake at the same exact inventory 

site locations as in 2003. The comparison between the 2003 and 

2010 inventory results showed that the planning and management 

effort has been successful in preserving recreation opportunities and 

visitor experiences. Table 1.9 shows the study results. 

Table 1.9.—Comparison of Lake Cachuma 2003 and 2010 

WROS inventory site scores and classifications 

Site 2003 WROS score 2010 WROS score 

# 1 Marina RD 4 RD 4 

# 2 Narrows RN 6 RN 7 

# 3 Santa Cruz Bay RN 7 RN 7.8 

# 4 Cachuma Bay RN 7 RN 6.88 

# 5 Yurts RD 4 RD 4 

Road Closures and Land Uses 

Reclamation used WROS to inventory lands, recreation 

opportunities, and experiences on a portion of New Melones Lake in 

California. Based on this inventory and the recreation impact of 

alternatives demonstrated through WROS, some roads were closed 

to protect recreation experiences and resources. The report is titled: 

Shell Road Interim Management Plan for Reclamation, 2003. 

Expanding Regional Diversity and Facility

Location 

A Level 1 WROS inventory of 10 reservoirs within the vicinity of 

New Melones Lake found that only 2 percent of all the water 

recreation opportunities in the region were in the WROS 

semiprimitive class and that none of the opportunities were in the 

primitive class. This led managers at New Melones Lake to take 

immediate action to protect a segment of the lake as semiprimitive. 

The simple placement of “no wake” buoys on the upper reach of the 

lake was all that was required to accomplish this. The result was a 

diversification of recreation experiences at the lake and within the 

region. Moreover, a tentative plan to place a marina in a rural 

natural area in close proximity to a protected wildlife area was 

abandoned because of the WROS inventory of New Melones Lake. 

31 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition
 

Chapter 1— Overview
 

Water operations or 

environmental factors such as 

extensive rain may temporarily 

affect a user’s recreation 

experience. 

Reservoir WROS Designations 

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has used WROS to help 

plan recreation on their reservoirs. (See list of TVA reservoirs 

where WROS has been applied in appendix B.) TVA also utilized 

WROS to creatively explore the possibility of designating an entire 

reservoir in one WROS class in order to preserve a single recreation 

experience and opportunity on that reservoir. 

Assistance in Determining a Recreation 

Strategy within a Variety of Water 

Operation Alternatives 

As part of the Yakima River Basin Storage Feasibility Study in the 

State of Washington, WROS was used to assess the potential 

impacts of several water operation alternatives to the recreation 

resources. WROS also helped managers determine a viable 

recreation strategy within the Yakima River Basin. As part of this 

Feasibility Study, a technical report was prepared, entitled 

Recreation Demand and User Preference Analysis, 2007. A WROS 

Level 1 analysis was used to inventory (i.e., map) the current supply 

of water recreation opportunities and to develop a regional profile of 

the water resources across the six WROS classes. 

It is typical in recreation resource planning to examine 

“comparables” in order to help determine demand and user 

preference. Refer to Chapter 3—Inventory under the subheading 

of Develop a Basic Profile of the Planning Area and Region for 

additional information regarding establishing a regional profile. In 

this recreation demand and user preference, the two criteria used to 

select the comparables for analysis were (1) the major existing 

reservoirs and rivers within the Yakima River Basin and (2) other 

water resources near the basin that were similar in terms of 

geography, topography, climate, ecotype, elevation, vegetation, and 

recreation use. The water resources inventoried included 

36,235 water surface acres and 413 miles of rivers. Moreover, 

WROS was used in this study as a basis for helping to determine the 

recreation economic feasibility of water alternatives and to evaluate 

the feasibility of two new proposed reservoirs. 

One innovative aspect of this Level 1 inventory was the use of aerial 

observation of the lakes and rivers within the planning area. Using 

a helicopter transport, it took a 3-person-team one day to inventory 

most of the waterbodies. Consequently, the use of a helicopter 

32 
Water resource Urban Suburban Rural developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Lakes Water surface acres by WROS class 

Keechelus Lake 2,360 

Kachess Lake 1,684 2,595 

Cle Elum Lake 4,478 

Lake Easton 205 

Rimrock Lake 2,351 

Bumping Lake 472 849 

Clear Lake 231 

Moses Lake 3,417 2,551 760 

Potholes Lake 5,220 9,062 

Total water surface 

acres 

3,417 19,321 13,497 

(% of total) (9.4%) (53.3%) (37.3%) 

Rivers River miles by WROS class 

Yakima River 29 144 30 

Columbia River 13 11 54 42 

Bumping River 3 13 

Tieton River 1 20 

Naches River 3 36 6 

Cle Elum River 8 

Total river miles 13 43 246 111 

(% of total) (3.1%) (10.4%) (59.6%) (26.9%) 

Examples of How WROS Has Been Successfully Used 

saved valuable time and funding. Table 1.10 shows the results of 

the Yakima River Basin recreation and user demand study. 

Table 1.10.—Inventory of the current supply of water recreation opportunities in the Yakima River Basin based on 

the WALROS system 

Source: Technical Series No. TS-YSS-10, Recreation Demand and User Preference Analysis, A Component of 

Yakima River Basin Water Storage Feasibility Study, 2007. 

Improving Management of River 

Recreation Resources 

Due to the dramatic increase in the popularity and use of river 

recreation areas in the State of New Hampshire, a Level 1 WROS 

analysis was conducted in order to inventory and analyze recreation 

use on the Connecticut, Upper Ammonoosuc, and Androscoggin 

Rivers. As a result, a total of 75 miles were inventoried. The three 

rivers inventoried in New Hampshire are part of the 740-mile 

33 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook—Second Edition 

Chapter 1— Overview 

historic Northern Forest Canoe Trail (NFCT), which spans the 

States of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the 

Canadian province of Quebec. The three rivers pass through 

Federal, State, and private ownership, each with a varying degree of 

management authority. This scenario makes it difficult to initiate an 

overall management strategy for the river corridors that are part of 

the NFCT in the State of New Hampshire. 

The primary objectives for completing the WROS inventory were to 

accomplish the following: 

•	 better understand the resource and facilitate communication 

with visitors by improving maps and information regarding the 

type of recreation experiences offered at different locations; 

•	 develop future management direction and justify actions based 

on regional planning and understandable information; 

•	 provide a visual understanding of how proposed development 

or adjacent changes may affect available recreation 

opportunities; and 

•	 clearly explain rules and regulations as to why certain actions 

are desirable. 

To accommodate differences in visitation between weekdays and 

weekends, the study team made multiple trips to each river and 

compiled their results to provide an overall WROS score for each 

(i.e., Connecticut—semiprimitive; Upper Ammonoosuc— 

semiprimitive; and Androscoggin—rural natural). 

The information obtained from the WROS inventory and analysis 

currently provides an overall management strategy for the 75 miles 

of rivers managed by a variety of entities. The inventory and map 

information can be used in any government or private organization’s 

planning process and may accomplish the following tasks: 

•	 assist in developing future management directions; 

•	 justify actions; 

•	 develop reasonable alternatives; 

•	 analyze tradeoffs and benefits among alternatives; and 

•	 visually depict the alternatives and their corresponding results 

to improve community understanding and input. 

34 
Chapter 2—Physical, 

Social, and Managerial 

Attribute Guidelines 
Physical, Social, and Managerial 

Attribute Guidelines 

Top, trails are important to 

access water. Bottom, this 

patrol boat and the law 

enforcement it provides are 

important management tools. 

Recreation managers provide opportunities for visitors to participate 

in an activity within a specific setting, which is defined by its 

important physical, social, and managerial attributes. The 

opportunity will ensure that visitors realize a particular type of 

experience and its subsequent benefits (refer to figure 1.1 in 

chapter 1). This chapter contains recommended guidelines for 

many setting attributes that, when considered together, encompass 

and define the WALROS class and its corresponding recreation 

opportunity. The guidelines provided are for water-based and 

associated land-based attributes. For example, if an entity is 

managing a section of a lake or river and its associated land base for 

rural developed recreation, the guidelines in the rural developed 

column should be considered. 

The physical, social, and managerial guidelines are intended to 

provide guidance while adapting to unique local situations. They 

serve as indicators to signal that further assessment or action may be 

necessary (e.g., more monitoring, patrols, or discussion). Failing to 

meet a guideline or standard does not necessarily obligate or direct 

management action. Rather, it indicates that the appropriate level of 

due diligence has been taken by conducting the assessment. 

Guidelines also are critical for an efficient monitoring program 

since they provide a reference point, baseline, or anchor by which 

managers can compare current actual conditions to the preferred 

conditions reflected in the guidelines. 

Managers may decide to deviate from the recommended guidelines 

occasionally, but they need to carefully consider all the facts and 

circumstances before making this decision. It is important for them 

to first address this basic question: What is the justification for this 

deviation and will it violate the integrity of the WALROS system? 

Sound professional judgment and the rule of reasonableness (see 

chapter 1) should be the standards for decisionmaking. It is 

important to include a written detailed explanation in the 

administrative record for future administrative or judicial inquiries. 

However, managers must keep in mind that continued modification 

of the attributes within any given recreation setting and a deviation 

from the recommended guidelines may result in physical, social, 

36 
Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines
 

and managerial inconsistencies over time. Scenarios that may result 

from a deviation from established guidelines include the below 

factors: 

•	 a decrease in user satisfaction; 

•	 a change in available opportunities; 

•	 an increase in user conflict; 

•	 an eventual decrease in visitation; and 

•	 environmental impacts, such as a decrease in water quality, 

loss of wildlife habitat, and degradation of cultural resources. 

Due to the potential social and environmental impacts, the 

monitoring of program activities addressed in chapter 4 may 

become more important. Urban areas may require more 

comprehensive monitoring efforts than primitive areas. 

Refer to Chapter 3—Inventory for additional information on 

identifying and mitigating inconsistencies identified between the 

physical, social, or managerial settings. 

This section provides guidelines for the physical, social, and 

managerial attributes across each WALROS class. It will continue 

to evolve and improve over time with management experience and 

greater input from professionals. 

For each specific attribute in this section, such as the degree of 

human activity, recreation use, and the presence of structures, a 

qualitative descriptor conveys the appropriateness, recommended 

degree, or extent to which the attribute may be present for each 

WALROS class. Table 2.1, below, is repeated from chapter 1 

(table 1.8) for clarification of the descriptors used in the following 

guidelines. 

Table 2.1 (repeated from chapter 1).—The scale of degree of major development 

used in WALROS 

Managers need to 

remember that continued 

modification of the 

attributes within any 

given recreation setting 

and deviation from the 

recommended guidelines 

may result in physical, 

social, and managerial 

inconsistencies over time. 

Areas within a setting that 

attract multiple users may have 

negative environmental 

impacts, such as poor water 

quality, and require 

management that is more 

intensive. 

Urban Suburban Rural developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

80-100% 

Dominant 

Extensive 

A great deal 

Extremely 

50-80% 

Very prevalent 

Widespread 

Very obvious 

Very 

20-50% 

Prevalent 

Common 

Apparent 

Moderately 

10-20% 

Occasional 

Infrequent 

Periodic 

Somewhat 

3-10% 

Minor 

Little 

Seldom 

Slightly 

0-3% 

Very minor 

Very little 

Rare 

Not at all 

37 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Physical Setting Attribute Guidelines 

The physical setting may encompass unique scenic and visual 

features that offer a primitive type of recreation opportunity or 

highly developed features that are associated with a modified 

landscape albeit visitors enjoy an urban style recreation experience. 

Among other things, the degree of human development, natural 

resource modification, and sensory perception to the sights, sounds, Changes to the physical and smells of a typical community will determine the type of setting are often recreation experience a visitor can expect within a defined area. irreversible. The size of the area, its topography and vegetation, and the access to 

it are also relevant in determining the type of recreation experience 

available to the public. A large area with abundant vegetation and 

topographical relief but very little road access will offer the public a 

more primitive type of recreation experience. 

It should be noted that the physical setting within WALROS cannot 

be changed easily, although changes will likely become irreversible 

if they are undertaken. 

Table 2.2 provides several physical setting attribute guidelines that 

can assist managers in determining an area’s WALROS 

classification. 

Facilities and scenic views can define a 

recreation experience. 

Service facilities within a setting, such as 

restaurants, may enhance the recreation 

experience. 

38 
Physical Setting Attribute Guidelines
 

Table 2.2.—Physical setting attribute guidelines 

Physical attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Degree of development: 

Extent that human built 

structures dominate the 

viewshed (e.g., dams, 

major bridges, docks, 

commercial businesses, 

residential areas, 

marinas, roads, resorts, 

highways, communities, 

airports, utilities, and 

other business or 

industrial complexes). 

Extensive, 

dominant, or 

a great deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Distance from major 

development: 

Mileage from dams, 

major bridges, marina 

resorts, communities, 

commercial, or 

residential areas. 

Less than 

0.5 mile 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 10 

miles 

Degree of natural 

resource modification: 

Extent of visitor 

awareness that natural 

resources have been 

altered by human 

activity, technology, or 

development. 

Extensive, 

dominant, or 

a great deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Sense of closeness to a 

community: 

Degree that visitors 

sense a close proximity 

to the sights, sounds, 

and smells typical of a 

community. 

Extensive, 

dominant, or 

a great deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Degree that natural 

ambiance dominates 

the area: Extent to 

which a sense of 

tranquility and opportunity to see, hear, and 

smell nature exist. 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Minor, very 

little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Very prevalent 

or widespread 

50–80% 

Extensive, 

dominant, or 

a great deal 

80–100% 

Water quality standards Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Exceeds State 

standards 

Exceeds 

State 

standards 

Air quality standards Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Meets or 

exceeds 

State 

standards 

Exceeds State 

standards 

Exceeds 

State 

standards 

39 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.2 (cont’d).—Physical setting attribute guidelines 

Physical attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Visual quality objective 

of nature 

Maximum 

modification 

Maximum 

modification 

Modification Partial 

retention 

Retention Preservation 

Communication towers Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Grain silos and smoke 

stacks 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Water break wall, 

riprap, channelization 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Other human built 

structures and 

activities 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Commercial air traffic 

(e.g., noise, contrails, 

quantity) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Restricted areas 

(i.e., administrative 

sites, cultural sites, 

environmentally 

sensitive areas) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Social Setting Attribute Guidelines 

The social setting can range from a defined recreation area where 

many visitors interact with one another while participating in their 

recreational pursuits to a defined area where other visitors are 

seldom encountered. Among other things, the degree of visitor 

preference, congestion, solitude and remoteness, and 

nonrecreational use will determine which type of recreation 

experience a visitor can expect. 

Table 2.3 provides several social setting attribute guidelines that can 

assist land managers in the supervision of visitors who prefer to 

recreate in a defined area with other recreationists. 

Developed campgrounds 

provide an appropriate setting 

for those individuals who wish 

to socialize with other recreation 

users. 

40 
Social Setting Attribute Guidelines
 

Table 2.3.—Social setting attribute guidelines 

Social attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Degree of visitor 

presence: 

Degree that the sights, 

sounds, and smells of 

other visitors, their 

equipment, their 

impacts, or their litter is 

present. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Degree of visitor 

concentration: 

Degree that visitors 

congregate in the area 

(e.g., service area, 

launches, entrances, 

swim areas, trailheads, 

picnic, or camp areas). 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Degree of recreation 

diversity: 

Degree that there is a 

mixture of recreation 

activities being 

participated in or 

equipment being used. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Distance to visitor 

services, security, and 

safety: Conveniences, 

comforts, and security, 

approximately measured 

in miles. 

Less than 

0.5 mile 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 

10 miles 

Degree of solitude and 

remoteness: 

Degree that visitors view 

themselves as being 

alone and far away from 

civilization in a wild and 

remote place. 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, or 

periodic 

10–20% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Extensive, 

dominant, or 

a great deal 

80–100% 

Degree of 

nonrecreational activity: 

Degree that the sights, 

sounds, and smells of 

nonrecreational users 

are present (i.e., 

shipping, trains, 

factories, roads, houses, 

airplanes, mining, and 

farming. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, or 

rare 

0–3% 

Reasonable standard for 

the percent of 

“extremely” or “very” 

satisfied visitors. 

80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 

41 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

42 

Table 2.3 (cont’d).—Social setting attribute guidelines

Social attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of 

“extremely” dissatisfied 

visitors. 

10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of 

visitors who would like 

to visit the area again. 

70% 70% 70% 70% 70% 70% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of 

visitors who would tell 

others that this site is a 

good place to visit. 

80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 

Reasonable number of 

boat heard per day. 

N/A N/A N/A N/A Less than 10 

boats per 

day 

Less than 3 

boats per 

day 

Reasonable number of 

boats seen per day. 

N/A N/A N/A N/A Less than 10 

boats per 

day 

Less than 3 

boats per 

day 

Reasonable standard 

for percent of boating 

accidents per number of 

boat launches. 

0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.005% 0.005% 0.001% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of 

emergency medical 

responses per number 

of recreation groups. 

0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.005% 0.005% 0.001% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of verbal 

or physical conflicts per 

number of boat 

launches. 

0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.005% 0.005% 0.001% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of noise 

disturbances per 

number of recreation 

groups. 

10% 10% 10% 5% 1% 1% 

Reasonable standard 

for percent of visitors 

perceiving “extreme” or 

“very” high crowding. 

25% 20% 20% 10% 5% 5% 
Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines
 

Table 2.3 (cont’d).—Social setting attribute guidelines 

Social attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Reasonable standard 

for percent of repeat 

visitors indicating the 

resource is “extremely” 

or “very” adversely 

affected. 

20% 20% 20% 20% 10% 10% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of repeat 

visitors indicating the 

experience has been 

“extremely” or “very” 

adversely affected since 

a previous visit. 

20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 

Reasonable standard 

for the percent of 

visitors complaining 

about a recurring issue. 

10% 10% 10% 5% 5% 5% 

Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines
 

Among other things, the managerial setting may encompass an 

established degree of management presence, public access facilities 

such as roads, developed recreation facilities, and visitor services. 

Managers can easily change the recreation spectrum within a 

defined area by implementing the many managerial attributes that 

are available to them. The conscientious development of an area 

may result in inconsistencies with the physical and social setting. 

Careful monitoring of the actions implemented by managers, 

evaluating the collected monitoring data, and appropriately adapting 

to each situation will likely mitigate the inconsistencies. 

Managers must also understand that it is easy to go from a more 

primitive type of recreation spectrum to an urban spectrum. Once 

substantial development has occurred within a defined area and the 

spectrum has shifted toward an urban experience, it is unlikely that 

those developments will be eliminated. Therefore, it is important 

that managers put forth effort to protect and/or conserve some areas 

that are on the primitive end of the spectrum for future use. 

It is readily apparent that the diversity of recreation opportunities 

will decrease as one moves from an urban to a primitive 

classification. 

Popular recreation sites often 

require intensive management. 

43 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Rules and regulations can be 

important factors in maintaining 

a recreation experience. 

Likewise, it should be obvious to managers that the managerial 

attribute guidelines imposed at a site will be greater in an urban area 

than in the five other recreation classifications. 

Table 2.4 provides several managerial setting attribute guidelines 

that can assist land managers in providing the appropriate facilities, 

opportunities, and administrative actions for each of the six 

recreation classifications. 

Table 2.4.—Managerial setting attribute guidelines 

Managerial attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Degree of management 

structures: 

Degree of management 

facilities, buildings, 

interpretive signage, 

equipment, buoys, 

mileage markers, entry 

stations, towers, 

security lighting, 

administrative offices, 

and compounds are 

present. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Distance to on-site 

developed recreation 

facilities and services: 

Mileage to developed 

campgrounds, 

restaurants, stores, 

marinas, resorts, pump 

stations, 

amphitheaters, picnic 

sites, play areas, 

telephones, showers, 

visitor centers, etc. 

Less than 

0.5 mile 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 

10 miles 

Distance from 

developed public 

access facilities: 

Mileage to developed 

and well-maintained 

access points such as 

parking lots, trailheads, 

entrances, boat 

launches, access 

roads, and other 

staging or launching 

areas. 

Less than 

0.5 mile 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles Varies 

44 
Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines 

45

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines

Managerial attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Frequency of noticing 

management personnel: 

The likelihood of 

sighting management 

personnel such as 

rangers, local sheriff or 

police, entrance station 

staff, hosts, maintenance workers, 

lifeguards, marina 

operators, concessionaires, guides, and other 

persons of authority. 

Extensive, 

dominant, or 

a great deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor or 

seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Reasonable maximum 

decibel levels for boat 

motors 

65-75 dB 65-75 dB 55-65 dB 55-65 dB 45-55 dB 35-45 dB 

Reasonable maximum 

boat speed 

35-45 mi/hr 35-45 mi/hr 35-45 mi/hr 15-30 mi/hr 5-15 mi/hr 0-5 mi/hr (no 

wake) 

Reasonable watercraft 

launch time 

Less than 

30 minutes 

Less than 

30 minutes 

Less than 

30 minutes 

Less than 

15 minutes 

No wait No wait 

Reasonable watercraft 

retrieval time 

Less than 

30 minutes 

Less than 

30 minutes 

Less than 

30 minutes 

Less than 

15 minutes 

No wait No wait 

Quiet times 10 pm to 

6 am 

10 pm to 

6 am 

10 pm to 

6 am 

10 pm to 

6 am 

24/7 24/7 

Reasonable number of 

flat water acres per boat 

1 to 

10 acres 

10 to 

20 acres 

20 to 

50 acres 

50 to 

110 acres 

(1⁄4 sq mi) 

110 to 

480 acres 

(3⁄4 sq mi) 

480 to 

3200 acres 

(5 sq mi) 

Reasonable separation 

between river boating 

groups 

1⁄8 mile 

(220 yards) 

1⁄4 mile 

(440 yards) 

1⁄4 mile 

(440 yards) 

1⁄2 mile or a 

20-minute 

separation 

2 miles or a 

1-hour 

separation 

4 miles or a 

2-hour 

separation 

Vehicle parking at 

beach and picnic areas 

25 plus per 

acre 

20 to 25 per 

acre 

15 to 20 per 

acre 

10 to 15 per 

acre 

N/A N/A 

Houseboat use Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A 

Tour boats Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

46

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines

Managerial attributes Urban Suburban Rural 

developed Rural natural Semiprimitive Primitive 

Sea planes Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Space between 

houseboats on mooring 

balls 

1.25 times 

the length of 

the boat 

1.25 times 

the length of 

the boat 

1.25 times 

the length of 

the boat 

1.25 times 

the length of 

the boat 

N/A N/A 

Minimum number of 

acres per group 

campsite in developed 

campground 

5 5 5 10 N/A N/A 

Campsites per acre in 

developed campground 

5 to 10 per 

acre 

5 to 10 per 

acre 

3 to 5 per 

acre 

3 per acre N/A N/A 

Minimum distance 

between dispersed 

shoreline campsites 

outside of developed 

campgrounds 

N/A N/A 1⁄8 mile 

(220 yards) 

1⁄4 mile 

(440 yards) 

1⁄2 mile or out 

of sight and 

sound of 

other parties 

1 mile or out 

of sight and 

sound of 

other parties 

Minimum distance 

between floating or boat 

in campsites outside 

developed 

campgrounds 

N/A N/A 1⁄8 mile 

(220 yards) 

1⁄4 mile 

(440 yards) 

1⁄2 mile or out 

of sight and 

sound of 

others 

1 mile or out 

of sight and 

sound of 

others 

Picnic and day use 

areas 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Designated beach areas Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Paved boat ramps Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Unpaved boat ramps N/A N/A Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Overnight security lights Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Marine sanitation 

devices 

Appropriate 

and may be 

required 

Appropriate 

and may be 

required 

Appropriate 

and may be 

required 

Appropriate 

and may be 

required 

Appropriate 

and may be 

required 

Appropriate 

and may be 

required 
Modern restrooms 

(e.g., flush toilets, 

electricity, and showers) 

Managerial attributes 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Urban 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Suburban 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Rural 

developed 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Rural natural 

N/A 

Semiprimitive 

N/A 

Primitive 

Rustic septic or vault 

toilets 

N/A N/A Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Floating camping 

platforms 

N/A N/A Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Designated campsites Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very few 

Interpretive signs Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Directional signs Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Regulatory signs Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Administrative office 

signs 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Informational signs Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Visitor centers Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Paved trails Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Unpaved or unimproved 

trails 

N/A N/A Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very few 

Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines 

47 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines 

Water-based trails 

(e.g., boat, raft, canoe, 

and scuba) 

Managerial attributes 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Urban 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Suburban 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Rural 

developed 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Rural natural 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Semiprimitive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Primitive 

Paved parking Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

N/A N/A N/A 

Unpaved parking N/A N/A Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Modern, full service RV 

and tent campgrounds 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Rustic or primitive 

campgrounds (i.e., no 

utilities or amenities) 

N/A N/A Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Large group picnic and 

camping facilities 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Full service resorts Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

N/A N/A N/A 

Full service marinas Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

N/A N/A N/A 

Fuel services and 

storage 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Golf courses Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

N/A N/A N/A 

Sports fields 

(e.g., baseball, soccer) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

N/A N/A N/A 

Community boat docks Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

48 
Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines 

Youth camps and dude 

ranches 

Managerial attributes 

N/A 

Urban 

N/A 

Suburban 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Rural 

developed 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Rural natural 

N/A 

Semiprimitive 

N/A 

Primitive 

Interpretive programs 

(e.g., trail or boat tours) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Fishing tournaments Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A 

Motorized boat racing 

events 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

N/A N/A N/A 

Water skiing events Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

N/A N/A 

Life guards Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Reservation systems 

(e.g., launch times, 

picnic areas, camping, 

tours, back country 

hiking, river rafting) 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

User fee systems 

(e.g., camping, tours, 

entrance fees, launches, 

back country hiking, 

river rafting) 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Administrative buildings 

(e.g., employee 

housing, office 

buildings, equipment 

storage) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Land-based food 

service concessions 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Long-term use permitted Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

49 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines 

Outdoor shooting or 

archery ranges 

Managerial attributes 

N/A 

Urban 

N/A 

Suburban 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Rural 

developed 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Rural natural 

N/A 

Semiprimitive 

N/A 

Primitive 

Amphitheaters Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Wildlife viewing stations Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

General utilities 

(e.g., electricity, sewer, 

water) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Access for persons with 

disabilities 

Appropriate 

and 

established 

by law 

Appropriate 

and 

established 

by law 

Appropriate 

and 

established 

by law 

Appropriate 

and 

established 

by law 

Appropriate 

where 

reasonable 

and 

established 

by law 

Appropriate 

where 

reasonable 

and 

established 

by law 

Fireplaces/grills Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Fish cleaning stations Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

N/A N/A 

Fish habitat 

improvements 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

but not 

intrusive 

Appropriate 

but not 

apparent 

Vegetative management Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

but not 

intrusive 

Appropriate 

but not 

apparent 

Wildlife management Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

but not 

intrusive 

Appropriate 

but not 

apparent 

Wildfire management Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

but not 

intrusive 

Appropriate 

but not 

apparent 

Resource monitoring Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

but not 

intrusive 

Appropriate 

but not 

apparent 

Visitor monitoring Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

but not 

intrusive 

Appropriate 

but not 

apparent 

50 
Managerial Setting Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.4 (cont’d).—Managerial setting attribute guidelines 

Minimum standard for 

monitoring visitor use 

(e.g., type, amount, 

location, duration) 

Managerial attributes 

Daily in 

primary 

season, 

weekly in 

secondary 

Urban 

Daily in 

primary 

season, 

weekly in 

secondary 

Suburban 

Daily in 

primary 

season, 

weekly in 

secondary 

Rural 

developed 

Weekly in 

primary 

season, 

monthly in 

secondary 

Rural natural 

Weekly in 

primary 

season, 

monthly in 

secondary 

Semiprimitive 

Monthly in 

primary 

season, 

monthly in 

secondary 

Primitive 

Minimum standard for 

monitoring visitor 

satisfaction, perceptions, 

or preferences 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

3 years 

Minimum standard for 

monitoring regional 

recreation demand and 

supply trends 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

3 years 

Every 

6 years 

Every 

6 years 

Every 

6 years 

Every 

6 years 

Limit on the number of 

visitors to protect the 

resources 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Limit on the number of 

visitors to protect special 

or important values 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Limit on the number of 

visitors to protect quality 

of experience 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Limit on the number of 

visitors to protect health 

and human safety 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Management zoning 

(e.g., wakeless areas, no 

camping, security areas, 

wildlife habitat) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very little 

Speed limits for boats Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Law enforcement 

presence 

Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Volunteers Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Camp hosts Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate N/A N/A 

Cooperating associations Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate 

Man made reservoir 

operations 

(e.g., 34 drawdown for 

municipal, industrial, and 

agriculture purposes 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very minor 

In-stream flow changes 

(e.g., flushing flows for 

fish habitat improvements) 

Appropriate 

and may be 

extensive 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very 

prevalent 

Appropriate 

and may be 

common 

Appropriate 

and may be 

occasional 

Appropriate 

and may be 

seldom 

Appropriate 

and may be 

very minor 

51 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Visitor Capacity Guidelines 

In 2002, the Federal Interagency Task Force on Visitor Capacity on 

Public Lands and Waters, delivered its final report to the Assistant 

Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, U.S. Department of the 

Interior. The Task Force was a 2-year effort to improve visitor 

capacity decisionmaking affecting the lands and waters managed by 

the Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Reclamation, Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Forest Service, and National Park Service. The 

report contains important background information on the concept of 

visitor capacity, a set of principles and criteria for decisionmaking, 

seven tools to help make better and more defensible capacity 

decisions, and a directory of 100 locations in the United States that 

have numerical visitor capacities. Pages 10 to 22 of the report are 

particularly relevant to WALROS and to this handbook. Refer to 

appendix G for pertinent excerpts from the interagency task force 

report. The full report can be obtained by contacting the National 

Recreation and Park Association in Ashburn, Virginia. 

The citation for the final report is: 

Haas, G. E. 2002. Visitor Capacity on Public Lands and 

Waters: Making Better Decisions. A Report of the Federal 

Interagency Task Force on Public Lands. Submitted to the 

Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. May 1, 2002. 

Published by the National Recreation and Park Association, 

Ashburn, Virginia. (ISBN 0-929581-66-0) 

Reasonable Flat-Water Recreation Boating 

Capacity Coefficients 

To help managers make better and more defensible boating capacity 

decisions, a set of boating capacity coefficients has been developed 

based on collaborative expert opinion, professional experience, 

published articles and plans, sound professional judgment, the rule 

of reasonableness, and the sliding scale rule of analysis discussed in 

chapter 1 of this handbook. The boating coefficients in table 2.5 

would be reasonable for a Level 1 analysis. (See table 1.7.) 

52 
Visitor Capacity Guidelines
 

Table 2.5.—A range of reasonable boating capacity coefficients 

WALROS class 

Range of boating coefficients (acres per boat) 

Low end High end 

Urban 1 10 

Suburban 10 20 

Rural developed 20 50 

Rural natural 50 110 (1⁄4 sq mi) 

Semiprimitive 110 480 (3⁄4 sq mi) 

Primitive 480 3,200 (5 sq mi) 

A boating capacity coefficient is defined as the number of water 

surface acres adequate for each recreational boat in a particular 

WALROS class. These coefficients can be multiplied by the 

suitable or available water surface acres for each WALROS class on 

a body of water to help justify and defend a boating capacity 

decision. Additional scientific study and monitoring can help refine 

these boating capacity coefficients. 

A boating capacity is defined as the number of recreational boats at 

one time (BAOT) that will be accommodated in an area, or the 

BAOTs for an area. BAOT refers to the number of boats that are 

untethered from the shoreline or any docking apparatus whose 

occupants are pursuing recreational opportunities. The following 

coefficients do not account for the inactive recreational boats 

moored at a dock, marina, or along the shoreline, nor do they 

account for nonrecreational boating activity (e.g., commercial 

fishing, shipping, and law enforcement). 

Because of the many factors that influence a boating capacity 

decision, a range of reasonable coefficients is provided for each 

WALROS class in table 2.5. A decision tool is also provided in 

table 2.6 to help ensure that important factors are duly considered 

by managers when deciding what part of the range may be most 

appropriate for the area in question. 

Boating capacity decisions are 

important. 

53 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 2—Physical, Social, and Managerial Attribute Guidelines 

Table 2.6.—A boating capacity range decision tool 

Instructions: The purposes of this decision tool are to help ensure that managers consider important factors 

affecting boating capacity and to help document the reasoned analysis used in making a boating capacity 

decision. For each WALROS zone, consider the following factors that may affect boating capacity. Circle the 

descriptor that best matches the situation. The preponderance of the answers will indicate which part of the 

capacity range may be more reasonable. 

Typical size of boats 

Factor 

<15 feet 

Higher Capacity 

16 to 25 feet 

Medium 

Capacity 

>25 feet 

Lower 

Capacity 

Typical speed of boats <10 mi/hr 10 to 25 mi/hr >25 mi/hr 

Diversity of boating: 

• Different types of boats 

• Different size of boats 

• Different speed of boats 

low 

low 

low 

moderate 

moderate 

moderate 

high 

high 

high 

Boater visitation pattern simple/ 

predictable 

moderate complex/ 

unpredictable 

Level of boater stewardship/ 

civility/respect for resource 

and others visitors 

high moderate low 

Shoreline configuration simple/ 

circular 

moderate complex/ 

meandering 

Boater destination or pass-through area pass-through 

corridor/in-transit 

mixed destination 

area/overnight 

area 

Extent of sensitive resources/ potential for impact low medium high 

Compatibility with adjacent recreation/nonrecreation land 

uses 

high moderate low 

Islands/shallows/hazards infrequent occasional frequent 

Historic public safety record/ accidents/complaints/conflicts infrequent occasional frequent 

Level of boater management/rules/information/education/ 

compliance 

high moderate low 

Suggested capacity range lower end 

(more boats) 

mid-range higher end 

(fewer boats) 

54 
Chapter 3—Inventory 
Inventory
 

This chapter provides operational details of how to conduct a 

WALROS inventory to map the current supply of recreation 

opportunities based upon measurement of the current physical, 

social, and managerial attributes in the area. Chapter 3 has three 

sections that (1) define the scope of the inventory, (2) describe the 

attributes and protocol used in the WALROS inventory, and 

(3) detail the inventory steps involved in mapping the current supply 

of recreation opportunities. 

Define the Scope of the Inventory 

A variety of important decisions and actions must be completed 

early in the process to define the scope of effort and level of 

analysis required. Listed below are key questions and actions that 

are precursors to the actual WALROS inventory. 

The WALROS inventory requires a quality base map and a 

compilation of all related documents and materials. Developing a 

comprehensive base map will define the planning area and assist 

managers in understanding the level of effort that may be required. 

Most agencies and offices have assembled comprehensive GIS 

databases. These resources contain many of the features listed 

below and are invaluable for building base maps. Some of the 

features that may be important are included in the list that follows. 

Signs are often needed to inform 

and regulate recreation users 

but can change the visual 

landscape. 

•	 water surface area 

•	 seasonal water levels 

•	 water depths 

•	 topography 

•	 primary and secondary 

roads 

•	 power transmission lines 

•	 aquatic and terrestrial 

vegetation 

•	 hazards and shallows 

•	 cultural and historic 

structures 

•	 important fish and wildlife 

habitat 

•	 seasonal closed areas 

•	 land acres 

•	 water operation facilities 

•	 special resources or values 

•	 private land and rights of 

way 

56 
Define the Scope of the Inventory
 

• navigational lights, markers •	 diversions, channels, riprap 

• subdivisions, communities •	 dam security area 

•	 buildings and structures • public health and safety
 

areas
 •	 recreation and concessions
 

facilities • administrative areas
 

The various documents and materials that may be collected include 

the following: 

•	 laws, regulations, policies; 

•	 maps, air photos, pictures, videos; 

•	 management and other operational plans; 

•	 special use permits, concession agreements, leases; 

•	 relevant scientific studies, inventories, and monitored reports; 

•	 visitor use statistics, trends, studies, road counts, surveys; 

•	 regional maps showing the location of other water recreation 

opportunities; 

•	 reports, studies, trends, or other materials from counties, States, 

or Federal partners; and 

•	 a list of important contacts (e.g., local, State, and Federal 

agencies; local communities; tourism offices; special interest 

groups; colleges and universities). 

Define the Planning Area for the WALROS 

Inventory 

While agencies have jurisdictional boundaries, the visiting public 

often enjoys multiple local, State, and Federal areas on a single 

visit. The public’s “visitation range” is often larger than a single 

agency’s jurisdiction and includes adjacent lands and waters where 

visitors spend time traveling, recreating, or viewing. Thus, the 

question is, how large should the planning area be to make good 

management decisions on the lands and waters within a manager’s 

jurisdiction? 

A reasonable rule of thumb is to define the planning area for the 

WALROS inventory to include those lands and waters that may 

affect the quality of the water recreation opportunity. It might also 

be helpful to adopt the perspective of the visitor: 

57 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 3—Inventory
 

The sizes and sounds of 

watercraft do affect the 

recreation experience. 

•	 What is the visitation range or area that most visitors frequent 

when they are near the general area? 

•	 Where do visitors go and what do they do beyond the primary 

water and land area in question? 

•	 Are there land uses adjacent to or within the planning area that 

may affect the recreation opportunities? 

Detailed WALROS inventory, planning, and management will only 

occur within the defined planning area. Yet, it may be necessary 

and beneficial to consider, particularly during WALROS inventory 

and planning stages, the larger area of influence beyond the 

planning area, which may cross agency boundaries. This will help 

decide how to manage the recreation opportunities in the planning 

area. Moreover, there may be an advantage to interagency efforts to 

inventory large areas within a person’s “visitation range.” 

Decide the Level of Resolution or 

Appropriate Scale of the Base Map 

In theory, one could conduct a WALROS inventory on any size area 

(e.g., 50 square miles, 10,000 acres, 1 acre). The real question is 

what scale is practical, usable, and compatible with other resource 

inventories. It is also important to use a scale to ensure that the final 

WALROS inventory map will fit into any existing GIS database. 

A reasonable scale for WALROS inventory mapping is a minimum 

of 160 acres, or one-quarter of a section; that is, a WALROS zone 

should be at least 160 acres to be mapped as a separate and distinct 

WALROS class. Furthermore, maps of a 1:50,000 scale have been 

found to be reasonable, although a 1:24,000 scale might be more 

suitable for small planning areas. 

A reasonable rule of thumb is that the minimum size or acreage for 

an area should be practical and useful for planning and management 

purposes and should be compatible with other inventory and 

mapping efforts. 

58 
Define the Scope of the Inventory
 

Decide the Time Period for Applying 

WALROS 

Recreation opportunities and management direction change during 

the year because of weather, water uses, type and pattern of 

visitation, facility closures, water operations, personnel staffing, and 

many other factors. Thus, an important decision relates to the 

period of time to which WALROS is being applied. It is reasonable 

to develop several WALROS inventory maps for the major 

recreation seasons, for the high- and low-water periods, or for 

periods when major changes are anticipated. 

A reasonable rule of thumb is that the important public concerns and 

management issues will drive the analysis or planning process 

defined by the time. For example, if river rafting, dispersed 

camping, or marina operations are a primary planning issue, then 

their respective peak seasons define the time period for applying 

WALROS. 

Decide If WALROS Will Be Used in a 

Resource Management Planning Process 

The WALROS inventory can be used either as input to a 

comprehensive resource management planning process or directly 

by managers to implement recreation management direction for the 

area. If the inventory is to be used in a resource management 

planning process, it is important to anticipate and to be consistent 

with other criteria being used in the process (e.g., scale, planning 

horizon, public process, timetable, and level of analysis). 

The WALROS inventory will describe the type and location of 

current recreation opportunities and identify inconsistencies that 

may be affecting the quality of the current opportunities. Thus, if a 

planning process will not be applied in the near future, WALROS 

can directly and immediately help manage the current recreation 

situation by addressing the inconsistencies or by altering the current 

situation to a more desired recreation opportunity. 

Determine the Effective WALROS Area 

under Consideration 

The effective WALROS area consists of those acres that are 

available and suitable for recreation purposes. Identifying and 

Different types of recreation 

activities may occur within the 

same physical setting. 

59 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

The effective WALROS 

area consists of those 

acres that are available 

and suitable for 

recreation purposes. 

Water operation facilities and 

security areas often remove an 

area from recreation use. 

demarking on the base map all the areas that are not suitable for 

recreational purposes is important early in the inventory process. 

Unsuitable lands and waters, for example, could include security 

areas, water storage and power facilities, private in-holdings, 

municipal or industrial operations, commercial shipping or barge 

lanes, ecologically sensitive areas, public hazard areas, cultural and 

historic sites, wildlife nesting areas, shallows and wetlands, or 

locations that are undesirable because of smells, sounds, and views. 

The effective supply of recreation opportunities can change weekly 

(e.g., no commercial transport on weekends) or seasonally because 

of fish and wildlife migration, hunting seasons, facility closure, 

reservoir drawdown, wildlife breeding and nesting areas, weather, 

special events, and many other factors. 

Identify Any Other Important Factors that 

May Influence the WALROS Inventory 

The following factors may affect the application of WALROS in 

defining the scope of the inventory: 

•	 primary uses and commitments of the water and land
 

resources;
 

•	 major forces or interests driving the application of WALROS 

at the current time; 

•	 the level of public concern or controversy; 

•	 the timetable and schedule of major activities; 

•	 the allocation of personnel days and adequate funding towards 

the activity; 

•	 the composition of a WALROS team and the responsibility of 

each member; 

•	 the decision-maker or the responsible official and criteria used 

to arrive at a decision; 

•	 the planning horizon or number of years into the future that 

should be targeted; 

•	 the nature of external collaboration with visitors, communities, 

private sector organizations, and other stakeholders; 

•	 the inclusion of external experts, if any, and their role(s); and 

•	 the changes to the current water operations, recreation 

opportunities, adjacent land use, or other considerations that 

are unreasonable or beyond the scope of the planning effort. 

60 
Define the Scope of the Inventory
 

Develop a Basic Profile of the Surrounding 

Recreation Region 

The management and planning of any single particular setting 

should take into consideration other nearby recreation settings to 

ensure coordinated, consistent, compatible, seamless, and efficient 

recreation management and planning. 

A WALROS profile tool can be used to map the current recreation 

opportunities and resource conditions at other surrounding or nearby 

recreation settings. In addition, the profile tool can be used to build 

a regional recreation profile. 

Appendix D provides an example of a regional profile tool to 

assemble and record important water and land resource information 

that will be useful in recreation management and the application of 

WALROS. This profile tool is useful in comparing sites as well as 

in the regional planning process. Further, it can be modified in 

order to correlate to regional issues, concerns, and management 

priorities. 

New Melones Reservoir managers, for example, found that only 

2 percent of water in their region in California offered a WALROS 

primitive or semiprimitive recreation experience after utilizing the 

profile tool. Thus, managers were able to expand these 

opportunities in the region and on their reservoir by simply placing 

no-wake buoys on upper reaches of their reservoir arms. 

Appendix D has a sample generic profile form with important 

variables that provide the profile of the planning area or region for 

analysis. In addition, a detailed description of the steps that may be 

followed when conducting a comprehensive analysis of the 

recreation opportunities and experiences within a planning area or 

region can be found in the section entitled Applying WALROS as a 

Regional Planning and Management Tool in chapter 4, Planning. 

Wildlife nesting areas and 

migration patterns should be 

considered in WALROS. 

61 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

Proximity to cities influences 

recreation experiences. 

The following are examples of variables that can be used for 

analysis and comparison across planning areas or regions: 

• total water surface acres; 

• total river miles; 

• water elevation at high and low pool; 

• number of developed campgrounds; 

• miles of trails; 

• number of concessions; 

• annual operating budget; 

• amount of user fees charged for camping; 

• number of annual visitors; and 

• experiences that visitors are seeking. 

The WALROS Inventory Attributes and 


Protocol 


62 


The WALROS inventory produces a map delineating the type and 

location of the current WALROS classes; that is, a map that shows 

the current supply of available recreation opportunities. This 

section explains the WALROS inventory protocol, the attributes 

used in the inventory, and details the steps necessary for a 

WALROS inventory of the current situation. 

As previously described in chapter 1, a recreation setting consists of 

physical, social, and managerial attributes that affect the quality or 

nature of the recreation experience (table 1.2). Since it is not 

practical to inventory every possible setting attribute, WALROS 

uses 15 attributes as the basis for delineating the type and location 

of the existing WALROS classes. Five physical, six social, and four 

management attributes have been chosen, because each can have a 

major influence on the type of recreation opportunity that is 

currently available. 

The inventory attributes are packaged into the WALROS Inventory 

Protocol (Protocol). The Protocol is an inventory “booklet” 

completed by each trained person at each inventory site. Figure 3.1 

depicts the front page of the Protocol. Inside the Protocol is a page 

for each of the physical, social, and managerial attributes. Figures 

3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 show the three pages in the Protocol, the 
The WALROS Inventory Attributes and Protocol 


15 inventory attributes used to delineate the WALROS class, and 

the scale of degree previously discussed in chapter 1 (table 1.8). 

(Note that the scale of degree presented is reversed in the Inventory 

Protocol for one attribute and replaced with a mileage measurement 

for a distance attribute.) 

Figure 3.1.—Sample cover sheet for inventory protocol. 

63 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

Physical Inventory 

Physical attributes are features that are relatively permanent or fixed 

within the landscape and are not likely to change soon. 

Physical Inventory Protocol Sheet 

Field notes: 

Mark the degree, extent, or magnitude that the following attributes are present at the site. 

Degree of development—Degree 

that dams, major bridges, marinas, 

parks, resorts, highways, or other 

municipal, residential, industrial, or 

commercial structures are present. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Sense of closeness to a 

community—Degree that visitors 

sense that they are close to the 

sights, sounds, and smells typical 

of a community. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Degree of natural resource 

modification—Degree that the 

visitors are aware that human 

activity, technology, or 

development has altered the 

natural resources. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Distance from development on 

or adjacent to the water 

resource—Mileage from dams, 

major bridges, marinas, resorts, or 

other municipal, industrial, 

commercial, or residential areas. 

Less than 

0.5 miles 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 

10 miles 

Degree that natural ambiance 

dominates the area—Degree that 

there is a sense of tranquility and 

opportunity to see, hear, and smell 

nature. 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Prevalent, 

common, 

or apparent 

20–50% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Circle the number that best 

represents your overall judgment 

of the area. Scores with one 

decimal point such as 5.5 are 

acceptable. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural 

Semiprimitive Primitive 

Figure 3.2.—Physical inventory protocol sheet. 

64 
The WALROS Inventory Attributes and Protocol 


Social Inventory 

Social attributes include the type and the current recreation use, 

nearby land and water activities, and special values and meanings 

associated with the area. 

Social Inventory Protocol Sheet 

Field notes: 

Mark the degree, extent, or magnitude that the following attributes are present at the site. 

Figure 3.3.—Social inventory protocol sheet. 

Degree of visitor presence— 

Degree that the sights, sounds, and 

smells of other visitors, their 

equipment, their impacts, or litter 

are present. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Degree of visitor concentration— 

Degree that visitors congregate in 

the area (e.g., service area, 

launches, entrances, swim areas, 

trailheads, vistas, picnic, or camp 

areas). 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Degree of recreation diversity— 

Degree that there is a mixture of 

recreation activities being 

participated in or equipment being 

used. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Distance to visitors services, 

security, safety, comforts, and 

conveniences. 

Less than 

0.5 miles 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 

10 miles 

Degree of solitude and 

remoteness—Degree that visitors 

view themselves as being alone 

and far away from civilization, in a 

wild and remote place. 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Prevalent, 

common, 

or apparent 

20–50% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal

 80–100% 

Degree of nonrecreational 

activity—Degree of sights, sounds, 

and smells of nonrecreational 

activities (i.e., shipping, trains, 

factories, roads, houses, airplanes, 

mining, and farming). 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Circle the number that best 

represents your overall judgment of 

the area. Scores with one decimal 

point such as 5.5 are acceptable. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

Urban Suburban Rural 

developed 

Rural 

natural 

Semiprimitive Primitive 

65 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

Management Inventory 

Management attributes are those features that are provided for, 

managed, and may be changed by the managing agency or its 

partners. 

Management Inventory Protocol Sheet 

Field notes: 

Mark the degree, extent, or magnitude that the following attributes are present at the site. 

Degree of management 

structures—Degree that 

management facilities, buildings, 

interpretive signage, equipment, 

buoys, mileage markers, entry 

stations, towers, security lighting, 

administrative offices and 

compounds are present. 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

80–100% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

50–80% 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20% 

Minor, little, 

or seldom 

3–10% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

0–3% 

Distance to on-site developed 

recreation facilities and 

services—Mileage to developed 

campgrounds, restaurants, stores, 

medical services, marinas, 

resorts, pump stations, amphitheaters, picnic sites, play areas, 

telephone, showers, visitor 

centers, etc. 

Less than 

0.5 miles 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 

10 miles 

Distance from developed public 

access facilities—Mileage to 

developed and well-maintained 

access points such as parking 

lots, trailheads, entrances, boat 

launches, access roads, and other 

staging or launching areas. 

Less than 

0.5 miles 

0.5–2 miles 2–5 miles 5–8 miles 8–10 miles More than 

10 miles 

Frequency of seeing 

management personnel— 

Likelihood of seeing management 

presence such as rangers, local 

sheriff or police, entrance station 

staff, hosts, maintenance workers, 

lifeguards, marina operators, 

concessionaires, guides, and 

other people of authority. 

80–100% 

Extensive, 

dominant, 

or a great 

deal 

50–80% 

Very 

prevalent 

or 

widespread 

Prevalent, 

common, or 

apparent 

20–50% 

Occasional, 

infrequent, 

or periodic 

10–20%

 Minor, 

little, or 

seldom 

3–10% 0–3% 

Very minor, 

very little, 

or rare 

Circle the number that best 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

represents your overall judgment 

of the area. Scores with one Urban Suburban Rural Rural Semi- Primitive 

decimal point such as 5.5 are developed natural primitive 

acceptable. 

Figure 3.4.—Management inventory protocol sheet. 

66 
Map the Current Supply of Recreation Opportunities
 

Map the Current Supply of Recreation 

Opportunities 

Mapping the current supply of recreation opportunities in the 

planning area means determining which WALROS class(es) will 

best represent how the area is currently being managed and the type 

of recreation opportunities available. The following steps are 

recommended for Levels 2 and 3 of the WALROS analysis (see 

table 1.7 in chapter 1). A recreation staff member typically 

conducts a Level 1 analysis in the office. Therefore, many of the 

steps below do not apply. 

1. Assemble a small core team (i.e., four to six members) of
 

experienced professionals representing different staff functions
 

(e.g., recreation management, natural and cultural resources,
 

maintenance, law enforcement, or interpretation). These
 

members would probably be the agency experts who have
 

become most familiar with recreation incidents over the years.
 

Having several professionals from different areas, agencies, or
 

private firms with experience of applying WALROS is highly
 

recommended. Because the purpose of the inventory is to
 

describe and map the nature of the current recreation
 

opportunities, there is an advantage to having several team
 

members from the local community, landowners, and 


recreation user groups (e.g., hiking, fishing).
 

The total team might range in size from 6 to 12 members for a 


Level 2 or 3 WALROS analysis.
 

2. Introduce the team to the planning area, base map, WALROS 

system, time of year under consideration, and the inventory 

protocol used for mapping the supply of current recreation 

opportunities. Thorough understanding of the descriptions of 

the recreation settings and experiences for each WALROS 

class (see tables 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 in chapter 1) is important 

early in the process. The WALROS Handbook is also a 

valuable training tool for those inexperienced with WALROS. Top, using collaborative expert 

opinions to conduct an inventory 

is encouraged. Middle, team 

members evaluating the setting. 

Bottom, the team needs to 

prepare for the WALROS 

inventory. 

3. Once familiar with WALROS, the team should prepare for the 

field inventory.	 In the case of inventorying a water resource, 

the field inventory requires the use of a boat large enough for 

the team to experience the inventory sites and comfortably
 

discuss their observations and ratings. Pontoons, patio boats,
 

and houseboats work well for this task. While maps, air 


photos, reports, GIS analyses, and other office information are 


67 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 3—Inventory
 

Park visitors can help in the 

inventory 

very helpful for Level 1 analysis, they are not sufficient for 

Level 2 and 3 WALROS mapping. It is vital that the team 

literally “experience” the recreation phenomena and ambiance 

(e.g., sights, sounds, smells) of the inventory setting. 

4. The field inventory typically begins in the vicinity of the most 

highly developed portion of the planning area (e.g., marina, 

subdivision, resort, campground, industrial activity, or 

developed park complex). 

5. At each inventory site, regardless of whether the team accessed 

the site by boat or land vehicle, it is important to turn the 

engine off. The team should take a few minutes to 

“experience” the sights, sounds, smells, etc. of the setting. 

They should also record geographic positioning system (GPS) 

readings and take pictures from all directions. This data will 

become an important part of the site record. 

After a few minutes, the team members familiar with the 

location have a chance to present their views of the type and 

nature of the recreation use for the planning period in question 

(i.e., describe how, when, and why recreationists use the area, 

the type and extent of management, and the description of 

recreationists). Team members can also ask questions or offer 

information that might be important. 

It is also important for the team to have a common understanding of the area under consideration at the inventory site. 

The site, for example, might include the water and land 

resources within a 2-mile radius, a small canyon setting or 

short stretch of river, or a large viewshed. Of course, the rule 

of reasonableness applies in this important question. As a 

reminder, the team is trying to inventory the recreation 

opportunity a visitor would have from this particular inventory 

site. 

It is also important to remind the team of the time period that is 

under consideration (e.g., weekend, May, summer, winter). 

6. Each team member is given a copy of the WALROS Inventory 

Protocol. The attributes listed on the left side of the Protocol 

are considered to be the important characteristics of the setting. 

Each rater is asked to circle the degree, extent, or magnitude 

that the following attributes are present at this site. To the right 

of each attribute is the scale of degree previously discussed in 

chapter 1 and displayed in table 1.8. 

68 
Map the Current Supply of Recreation Opportunities
 

There will be instances when an attribute is considered 

irrelevant or other attributes should be added for consideration 

and upon discretion. As described in chapter 1, WALROS is 

flexible and operates on the standards of the rule of 

reasonableness and sound professional judgment. 

7. Working individually, each rater completes the WALROS 

physical inventory page in the Protocol (see figure 3.2) by 

considering each attribute in the left column and then circling 

or checking the cell that best describes the attribute’s presence 

at that site. Note: On the physical inventory, the distance from 

development attribute is measured in miles, and the degree of 

natural ambiance reverses the scale of degree from very minor 

on the left to dominant on the right. 

After each attribute is checked or circled on the scale of degree, 

each rater is asked at the bottom of the page to circle the 

number that best represents your overall judgment of the 

area. Each person individually circles a number, ranging from 

1 to 11, that best represents his or her overall judgment of the 

WALROS class at the inventory site. The odd numbers 

represent the six WALROS classes, while the even numbers 

represent the midpoint between two WALROS classes. 

This decision should be based on the sound professional 

judgment of the raters, preponderance of the evidence, and how 

the attributes were circled in the cells above. There is no 

formula or mathematical calculation to arrive at this overall 

judgment for the area. 

8. After all raters complete his or her physical inventory, a 

“straw” vote is taken and each person states the overall rating 

number at the bottom of his or her own inventory form. After 

all raters have had a chance to express factors that influenced 

their scores, a second straw vote is taken and duly recorded on 

a master form. Typically, the results of the second vote 

(i.e., the overall numbers expressed after some discussion) will 

converge and there will be team consensus. Rounding the 

average score to the nearest tenth is acceptable. 

In cases where team members’ ratings differ significantly, 

further discussion is advisable until a consensus has been 

reached. In some cases, it may be helpful to dismiss the two 

extreme outliers and revisit the disputed site after other sites 

have been inventoried. A final decision can be made after 

more information becomes available. 

Local groups know a great deal 

about the lake’s recreation use. 

They are experts to be included 

in the WALROS inventory. 

69 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 3—Inventory
 

As a rule of thumb, when the raters’ scores vary by two or 

more scale points, extra effort should be taken to discuss the 

factors that were driving the scores. Expect people to have 

different perspectives about what they have seen or heard. 

However, it is important to share these thoughts with and for 

the benefit of the entire team. 

9. It is important for the team lead to consistently ask the team 

which of the six WALROS recreation experiences best 

describes the type of experience a visitor is being provided at 

the location being inventoried. It is important during the 

inventory process, particularly for those inexperienced with 

WALROS, to periodically reread the descriptions of the 

recreation setting for each WALROS class (table 1.3) and the 

recreation experiences for each WALROS class (tables 1.4 

and 1.5). Referring to pictures depicting each WALROS class 

may also help. 

10. The process used for completing the physical inventory is 

repeated for the social and managerial inventory (see 

figures 3.3 and 3.4) contained within the protocol. 

11. The results of these efforts are three numbers for each 

inventory site; that is, a number from 1 to 11 for the physical 

setting, social setting, and managerial setting. Next, these 

numbers are recorded on a master map and maintained during 

the field inventory. 

In some cases, the physical, social, and managerial scores will 

be very similar — within 1-2 scale points of each other. These 

scores will be considered “consistent.” In other cases, the 

scores may vary by 2 or more scale points and will be 

considered “inconsistent.” The physical scores, for example, 

might be rural natural (e.g., 6.5) while the management score is 

reflects a semiprimitive setting (e.g., 9), suggesting there might 

be insufficient management presence. 

When inconsistencies are discovered, it is appropriate to 

discuss why they exist and what reasonable mitigation actions 

can be taken. These discussions and suggestions will assist in 

resolving any future inconsistencies and in making sound 

planning and management recommendations. Further, team 

members with differing responsibilities, views, or agendas will 

have a better understanding of each other’s positions and 

concerns. (See Inconsistency Mitigation below.) Lastly, the 

70 
Map the Current Supply of Recreation Opportunities
 

team forms are collected and filed for the administrative 

record. 

The first site inventoried may take 30 to 45 minutes with 

inexperienced team members. The time at subsequent 

inventory sites will shorten to perhaps 15 minutes after a half 

dozen trials by the team. The first one or two inventory sites 

can be viewed as practice runs or trials. Thus, it is advisable to 

return to these sites after the entire resource area has been 

surveyed to determine if adjustments will be necessary. 

12. After the initial site inventory is complete, the team travels to 

the next inventory site. Two strategies have worked well: 

One, the next inventory site can be chosen when there is an 

apparent change in the physical, social, or management 

attributes of the setting or when the team has traveled a 

significant distance (e.g., several miles) from the previous site. 

Two, the next inventory site might be the location with the 

least development (compared to the first, most developed 

inventory site) and in the most remote part of the water 

resource. This allows the team to get a sense of the WALROS 

diversity in the planning area, although the logistics of travel 

and time may not be reasonable. 

13. If inventorying on water in an area that includes popular landbased locations such as campgrounds, swimming beaches, or 

popular islands, it may be helpful to conduct a site inventory 

from land. The opposite holds true for land-based inventories. 

If a large waterbody is present, providing water-based 

recreation, it is important to conduct inventories from on the 

water. 

On a very large resource (e.g., 100-mile-long planning area), 

one may decide to conduct the initial WALROS inventories 

every 5 or 10 miles. In contrast, a detailed or finer-level 

inventory may be necessary for parts of the resource on a 

follow-up trip. Depending on public access, distance from 

developments, and team members’ familiarity with the 

planning area, it may not be practical to physically inventory 

the entire planning area. 

14. The final results of the field inventory include (1) a working 

map of the planning area identifying the inventory sites, (2) the 

team’s three overall ratings for the physical, social, and 

managerial settings for each inventory site, (3) an overall initial 

rating score for the site, and (4) a file of the completed 

Top, it is important to inventory 

on the water. Bottom, WALROS 

engages stakeholders to ensure 

better decisions. 

71 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

protocols, pictures, and GPS readings for the administrative 

record. Note: Team consensus is required for both an overall 

rating for each setting attribute (i.e., physical, social, and 

managerial setting) as well as an overall rating for the 

inventory site. 

15. At this point, the responsible recreation staff person must 

(1) delineate the current overall WALROS classes, and 

(2) identify and prioritize inconsistencies that may exist in the 

current situation. These two considerations are discussed in the 

following sections, which also provide examples of the final 

WALROS maps depicting the type and location of the current 

recreation situation. 

Delineation of Current Overall WALROS 

Class 

At this point in the WALROS inventory, each site has an agreedupon team rating for its physical, social, and managerial attributes. 

Figure 3.5 is an example of how each inventory site and its 

respective ratings can be displayed. 

Setting attribute ratings 

Inventory sites WALROS classification 

1. Rainbow Resort 

Physical 

3.0 

Social 

3.0 

Managerial 

3.0 Suburban (S3) 

2. Heavenly Houseboats 5.3 4.5 4.0 Rural developed (RD5) 

3. Leisure Landing 6.1 5.7 5.1 Rural developed (RD6) 

4. Canyon Camp 

Figure 3.5.—A tool for displayin

10.2 

g the setting attribu

9.3 

te ratings and over

8.2 

all WALROS clas

Semiprimitive (SP9) 

sification. 

The next step is for the team to use sound professional judgment in 

aggregating the three attribute ratings, in order to make an overall 

selection of the WALROS class which best represents the current 

situation or the supply of recreation opportunities. In some 

instances the physical, social, and managerial WALROS ratings will 

be the same (e.g., inventory site 1). More often than not, though, 

the ratings will differ when WALROS is first applied 

(e.g., inventory sites 2, 3, and 4). When two or three of the setting 

attribute ratings at a site are similar, the decision about the overall 

WALROS classification is relatively easy to make. However, it is 

more difficult to decide the overall WALROS classification if the 

72 
Delineation of Current Overall WALROS Class
 

physical, social, and managerial classifications at a site differ 

considerably (e.g., inventory site 4). 

Where there are large differences between the setting attribute 

ratings, the 11-point scale in the Inventory Protocol offers a major 

advantage. Figure 3.6 is an example of the 11-point scale, which 

allows for a finer level of assessment than a 6-point scale. In 

addition, it identifies areas where there are transitions, gradations, or 

“leanings” towards one WALROS class versus another. It allows 

for a higher level of accuracy during the inventory stage and helps 

managers to consider alternative ways to manage the area in the 

future. In effect, an 11-point scale gives the expert team the option 

to indicate up to 16 gradations of recreation opportunities, as 

depicted in figure 3.6 below. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

U S RD RN SP P 

U1 U2 S2 S3 S4 RD4 RD5 RD6 RN6 RN7 RN8 SP8 SP9 SP10 P10 P11 

Figure 3.6.—WALROS inventory scale. 

The six primary WALROS classes are U1, S3, RD5, RN7, SP9, and 

P11. The other ratings reflect a transition or leaning between two 

primary WALROS classes. For example, RD6 is a score to the right 

of the primary rural developed WALROS class (RD5), suggesting 

that there are some attributes in this area that are more typical of a 

rural natural setting that pull the overall rating from RD5 to RD6. 

Likewise, RN6 indicates that there are some attributes at the site 

that are more typical of a rural developed WALROS class, and these 

attributes pull the overall rating from the primary rural natural 

WALROS class of RN7 to RN6. 

A major advantage of using an 11-point scale in the inventory stage 

is that it conveys more detail while suggesting the feasibility of 

altering the management of an area from one WALROS class to 

another. A “transitional” rating for an area (e.g., RN6 or RN8), 

suggests a high probability that a small shift in one or more of the 

physical, social, or managerial attributes will cause a shift in the 

WALROS class. 

Figures 3.7–3.10 illustrate how the overall WALROS classes can be 

depicted and show the type and location of water recreation 

opportunities currently available. All four maps show a fine level of 

detail and how the six WALROS classes can be subdivided for 

purposes of the WALROS inventory. 

73 
Figure 3.7.

—Millerton Lake WALROS classifications. 

74 
Figure 3.8.—Shasta Lake WALROS classifications. 

75 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

Figure 3.9.—Lake Perris WALROS classifications. 

76 
Delineation of Current Overall WALROS Class
 

Figure 3.10.—New Melones Lake WALROS classifications. 

77 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 3—Inventory 

Inconsistency Mitigation 

An inconsistency is a situation in which the physical, social, and 

managerial ratings are different (e.g., sites 2, 3, and 4 of figure 3.5); 

that is, where the physical, social, and managerial attributes are not 

aligned or not consistent. For example, the physical and social 

attributes might depict a rural developed WALROS class, yet the 

lack of management signage, facilities, and patrols might be more 

consistent with a primitive WALROS class. Another example 

might be weekends in June when the social attributes depict a 

suburban WALROS class (e.g., large numbers of diverse 

recreationists), while the physical and managerial attributes depict a 

rural natural WALROS class. A final example is an area where the 

physical and social attributes depict a semiprimitive WALROS 

class, but the managerial attributes (e.g., floating toilets and flashing 

strobe safety lights) depict a rural developed WALROS class. 

Depending on the inconsistency, mitigation may be necessary or 

desired. 

Mitigation might involve a change in current management actions to 

eliminate inconsistencies and improve the recreation experiences 

being provided. The guidelines in Chapter 2—Physical, Social, 

and Managerial Attribute Guidelines can assist managers in both 

identifying and mitigating inconsistencies. 

Table 3.1 depicts an inconsistency mitigation tool with two 

dimensions: (1) the degree of impact and (2) the degree of 

reasonableness to mitigate. In some situations, inconsistencies may 

have a high impact on the intended water recreation opportunity, yet 

there may be no reasonable way to mitigate (e.g., major highways, 

commercial shipping, holiday weekends). Alternatively, some 

inconsistencies with high impact could be easily mitigated 

(e.g., remove unnecessary buoys, restoration of eroded campsites, or 

institute a speed limit). Table 3.1 is a tool to help sort the 

inconsistencies by their relative degree of impact or consequence, to 

assess the ability of management to mitigate, and to develop a 

prioritization scheme. 

The output of inconsistency mitigation is a list, and perhaps a map, 

that identifies the type, location, and degree of inconsistencies. 

Ideally, managers should give the highest priority (i.e., Priority A) 

to the reasonable mitigation of those inconsistencies that have a 

high degree of severity or consequences. 

78 
Inconsistency Mitigation 

The physical, social, and managerial attribute guidelines provide 

guidance on how to mitigate inconsistencies and to align the setting 

attributes. 

Table 3.1.—A WALROS inconsistency mitigation tool 

Degree of reasonableness 

to mitigate 

Degree of impact or inconsistency 

Negligible Minor Moderate High 

None 

Low 

Moderate 

High 

Priority D 

Priority C 

Priority B 

Priority C 

Priority B 

Priority A 

After the WALROS inventory stage, the user of this handbook has 

the following two options. 

One, Institute a formal planning process; or 

two, begin implementing direction and 

applying the following if there is no formal 

planning process anticipated in the future: 

•	 mitigate inconsistencies to the extent 

feasible; 

•	 improve visitor maps and brochures
 

to show the type and location of
 

WALROS classes;
 

•	 explain rules and regulations to the 

public more clearly. Clarify why 

certain actions are desirable to 

protect the integrity of certain recreation opportunities and 

experiences; 

•	 advise local residents and special interest groups of the 

increased clarity in management direction; 

•	 initiate a monitoring program; 

•	 add the WALROS classes to a geographic information 

system; 

•	 utilize tourism welcome centers and web sites in order to 

clearly inform the prospective visitor of recreation 

opportunities that are available; and 

•	 utilize the WALROS guidelines to develop and justify an 

annual operating plan and budget. 

Maps and photos are important tools in the inventory 

process. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 3—Inventory
 

Note: If the proposed changes in management qualify as a “major 

Federal action,” as defined under NEPA, a NEPA-compliant 

planning process will be necessary. In addition, if there is a 

planning process underway or anticipated in the near future, the 

manager can take the WALROS inventory information, proceed to 

Chapter 4—Planning, and begin to integrate the inventory 

information to describe the current situation. 

80 
Chapter 4— 

Planning 
Planning 

Wildlife resources are often 

significant public issues and 

attractions on or near water. 

WALROS is not a special or unique planning process. It is simply a 

tool that helps bring recreation considerations into a comprehensive 

and integrated planning process. Metaphorically, WALROS is like 

a tree branch that connects to the main stem or trunk of a tree. More 

specifically, WALROS is one of many inventory tools that feed into 

an agency planning process. Reclamation, along with all local, 

State, and Federal land and water agencies, should have regulations 

and procedures describing in detail each step of its planning process. 

The first part of this chapter discusses how WALROS integrates 

with and supplements the key steps of a public recreation or 

resource planning process. Refer to figure 4.1 for a generic eight 

step agency planning process. The third planning process step, 

Inventory, has been highlighted in figure 4.1 because WALROS is 

primarily an inventory planning tool as previously stated in chapter 

1. However, it is important to consider the guidance contained in 

this handbook during each of the eight agency planning steps. The 

second part of this chapter focuses on how WALROS is used in a 

regional context to analyze and compare water-based and associated 

land-based recreation opportunities and experiences. 

Planning

Criteria

Inventory

Formulate

Alternatives

Evaluate

Alternatives

Select

Alternative

Implement/

Monitor

Evaluate/

Adapt

WALROS

Scoping

Figure 4.1.—Generic agency planning process. 

82 
Planning Process
 

Planning Process 

Prior to initiating a WALROS planning process, the appropriate 

level of analysis should be determined. Refer to chapter 1, table 1.7 

for a description of the three levels of WALROS analysis. Please 

note that the level of analysis may change at any time during the 

planning process. Subsequent to scoping, for example, team 

members other than the recreation specialist may be assembled in 

order to expand the level of analysis. If WALROS is part of a 

larger, more comprehensive planning process, the level of analysis 

will be determined by the scope of the larger planning process. 

In a comprehensive agency planning process, the inventory of 

physical and biological resources should include all recreation 

resources within the area being studied (i.e., land and water-based 

recreation resources, such as rivers, reservoirs, and natural lakes). 

The degree of data collection ultimately depends on the level of 

analysis being conducted. 

Care should be taken to ensure that the concepts and guidelines 

related to the WALROS planning tool can be integrated with or 

complement other agency systems such as the Scenery Management 

System used by the U.S. Forest Service or the Visual Resource 

Management System used by the Bureau of Land Management. For 

example, GIS would provide the means to interface WALROS with 

these other agency systems. Appendix E contains a directory of 

sources of information and other planning tools that can be used in a 

planning process. 

Following is a brief discussion of each of the planning steps shown 

in figure 4.1. 

Scoping 

Depending on the level of analysis (i.e., Level 1, 2, or 3), internal 

and/or external scoping will be necessary. A Level 1 analysis will 

often require only internal scoping and a review of agency policies, 

procedures, and guidelines, among other things. On the other hand, 

a Level 3 analysis will likely require both an internal and external 

scoping process. External scoping may require that an agency 

solicit input from the public throughout the planning process. A 

scoping process should consist of the following assignments: 

•	 identify significant recreation-related public issues,
 

management concerns, opportunities, and constraints;
 

Accessibility is often a 

significant public issue. 

Recreation opportunities should 

be provided for diverse users. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Planning criteria are 

short and concise 

statements that help 

establish sideboards and 

parameters for 

developing a specific type 

of planning document. 

Adjacent land uses need to be 

identified early in WALROS 

planning process. 

•	 identify recreation stakeholders and develop a plan for
 

collaboration;
 

•	 assess quality and quantity of best available recreation-related 

science and monitoring information; 

•	 identify and document all agency recreation-related policies, 

procedures, and guidelines, as well as applicable laws and 

regulations; and 

•	 identify those areas or times unsuitable for recreation use. 

Planning Criteria 

Reclamation, like all Federal land and water agencies, has 

regulations and procedures describing each step of its planning 

process in detail. This chapter, among other things, is a supplement 

to the key planning steps in the existing Reclamation Resource 

Management Plan Guidebook. Planning criteria are short and 

concise statements that help establish sideboards and parameters for 

developing a specific type of planning document. In many 

instances, the goals and objectives established at the beginning of a 

planning process are considered planning criteria in that they guide 

development of the planning document. Planning criteria may be 

revised as the planning process proceeds and as information is 

collected and analyzed or new issues are identified. To establish 

appropriate planning criteria, recreation planners should accomplish 

the following tasks: 

•	 compile the applicable laws, regulations, policies, resource 

commitments, concession contracts, land use authorizations, 

maps, and existing plans; 

•	 assemble relevant professional planning principles 

(e.g., recreation management, ecosystem management, NEPA, 

and visitor capacity decision making); 

•	 identify long-term resource/administrative programs that may 

influence or limit recreation development (e.g., public health 

and safety, security, Indian trust assets, and accessibility); 

•	 define planning area, time horizon, available resources,
 

procedural steps, and responsibilities; 


•	 develop a working base map, determine an appropriate scale of 

analysis, assess GIS capabilities, and secure current aerial 

photos, if available; 

84 
Planning Process
 

•	 designate the decision/planning criteria for evaluating 

alternatives, assessing recreational tradeoffs, and selecting the 

preferred alternative; 

•	 identify other administrative units or projects (comparables or 

analogs) that have similar recreation situations, uses, and 

patterns; and 

•	 identify other resources that could be affected by recreation 

development, and plan mitigation measures if negative impacts 

seem likely. 

Inventory 

Inventorying can be a rigorous and labor-intensive process. The 

scope and level of effort should be guided by the previously agreed 

upon level of analysis and by significant recreation-related issues, 

concerns, threats, and opportunities. Of course, there may be other 

non-recreation related issues and concerns (e.g., fire, invasive 

species, etc.) that propel the inventory of additional factors. 

Inventorying has a supply and demand component. A supply 

analysis is an assessment of the recreation-related natural and 

cultural facilities, programs, services, rules and regulations, fees, 

and other aspects that may currently define the type and quality of 

recreation opportunities. 

A demand analysis defines the current public users and uses of the 

setting. It may include the type and amount of recreation use, 

visitation patterns, residence of visitors, length of stay, level of 

satisfaction, and other factors that define the recreation use. There 

may also be nonrecreational users and uses that affect the 

management of recreation opportunities. Another aspect of demand 

to consider is the recent recreation-related trends and the future 

demand for recreation. Existing agency planning guidance, such as 

Reclamation’s 2007 Estimating Future Recreation Demand: A 

Decision Guide for the Practitioner (see figure 4.2), should be used 

to assist agency personnel in acquiring appropriate information 

needed to make informed decisions. Refer to appendix F for 

excerpts from the 2007 demand report. 

As discussed in chapter 1, there is value in considering what uses 

are taking place within the region — that is, at other nearby settings 

that the visiting public might consider as comparable or substitute 

destinations. Refer to end of this chapter for an additional 

discussion on regional WALROS planning, and see appendix D for 

an example of a regional recreation profile form. Table 4.1 is an 

Long time lake users can help 

in the inventory. 

Expert teams are important in 

the recreation inventory. 

85 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 4—Planning 

example of how two variables 

(i.e., acres and shoreline miles) 

can be presented in table form. 

During this planning step, it is 

beneficial to research and 

document the varying degree of 

management responsibilities 

that other entities may have in 

the recreation resources within 

the planning area (e.g., a State 

park agency and its boating 

regulations, or a fish and 

wildlife agency for wildlife 

management and regulations). 

Certain individuals from other 

agencies may be part of the 

inventory team and could be 

called upon to produce a portion 

of the planning document. 

Recreation planners should 

accomplish the following tasks. 

•	 Conduct a WALROS 

inventory and assemble a 

base map that depicts the 

current type and location of 

recreation opportunities in 

the setting. 

•	 Develop a GIS overlay 

from the WALROS 

inventory map. GIS is a powerful tool that allows planners and 

managers to look at multiple features and resources at one 

time. It is an excellent way to store inventory information and 

to formulate and evaluate alternatives later in the planning 

process. 

Figure 4.2.—The cover of Reclamation’s 2007 Estimating Future 

Recreation Demand: A Decision Guide for the Practitioner. 

86 
Planning Process 

Table 4.1.—Hypothetical comparison of reservoirs based on the percent of water surface acres by WALROS class 

Rural Rural Regional lakes (surface Urban Suburban Semiprimitive Primitive developed natural acres/shoreline miles) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 

Folsom (11,400/75) 0 20 70 10 0 0 

Pardee (2,257/37) 0 0 30 60 10 0 

Comanche (7,700/53) 0 0 75 25 0 0 

New Hogan (4,400/50) 0 0 60 40 0 0 

Tulloch (1,260/31) 0 80 20 0 0 0 

Don Pedro (12,960/160) 0 0 50 50 0 0 

Lake McClure (7,400/80) 0 0 70 30 0 0 

Millerton (4,900/51) 0 10 60 20 10 0 

1 Gross averages 0 37 54 29 3 0 

•	 Identify current and future recreation demand. Measuring the 

demand for any public good or service is both an art and a 

science. It involves identifying current use and users in the 

planning area, their use locations, type of activity, duration, 

travel patterns, origins, participation percentages, and quality 

of recreation opportunities. It may also involve using social 

surveys to ask the public in the local or regional area what they 

would like to have available that is not currently available, and 

to gauge user satisfaction with existing opportunities and 

management strategies. 

•	 Identify current and anticipated nonrecreational use and users 

in the planning area, location, duration, type of effect, and 

anticipated changes. County records on taxes, building 

permits, development plans, land use zoning, commerce trends, 

and other local, county, and State reports can be helpful for this 

purpose. 

•	 Conduct inventory of all human-built structures (recreation and 

nonrecreation), infrastructure, services, programs, personnel, 

budgets, partners, and expected operational changes. 

•	 Assess the regional supply of water recreation opportunities, 

including those provided by other agencies and the private 

1

 In this hypothetical example, the gross average is determined by adding the 

figures in each recreation setting column then dividing by the total number of 

regional lakes listed in table 4.1. 

Measuring the demand 

for any public good or 

service is both an art and 

a science. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 4—Planning 


Accessibility planning will 

provide individuals with 

disabilities a quality recreation 

experience. 

Good access can enhance the 

recreation experience for a 

variety of users. 

sector within the “visitation” region. Table 4.1 illustrates how 

the regional supply of the six WALROS classes can be 

depicted. 

•	 Compare current responses and social conditions with the 


desired quality standards. Map the locations of known or
 

likely impairment.
 

Formulate Alternatives 

The basic goal in formulating different alternatives is to identify a 

variety of water and land uses and practices that will address the 

issues identified during internal and/or external scoping. The 

information collected during the inventory planning step is essential, 

as it will support and justify the management strategy and 

associated elements within each of the alternatives. The examples 

in this section are not intended to track with each other. Note: 

Table 4.2, figure 4.3, and figures 4.5 through 4.9 are considered to 

be entirely separate examples. In completing this planning step, 

recreation planners should, among other things, complete: 

•	 a WALROS map, generated in the WALROS inventory that 

depicts the current recreation management situation. This 

alternative is often referred to as the “no action” or “no 

change” alternative; and 

•	 a matrix developed to highlight key differences and to ensure 

consideration of a reasonable range of alternatives. 

Evaluate Alternatives 

This planning step requires a thorough evaluation and comparison 

of each alternative. Evaluation of each alternative and associated 

recreation actions should be based on professional judgment and the 

experience of staff specialists. 

Table 4.2 and figure 4.3 illustrate how WALROS can be used to 

help evaluate and compare the proposed alternatives. 

The decision criteria identified in a previous planning step 

(i.e., development of planning criteria) are used to evaluate the 

positive and negative consequences or impacts of each alternative. 

In this instance, the planning criteria can also be considered “key 

indicators” to assess the degree of change from one alternative to 

another, in particular, to compare the no action (existing condition) 

alternative to the other alternatives. 

88 
Alternative #1 Alternative #2 Alternative #3 

Evaluation criteria (no action) 

U S RD RN SP P U S RD RN SP P U S RD RN SP P 

Recreation management prescription for 

each WALROS class (e.g., objectives and 

quality standards) 

Number and percent of water and land 

acres by WALROS class: 

• Spring 

• Summer 

• Fall 

• Winter 

Percent of water surface acres by 

WALROS class for other waterbodies in 

the region 

Major management actions and programs 

Boat capacity for selected locations 

Estimated budget and personnel needs 

Economic benefits 

• Projected visitor expenditures 

• Public valuation 

Planning Process 

Table 4.2.—An example evaluation matrix for comparing management alternatives using WALROS 

0 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

Alt. 1 Alt. 2 Alt. 3 Alt. 4 

Urban 

Suburban 

Rural Dev 

Rural Nat. 

Semi-Prim 

Primitve 

Figure 4.3.—Use of WALROS to compare alternatives. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 4—Planning 


Furthermore, each alternative will have different strengths and 

weaknesses. Thus, it is likely that one or two alternatives, among 

the range provided, will be preferred. It is beneficial to examine the 

preferred alternative more closely in order to mitigate their most 

significant negative consequences or impacts and to incorporate the 

strengths from other alternatives. This facet of evaluating the 

alternatives is called mitigation assessment and enhancement 

analysis. 

During this planning step, recreation planners should complete the 

following duties: 

•	 analyze how the different recreation actions in each alternative 

will address the identified issues; 

•	 determine how each alternative may affect the recreation 

experiences of visitors and the recreation spectrum of certain 

areas; 

•	 assess how each recreation action may affect the physical and 

biological resources within the planning area. The depth of 

analysis should correspond to the scope of the potential 

impacts and use the sliding scale rule of analysis discussed in 

chapter 1; 

•	 determine if the changes to the recreation environment 

contemplated in each alternative meet public demand and user 

expectations; 

•	 assess whether the available funding is sufficient to implement 

the recreation actions, future maintenance and monitoring 

programs, and an appropriate staff to administer the recreation 

program; and 

•	 determine the economic consequences of various recreationrelated management decisions contemplated during the 

WALROS planning process by following agency guidance 

such as Reclamation’s 2008 Outdoor Recreation Business Plan 

Guidebook (http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications) (see 

figure 4.4 below). 

During any type of public, open house/informational meeting, 

WALROS maps can be used to illustrate how the different 

alternatives may affect a visitor’s recreation experience within the 

planning area. Figures 4.5 through 4.9 are examples of how 

WALROS alternatives can be presented in a public meeting. 

90 
Note: Figures 4.5 through 

4.9 are maps that include 

representative pictures of 

the WALROS spectrum of 

classes if the alternative is 

implemented. These maps 

would typically become 

part of any final planning 

document produced 

because of the planning 

effort. 

Planning Process
 

Outdoor Recreation 

Business Plan Guidebook 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Reclamation 

Denver, Colorado July 2008 

Figure 4.4.—The cover of Reclamation’s 2008 Outdoor Recreation 

Business Plan Guidebook. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Figure 4.5.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 1A. 

92 
Planning Process
 

Figure 4.6.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 1B. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Figure 4.7.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 2. 

94 
Planning Process
 

Figure 4.8.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, Alternative 3. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Figure 4.9.—Excerpt from Millerton Resource Management Plan, No Action Alternative. 

96 
Planning Process
 

Select Alternative 

The preferred alternative should be the one that best meets the 

WALROS planning goals and objectives, falls within the 

established planning criteria, meets public demand, agency policies, 

and appropriate laws and regulations. The following are factors to 

be considered when selecting the preferred alternative. 

•	 Even if the preferred alternative consists of several recreation 

modifications to the planning area, it may not change the 

existing recreation spectrum or the recreation experience. 

•	 The rational for selecting the preferred alternative should be 

placed in the administrative record. 

•	 The preferred alternative may consist of combinations of 

recreation management and administrative actions taken from 

any or all of the original formulated alternatives. In other 

words, the preferred alternative may not be one of the original 

evaluated alternatives. 

•	 The planning criteria can be used to justify the selection of the 

preferred alternative. 

Implement and Monitor 

This step involves the implementation of both the selected 

alternative and the preferred WALROS strategy proposed in the 

alternative. Inconsistency mitigation and the matrix in table 3.1 in 

chapter 3, Inventory, are useful in prioritizing and scheduling the 

implementation of activities and programs over time and across the 

planning area. 

Monitoring is a vital tool to help managers learn from their efforts, 

be responsive, and make good changes during implementation 

(i.e., adaptive management). It is important to integrate monitoring 

activities into the responsibilities of all personnel and to view 

monitoring as a routine management responsibility. The monitoring 

program need not be complex, but it does need to cover important 

components such as: (1) monitoring selected guidelines at sample 

sites (refer to the guidelines in chapter 2 and assess the current 

situation versus the desired or intended guidelines), (2) monitoring 

the actual versus desired or intended water and land recreation 

opportunity and experience for an area (e.g., type, amount, location, 

duration, and quality of recreation opportunity), and (3) monitoring 

Monitoring recreation use is 

critical. 

Monitoring is an ongoing 

and routine management 

responsibility. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Monitoring water quality is an 

important function. 

the actual versus planned annual budgets, personnel assignments, 

activities, actions, and programs. 

Managers and associated staff should meet annually to review the 

monitoring data, identify potential reasons for achieving or not 

achieving planned targets and standards, propose strategies to 

mitigate negative consequences or new circumstances, and discuss 

priority actions and locations. Adaptive management is an 

expectation in the WALROS system. Change should be expected 

because of knowledge gained from monitoring as well as from new 

science, information, or circumstances. However, adaption and 

change should be deliberate and based on the same standards for 

decisionmaking as prescribed in chapter 1. 

Evaluate and Adapt 

This is an ongoing step of assessing the information gathered by 

monitoring and taking steps to alter the management strategies to 

achieve the desired goals and objectives established in the planning 

document and to resolve any issues identified during the 

implementing and monitoring planning step. 

This planning step is an iterative decisionmaking process that 

requires managers to continually monitor their actions and make 

changes based on what has been discovered over time. Depending 

on the degree of change needed, this step could involve a simple 

plan amendment that can be completed internally or a major plan 

revision that may necessitate further scoping, data collection, and 

external public involvement. 

Applying WALROS as a Regional 


Planning and Management Tool
 

Sound recreation planning and management requires that a single 

planning area be considered as part of a complex of recreation areas 

or sites that provide a spectrum and diversity of recreation 

opportunities and experiences within a given region. No one area 

can be everything to everyone. It is important to know what sorts of 

activities other nearby recreation areas are providing. In other 

words, a planner or manager needs to know the following about 

other recreation areas in their region: 

98 
Applying WALROS as a Regional Planning and Management Tool
 

•	 the physical features or attributes; 

•	 the types of recreation usage available (i.e., social attributes); 

and 

•	 the type of management (i.e., managerial attributes). 

This information allows for more informed decisionmaking. 

Without this information, planners and managers are working in a 

vacuum. Duplication of facilities and services, unnecessary 

expenses, competition, and failure to meet the public’s recreation 

needs are all more likely without this information and a regional 

perspective. WALROS has been designed and extensively tested to 

help assure that it will provide a regional perspective for recreation 

planning and management. 

The following sections identify steps that must be taken in order to 

use WALROS as a regional analysis for recreation planning and 

management. 

Identify the Location, Size, and Boundaries

of the Region 

The boundaries, size, and location of a region will depend on a 

number of factors, such as: the goals, objectives, or purposes of the 

management or recreation plan; political boundaries; topographic 

features; management boundaries; the population served by the 

area; driving distance to population centers that the sites serve; 

proximity of sites to each other; clustering of sites; or any other 

measurable variables. 

Identify the Sites to Be Compared within

the Region 

Identifying which sites should be selected for inclusion in a regional 

plan depends on the goals, objectives, and purposes of the planning 

or management effort. For example, if the goal is to demonstrate 

the full recreation opportunity of a region, then all sites within the 

region that provide some form of recreation can be selected. If the 

goal is to demonstrate how the spectrum of recreation opportunities 

can be expanded, then sites that appear to have the greatest potential 

for diversification might be selected. If the goal is to compare 

similar sites that are competing for recreationists within the region, 

then sites with similar characteristics should be considered. These 

characteristics may include size of the sites, population centers from 

Without a regional 

analysis, there can be a 

duplication of facilities, 

services, unnecessary 

expenses, and 

competition, as well as 

failure to meet public 

demand. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 4—Planning 


which visitors originate, budgets, recreation experiences, and 

activities offered. If the goal is to find out how scarce a recreation 

opportunity is within a region, then it would be important to include 

sites that might provide that opportunity. Often, sites selected will 

reflect similar resource types, such as public forested recreation 

areas, reservoirs, costal zones, rivers, or wildlife areas. 

Not all regions require site comparisons. A stretch of river, such as 

a 60-mile stretch of the Colorado River from Davis Dam to Parker 

Dam, might in and by itself be considered one site or region. In this 

case, WALROS would be applied across the river corridor at 

locations where the recreation opportunities and experiences 

change. On the other hand, an entire region may be compared to 

other regions, as discussed in the section titled Comparing Regions 

at the end of this chapter. 

Gather Information from Each Site for 

Comparison 

WALROS provides a tool for comparing sites. Once sites are 

selected, each site manager and/or their staff need to fill out the 

WALROS Recreation Profile Form. This form provides a 

standardized and comprehensive inventory of information from each 

site in the region. Information from the WALROS Field Inventory, 

along with data obtained from each site, allows for site comparisons 

across the region. Refer to appendix D for a copy of the WALROS 

Regional Recreation Profile Form. 

Conduct a WALROS Field Inventory for 

Each Site 

The WALROS inventory is conducted on each site in the region 

using the WALROS Field Inventory Protocol Form (see sample 

figure 3.1 on page 63). Teams of field surveyors can use this form 

to inventory, classify, and map the social, managerial, and physical 

settings, and the overall WALROS class of each site. Chapter 1 of 

this handbook describes the process in detail. 

Compare Sites 

Once the information for each site is gathered from the WALROS 

Field Inventory Protocol Form and the WALROS Regional 

Recreation Profile Form, sites can be compared. 

100 
Example of Applying WALROS as a Regional Planning and Management Tool
 

Example of Applying WALROS as a 

Regional Planning and Management 

Tool 

Reclamation and the California State Parks conducted a regional 

analysis for 30 recreation sites within the State. The information 

provided below demonstrates how WROS, the predecessor to 

WALROS, has been used for a regional site comparison of one site 

(Lake Cachuma) to the other sites within the planning area 

(California Region V). Region V is the South Central Region 

planning area of California’s Central Valley. Region V includes 

Lake Cachuma, Lake Casitas, Castaic Lake, Lopez Lake, Lake 

Perris, Santa Margarita Lake, and Silverwood Lake. If a 

comparison of Lake Cachuma to any individual study lake in 

Region V or in the State of California is needed or desired, the 

reader is referred to the California WROS Regional Report available 

through Reclamation’s South Central Area Office, Fresno, CA. 

Located a few miles west of Santa Barbara in close proximity to the 

Los Angeles metropolitan area, Lake Cachuma and its beautiful 

rural setting provide a unique opportunity for the public to escape 

the noise and congestion of one of the largest urban population 

centers in the United States. 

The following tables 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 provide a comparison of Lake 

Cachuma to the averages and totals of other study lakes in Region V 

(Cachuma, Castaic, Lopez, Perris, Santa Margarita, and 

Silverwood). Table 4.3 shows a comparison of the water surface 

acres for each WALROS class at Lake Cachuma to the average and 

total water surface acres for the other study lakes in Region V. All 

of the information in these tables comes from the WALROS Field 

Inventory and the WALROS Recreation Profile information 

gathered for Lake Cachuma and from similar information gathered 

at the other lake sites in Region V. 

Since WALROS is an inventory of the physical, managerial, and 

social settings/profiles of a waterbody, the variables that help define 

each of these settings for Lake Cachuma are organized under each 

setting/profile in tables 4.4 and 4.5. Each of these lake variables is 

then displayed for comparison of Lake Cachuma to the average or 

total for all the other study lakes in Region V. 

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Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Table 4.3.—Comparison of water surface acres in each WALROS Class: Region V and Lake Cachuma 

WROS classes 

Region V water surface acres 1, 2 Lake Cachuma water surface acres 

Region 

average 

Region 

total 

Region 

percentage 

Cachuma 

total 

Cachuma 

percentage 

Cachuma 

percentage of 

regional total 

Urban 160 1,120 8% 0 0% 0% 

Suburban 272 1,907 14% 0 0% 0% 

Rural developed 985 6,897 52% 1,826 60% 26% 

Rural natural 473 3,308 25% 1,217 40% 37% 

Semiprimitive 0 0 0% 0 0% 0% 

Primitive 0 0 0% 0 0% 0% 

1 Region V includes Lake Cachuma, Lake Casitas, Lake Castaic, Lake Lopez, Lake Perris, Lake Santa Margarita,

 and Silverwood Lakes. 

2 Water surface acres in each WROS class are estimates derived from the Regional Recreation Profile Form and 

 the WROS inventory maps. 

102 
Example of Applying WALROS as a Regional Planning and Management Tool 

Table 4.4.—Comparison of regional recreation physical and managerial profile variables: Region V and Lake 

Cachuma 

Variables 

Region V* Lake Cachuma 

Region 

average Region total Cachuma total 

Cachuma 

% of regional 

total 

Physical profile variables 

Total water surface acreage (high pool) 1,881 13,168 3,043 23% 

Shoreline miles (high pool) 24 171 32 19% 

Water elevation at high pool (feet) 1,371 753 

Managerial profile variables 

Number of developed campgrounds 5 34 2 6% 

Number of developed campsites 245 1,717 NA NA 

Number of undeveloped/rustic campgrounds 2 13 0 0% 

Number of undeveloped/rustic campsites 97 581 0 0% 

Number of boat-in campsites 2 13 0 0% 

Number of picnic areas 9 65 2 3% 

Number of picnic sites 315 1,892 NA NA 

Miles of hiking trails 10 69 4.75 7% 

Miles of horseback riding trails 8 54 7 13% 

Miles of bike trails 12 87 0 0% 

Miles of off-highway vehicle trails 0 0 0 0% 

Number of boat launch sites 3 18 2 11% 

Number of paved boat access lanes 12 81 NA NA 

Number of marinas 1 6 1 17% 

Number of boat rentals (boats) 24 166 NA NA 

Number of private moorings (slips) 69 481 50 10% 

Number of visitor centers 1 5 1 20% 

Number of full time personnel 20 120 12 10% 

Number of summer seasonal employees 41 290 NA NA 

Annual operating budget ($) 2,030,023 12,180,137 2,100,000 17% 

Annual user fees collected ($) 1,417,857 9,925,000 NA NA 

Annual concessionaire fees collected ($) 85,667 514,000 90,000 18% 

Percent of user fees used by local management 59% NA NA NA 

Entrance fee charged ($) 4 NA 0 NA 

Camping fee charged ($) 20 NA 20 to 30 NA 

Boat launch fee charged ($) 6 NA 12 NA 

Day use fee charged ($) 5 NA 8 NA 

Source: Regional Recreation Profile Form. See Appendix D. 

*Region V includes Lake Cachuma, Lake Casitas, Lake Castaic, Lake Lopez, Lake Perris, Lake Santa Margarita, and 

Silverwood Lakes. Note: NA = Not Available 

103 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition 

Chapter 4—Planning 

Table 4.5.—Comparison of regional recreation social profile variables: Region V 

and Lake Cachuma 

Social profile variables Region V1 Lake Cachuma 

Region average Cachuma total 

Number of annual visitors2 588,857 700,000 

Average length of stay (days) 3 2 

Average size of visitor groups (people) 5 NA 

Percent of large groups over 12 people 10% 30–40% 

Percent of repeat visitors 76% NA% 

What experiences visitors are seeking: 

• Social 17% 0% 

• Skill development 4% 0% 

• Peace and quiet 25% 40% 

• Thrills 21% 0% 

• Aesthetics 29% 20% 

• Other (fishing) 4% 40% 

Percent of visitors residing in California: 92% NA 

Home origin of visitors: 

• Less than 10 miles 6% 10% 

• 10–25 miles 36% 10% 

• 26–100 miles 40% 20% 

• 101–250 miles 15% 50% 

• 250+ miles 3% 10% 

Percent of visitors by ethnicity: 

• Caucasian 38% 35% 

• Mexican-American 41% 30% 

• American Indian 2% 5% 

• Asian American 8% 20% 

• African-American 8% 10% 

• Other 3% 0% 

Percent of boats by size: 

• <16 feet 48% 50% 

• 16–25 feet 48% 45% 

• Over 25 feet 4% 5% 

Percent of boats by boat type: 

• Nonmotorized 7% 0% 

• Outboard engine 51% 60% 

• PWC 18% 0% 

• Inboard engine 23% 40% 

• Houseboat <1% 0% 

Source: Regional Recreation Profile Form. See Appendix D. 

1 Region V includes Cachuma, Casitas, Castaic, Lopez, Perris, Santa Margarita, 

and Silverwood Lakes. 

2 The total number of visitors for Region V is approximately 4,122,000. Cachuma’s 

percent of the regional total is 17%. 

Note: NA = Not Available 

104 
Example of Applying WALROS as a Regional Planning and Management Tool
 

Following are some planning and management implications drawn 

from the information provided in the previous tables. 

Most of the other study reservoirs in the South Central WALROS 

region have large concentrations of recreation visitors with all of the 

socialization, congestion, noise, thrills and excitement associated 

with a more urban or suburban experience and WALROS class. At 

these other reservoirs, crowded beaches, boat ramps, high-speed 

motor boating, waterskiing, jet skiing and other urban-related water 

activities dominate the largest part of the scene. On the other hand, 

Lake Cachuma, along with Lake Casitas and Santa Margarita Lake, 

are the only lakes in the region to offer significant rural natural 

areas that provide opportunities for recreationists seeking a very 

different experience. People who recreate in this type of setting 

seek peace and quiet and an escape from the urban scene. Due 

mainly to the “no body contact” regulation, Lake Cachuma does not 

allow personal watercraft or waterskiing. These restrictions 

significantly reduce noise levels, wakes, and the numbers and 

congestion of motorized boats. Fishing, sightseeing, slow cruising, 

and camping are popular lake-related activities. Protecting and 

enhancing these recreation experiences are important since, 

according to this study’s profile variables, 60 percent of Lake 

Cachuma visitors are mainly seeking peace, quiet, and aesthetics. 

The other 40 percent are seeking a quiet, peaceful experience. 

In order to continue to provide a diversity of water recreation 

opportunities and visitor experiences, it is most important to protect 

the WALROS classes and opportunities that are relatively rare on a 

regional scale. Only 25 percent, or 3,300 acres, of the 13,200 water 

surface acres across all study lakes in the South Central Region fall 

on the undeveloped side of the WALROS spectrum. Only three 

lakes account for the majority of the 25 percent, all of which fall in 

the Rural Natural WALROS class. Lake Cachuma provides over 

one-third of all existing rural natural or undeveloped water 

recreation opportunities in the region. 

In order to continue to provide this rural natural experience and the 

lake’s unique recreation niche, and in order to maintain diversity of 

water recreation experiences in this South Central Region of 

California, it is important to manage Lake Cachuma as rural natural 

as much as possible. Consequently, the “no body contact” and the 

“no personal watercraft” restrictions must be maintained. In 

addition, development must be limited and screened (e.g., through 

setting strict boat speed, noise, and size limits). 

105 
Water and Land Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Users’ Handbook (WALROS)—Second Edition
 

Chapter 4—Planning 


Comparing Regions 

For planning purposes, it may be beneficial to compare regions or 

divide large regions into subregions and then compare the 

subregions. The South Central Region is just one of five designated 

regions in the Central Valley of California. A study by Reclamation 

and California State Parks and Recreation, titled Applying The 

Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS) on a Regional 

Scale (October 2010), compared the five subregions of the 

California Central Valley using WROS, which was the predecessor 

of WALROS. The reader is referred to this report as an excellent 

example for comparing regions. The report can be obtained by 

contacting Reclamation’s South Central California Area Office 

(SCCAO). 

Figure 4.10.—The cover of Reclamation’s 2010 Applying the 

Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS) on a Regional 

Scale: Five Regions within the California Central Valley. 

106 
Appendices 
Appendix A 

Contact Information, Acknowledgement, and Citation 

Contact Information 

United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation 

Policy and Administration 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

Contractors: 

Dr. Glenn Haas 

3403 Green Wing Court 

Fort Collins, Colorado 80524 

(970) 498-9350 

Dr. Robert Aukerman 

729 Duke Square 

Fort Collins, Colorado 80525 

(970) 484-2028 

Information on in-service staff training, orientation, and PowerPoint presentation can be 

obtained on Reclamation’s website: http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

Acknowledgements 

WROS was developed by the hard work of recreation resource professionals and outdoor 

enthusiasts from across the United States. We acknowledge their vital contribution. 

A special acknowledgement is extended to the Federal Lakes Recreation Study 

Commission who contributed the funds in year 1999 to the WROS study for field testing 

and development of the original 2004 guidebook. 

The 2011 2nd Edition of WROS, now called WALROS, is a credit to the leadership of the 

Bureau of Reclamation, Program and Administration, Denver, Colorado. Feeding into the 

2nd edition revisions were multiple field applications, a California Central Valley regional 

application, and a validation study supported by the Bureau of Reclamation’s South 

Central California Area Office, and by California State Parks. Mr. Robert Epperson and 

Mr. Wayne Woodroof deserve special recognition. 

Photography: The Bureau of Reclamation would like to provide a special 

acknowledgement to Mr. Richard Hines, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, who 

provided multiple pictures used in this 2nd edition. 

A-1 
Citation 

Haas, G., Aukerman, Grizzle, V., Jackson, J., 2011. Water and Land Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum Handbook. 2nd Edition. United States Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Reclamation, Program and Administration, Denver Federal Center, Denver, 

Colorado. 

A-2 
Appendix B

List of Reservoirs and Locations Where 

WALROS/WROS Has Been Applied 

The following is a list of where WALROS/WROS has been tested or used 

for planning or management purposes. 

Lake/Reservoir or 

River Location By State or Country 

Primary Managing 

Agency(s) 

Bear Creek Alabama 

Tennessee Valley 

Authority (TVA) 

Guntersville Alabama TVA 

Pickwick Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee TVA 

Wheeler Alabama TVA 

Wilson Alabama TVA 

Colorado River Arizona, California, Nevada 

Bureau of Reclamation 

(Reclamation), Bureau 

of Land Management 

(BLM) 

Lake Havasu Arizona/ California BLM 

Lake Pleasant Arizona Maricopa County 

Salt River Project Arizona Reclamation 

American River/Auburn California 

California (CA) State 

Parks State Parks 

Bethany Reservoir California CA State Parks 

Castaic Lake California 

Los Angeles County 

Parks 

Folsom Lake California CA State Parks 

Keswick Reservoir California 

U.S. Forest Service 

(USFS), BLM 

Lake Berryessa California Reclamation 

Lake Cachuma California 

Santa Barbara County 

Parks 

Lake Casitas California Casitas Water District 

Lake Clementine California CA State Parks 

Lake Contra Loma California 

East Bay Regional 

Parks 

Lake De Valle California 

East Bay Regional 

Parks 

Lake Don Pedro California 

Don Pedro Recreation 

Agency 

Lake McClure California Merced Irrigation District 

Lake McSwain California Merced Irrigation District 

B-1
Lake Natoma California CA State Parks 

Lake Oroville California CA State Parks 

Lake Perris California CA State Parks 

Lake Shasta California USFS 

Lake Turlock California Merced Irrigation District 

Lewiston Lake California USFS 

Lopez Lake California 

San Luis Obispo County 

Parks 

Los Banos Creek California CA State Parks 

Millerton Lake California CA State Parks 

New Melones Lake California Reclamation 

O'Neill Forebay California CA State Parks 

Pine Flat Lake California 

Corps of Engineers 

(COE) 

San Luis Reservoir California CA State Parks 

Santa Margarita Lake California 

San Luis Obispo County 

Parks 

Silverwood Lake California CA State Parks 

Trinity Lake California USFS 

Whiskeytown Lake California 

National Park Service 

(NPS) 

Bodecker Lake Colorado Larimer County Parks 

Boulder Reservoir Colorado Boulder County Parks 

Boyd Lake Colorado 

Colorado (CO) State 

Parks 

Carter Lake Colorado Larimer County, BOR 

Chatfield Reservoir Colorado CO State Parks, COE 

Cherry Creek Reservoir Colorado CO State Parks, COE 

Clark Lake Colorado Weld County Parks 

Douglas Lake Colorado CO Division of Wildlife 

Flatiron Reservoir Colorado Larimer County Parks 

Granby Lake Colorado USFS 

Horsetooth Reservoir Colorado Larimer County Parks 

Jackson Gulch 

Reservoir Colorado CO State Parks 

Lake Loveland Colorado City of Loveland Parks 

Lake Wellington #4 Colorado CO Division of Wildlife 

Lon Hagler Lake Colorado CO Division of Wildlife 

Lone Tree Reservoir Colorado CO Division of Wildlife 

North Sterling 

Reservoir Colorado CO State Parks 

Pinewood Lake Colorado Larimer County Parks 

Blue Ridge Georgia TVA 

Chatuge Georgia and North Carolina TVA 

Nottely Georgia TVA 

B-2
Lake Rathbun Iowa COE 

Kentucky Kentucky and Tennessee TVA 

Lake Cumberland Kentucky COE 

Canyon Ferry 

Reservoir, Goose Bay 

Marina Montana Reclamation 

Clark Canyon Reservoir Montana Reclamation 

Northern Forest Canoe 

Trail New Hampshire 

Coalition of Non-Profit 

Agencies 

Appalachia North Carolina TVA 

Hiwassee North Carolina TVA 

Lake Texoma Oklahoma, Texas 

COE, Oklahoma State 

Parks, Texas State 

Parks 

Lake Sakakawea North Dakota COE 

Allegheny Reservoir Pennsylvania COE 

Boone Tennessee TVA 

Cherokee Tennessee TVA 

Chickamauga Tennessee TVA 

Douglas Tennessee TVA 

Fort Loudoun Tennessee TVA 

Fort Patrick Henry Tennessee TVA 

Melton Hill Tennessee TVA 

Nickajack Tennessee TVA 

Nolichucky Tennessee TVA 

Normandy Tennessee TVA 

Norris Tennessee TVA 

Ocoees Tennessee TVA 

South Holston Tennessee and Virginia TVA 

Tellico Tennessee TVA 

Tims Ford Tennessee TVA 

Watauga Tennessee TVA 

Watts Bar Tennessee TVA 

Lake Amistad Texas NPS 

Bumping Lake Washington USFS 

Clear Lake Washington USFS 

Cle Elum Lake Washington USFS 

Lake Easton Washington Washington State Parks 

Lake Kachess Washington USFS 

Lake Keechelus Washington USFS 

Natches River Washington USFS 

Rimrock Lake Washington USFS 

Tieton River Washington USFS 

B-3
Yakima River Washington USFS, BLM 

Strangeford Loche Ireland Country of Ireland 

Black Rio Grande River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Black River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Cabarita and Roaring 

Rivers Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Great River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Martha Brea River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Milk River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Roaring River St. Ann Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

Rio Grande River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

South Negril River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

White River Jamaica Country of Jamaica 

B-4
Appendix C 

Glossary 

Managerial attributes (setting). Managerial attributes are the features or characteristics of a 

recreation setting that may define and distinguish the recreation experience. Management 

attributes may include facilities (e.g., ranging from water markers to full service marinas and 

campgrounds), rules, regulations, water operations, educational programs, fees and charges, 

interpretation, signage, law enforcement, design, lighting, concessions, and special use 

permittees. 

Physical attributes (setting). Physical attributes are features or characteristics of a recreation 

setting that may help to define and distinguish the recreation experience. Physical attributes can 

be divided into natural features or built structures of a more permanent or fixed nature. 

Examples of natural resource attributes include water quality, aquatic and terrestrial vegetation, 

topography, shoreline curvature, fish and wildlife habitat, soil, natural soundscape, and air 

quality. Examples of built structures include all those municipal, commercial, industrial, 

residential, agricultural, and major recreation buildings and infrastructure common to any city or 

community (e.g., dams, water and power conveyances, water control structures, residential 

subdivisions, industrial complexes, commercial centers, air and ground transportation systems, 

developed resorts and marinas, theme parks, and shipping and cargo facilities). 

Preponderance of the evidence. Preponderance of the evidence is defined as a condition 

whereby most of the information, data, trends, professional opinion, and other facts and 

circumstances of a situation support the reasonableness of a particular decision or course of 

action more than another decision or course of action. It is a situation where the weight of 

evidence of one course of action is greater than the weight of evidence of another course of 

action. 

Recreation activity. Recreation activity is a leisure-time pursuit that a person participates in 

voluntarily to secure a pleasurable experience. 

Recreation benefits. Recreation benefits are the positive gains or improvements made by 

people participating in recreation opportunities. The gains may include benefits for the 

individual, community, economy, or environment. 

Recreation diversity. Recreation diversity is the type, variety, distribution, quality, and 

abundance of outdoor recreation opportunities. Diversity is accommodated through management 

of a spectrum of recreation opportunity classes, zones, or units named in WALROS as urban, 

suburban, rural developed, rural natural, semi-primitive, and primitive. 

C-1 
Recreation experience. Recreation experience is the psychological and physiological response 

to participating in a particular recreation activity in a specific recreation setting. Recreationists 

consume a recreation experience (activity + setting = experience). 

Recreation opportunity (RO). Recreation opportunity is the opportunity for a person to 

participate in a particular activity in a specific setting to realize a particular type of experience 

and subsequent benefits. RO = activity + setting = experience >>> benefits. 

Recreation setting. Recreation setting is a geographic location comprised of physical, social, 

and managerial attributes where a person participates in a particular activity to have a specific 

type of recreation experience. Managers manage the recreation setting. 

Rule of reasonableness. The rule of reasonableness is defined as a decision that professional 

recreation managers of ordinary prudence and competence would not view as excessive or 

immoderate under similar circumstances. 

Setting attribute. A setting attribute can be defined as a site feature or condition that recreation 

users consider important for a quality recreat

. 

ion experience and that will result in return visits to 

the site (e.g., solitude, scenery, adequate riverflow or reservoir elevation, law enforcement, 

signing, shower, restroom, and boat ramp)

Sliding scale rule of analysis. The sliding scale rule states that the level of analysis used to 

implement WALROS should be commensurate with the potential consequences of the decision; 

that is, managers need flexibility to make decisions based on a level of analysis that is 

commensurate with the purpose and potential consequences of the decision. 

Social attributes (setting). Social attributes are the features or characteristics of a recreation 

setting that may define and distinguish the recreation experience. Social attributes may include 

such features as (1) recreation use and users (e.g., the type, amount, time, location, distribution, 

origin, behaviors, and quality), (2) nonrecreation use and users (e.g., business people, 

educational groups, agency personnel, scientists, farmers and ranchers, and local residents), and 

(3) special values associated with the cultural, historical, and spiritual or religious significance. 

Sound professional judgment. Sound professional judgment is defined as a reasonable 

decision that has given full and fair consideration to the appropriate information, is based on 

principled and reasoned analysis and the best available science and expertise, and complies with 

applicable laws. 

Suitable recreation acres. Suitable recreation acres are those acres within a project or planning 

area that can or will accommodate some type and level of recreation use. Unsuitable recreation 

acres may be those acres that include security closures, pose public safety hazards, contain 

sensitive wildlife habitat or heritage sites, have incompatible industrial activity, or are 

inaccessible because of topography or private land. 

C-2 
Visitor (recreation) capacity. Visitor capacity is the supply, or prescribed number, of 

recreation opportunities that will be accommodated in a particular area in order to achieve the 

prescribe management goals and objectives. 

WALROS classes, areas, or zones. WALROS is a system of six classes of recreation 

opportunities ranging from urban to primitive. The word class refers to the narrative description 

of the six classes in this guidebook. When a body of water is mapped or delineated as belonging 

to one or more WALROS classes, they may be called WALROS areas or zones. 

Water resources. Water resources is the term used in this guidebook to refer to the types of 

water resources to which WALROS can be applied, including lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, bays, 

estuaries, rivers, coastal zones, and marine protected areas. 

C-3 
Appendix D

Sample Form to Develop a Regional Recreation Profile 

Sample Regional Recreation Profile Form 

Date:_____________ 

Your name and title: _______________________________________________________ 

Name of water resource: ____________________________________________________ 

Agency name: _____________________________________________________________ 

Phone: _________________________Email:_____________________________________ 

Please answer the questions below based upon the best available information and your
 

professional judgment. Provide reasonable estimates if there are no exact numbers available.
 

Leave blank if you cannot estimate and/or if the question is not applicable to your resource.
 

Thank you very much for your valuable input.
 

Acres in your management area______ % Land ____River ___ 

Lake/Reservoir ____Coastal_____ 

Sample WALROS Regional Recreation Profile Form 

If Reservoir or Lake 

Total water surface acres: 

Total Shoreline miles: 

Total Water elevation: 

High Pool_______ 

High Pool_______ 

High Pool_______ 

Low Pool______ 

Low Pool______ 

Low Pool______ 

If River-Length and Width 

Length of river in management area:________ Average width of river:________ 

Facilities 

Number of developed campgrounds:________ 

Number of rustic or undeveloped campgrounds:________ 

Number of boat-in campsites:________ 

Number of picnic areas:________ 

Miles of trails for: hiking________ horseback 

riding_______ 

Number of boat launch sites:__________ 

Number of developed campsites:_____ 

Number of undeveloped campsites:____ 

Number of picnic sites:________ 

bike riding_______ OHV_______ 

Number of paved boat access lanes:_____ 

D-1 
Sample WALROS Regional Recreation Profile Form 

Number of marinas:________ Number of boat rentals:_______ 

Number of private moorings:________ Number of visitor centers:______ 

Number of houseboats:________ 

Number of other facilities (please list facility and #): 

________________________________________ 

Management 

Number of Non-seasonal 

employees:___________________ 

Annual operating budget:______________________ 

Concessions gross revenues:__________ 

Year of most recent approved management plan:______ 

Number of seasonal summer employees:___________ 

Amount of user fees collected:____________________ 

Percentage of user fees applied by local 

management:______ 

Percentage of user fees retained for use at site:______ 

Circle if there is a reservation 

system for: camping picnicking boat launches boat rentals

Individual amount of user fee charged for: 

Entrance $____ Camping $____ Day use $____ Special events

(i.e. fishing tournaments) $____

Boat launch $____ Boat mooring $____ other (list) $____

Visitors: 

(please use your best professional judgment on all of the questions if you do not have actual data) 

Number of annual visitors:__________ Number of annual visitor days:______________ 

Percentage of visitors by 

season: Summer___ Spring____ Fall____ Winter____ 

Percentage of day use only:_______________ 

Average length of 

stay:________________ Average size of visitor groups:_______________ 

Percentage of large groups 

over 12 people:_____ Percentage of repeat visitors:________ 

Percentage of visitors who are extremely or highly satisfied with their visit:__________ 

D-2 
Sample WALROS Regional Recreation Profile Form 

What experiences are visitors seeking: (Please add to 100%) 

social:___% skill development: ____% peace and quiet:

____%

adventure:___% aesthetic value:_______% other (list):______%

Percentage of visitors who reside in‐state:________________%

Residence of visitors: less than 10 miles:____% 10-25 miles:____% 26-100 miles:_______% 

101-250 

miles:_____________% 250+miles:_____________% 

Visitors by ethnicity, ancestry, or origin: (Please add to 100%) 

Caucasian: _______% Native American ______% Hispanic ______% 

Asian: _______% African-American: ______% Other _________% 

In general, do you feel you are over capacity for boating (please check): Yes ____ No ____ 

In general, do you feel you are over capacity for camping (please check): Yes ____ No ____ 

In general, do you feel you are over capacity for other activities (please list activity and indicate yes or no): 

Percentage of boats by size: 

<16 feet: ____% 16-25 feet: ____% Over 25 feet: ____% 

Percentage of boats by type: (Please add to 100%) 

Non-motorized: ____% Outboard engine: ____% Inboard engine: ____% 

Houseboat: ____% PWC: ____% 

D-3 
Appendix E 

Directory of Related Information Sources 

Bureau of Reclamation Information Sources: 

3⁄4	 Creating More Meaningful Visitor Experiences: Planning for Interpretation and
 

Education
 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

3⁄4	 Economic Nonmarket Valuation of Instream Flows 

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/economics/reports.html 

3⁄4	 Estimating future Recreation Demand: A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

3⁄4	 Impact of Fluctuating Reservoir Elevation on Recreation Use and Value 

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/economics/reports.html 

3⁄4	 Outdoor Recreation Business Plan Guidebook 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

3⁄4	 Public Involvement Manual 

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/economics/reports.html 

3⁄4	 Recreation Facility Design Guidelines 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

3⁄4	 Resource Management Plan Guidebook 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

3⁄4	 Sign Guidelines for Planning, Designing, Fabricating, Procuring,
 

Installing, and Maintaining Signs for Outdoor Public Use Areas
 

http://www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications.html 

3⁄4	 Social Analysis Manual, Volume 1 

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/economics/reports.html 

Supporting Reclamation Manual (RM) Policy and Directives and Standards 

(D&S): 

3⁄4	 RM Policy, Concession Management, LND P02 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/policies.html#LNDl 

3⁄4	 RM Policy, Recreation Program Management, LND P 04 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/policies.html#LNDl 

E-1 
3⁄4	 RM Policy, Visitor Centers, LND P13 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/policies.html#LNDl 

3⁄4 RM D&S, Concessions Management by the Bureau of Reclamation, LND 04-01 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/DandS.html 

3⁄4	 RM D&S, Concessions Management by Non-Federal Partners, LND 04-02 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/DandS.html 

3⁄4	 RM, D&S, Implementation of Cost Sharing Authorities for Reclamation and Fish and 

Wildlife Enhancement, LND 01-01 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/DandS.html 

3⁄4	 RM D&S, Recreation Program Management, LND 01-03 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/DandS.html 

3⁄4	 RM D&S, Visitor Centers, LND 13-01 

http://www.usbr.gov/recman/DandS.html 

U.S. Forest Service Information 

3⁄4	 The Built Environment Image Guide for the National Forest and 

Grasslands
 

http://www.fs.fed.us/recreation/programs/beig/ 

3⁄4	 Floating Trail Bridges and Docks 

www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/pdfpubs/pdf02232812/pdf02232812dpi72.pdf 

3⁄4	 Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management,
 

Agriculture Handbook
 

http://library.rawlingsforestry.com/fs/landscape_aesthetics/ 

3⁄4	 National Survey on Recreation and the Environment (NSRE), 

http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/trends/Nsre/nsre2.html 

3⁄4	 National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) Data Base 

http://www.fs.fed.us/recreation/programs/nvum/ 

3⁄4	 ROS Users Guide 

www.fs.fed.us/cdt/carrying_capacity/rosguide_1982.pdf 

E-2 
Other Sources of Information 

3⁄4 National Survey on Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife Associated Recreation 

http://www.fws.gov/news/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=208AD97E-F21E716D-4E57C4847DFE791B 

Planning Resources Link, National Association of Recreation Resource Planners, 

Marienville, Pennsylvania 

http://www.narrp.org/clubportal/ClubStatic.cfm?clubID=1431&pubmenuOptID=16654# 

planning_guidance 

E-3 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Appendix F 

Estimating Recreation Demand 

Estimating Future Recreation Demand 

Prepared by Drs. Glenn Haas and Marcella Wells 

The following guidance is excerpted from the Bureau of Reclamation’s publication 

entitled Estimating Future Recreation Demand: A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

(July 2007). Drs. Haas and Wells were the lead authors. The full Guide is a public 

document and can be accessed at: 

www.usbr.gov/recreation/publications/recreationdemand.pdf . 

Section 1 

Key Concepts and Terms 

A major reason why the concept and practice of measuring recreation demand has been 

so illusive is the lack of standard terminology and definitions. This section is very 

important to the practitioner because it provides the perspective and definitions that are 

the basis of this Demand Guide. 

Recreation Demand 

Recreation demand is the estimated number of people who are projected to participate in 

a particular recreation opportunity at some predetermined future time and location. 

Several terms are highlighted in italics because they need further elaboration or provide 

choices for the practitioner. 

Practitioners do not estimate demand with 100 percent certainty. Rather, the estimate is 

supported by a preponderance of the information considered and may be more 

appropriately represented by a numeric range. For example, rather than indicating that 

demand will increase 27 percent in the next 10 years, it would be more helpful to offer a 

low and high-bound range such as 25 to 30 percent. Furthermore, estimates with one or 

two decimal points are not recommended because they provide an unrealistic sense of 

certainty. 

The estimated number of people is typically expressed as a number or numeric range of 

individuals or groups (e.g., 10,000 visitors, 120-150 parties). The number of people can 

also be expressed as a percentage of the population in the market area or as a percentage 

increase or decrease in participation from some baseline year (e.g., year 2005). Another 

option is that the estimated number of people refers to some attribute of the visitors such 

F-1 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

as vehicles, motorized recreation vehicles, motor boats, horseback groups, boat launches, 

snowmobiles, campers versus day-use groups, or local versus non-local parties. 

Historically, recreation demand has focused on the visitor’s primary recreation activity 

such as hiking, fishing, boating, camping, or skiing. Today, the recreation profession 

recognizes that not all hiking, boating, or fishing is the same because of the diverse 

outdoor settings where the activity may be enjoyed. Estimating demand for just activities 

may be too vague and misleading. Thus, the recreation profession has developed the 

concept of a recreation opportunity which goes beyond the activity perspective. The 

term recreation opportunity is defined in the next section. 

The future time period, or future demand target year, is the target time period for which 

demand is being estimated. It is typically 5, 10, 15, or 20 years into the future. This 

Demand Guide utilizes a 10-year future time period. Beyond 20 years is considered very 

tenuous. Furthermore, the future time period can focus on the full calendar year, a 

portion of the year, such as the summer or hunting season, or even a shorter time in the 

case of a special event. 

Recreation Opportunity 

Four decades ago, recreation was viewed principally as an activity, such as boating or 

skiing. However, in the 1970s, recreation science determined that recreationists are 

motivated by seeking a particular type of recreation experience and that a recreation 

activity is a means to an experiential end. It also determined that the condition of the 

resources and how the recreation setting is managed can influence the kind of experience 

a person is likely to have. In the 1990s, recreation science further determined that 

recreation experiences lead to benefits for individuals, families, and communities and 

provide benefits to the economy and the environment. 

Today, it is professionally accepted that recreation managers provide recreation 

opportunities. That is, managers provide opportunities for visitors to participate in a type 

of recreation activity in a specific setting to realize a particular type of experience and 

subsequent benefits. Figure 3 depicts the key components of a recreation opportunity and 

how they are linked to one another. 

F-2 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Recreation 

Activity + Setting = Experience > Benefits 

Many activities Physical 

attributes 

Managerial 

attributes 

Social 

attributes 

Many 

dimensions 

Multiple 

senses 

Individual 

Community 

Economic 

Environmental 

Managers Recreationists Society 

Manage Consume Gains 

Figure 3.—A recreation opportunity. 

In a perfect world, it would be helpful to estimate future demand for activities, settings, 

experiences, and benefits. The profession needs to move in this direction. In the 

meantime, it is important to move beyond simply measuring demand for an activity 

because that level of information is too vague and misleading. 

This Demand Guide recommends that demand be estimated for the key “activities and 

settings.” For example, rather than estimating demand for simply canoeing, it is 

recommended that demand be estimated for canoeing in a suburban setting or canoeing in 

a rural natural setting. This Demand Guide will henceforth use the phrase key 

“recreation opportunity” to mean a key “recreation activity in a particular setting.” 

Furthermore, this Demand Guide recommends the use of the settings prescribed in the 

ROS or WROS systems. Figure 4 displays the six recreation settings used in the WROS 

system (see WROS User’s Guidebook, 2004, for detailed descriptions of these settings). 

A less desirable option, but still an improvement over using simply recreation activities, 

would be to use the setting descriptors such as backcountry versus front country or 

developed versus natural setting. 

Urban Suburban Rural Rural Semi Primitive

 Developed Natural Primitive 

Figure 4.—A spectrum of recreation opportunities.
 

F-3
 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Demand Assessment 

Demand assessment requires conducting an information search, compiling important 

information, consulting with others, performing analyses, and developing reasonable 

estimates of the future recreation demand for the key recreation opportunities in question. 

The demand assessment culminates in an estimate (i.e., a number or numeric range of 

people) of demand for each of the key recreation opportunities under consideration. 

These estimates, along with the demand estimates for other relevant goods and services 

such as water, power, timber, wildlife habitat, grazing, minerals, and cultural resources, 

serve as input to the inventory stage of a planning process. 

Information Atmosphere 

Recreation practitioners have access to much information that is useful and may be 

sufficient to estimate future recreation demand. Unfortunately, recreation professionals 

often fail to perform the critical step of looking beyond their agency or area of 

management jurisdiction. In this Demand Guide, the phrase, information atmosphere, 

represents the assemblage of data, studies, plans, community surveys, reports, and other 

information available from the private, non-private, and public sectors at the local, 

regional, and national level. Table 1 depicts a potential information atmosphere. By 

considering each cell in the matrix, practitioners can be more diligent in their information 

searches. 

F-4 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Table 1.—The information atmosphere for estimating recreation demand 

Public sector Private sector Non-profit sector 

Federal 

National Survey on Recreation and 

the Environment (U.S. Forest Service 

[USFS]) 

National Visitor Use Monitoring data 

(USFS) 

Corps of Engineers visitation data 

Fish and Wildlife Service 5-year 

hunting and fishing survey 

FERC relicensing studies 

Environmental impact statements 

General management and resource 

management plans 

Federal research publications and 

websites (USFS SE Experiment 

Station) 

Special departmental or 

congressional reports or commissions 

(e.g., GAO, CRS) 

Agency visitor monitoring reports 

Corporate market research 

studies 

Corporate annual reports 

(e.g., REI, Winnebago, Bass) 

Private consultant reports 

Recreation, tourism, and 

leisure textbooks 

National Recreation and 

Parks Association 

Outdoor Industry of America 

Recreation Roundtable 

Annual Reports 

American Camping 

Association 

Special reports of recreation 

industry association 

Conference proceedings 

Travel Industry Association 

Gallup, Roper, Pew, and 

other national polls 

State 

Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor 

Recreation Plans (SCORP) 

Statewide public surveys 

Census reports 

Economic profiles 

Demographic profiles 

State tourism reports and date 

Sales tax generations 

University research studies 

Agency visitor monitoring reports 

Resort visitation 

Travel industry visitation 

reports 

Private consultant reports 

Private college reports and 

studies 

State park concessionaire 

reports and studies 

State Tourism Boards 

State recreation and tourism 

associations 

State chapters of national 

recreation organizations 

Conference proceedings 

Local 

County and parks, recreation, and 

open space plans 

County economic development plans 

County road counts 

County tax records 

Agency visitor monitoring reports 

Resort visitation 

Concessionaire records 

Sporting goods sales 

Hotel and restaurant records 

Outdoor recreation service 

provider records 

Chambers of Commerce 

Local friends or special 

interest groups 

Cooperating organizations 

F-5
 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Planning and Market Area 

This Demand Guide uses the phrase, planning area, to refer to the geographic location for 

which the practitioner wants to estimate demand. It may be a site such as a campground 

or marina, a lake or park, or a larger region of a State. The market area is the geographic 

area where the visitors to the planning area reside; that is, where do people live who visit 

the planning area. A reasonable rule of thumb is to define the market area as the 

geographic area where at least 75 percent of the visitors reside. For example, the market 

area might be a 10 mile radius for Chatfield Lake State Park near Denver, an 80 mile 

radius for Folsom Lake State Park near Sacramento, and a 250 mile radius for Lake 

Mead, Utah. 

Demand by Whom 

The number of “current on-site” visitors is the expression of demand that is the easiest to 

measure and the most commonly reported. Typically, recreation practitioners will express 

recreation demand as the number of on-site visitors in a day, season, or year. For 

example, the recreation demand to Boreas Pass in 2005 was 114,700 on-site visitors. 

Current on-site visitation is certainly a major component of estimating future recreation 

demand, but it alone is not sufficient. The amount of “unmet” demand at a site is more 

difficult to measure and a less visible type of recreation demand. Unmet recreation 

demand can be defined as the number of people who would visit a recreation site, but for 

various reasons, do not. These people need to be considered in estimating future 

recreation demand. Table 2 provides a taxonomy of people who will influence future 

recreation demand. 

Planning Process 

Public resource planning is the process used to make allocation decisions for our public 

lands and waters. At the Federal level, NEPA provides the regulatory foundation for 

environmental planning. Most States have adopted a similar approach to NEPA since 

Federal and State programs and budgets are so intertwined. 

Although each agency and organization may have a slightly different planning process 

(e.g., terminology, review periods), the steps of a rational public planning process are 

basically the same. Figure 5 shows the steps of a generic public planning model. It also 

shows that the output of a recreation demand assessment enters into the inventory stage 

of the process and then is considered in the subsequent steps. 

F-6 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Table 2.—A taxonomy of people who will influence future recreation demand 

Current on-site 

demand 

Current recreationists who visit the area; may be referred to as 

visitors, users, guests, customers, audiences, tourists, 

participants, or consumers. 

Displaced. People who previously used the site or facilities but 

have been displaced or no longer visit the site because of 

some undesirable attribute, condition, or situation (e.g., over 

development; lack of maintenance; infusion of new/different user 

group; water quality). 

Unmet demand 

Disenfranchised. People who are aware of the site or facilities 

but for some reason do not feel welcomed, comfortable, or are 

unable to visit for accessibility reasons (e.g., income, disability). 

Latent. People who desire, are able, and are planning to visit 

the recreation site or facilities but who have not done so to date. 

New. People who may be new residents or otherwise are not 

currently aware of the available recreation opportunities or who 

are existing residents with changing outdoor recreation interests 

and are likely to participate as they become more aware. 

Tourists. People who live outside your market area but will 

travel to the area for a short period of time (e.g., vacation, 

business trip). 

Scoping 

Planning 

Criteria 

Inventory 

Formulate 

Alternatives 

Evaluate 

Alternatives 

Select 

Alternatives 

Implement/ 

Monitor 

Evaluate/ 

Adapt 

Recreation 

Supply 

Recreation 

Demand 

Figure 5.—Integration of recreation demand to a general planning process. 

F-7 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

SECTION II 

The Process for Demand Assessment 

This section describes the recreation demand assessment, defined as conducting an 

information search, compiling important information, consulting with others, performing 

analyses, and developing reasonable estimates of future recreation demand for the key 

recreation opportunities in question. The output of recreation demand assessment is 

demand estimates. These demand estimates may be used to make routine administrative 

decisions or serve as inputs to the inventory stage of a planning process along with the 

demand estimates for other relevant goods and services. Figure 6 depicts the five steps of 

recreation demand assessment and their linkages to the various steps of a public planning 

process. The five steps of the recreation demand assessment are discussed below. 

Scoping 

Planning 

Criteria 

Inventory 

Formulate 

Alternatives 

Evaluate 

Alternatives 

Select 

Alternatives 

Implement/ 

Monitor 

Evaluate/ 

Adapt 

Recreation 

Supply 

Recreation 

Demand 

Pre-Analysis 

Decisions 

Current 

Ana ys s 

H nds ght 

Analysis 

Future 

Analysis 

Estimate 

Of Demand 

Figure 6.—Linkage of demand assessment to a general planning process. 

As previously stated, this Demand Guide is a question-based tool to help ensure that the 

practitioners challenge themselves to assemble and analyze all available information. It 

provides a structured-thinking process and a means to be mentally organized. It also 

provides examples of how to display and record important information so that it is (1) 

effectively considered in the decisionmaking, (2) retrievable and useful for future 

planning and visitor monitoring efforts, and (3) included in the administrative record as 

judicial evidence that the decision was reasonable, logical, reasoned, and trackable. 

F-8 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Each of the five steps of demand assessment includes a series of questions. These 

questions, listed in this Demand Guide, are intended to serve as prompts or suggestions 

and are not absolute requirements for estimating demand. Practitioners should tailor and 

refine these questions to ensure relevance to the situation, as well as to add questions 

deemed important. 

In addressing the questions, there are two very important items to remember: 

•	 First, it is important to realize that not all the questions can be answered and that 

the level of certainty in answering the questions will range from zero to 100 

percent. The practitioner’s responsibility is to consider the best available 

information to make a reasonable decision. 

•	 Second, it is not appropriate to eliminate a question simply because a practitioner 

does not know the answer. This action can invite allegations of being arbitrary 

and capricious. It is better, both legally and managerially, to disclose all 

important questions and be transparent in reporting when insufficient information 

is available. Furthermore, the demand assessment is not a one time isolated event, 

but part of a learning process that is on-going. Identification of questions with 

insufficient information to answer can be helpful to justify and design a visitor 

monitoring program. 

Sample Recreation Demand Table Follow 

Current Year: 2005 Future Target Year: 2015 

Desired sliding sale of analysis: Level 2 

Planning Area: Armistead Regional Park Market Area: within 100 miles 

Analysis 

Overall level of 

importance 

Overall Level 

of confidence 

Overall level 

of adequacy Comments 

Hindsight Moderate Moderate High Provides good 

insights 

Current 

situation 

Moderate Low Low Need to improve 

visitor monitoring 

effort 

Future High Moderate Moderate Changing energy 

prices and ethnicity 

in the market area 

are the big 

unknowns 

Is the available 

information 

adequate to 

estimate the 

recreation 

demand for 

2015? 

Notations: Yes, given the intended level 2 analyses and that both the 

county and regional tourism council will be conducting public surveys in 

2007 in which additional data will not be collected. Furthermore, the 

State office has allocated additional monies for 2007 so Armistead can 

get a more accurate and more detailed count of the current visitation to 

Armistead for all key opportunities. 

F-9 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Table 8.—A sample summary table for a recreation demand assessment 

Key 

activities 

Recreation 

setting 

Estimated percentage 

change in annual 

participation in 2015 

from 2005 

Level of 

confidence 

Special Notations for the 

Administrative Record: 

Data from NSRE, 2005 State SCORP, 

2002 County Open Space master 

plan, and 1999 KOA marketing plan 

were very helpful in these estimates 

Low-end 

(%) 

High-end 

(%) 

Picnicking Suburban 20% 25% High Increasing population growth, 

increasing development, 

and growing Hispanic population 

Rural 

Developed 

10% 15% Moderate Recent facility improvements, lighting, 

and improved concession operations 

and security 

Horseback 

riding 

Rural 

natural 

5% 8% Low Growing number of ranchettes in 

region, creation of backcountry horse 

group, improving trails, thee new 

horse trailheads 

Camping Rural 

natural 

25% 30% Moderate Aging population, more motorized 

recreation tourists from upstate, 

increased percent of full hookups 

Semi 

Primitive 

3% 8% Moderate Aging population, semi-primitive 

campers declining and changing to 

recreation opportunities with more 

comforts 

Backpacking Primitive -2% +2% High Local area becoming more of a dayuse attraction, area receiving heavy 

use, backpackers being displaced 

F-10 
Estimating Future Recreation Demand: 

A Decision Guide for the Practitioner 

Table 9.—A sample template for displaying the projected visitation of a recreation demand 

assessment 

Title: The estimated range of projected annual visitors for the year 2015 (projected in 2005) 

Key activities Recreation settings 

Low range 

estimate of 

visitation 

High range 

estimate of 

visitation Level of confidence 

Picnicking Suburban 14,000 18,000 High 

Rural developed 10,000 12,000 Low 

Rural natural 4,000 6,000 Low 

Motorboating Rural developed 25,000 35,000 Moderate 

Fishing Rural developed 20,000 25,000 Moderate 

Rural natural 25,000 30,000 High 

Semi primitive 15,000 18,000 High 

Backpacking Semi primitive 2,000 4,000 Moderate 

Primitive 8,000 10,000 Low 

Notes: 

END OF Excerpt ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

F-11 
Appendix G 

Visitor Capacity 

Visitor Capacity on Public Lands and Waters: Making Better 

Decisions 

Excerpted from: Haas, G. E. Visitor Capacity on Public Lands and Waters: 

Making Better Decisions. A report of the Federal Interagency Task Force on Visitor 

Capacity on Public Lands for the Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, 

U.S. Department of the Interior. Published by the National Recreation and Park 

Association, Ashburn, Virginia, October, 2002. www.nrpa.org 

2. Task Force Perspectives: An Evolving Tool 

Management concepts and tools evolve over time with new science, information, and 

experience. Recent examples of evolving tools include ecosystem management, 

collaborative planning, and adaptive management. Similarly, the concept of visitor 

capacity has and will continue to evolve. Section Two describes how the Task Force 

views visitor capacity and provides an important foundation for those new to the 

concept or unfamiliar with public land planning. 

Task Force Perspectives 

Definition of a Visitor Capacity. Visitor capacity is defined as the supply, or prescribed 

number, of appropriate visitor opportunities that will be accommodated in an area. 

The Task Force adopted the phrase visitor capacity because of its clarity, its brevity, and 

the public's familiarity with the concept in everyday life (e.g., restaurants, golf courses, 

special events, hotels, airlines). 

The terms in the definition were chosen carefully. Supply means the quantity or amount 

available; prescribed means a decision by a person of authority; number means a 

specific number or numeric range; appropriate means in accordance with management 

direction; visitor opportunity refers to the integrated package of activities, settings, 

experiences, and benefits; accommodate recognizes that there are conditions and 

considerations that influence a decision and implies that the use of public resources is a 

privilege and has responsibilities; and area is an inclusive term that can refer to a 

facility, program, recreation system, or any geographic scale such as a site, unit, or 

region. 

Purposes of a Visitor Capacity. A capacity is a concept and tool with widespread 

application and purpose in our everyday lives restaurants, airports, golf courses, 

concerts, classrooms, low-income housing, hotel occupancy, lobster harvests, annual 

timber cuts, ozone alerts, air-travel operations, water storage, mortgage loans, insurance 

G-1 
policies, power grids, military response, landfills, welfare benefits, prison facilities, 

urban housing density, emergency medical response, sport hunting, sport fishing, 

museums, amusement parks, group tours, and countless other manifestations. 

Excerpt Figure 1 

Definition of a Visitor Capacity 

The supply, or prescribed number, 

of visitor opportunities that will be 

accommodated in an area. 

The overarching function of a visitor capacity is to serve as one tool to help sustain 

natural and cultural resources, as well as the recreation opportunities and other benefits 

these resources afford the public. More specifically, the Task Force recognizes nine 

purposes of a visitor capacity (see Figure 2). 

Excerpt Figure 2. Multiple Purpose of a Visitor Capacity 

Supply measurement: a numeric capacity is a measurement of the supply of available recreation 

opportunities that will be accommodated in an area. 

Trigger for actions and resources: a capacity is a trigger point (i.e., a number or numeric range), 

whereby as current use approaches or exceeds the available supply, predetermined management 

responses can be activated or resources allocated. A numeric capacity is, in effect, a trigger or 

signal to justify and activate a suite of management responses. In some instances, use exceeding 

capacity may justify the expansion of the supply of appropriate recreation opportunities, and in 

other instances, it may justify the alteration or limitation of use or demand. 

Public and resource risk management: a numeric capacity is a reasonable and responsible risk 

management tool for situations where nature or human activity creates a high-risk environment for 

the public, or where human behavior might put the natural or cultural resources at risk. 

Private sector and community predictability: a numeric capacity provides clarity for business 

people to act and plan accordingly. By comparing current demand with available supply, private 

sector permittees and communities can anticipate their growth trend and potential, plan appropriate 

investment opportunities or divestiture steps, or take collaborative actions with land managers to 

mitigate negative consequences of demand approaching or exceeding capacity. 

Visitor trip planning: a numeric capacity, particularly when compared to real-time use levels, can 

be very helpful information to a discerning recreationist. For example, visitors might find it useful to 

be informed that a beach, backcountry lake area, or battlefield is at 30%, 90%, or 120% of visitor 

capacity. This information may result in a “voluntary redistribution” of people across place or time 

while still allowing freedom of choice, and help the quality of the experience. 

Administrative and historic record: complex decisions need to have supporting documentation 

detailing how and why decisions were made, and the process that was used. This record becomes 

the historic anchor from which to learn by experience and to compare yesterday with today's new 

G-2 
information, data, and circumstances. It also is vital in responding to judicial inquiries for 

demonstrable evidence of the sound professional judgment. 

Regional recreation planning: numeric capacities are fundamental for regional recreation 

planning, recreation demand and supply analysis, multi-jurisdictional allocation decisions, 

coordinated visitor trip planning information systems, identification of recreation facility needs and 

investment opportunities, and identification of alternate or substitute opportunities reasonably 

nearby when access is limited at a particular site. 

Allocation decisions: a numeric capacity is the supply of available recreation opportunities and is 

fundamental for making allocation decisions involving where, when, or how many of a particular 

recreation opportunity can be accommodated (e.g., outfitter and guide permittees, birders, 

concessionaires, mountain bikes, personal water craft, youth groups). Similarly, a numeric capacity 

metric is fundamental for making multiple use allocations decisions (e.g., timber harvesting, 

research closures, reservoir drawdown). 

Limiting public use: a numeric capacity can serve as the measurement of allowable use or 

access that is permissible e for a certain time or place. 

Types of Capacity Expression. A capacity is the number or numeric range related to 

the relevant social unit(s) detailed in the management objectives (or desired future 

conditions) for an area. In some cases a specific number may be appropriate, while in 

others a range may be more desirable. There are situations where multiple capacities 

will be decided for an area, or where capacities will vary by the time of year. Examples 

of capacity expressions include: 

• 35 designated backcountry campsites 

• 15 permitted wildlife viewers per morning 

• 200 camping groups per night 

• 10 large groups of horseback riders per summer season 

• 15-18 people per interpretive program or walk 

• 2,500 permitted use-days per season 

• 1 educational permittee per summer season, 3 per winter season 

• 2 research permits per year 

• 75 boats at one time of less than 25 hp on reservoir X 

• 16 motorized OHV groups per day 

• 5 PWCs at one time beyond 250 yards of shoreline 

• 20 snowmobiles per 45-minute intervals; 240 per weekday 

• 15 persons per timed entry to historic home, museum, or cave 

• 50 roaded-natural and 15 semi-primitive campsites in unit X 

• 80-100 raft launches per weekday; 150-170 per weekend 

• 550 boat slips 

G-3 
• 50 shoreline campsites when water level is below 2,550 elevation 

• 25 ice fishing groups at one time, 4 holes per party 

• 30-40 vehicles at one time at the trailhead 

• 200-250 persons at one time on the summit 

In any case, the numeric capacity represents supply of appropriate visitor opportunities 

that will be accommodated in an area beyond which important resources, recreational 

opportunities, or other important values may be at risk. 

Triggering a Change in Supply or Demand. 

A capacity can trigger a change in either the demand for, or supply of, visitor 

opportunities. During a planning process in which a visitor capacity is established, it 

would also be helpful to establish one or more trigger points that serve as agreed upon 

visitation levels for activating a management review. That is, as visitor use (demand) 

increases towards or is within the capacity range, it would activate a pre-determined 

trigger(s) to signal consideration of alternative management responses. 

Figure 3 graphically depicts how a capacity can trigger a change in the supply or 

demand in visitor opportunities. Figure 3a depicts a desire to decrease the amount of 

visitor reducing visitor demand of an area). Figure 3b depicts a desire to increase the 

amount of visitor opportunity (i.e., increasing the supply or capacity of an area) through 

one or more management actions, while Figure 3c depicts the desire to reduce the 

supply of visitor opportunity (i.e., reducing the supply or capacity of an area). 

There are many management actions, and combinations of actions, that can affect the 

demand or supply of visitor opportunities in an area. Examples would include a change 

in the design, location, or type of facilities and infrastructure; site hardening; facility or 

site rehabilitation and restoration; a change in management presence or regulations; an 

increase in visitor interpretation or stewardship programs such as Leave No Trace, 

Tread Lightly, and OHV Safety Rider; an increase in interagency marketing efforts to 

provide better information about the available recreational opportunities in the region; a 

reallocation or tradeoff of visitor opportunities on nearby lands to mitigate for the 

change of opportunities on other lands; an alternative transportation system; an 

inducement for visitors to distribute themselves willingly across time or place of visit; a 

reservation system; a differential fee program; a real-time intelligent visitation system 

conveying the current use/capacity level ratio (e.g., 20%, 80%, 120% of capacity); 

designating location or time of visit (e.g., assigned campsite, climbing route, boat 

launch time, limited hunting unit, Tuesday mountain biking and Thursday horseback 

riding); and time or area closures. 

G-4 
The Task Force wishes to 

highlight two important 

cautions. First, public land 

managers manage an area to 

provide a particular type of 

opportunity to the public. Each 

recreation opportunity is an 

integrated package of 

activities, settings, 

experiences, and benefits (see 

Figure 4). Thus, to change the 

setting might also change the 

type of experience being 

provided the public. For 

example, changing the 

infrastructure and low-site 

density of a primitive 

campground to one with paved 

roads, flush toilets, and highsite density would change the 

type of recreation experience. 

Any change in supply or 

demand must therefore be 

consistent with the agency's 

mandate, mission, policy, and 

management objectives for the 

area in question. Second, the 

Task Force embraces adaptive 

management and recognizes 

that visitor capacities will 

change with new science, 

professional experience, 

monitoring information, 

technology, trends, 

opportunities, and 

circumstances. Adaptive 

management embraces the 

concept that the quality of 

sound professional judgment is 

enhanced over time with clear 

and specific decisions, 

followed by adequate 

monitoring, learning, and adaption. However, any changes must not be arbitrary. A 

reasonable rule of thumb is that a change in capacity requires a level of information, 

science, analysis, certainty, and deliberateness that is greater than what was used to 

make the previous capacity decision. 

G-5 
Excerpt Figure 4. Components of a Recreation Opportunity 

Recreation Activity + Setting = Experience → Benefits 

• Many activities

 -- agencies provide – 

• Physical 

resource 

• Attributes 

manageri 

al 

attributes 

• Social 

attributes 

• Many 

dimensions 

• Multiple 

senses 

-- recreationists consume --

• Individual 

• Community 

• Economic 

• Environmental

 -- society gains – 

Conserving Resources and Recreation Opportunities. The overarching function of a 

visitor capacity is to help conserve resources, as well as the opportunities and values 

they afford. For some, the goal of sustaining recreation opportunities is not viewed as 

being compatible with the goal of sustaining resources. However, the Task Force sees 

the relationship as synergistic. 

Public land managers provide recreation opportunities to the public. A recreation 

opportunity can be defined as the opportunity for a person to participate in a particular 

activity in a specific setting, in order to realize a preferred type of experience and 

subsequent benefits. Figure 4 depicts that a recreation opportunity is an integrated 

package of activities, settings, experiences, and benefits. 

The setting is further composed of three components: physical resource attributes, social 

attributes, and management attributes. Managerial attributes affecting an experience 

might include recreation facilities, roads, power lines, interpretive programs, signage, 

fees, rules, regulations, patrol, cleanliness, closures, reservation systems, concessions, 

and O&M activities. Social attributes affecting an experience might include other 

visitors (recreation and non-recreation) to an area, their behaviors, equipment, group 

size, sounds, and artifacts of previous visitors. Natural resource attributes affecting an 

experience might include the type and variety of wildlife, fish, topography, vegetation, 

water, air, sounds, soils, canyons, coral, cave formations, and colors. 

The intersection of natural resources with a recreation opportunity is conveyed in the 

physical resource attributes. That is, a particular recreation opportunity is dependent 

upon a variety of physical resource attributes important to that experience. Impairment 

G-6 
of important resources (natural or cultural) is also impairment of recreation 

opportunities. Conversely, the provision of recreation opportunities contributes to a 

citizenry that is more knowledgeable, caring, and supportive of resource management 

and protection. In a society where the public is sovereign, impairment of public support 

is a tantamount to impairment of natural and cultural resources. Stated otherwise, 

conserving resources depends upon conserving appropriate recreation opportunities. 

There are three important considerations in a successful synergistic relationship. 

Appropriate Use. Public land managers should favor those recreation opportunities 

that are dependent upon the important natural or cultural resource attributes for which 

the area has been designated or is being managed to protect. Other recreation 

opportunities may not be appropriate and should be given less priority, if provided for at 

all. For example, the Fish and Wildlife Service has a mandate to focus on six “wildlifedependent” recreation opportunities for its refuges, beyond which other opportunities 

are reviewed for appropriateness and compatibility. The Task Force provides an 

“appropriate use” decision-making protocol later in this report. 

Clarity. Public land managers need to develop management objectives, desired future 

conditions, and standards that are unambiguous and measurable. Qualitative 

expressions are necessary and helpful to provide contextual understanding, but the 

precision and clarity offered by quantitative or numeric expressions are also needed. A 

successful relationship between resources and recreation requires clear operational 

definitions of such terms as sustainable, impairment, adverse, significant, substantially 

unnoticeable, unacceptable change, appropriate use, recreation experience, and visitor 

satisfaction. 

Learning and Adaptation. The scientific relationship between resources and 

recreation is not well understood. In fact, the multiplicity of factors and interactions 

may be beyond scientific determination and even human comprehension. This 

possibility adds importance to the process of monitoring, learning, and adapting. Public 

land managers must prepare to learn and adapt to new knowledge, information, and 

circumstances. Learning over time requires the ability to look backwards and to 

understand the details of yesterday in comparison to today. Thus, it is important to 

maintain an administrative and historic record of unambiguous and measurable 

management objectives, desired future conditions, standards, and capacity. 

The Substantive Standard for Visitor Capacity Decision Making 

Sound professional judgment is the substantive standard for decision making by 

responsible public officials. 

Inputs to a Capacity Decision. Sound professional judgment relies on many 

informational inputs. Those particularly relevant to a visitor capacity decision might 

include: 

G-7 
___________________________________________________________ 

•	 management objectives (including all legislative and policy guidance); 

•	 desired future conditions and quality standards (resource, social, management); 

•	 current and future recreation demand (who, where, what, when, how, why); 

•	 current resources, conditions, uniqueness, capability, and trends; 

•	 current management capability and suitability; 

•	 current type, amount, and design of facilities and infrastructure; 

•	 appropriateness (compatibility) of current or proposed recreation opportunities; 

•	 regional supply of the same and similar recreational opportunities; 

•	 foreseeable changes in recreation and nonrecreational uses; 

•	 existing allocations to permittees and other land uses/users; 

•	 significance of the visitation issues and concerns; 

•	 potential for natural or cultural resource impairment; 

•	 type and amount of best available science and information; 

•	 level of uncertainty and risk surrounding consequences of decision; and the 

expected quality of the monitoring program. 

Excerpt Figure 5. Sound Personal Judgment 

A reasonable decision that has given full and fair consideration to all the 

appropriate information, that is based upon principled and reasoned analysis and 

the best available science and expertise, and that complies with applicable laws. 

Notes of Clarification: The literature contains reference to many “carrying capacities” such as 

biological, physical, design, social, recreational, facility, transportation, infrastructure, program, 

and public safety. The Task Force views visitor capacity as an omnibus metric that gives due 

consideration to all these factors and others in the decision process listed above. The degree of 

influence of each factor will vary across situations. For example, in one situation the biological 

considerations might weigh heavily, while in another they might not be relevant. In another 

situation, it might be the accumulative effects of the social, transportation, and biological 

considerations that significantly influences the visitor capacity decision. 

G-8 
The Procedural Standard for Visitor Capacity Decision Making 

While sound professional judgment is the substantive standard for capacity decision 

making, a rational public planning process is the procedural standard for capacity 

decision making. In addition to the procedural planning guidance provided by the 

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), each agency has tailored the NEPA 

guidance to their own agency's needs and perspectives to create similar but unique 

planning processes, terminology, sequencing, and other varying features. 

The Task Force does not propose a new planning process, but rather views a capacity 

decision as simply one decision among many that is made as part of an existing 

agency's planning process. Thus, rather than including the planning model for each 

federal agency, a generic planning model (Figure 6) is presented to illustrate the link 

between the Task Force outputs shaded in white and a public planning process. A 

narrative description on the following page further clarifies this link. 

G-9 
Generic Public Land Agency Planning Process. The purpose of this generic 

planning process is to generally show where the products (bolded) of this Task Force fit 

within a public planning process, and to illustrate where numeric capacities are part of 

each alternative for due consideration in assessing consequences and selecting a 

preferred alternative. 

Scoping 

•	 identify significant public issues, management concerns, problems, and
 

opportunities
 

•	 identify stakeholders and a plan of collaboration 

•	 assess the quality and quantity of scientific data and monitoring 

•	 information 

Planning Criteria 

•	 laws, regulations, agency mission, and policies 

•	 principles (e.g., biodiversity, ecosystem management, visitor capacity, social 

justice) 

•	 planning horizon, resources, process, and scale 

•	 decision criteria to assess consequences of alternatives 

•	 identification of units that have had similar experiences for consultation
 

(comparables or analogs)
 

•	 inventory of the affected planning area 

•	 resources, types, locations, conditions, uniqueness, and ecosystem function 

•	 social use and users, locations, type and quality of experience, regional
 

demand/supply, and trends
 

•	 management infrastructure, services, programs, personnel, budget, partners, and 

expected changes 

•	 recreation opportunities provided by other agencies/private sector within the 

“visitation” region 

Formulate a reasonable range of alternatives, with each containing 

•	 management prescriptions with narrative description and objectives 

•	 desired future conditions and standards for important resource, social, and 

managerial attributes 

•	 application of prescription(s) to all or part of planning area (zoning) 

•	 selected management tools and actions, budget requirements, and expected level 

of monitoring 

•	 numeric capacity range(s) and allocations (if and where appropriate) 

•	 decision analysis tools that can help create a reasonable range of alternatives 

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Evaluate alternatives (see figure 7) 

• application of decision criteria to assess consequences 

•	 application of decision analysis tools 

• best available science and sliding scale of analysis 

• consideration of trade-offs and mitigation actions 

Select preferred alternative 

•	 principles and decision criteria 

•	 sound professional judgment 

Excerpt Figure 7. Evaluate Alternatives 

• Management Objectives 

• Desired Conditions 

• Indicators and Standards 

• Management Actions 

• Zones 

• Capacities 

• Allocations 

• Budget Requirement 

• Other Descriptors 

A B C D 

Implement and monitor 

•	 implement planned management activities/programs 

•	 monitor actual visitation (number and type) 

•	 monitor natural and human-induced change to the natural and cultural resources 

•	 monitor resource, social, and managerial indicators 

Evaluate and adapt 

•	 systematically evaluate monitoring data and new information, science, and 

circumstances 

•	 application of appropriate decision criteria and decision tools to proposed 

changes 

•	 sound professional judgment 

G-11 
3. Principles and Decision Criteria 

This section addresses the first output of the Task Force: principles and decision criteria 

for visitor capacity decision making. 

Principles for Visitor Capacity Decision Making 

The Administrative Procedure Act (1946: 60 Stat. 237, 5 U.S.C.A.) set forth the legal 

standard that decisions must be principled and reasoned; that is, arbitrary decisions are 

in violation of federal law. Professional principles help meet this responsibility by 

clarifying institutional values, philosophy, and perspectives. They serve as a guide and 

rule of thumb for making decisions and taking action, and, very importantly, they help 

stakeholders understand and meaningfully participate in a planning process. 

Below are principles that reflect important and central values for visitor capacity 

decision making. Full and deliberate consideration of these principles will contribute to 

a logical, reasoned, transparent, and defensible decision. 

•	 Management direction principally defines the visitor capacity, regardless of 

whether the management direction or visitor capacity is explicitly stated or not 

stated at all. 

•	 A visitor capacity helps to sustain the integrity of natural and cultural resources, 

as well as the important recreational and nonrecreational benefits they afford to 

local, regional, and national publics. 

•	 A visitor capacity is a complex decision that is based upon sound professional 

judgment; i.e., defined as a decision that has given full and fair consideration to 

all appropriate information, that is based upon principled and reasoned analysis 

and the best available science and expertise, and that complies with applicable 

laws. 

•	 A visitor capacity decision is made by a responsible official as part of a public 

planning process; and in some instances, may benefit from the thoroughness and 

legal sufficiency afforded by a NEPA-compliant planning process. 

•	 A visitor capacity quantifies the supply of available visitor opportunities that an 

area can accommodate, and may also address the allocation of opportunities 

across the variety of affected visitors types of recreationists, commercial 

operators, educational programs, scientists, and others. 

•	 A visitor capacity decision considers the larger regional landscape and system of 

opportunities affecting the particular area of recreation concern. 

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•	 A visitor capacity provides clarity for focused dialogue and an analysis of 

consequences across the proposed management alternatives under consideration 

in a planning process. 

•	 A visitor capacity decision uses a sliding-scale rule, in which the level of
 

analysis is commensurate with the potential consequence of the decision.
 

•	 A visitor capacity serves as a trigger or signal for managers, permittees, the 

general public, and all stakeholders. 

•	 Visitor use approaching a capacity triggers a consideration of a full range of 

reasonable management responses. 

•	 A visitor capacity decision needs to be adaptive to new science, information, 

uses, technology, trends, conditions, and other circumstances of importance. 

•	 The effectiveness of a visitor capacity depends on an adequate program of 

monitoring that is commensurate with the level of potential consequences, risk, 

and uncertainty. 

Decision Criteria for Visitor Capacity Decision Making 

Arbitrary decisions are those made without principle and reason. In natural resource 

planning nomenclature and in this report, reasons for decisions are referred to as 

decision criteria. 

Making Complex Decisions Less Complex. A capacity decision is a complex 

decision. The field of decision science provides many insights into making decisions. 

For example, one reason why decisions are complex is because while one person 

approaches a situation from one perspective and set of concerns, another person 

approaches the same situation from another perspective and set of concerns. Individuals 

will also view a situation differently because each carries their own “suitcase” of biases, 

prejudices, perceptions, stereotypes, backgrounds, knowledge, past experiences, and 

other mental artifacts. 

Another reason why decisions are complex is because humans have a limited mental 

capacity and memory to consider the multiple factors that are important. This limitation 

works against a full and comprehensive analysis. Thus, an explicit list of decision 

criteria can serve several important functions in rational public planning. First, an 

explicit list of decision criteria, developed early in the planning process with public 

input, helps to make a decision process transparent and trackable to stakeholders. These 

criteria help to establish the ground rules, the rationale in a rational process, and the 

pieces of the puzzle to be considered in the decision. Second, decision criteria can help 

in creatively developing a full set of reasonable alternatives. 

G-13 
In the formulation of the alternatives, the decision criteria will identify important 

content areas to be included in the description of the alternatives. Third, an explicit list 

of decision criteria helps assure a full, fair, adequate, and deliberate evaluation and 

assessment of the consequences of each alternative. Fourth, decision criteria can 

improve communications and increase meaningful public participation, understanding, 

and support. Fifth, an explicit list of criteria is important when more advanced decision 

analysis is desired such as weighting, ranking, or mathematical computations. Sixth, an 

explicit list is demonstrable evidence for the administrative record. And finally, criteria 

are important for adaptive management because they help us understand and learn from 

past decisions and experiences. 

Choosing Decision Criteria. A decision maker has a responsibility to use sound 

judgment, which is defined as “full and fair consideration” of the important issues and 

concerns expressed by managers and stakeholders. The number and selection of criteria 

used to evaluate and assess the consequences of each alternative need to fully reflect 

and duly consider the circumstances at hand, as well as being commensurate with the 

potential consequences of the decision to be made. A reasonable rule of thumb is that as 

the magnitude of the potential consequences of the decision increase, the number of 

criteria needed to adequately assess the situation also increases. 

Sample Decision Criteria. As previously discussed in the planning section, a visitor 

capacity is one feature among many that can define and discriminate proposed 

alternatives. The following list illustrates a wide variety of decision criteria that can be 

used to evaluate alternatives. It is not intended to suggest that every criteria be used for 

each planning effort, nor is it intended to suggest that a special set of criteria is needed 

for a capacity decision. 

Excerpt Figure 8. Sample Decision Criteria 

Effects Ecological Integrity. The degree to which each alternative: 

• affects unique or sensitive resources locally, regionally, or nationally 

• affects the ecological integrity of site, local vicinity, or bio-region 

• impacts the desired future conditions or quality standards (i.e., extent of physical/audio 

footprint, duration, timing, reversibility, cumulative effects) 

• affects the important or priority resources or values the area is being managed to protect 

• helps build or connect a larger regional system of resources 

• has irreversible effects on resources, or effects that cannot be restored or recovered 

Supported by Science. The degree to which each alternative: 

• is supported by scientific study and expert consensus 

• is supported by agency professionals, advisors, and consultants 

• has a level of analysis that is commensurate with potential consequences 

• is based upon reasonable assumptions and trends 

• may involve highly uncertain risks or consequences 

• is based on unavailable or incomplete scientific information 

• will secure needed scientific information in the future 

• has an adequate monitoring program involving resource, social, and managerial attributes 

G-14 
Level of Public Support. The degree to which each alternative: 

•	 is controversial among visitors, locals, regional and national publics 

•	 is supported by visitors, locales, regional and national publics 

•	 contributes to the desired welfare of stakeholders (e.g., local communities, the tourism 

industry, adjacent landowners, educational/research institutions, private operators, concessionaires, 

and special interest groups) 

•	 builds meaningful and appropriate partnerships with collaborators 

•	 causes harm or a unfair negative consequences to less advantaged people 

•	 allows for options and opportunities for future generations 

Effects Integrity of Recreation Experience. The degree to which each alternative: 

•	 affects the integrity of the recreation experience that the area is being managed for 

•	 is appropriate and consistent with the management objectives for the area 

•	 may compromise desired future conditions or quality standards (i.e., extent of
 

physical/audio footprint, duration, timing, reversibility, cumulative effects)
 

•	 affects unique or rare recreation opportunities locally, regionally, or nationally 

•	 provides for unique or rare recreation opportunities locally, regionally or nationally 

•	 contributes to a large regional system of recreation opportunities 

•	 is based upon reasonable future social trends and assumptions 

•	 makes recreation opportunities more available to less advantaged publics 

•	 attracts visitors who otherwise would not visit 

•	 considers the latent or unmet demand of those publics not visiting 

•	 provides an appropriate recreation experience by the least intrusive means 

•	 allows for personal choice, freedom, and spontaneity among visiting publics 

Management Suitability and Capability. The degree to which each alternative: 

•	 affects the commemorative integrity or legislated purpose of the area 

•	 affects public health and safety or contributes to public risks 

•	 addresses consequences of delaying or not taking action 

•	 can be changed or adapted, given new science, information, or circumstances 

•	 complements other important resource uses, users, or values (e.g., educational,
 

commercial, research, extractive, restoration)
 

•	 establishes a precedent for future action 

•	 represents a future decision or commitment in principle 

•	 has cumulative effects that are likely to be significant 

•	 requires reallocated or increased resources in services, personnel, facilities, programs, or 

equipment 

•	 is administratively feasible (e.g., budget, personnel, equipment, facilities, O&M standards) 

•	 affects other management programs and services 

•	 has consequences that can be mitigated (i.e., avoid, minimize or limit extent, compensate, 

restore, rehabilitate, reduce, or eliminate) 

End of Excerpt 

G-15 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Reclamation