DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMrL'J:I, DIRECTOR 

'· 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 88 

LAVAS OF HA_ WAil AND THEIR RELATIONS· 

BY 

WHITMAN CllOSS 

WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1915 

• 

CONTENTS. 

Introduction ......................................... , .. _, ................................... : .......... . 

Publications cited ..................... ·_ .............................................................. _. ... . 

Petrography ....................................... _ ... ____ . ________ .. _ .... __________ .. _____ ...... _____ ... . 

~'he lesser islands ................................................................................... . 

Island of ](u.uai .................................................................................... . 

bccu.rrence and sources of material studied ............................... · ........................ . 

Olivine-plu.gioclase basalt ....................................................................... . 

Genet·al characters.~ ............................ -.- ............... : .......................... . 

Chemical composition ....................................................................... . 

Quu.ntitative classification .................................................................. . 

Helation of norm and mode in rocks analyzed ................................................ . 

Plu.gioclase basalt (poor in olivine) ....................... · ......................................... . 

]~itnburgite .......................... ~ ........ -... -..... ------------ .. -.-.--- ·----- -.-------- ·---

Oligoclase gabbro or kauaiite ..................................................................... .. 

Occurrence .............................. -·- .................................................. . 

])escription .......................... _ .... _. ____ . _ ............. _. _. ___ . _ ... _ ... _ ... ______ ... . 

Chemical composition ........ : ................................................................ . 

Quantitative classification ................................................................... . 

Systematic relations and name kauaiite ............ -.......................................... . 

Melilite-nephelite basalt ........................................................................ . 

Occurrence ................................................................................. . 

Description ...................................................... _____ ... __ .................. . 

Chenlical con1position ........................................................................ . 

Quantitative classification ................................................................... . 

Basalts des·cribed by Mohle ...................................................................... . 

Island of Oahu ........................................................................................ . 

-. Introductory note ............................................. · .................................... . T Hange of lavas ............................ __ ............. · ............................... __ ._._ .. . 

Olivine-plagioclase basalt ............................ ·- ........................................... . 

Bronzite-bearing basalt ........................................................................... . 

Plagioclase basalt (olivine free) ................. · ........... · ...................................... . 

Nephelite-melilite basalt ................................................... · ...... ·.· ............ . 

Occurrence ..................................... ~ ........................................ __ . 

Hock :from quarry near Moiliili Chmch ........................................................ . 

Quantitative classification .................................................................. . 

Nephelite basalt and allied rocks .................... · ............................................. . 

Bu.saltic tuffs and ashes of recent eruptions ....... , ............................................... . 

Island of Molokai .................................................................................... . 

Hocks described by Mohle ........................................................................ . 

l~ocks described by Lindgren .............. · ....................... : .............................. . 

Island of Maui ............................... __ ....... __ .... _ .............................. _ ..... __ .. 

West 1\~faui ................................. _____________ .... ________ .... _. _ ....... _ .... ___ . _ .. __ .. _ 

Bowlders of Waihee Valley ................................................................. . 

Bowlders of lao Valley . ." ................................................................... . 

Rocks described by Mohle .................................................................. . 

Soda trachyte near Lahaina .................................................................. . 

Occurrence and character ............................................................... . 

Che1nical composition ................................................................... . 

Quantitative classification ....... : ...................................................... . 

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4 CONTENTS. 

Petrography-Continued. 

Island of Maui-Continued. 

East Maui ...................................................................................... . 

Picritic basalt ............................................................................. . 

Occurrence ............................................................................ . 

Description ............................................................................ . 

Chemical composition .................................................................... . 

Qualitative classification ... : ........................................................... . 

Quantitative classification ................................................................. . 

Esse xi tic andesite or trachyandesite .................. · ....................................... . 

General character and occurrence ........................................................... . 

Rocks analyzed ........................................................................ . 

Chemical composition ................ : .................................................. . 

Quantitative classification .............................................................. . 

Island of Hawaii ................................................................................... . 

Centers of eruption ............................................................................. . 

Kohala Mountains ............................................................................... . 

Mount Hualalai ................................................................................ . 

Basaltic lavas ............................................................................... . 

Dunite, gabbro, and other granular inclusions in basalt ......................................... . 

Basaltic xenoliths .................... · ........................................................ . 

Trachyte of Puu Waawaa and Anahulu ............................ ; ........................... . 

Mauna Kea ........................... · ............................................................ . 

Rocks described l;>y Cohen ................................................................... . 

Lavas collected by Preston ........................... · ............. · ..................... : ..... . 

Observations of Dutton ..................................................................... . 

Rocks noted by Hitchcock .................... · .............................................. . 

Rocks described by Daly ................................... : ................. · ............... . 

Other rocks on Mauna Kea ................................................................... . 

Mauna Lo~ ..................................................................................... . 

Rocks described by Cohen ................................. · ~ ................................ . 

Rocks described by E. S. Dana ............................................................. . 

Rocks described by Daly ....................................... · ............ ~ ................ .. 

Rocks collected in 1902 ..................................................................... . 

Review .................................................................................... . 

Kilauea ......................................................... · ............................... . 

General statement ............................................ : ................................ . 

Recent lavas ................................................................................ . 

Rocks of the caldera walls ................................................................... . 

Fragments in the tuffs ....................................................................... . 

Gabbro of Uwekahuna "laccolith" ................................................ · ......... .. 

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Summary ......................... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

Puna ..................................... .'..................................................... 43 

General discussion........................................................................................ 44 

Introduction................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 

Cha::-acteristics of the rocks............................................................................ 45 

Mineral composition .............................................................................. . 

General review ............................................................................. . 

Plagioclase ................................................................................... . 

Lenads ......................................................... · .............................. . 

Quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite ............................................................. . 

Che~~~~t~o::o~i~~~:~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~::::::::::: ~ ~::::::::::: ~ _· .· .· _· _· _--~::::::::::::::::::::::: ·::::::::: 

Silica and alumina .......................................................................... . 

Iron oxides ................................................................................. . 

Magnesia and lime .......................................................................... . 

Alkalies .................... · ................................................................. . 

Minor constituents .......................................................................... . 

Normative composition ................ ·.· ......................................................... . 

The table of norms .... · ........................................................................ . 

Object of normative study ................................................................... . 

Salic molecules ............................................................................. . 

Fernie molecules ............................................................................. . 

Diagram of norms ............................................................................ . 

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• 

~"" .. :.' 

,.., 

CONTENTS. 

General discussion-Continued. 

Characteristics of the rocks-Continued. 

Relation of nonn.and mode .................... : ................................................. . 

Quartz ................................................................................... · ... . 

Ji'eldspars and lenads ........................................................................ . 

Pyroxenes ................................................................................. . 

Olivine ..................................................................................... . 

Akermanite and melilite ........................... · .......................................... . 

Classification ...................................................................................... . 

Qualitative system ...................................... ; ....................................... . 

Quantitative system ............................................................................ . 

General result of the classification ............................................................ . 

Quantitative names ......................................................................... . 

Groups under the quantitative system ........................................................ . 

Distribution and association of Hawaiian rocks .................................. , .................... . 

In the Hawaiian group .......................................................................... . 

General distribution ............................................ , ........................... . 

Lack of information concerning some islands ................................................. . 

Associated lavas of Kilauea ................................................................. . 

World distribution of Hawaiian magmatic types .................................................. .. 

Method of study of distribution ...................... : ......................... · ............. . 

General facts of distribution ................................................................. . 

Analogous rocks of Oceanica ................................................................. . 

Comparison with rocks of Reunion ........................................................... . 

European analogues ...................... " .................................................. . 

Theoretical bearings of data presented ................................................................ . 

Geographic distinction between Atlantic and Pacific regions ....................................... . 

Reference of Hawaiian lava,s to Alkalic or Calcic series ............................................ . 

Soda trachytes ............................................................................. . 

Kohalaite ................................... · ............................................... . 

1'rachyandesites ............................................................................ . 

Rocks of Mauna Kea ........................................................................ . 

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Rocks of Division V............................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 

Rocks of Kilauea's caldera walls.............................................................. 81 

Basalts of Oahu..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

Average lava of Halemaumau..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

Basalts of Kauai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

Fernie basalts near Honolulu ..................................................... : . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

Pieri tic basalts of Mauna Loa and Haleakala................................................... 83 

Division XIV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

R6sun16.................................................................................... 83 

The Alkalic and Calcic series of igneous rocks... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

Current views regarding the series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

Distinction between Alkalic and Calcic series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

Differentiation of Hawaiian magmas.............................................................. 86 

The general problem... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

The provincial magma .......................... ·.............................................. 87 

1'he differentiates..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 

Frocesses of differentiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 

Gravitative differentiation................................................................... 89 

Origin of trachyte and melilite basalt.......................................................... 90 

Differentiation and the sequence of lavas.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 

General course of differentiation.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 

Index .................................................................. · ... -... -.. ·.··.-........ ··-·--·· 95 
... 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

PLATE I. Map of Hawaiian Islands...................................................................... 7 

II. Basalt and sodic gabbro from Kauai: A, Olivine-plagioclase basalt (chrysophyre) at. rim of Olokele 

Canyon; B, Sodic gabbro (kauaiite) of Waiale Canyon ......... _.............................. 10 

III. Photomicrographs of Hawaiian rocks: A, Soda trachyte, Launiupoko Hill, near Lahaina, Maui; B, 

N ephelite-melilite basalt, near Honolulu, Oahu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 

IV. Diagram to illustrate variation in normative composition of Hawaiian lavas........................ 54 

INSERT. 

Pa~re. 

Normative ratio ar.d· symbols............................................................................ 56 

6 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 

201'1-------

MAP OF 

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 

Redrawn and reduced from a map prepared for the 

Alaska ..:Yukon-Pacific Exposition 

at Seattle, Washington, 1909 

by the U.S. Geological Survey 

Mercator's pr~jection 

Scale on the 21st parallel 

10e~EC~o======';o~===i2io======aio=====340~====;5o~====36o.~es 

10 0 10 zo 30 40 50 60 JGlometers 

1914 

0 

0 

oko Crater G ~ rt)y 

td 

Ka lae o K~ llio 

~" ~\Ka LaeoKaLaau 

koe 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 88 PLATE I 

---------------------------4-------------iZ1° 

0 

A w 

Mauna Lo;~, \3n7 aterof 

okuawecrr!eo )(1iauea 400 
. ~ 

.. 

LAVAS OF fiA WAll AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

By wHITMAN CROSS . 

INTUODUCTION. 

In 1902 I nutde a reconnaissance of certain parts of the Hawaiian Islands for the United 

States Geological Survey, with the hope of adding to the meager petrographic knowledge of 

this volcanic group. Although many ·geologists have visited these islands, interest has attached 

largely to the volcanic phenon1ena, and there is a singular dearth of iinportant petrographic 

literature concerning the lavas themselves. The reason for this dearth ~ did not appreciate 

until I had vis\ted the islands. 

The lavas of I-Iawaii are generally referred to as basaltic. :Many of then1 are plainly so, 

containing olivine and augite in pron1inent crystals. By far the larger nun1ber of the rocks are, 

however, cb.ieJly black and aphanitic and seemingly of few varieties·. The collector, be he laylnan or petrographer, is unfortunately likely to assun1e that they are all basaltic and to limit his 

collection to a few marked varieties. The truth is that there is a very considerable· range in 

composition in the lavp.s of Hawaii, and systmnatic study will add n1any types to those now 

known. It will be highly desirable, however, to deternline the rocks during the progress of field 

work, so thn.t the types of unusual charn.cter n1ay be traced out whenever found. 

An1ong the rocks collected by n1e are a number of types that are rare or not mentioned 

in the literature of I-Iawaiianlavas, but for n1ost of these types I am unable to give data of distribution, because their unusual character was seldom recognized in the field. As it now 

see1ns probable that 1nore thorough investigation of the islands n1ay be undertaken, it appears 

desirable to give such petrographic data as the collection of 1902 affords so that they may be 

of son1e assistance to future workers. 

An occurrence of trachyte on the island of Hawaii, first observed in 1902, has already been 

described.1 

Besides describing rocks I collected n1yself I shall briefly review the scattered data of 

earlier literature concerning I-Iawaiian lavas, in order to provide a basis for a preliminary 

discussion of the provincial characters of these rocks, especially with relation to their chemistry and 1uineralogy. The Fiawaiian 1nag1nas, in1perfect as present knowledge concerning them 

n1ay be, throw light on several interesting petrographi.c problems of the day. 

The principal petrographic descriptions of I-Iawaiian lavas are those by E. Cohen (1880), 

0. Silvestri (1888), E. S. Dana (1889), and F. :Mohle (1902). None of the rocks described were 

collected by the petrographers describing them, and only a part of one collection, that studied 

by E. S. Dana, was obtained by a geologist. Most of the lavas studied by Cohen were collected 

by Dr. Willian1 I-Iillebrand, a botanist, the father of Dr. W. F. Hillebrand, who analyzed some 

of the rocks to be described. Silvestri's material was gathered by Prof. P. Tacchini, an 

astronoJner. ~1ohle's studies pertai1i to a collection n1ade by Prof. H. Schauinsland, a zoologist. 

Under these circu1nstances there is naturally a lack of precise information concerning the local 

source and 1nanner of occurrence of n1any in~eresting types, and n1uch of the :inaterial is of value 

only in a general survey of the petrology of the islands. 

It is un accepted generalization concerning "the Hawaiian Islands that they have been built 

up by a long-continued series of volcanic eruptions beginning at a point far. west of the principal 

islands of to-day. I-Iawaii, the large~t and n1ost recent island, with its active volcanoes,. is at 

the southeastern extren1e of the row of island centers of eruption. 

1 Cross, WhitnuUl, An occurrence or trachyte on the island or Hawaii: Jour. Geology, vol. 12, pp. 51G-523, 1904. 

7 
8 LAVAS OF HAW All AND. THEIR R.ELATIONS. 

Whether the earliest eruptions began at many points at about the same time, as J. D. Dana 

supposed, or whether the oldest center is at the northwest limit of the chain, is a question not 

entirely settled, it seems to me. The oldest volcanoes known are now represented by islets or 

mere reefs of basalt rising b':lt a few feet above the sea. Possibly the earliest volcanoes of th.is 

chain have .wholly disappeared through cataclysmic disturbances or long-continued erosion, 

such as has greatly reduced the bulk of even the more recent islands. 

With this long history of volcanism along one line of weakness in the ocean bottom it is 

of interest to study the series of lavas of each center and compare those of different centers. 

For this reason, as well as f6r convenience, the rocks will be taken up beginning with those of the 

older centers and proceeding, in order, to those of Hawaii. 

I have had access to other important collections besides the rocks obtained by myself. 

A large collection of lavas from Oahu, made by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock for theN ational Museum, 

and a small collection from Mauna Kea, made by E. D. Preston, were generously placed at my 

disposal by Dr. G. P. Merrill, curator of the department of geology in the museum. Dr. Merrill 

has himself described the Preston material.1 I am further indebted to the courtesy of Prof. E. S. 

Dana for an opportunity to examine the thin sections of Hawaiian lavas de&cribed by him. 

He also kindly furnished material for a chemical analysis of a soda trachyte from Maui. 

PUBLICATIONS CITED. 

For convenience the titles of publications cited are assembled in the subjoined list: 

BRIGHAM, W. T., The volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauna Loa: Bernice Pauahi Bishop Mus. Mem., vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 

379-600. 1909. . 

CocKEREr.L, T. D. A., Review of Manual of conchology, vol. 21, by Hyatt and Pilsbry: Science, new ·ser., vol. 37, 

pp. 255-257, 1913. 

COHEN, E., Tiber Laven von Hawaii, etc.: Neues Jahrb., vol. 2, pp. 23-62, 1880. 

CRoss, WHITMAN, An occurrence of trachyte on the island of Hawaii: Jour. Geology, vol. 12, pp.·510-523, 1904. 

--U. S. Geol. Survey, Geol. Atlas, La Plata folio (No. 60), 1899. 

--Notes upon the Henry Mountain rocks (in Emmons, S. F., Geology and mining industry of Leadville, Colo.): 

U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 12, pp. 359-362, 1886. · · 

--The laccolitic mountain groups of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona: U. S. Geol. Survey Fourteenth Ann. Rept., 

pt. 2, pp. 176:--226, 1894. 

CRoss~ WmTMAN, IDDINGS, J.P., PrnssoN, L. V., and WASHINGTON, H. S., Modifications of the quantitative classification of igneous rocks: Jour. Geology, vol. 20, pp. 550-561, 1912. 

DALY, R. A., Magmatic differentiation in Hawaii: Jour. Geology, vol. 19·, pp. 289-316, 1911. 

--Origin of the alkaline rocks: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 21, pp. 87-118, 1910. 

--The nature of volcanic action: Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. Proc., vol. 47, No.3, pp. 47-122, 1911. 

--The differentiation of a secondary magma through gravitative adjustment: Festschrift Harry Rosenbusch, pp. 

203-233, 1906. . 

DANA, E. S., Contributions to the petrography of the Sandwich Islands: Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, pp. 441-467, 

1889. 

DANA, J.D., On the composition of the capillary volcanic glass of Kilauea, Hawaii, called Pele's hair: Am. Jour. Sci., 

3d ser., vol. 18, p.134, 1879. 

--Characteristics of volcanoes, 399+viii pp., New York, 1890. 

DAY, A. L., and SHEPHERD, E. S., Water and volcanic activity: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 24, pp. 573-606, 19l3. 

DuTToN, C. E., Hawaiian volcanoes: U.S. Geol. Survey Fourth Ann. Rept., pp. 75-219, 1884 .. 

HARKER, ALFRED, Some aspects of modern petrography: British Assoc. Adv. Sci., S.ection C, Presidential address, 

Portsmouth, 1911. 

--The natural history of igneous rocks; I, Their geographical and chronological distribution: Science Progress, 

vol. 6, pp. 12-33, 1896. 

--Natural history of igneous rocks, 384 pp., London, 1909. 

HITCHCOCK, C. H., Geology of Oahu: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 11, pp. 15-60, 1900. 

--Hawaii and its volcanoes, 2d ed., Honolulu, 1911. · 

IDDINGS, J.P., Igneous rocks, pt. 2, Description of igneous rocks, New York, 1913. 

KLAUTSCH, A., Der jlingste Vulkanausbruch auf Savaii: K. preuss geol. Landesanstalt Jahrb., pp. 169-182, 1907. 

KRUKENBERG, C. FR. w.I'Mikrographie der Glasbasalte von Hawaii, Inaug. Diss., Tubingen, 1877. 

LACROIX, A., Les roches alcalines de Tahiti: Soc. geol. France Bull., 4th ser., vol. 10, pp. 91-124, 1910. 

--Sur la constitution mineralogique des volcans de l'lle de La Reunion: Compt. Rend., vol. 155, pp. 538-544, 1913. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, The water resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

77, 1903. 

: 1 Merrill, G. P., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Ann. Rept., 1893, pt. 2, appendix 12, pp. 630-632. 
... 

. t 

PETROGRAPHY. 9 

J ... YONS, A. B., Chemical composition of Hawaiiu.n soils and of the rocks from which they have been derived:· Am. Jour. 

Sc.i., 4th scr., vol. 2, pp. 421-429, 1896. . · 

Mtmnu.r,, G. P., Nepheline-melilitc bu.su.lt from Oahu, Hawaiian Islu.nds: Am. Geologist, vol. 25, pp. 312-313, 1900. 

MoHr,J~, F., Beitrag zur Petrographic der Sandwich- und Samoa-Inseln: Neues Jahrb., Beilage Hand 15, pp. 66-104, 

]902 . 

.PHILUPS, A. II., A,rccent analysis of Pole's hair and a stalagmite from the lava caves of Kilauea·: Am. Jour. Sci., 

3d scr., vol. 47, p. 493, 1894. 

·PmssoN, L. V., Petrography of Tripyramid Mountain: Am .• Tour. Sci., 4th sc>r., vol. 31, pp. 428-429, 1911. 

PRESTON, K D., Determination of latitude, gravita,tion, and magnetic elements at stations in the Hawaiian Islands, 

otc.: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Ann. Rept., 1893, pt. 2, appendix 12 (report by G. P. Merrill, pp. 630-632, 

no title) . 

H.ost~NHTTSCH, HARRY, Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1910 . 

---1\fikroskopische Physiographic der massigen Gesteine, 4th ed., 1908. 

ScHAJ~r.En, \V. T., Notes on minerals from gabbro of Wu.imea Canyon, Hawaii: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 509, pp. 

85-87, 1912. 

Su~VES'l'HI, 0., Sopra alcune lave antiche e moderne del vulcano Kilauea neUe !sole Sandwich; Studi petrografici: 

. Com. geol. Italia Doll., vol. 19, pp. 128-147, 168-196, 1888. 

SMY'l'H, C. H., Jr., Chemical composition of the alkaline rocks and its significance as to their origin: Am. Jour. Sci., 

4th ser., vol. 3G, pp. 33-46, HH3. 

S·t~t~t.ZNBn, A., [Note on melilite basalts]: Neues Jahrb., 1882, vol. 1, p. 229. 

WASHINGTON, H. S., Chemical analyses of igneous rocks published from 1884 to 1900, etc.: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper ].'1, 1903. · 

WMnuNo·roN, II. S., and WmaHT, F. E., A feldspar from Linosa and the existence of soda anorthite (carnegieite): 

Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 29, pp. 52-70, 1910 .. 

\Vt~BJm, 1\f., Zur Petrographic der Samoa-Inseln: K. bayer. Akad. Wiss. math.-phys. Klasse Abh., vol. 24, pt. 2, pp. 

287-310, 1909. 

WICHMANN, A., [Nepbeliu-Bas~lt von den Sandwich-Inseln]: Neues Jahrb., 1875, p. 172. 

PETROGRAPHY. 

THE LESSER ISLANDS. 

Very little is known concerning the small islets lying' northwest of Kauai. They are 

reported to consist of coral rock or sand with a foundation of basalt. The only petrographic 

details published are given by Mohle 1 on the basis of Schauinsland's collection from Laysan 

and Necker islands. Lays an is about 800 miles northwest of Kauai. This island rises only 30 

feet above the sea and consists superficially of coral limestone, but blocks of olivine-plagioclase 

basnlt occur a little below sea level. This rock and two be~ch pebbles are represented in the 

collection. The pebbles differ in character, one being a dec'oinposed basalt and the other a 

feldspathic rock with magnetite, little olivine, and rare augite grains. The latter rock has a 

trachytoid texture and is compared by Mohle with a soda trachyte from l\1aui, to be described 

in the present paper. The character of the feldspar of the Laysan rock is not stated, but it is 

no doubt a highly calcic plagioclase, as the rock is said to contain but 44.98 per cent silica. 

Necker Island, 330 1niles from Kauai, is 0. 7 mile long and rises 300 feet above the sea. 

The principal rock of this island, according to Mohle, is an olivine-plagioclase basalt of bolocrystalline porphyritic texture. Two dike rocks found on the island are- also olivine-plagioclase 

basalts of doleritic texture, characterized by violet augite and iln1enite. 

ISLAND OF KAUAI. 

OCCURRENCE AND SOURCES OF MATERtJAL STUDIED. 

I(auai is the oldest of the larger islands of the Hawaiian group. It en1braces about 547 

!3quare miles and has a general round outline. The island consists n1ainly of a single deeply 

dissected volcanic pile, the present sum1nit of which, called W aialeale, has an elevation of 5,080 

feet. Fron1 this center radiate deep canyons, the principal ones being on the north, west, and 

south sides. In the walls of these canyons and in the great sea cliffs of the northwesternshore 

are excellent exposures of the basaltic complex which, so far as known, makes up the entire 

island beneath the surficial materials. 

The structure of I(auai is extremely- simple and is typical of a basaltic volcano. All the 

cnnyons exhibit a series of dark basaltic flows dipping gently a':vay fron1 the general center of 

1 Mohle, F., Neues Jahrb., Beilage Band 15, pp. 9G-93, 1902. 
10 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

the island. The flows are diverse in thickness, their limits being clearly defined ·by breccia, 

scoria, or tuff zones, separ.ating the more massive rock. 

The rocks to be described wer~ all collected by me and came from canyon branches of 

Waimea, Makaweli, and Hanapepe rivers, which head to the south or southwest ofWaialeale 

and cut deep into its mass. Some of then1 came from lava flows, others from dikes, and still 

others from bowlders in the stream beds, selected to exhibit recognizable varieties which must 

occur in place in the upper parts of these valleys. ' 

After the principal part of the erosion by which the strongly marked topographic features 

of Kauai were produced came minor volcanic outbursts at many places. By far the larger 

number of .these comparatively recent eruptions were explosive in character, ashes being scattered over a large part of the island. Many of the best plantation soils of the lowlands are 

derived from these ashes.· Small lava flows also issued from some of the recent vents. 

The rocks collected embrace a considerable range of olivine-plagioclase basalts, olivine-free 

plagioclase basalt, limbu.rgite, nepheline-melilite basalt, and gabbro, and they will be described 

under these heads. 

OLIVINE-PLAGIOCLASE BASALT. 

General characters.-The olivine-plagioclase basalts of Kauai exhibit a great range of textures. 

Many of them are dark, almost black rocks in which few, if any, mineral particles can be recognized by the unaided eye. Such aphanitic. phases ·are either dense or variably vesicular. Some 

fine and nearly even-grained basalts contain many megascopically determinable p·articles of 

olivine, augite, and feldspar. 

A porphyritic texture is not uncommon and is as a rule due to r~atively large olivine 

phenocrysts. In some rocks olivine occurs in fine fresh crystals which exceed. 1 centimeter in 

. diameter. · The crystal form is often nearlY. perfect, but curved partings cause the phenocrysts 

to resemble perlitic grains. Rocks rich in large olivine phenocrysts are in many places also 

notably vesicular. Especially in such rocks the parting surfaces of olivine are likely to exhibit 

brilliant iridescent colors. The abundance and large size of the olivine phenocrysts are the 

most striking features of the basalts of Kauai that have been examined. 

From the few specimens collected it appears that both olivine and plagioclase are quantitatively very variable constituents. Augite is always abundant, but titaniferous magnetite is 

decidedly more subordinate than is usual in such rocks. Olivine is likely to occur in abundant 

phenocrysts, but some of the .aphanitic facies are also very rich in this mineral. Augite is 

. commonly present in microscopic grains and even where it occurs in distinct crystals it is inconspictwus. Plagioclase is less prominent than the mafic 1 silicates, occurring in the usual ophitic 

groundmass. It is as a rule more calcic than labradorite. 

In general the plagioclase basalts of Kauai are, then, of common varieties. They are notably 

rich in titanic acid, which occurs in n1agnetite and in pink or purplish augite, but the total amount 

of the iron oxide is small. 

Chemical composition.-The olivine-plagioclase basalts of Kauai are of varieties known in 

many parts of the world, but for the sake of comparison of different types and the general 

discussion· of Ilawaiian magmas two contrasting basaltic types were submitted to analysis, 

both from Olokele Canyon, the main branch of the Makaweli. 

The composition of a nearly holocrystalline, minutely vesicular ash-gray olivine porphyry 

or chrysophyre, to use J.D. Dana's expressive field term; is shown by analysis 31, in the accom-

.panying table, mad.e qy W. T. Schaller. The rock occurs on the south side of Olokele Canyon, 

near tunnel 24 on the line of the Olokele ditch, which was in course of construction in 1902. 

Plate II, A, .illustrates the texture of the specimen from which·the material for analysis was 

taken .. All the visible phenocrysts are olivine, of strong green color. They are almost perfectly 

fresh; some exceed 1 centimeter in diameter a:r;1d none are as small as the augite in the groundmass. These olivine 'phenocrysts constitute from 20 to 25 per cent of the rock. 

The vesicles are scarcely recogmizable in the illustration. · They are irregular in form and 

contain, as peculiar to them, only two or three recognized minerals. One of these occurs in 

1 lJ.:[afic is a modal term applied to the ferromGgnesian minerals of rocks. The wordjemic, often used in this sense, applies properly only to 

: nonnative molecules. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 88 PLATE II 

• 

A.. OLIVINE-PLAGIOCLASE BASALT (CHRYSOP HYRE) AT RIM OF OLOKELE CANYON. 

B. SODIC GABBRO (KAUAIITE) OF WAIALE CANYON. 

BASALT AND SODIC GABBRO FROM KAUAI. 
PETROGRAPHY. 11 

m:inute dull-white rhmnbic dodecahedrons about 0.3 to 0.5 n1illin1eter in diameter. These crystols are scattered all through the specin1en, but rarely do more than two or three occur in one 

cavity. Detached crystals were examined under the nTicroscope and found to be weakly doubly 

refracting. They do not extinguish as units but show a plaidlike pattern between crossed 

nicols, due to complex twinning. Through the assistance of E. S. Larsen the index of refraction 

was deter1nined to be 1.485 ± 0.003. This seemed to indicate either analcite or cristobalite. 

I-Iydrochloric acid does not attack the crystals. 

Por further :identification of the mineral about 25 crystals, weighing in the aggregate about 

1 milligra1n, were detached and their refractive index observed by Mr. Larsen. This material was 

then tested for water and silica by R. C.· Wells, in the chemical laboratory of the Geological 

Survey. There w~s no loss on ignition, which, with the observed resistance to hydrochloric 

acid, 1nakes it certain that the nlineral can not be analcite. Ignition with hydrofll.wric and 

sulphuric acids resulted in a loss of 85 per cent. The residue probably represents material on 

which these crystals were in1planted. It thus appears aln1ost certain that the mineral is cristobolito which has reverted from the original isotropic high-temperature forn1 to the tetragonal 

modification existing below 175 °. 

Augite in nrinute anhedral grains and plagioclase in microlites make up the don1inant 

groundn1ass, with augite-in excess. The rock contains some s1noky-brown intersertal glass but 

not as a continuous 1natrix. Magnetite occurs in minute very fresh grains, many of which are 

n.rr.anged in rows. It is presumably highly titaniferous. In many spots there is a distinct 

developtnent of tridymite in wedge-shaped aggregates between plagioclase crystals, and characteristic round spherules of tridymite occur in some of the minute pores. 

· The rock of analysis 35, made by W. F. I-Iillebrand, is nearly aphanitic, very dark gray, and 

belongs to a flow exposed a~ the south end of tunnel 20 on the Olokele ditch. Examination of 

it with a hand lens reveals nmnerous yellowish-brown olivine phenocrysts. In thin section it is 

found to consist of plagioclase, augite, olivine, and magnetite, with a little apatite and intersertal 

globul:it:ic glass in disconnected areas. Both augite and plagioclase occur in larger individuals 

than in the chrysophyre described above. Olivine occurs chiefly in the phenocrysts but partly 

in anhedral· grains like those of augite. Magnetite is concentrated in a few crystals equaling 

those of augite in size. The fabric is ophitic. 

In the general discussion (p. 74) it is shown that these basalts are very near in composition 

to certain others from various parts of the world. 

Analyses and norms of olivine-plagioclase basalt. 

Analyses. 

31 

~1~:::.:.:::_~:::::~: ~ ~: ~ ~: ~ ~ ~: ~::::: ~ ~f: ~ ~:8:. ·.: :: ... :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1~: ~! Na .. O ....................... ~---··· 1.62 

~:8i::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~~ Ti02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1. 73 

Zr02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• None. 

co., ... ··························· .24 

p 2()6 .. - - ................... ·. - . . . . . 13 

35' 

45.48 

11.87 

1. 98 

9.87 

13.28 

10.97 

2.21 

. 77 

. 23 

. 74 

l. 90 

None. 

None. . 25 

s......... ... ... . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . ... .04 ., ........ . Cr20 3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • 02 

~~g~ ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·.: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ~~ \) J\1:n0............................. . 20 

BaO............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trace. 

l!'eS2 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

. 08 

. 04 

:04 

.16· 

. 04 

. 03 

100. 38 99. 94 

Norms. 

31 

Orthoclase....................... l. 67 

Albite......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 62 

Nephelite ................................ .. Anorthite........................ 29.19 

Diopside... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 13 

Hypersthene..................... 36.82 

35 

4.45 

12.84 

2.92 

20.57 

26.39 

Olivine.......................... 7. 21 24.28 

Magnetite........................ 2:32 3. 02 

Ilmenite.................... . . . . . . 3. 19 3. 65 

Pyrite............................ . . . . . . . . . . . 03 

Apatite.......................... . 30 . 47 

--·--1----

99.45 98.62 

Rest ............................. · . 73 l. 17 

100.18 99. 79 
12 LA VAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Quantitative classijication.-The position and magmatic character of the basalt of analysis 

31 in the quantitative system are shown below: 

Sal 44.5 Class: Fern= 55.

0 =0.8l=III, salfe_mano. 

L+Q 0 Order: --y-= 44 ~0=5, gallare. Symbol: III.5.4.4-5 . 

. K20'+Na20' 29 _ Rang. CaO' 105 0.28-4, auvergnase. 

S .b K20' 3 u rang: N~O'=M=0.11=4-5, auvergnose. 

The rock of analysis 35 has the systematic characters expressed by the following data: 

ciass: ::~=!~:~~=0.705=III', salfemane. 

0 d . L _2.92 -0 08-k' 11 r er. F-37.

86- . -v, ga are . Symbol 1 : III'.5'.(3)4.4-5. 

. K20'+Na20' 43 , _ Rang. CaO' , 74 0.58-(3)4, camptonase-auvergnase. 

K 0' 8 Subrang: N;20,=35=0.23=4-5, camptonose-auvergnose. 

This basalt is therefore in the division of the salfemanes, intermediate toward. the dofemanes. It is transitional between the docalcic and alkalicalcic rangs and is therefore also 

transitional between the presodic subrangs, camptonose and auvergnose, of these rangs. 

Relation of norm and mode in rocks analyzed.-These two rocks exhibit very· notable differ-. 

ences in normative composition, but the analyses are by no means so strikingly different. The' 

great variations in diopside,. hypersthene, and olivine illustrate the cumulative effect of certain 

relatively small differences in silica, alumina, lime, and the alkalies. The normative diopside· 

of No. 35 is more than five times that of No. 31, because the decrease of alumina in No. 35 is 

coincident with increase of both lime and alkalies, doubly increasing the amount of lime available_for diopside. The presence of hypersthene in No. 31 is due of course to the higher silica 

content. 

The modal composition of No. 35 is clearly not far from the normative, but No. 31 exhibits 

a mode differing from the norm in a very interesting manner. According to the calculation· 

of the norm this magma contained sufficient. silica to have reduced the amount of the ortho.., 

silicate olivine to 7.21 per cent had there been that free exercise of the chemical affinities generally assumed to prevail in magmatic solutions. In the magma of basalt 35 conditions were 

evidently much more nearly normal. The augite of basalt 31 clearly contains a considerable 

amount of the normative hypersthene, but about half of the hypersthene is represented in 

modal olivine, freeing an amount of silica which appears in tridymite and cristobalite, as has 

been described. 

These basalts of the same center of eruption and very nearly of the same age show the 

effect of some undetected difference in composition or in conditions attending their crystallization from magmatic solution, which is plainly of much importance. As will be brought out 

in the general discussion, there is some condition, ·commonly realized in Hawaii, which is particularly favorable to the formation of olivine from magmas whose silica is sufficient to have 

produced a much larger amount of a higher silicate than is found. This is commonly shown 

by the presence of free silica in olivine rocks, once considered an impossibility. 

The differences between norm and mode of these rocks with regard to orthoclase and 

nephelite are not very striking quantitatively, and possibly the small amounts of these substances shown in the norms are hidden in the residual glass. In basalt 35, however, it seems 

more reasonable to suppose that nephelite and orthoclase are to some extent "occult molecules," to use the suggestive term proposed by Iddings'1

for material held in solid solution. It 

~s well known that orthoclase may be and f~eqtiently is held in plagioclase. It has also been 

1 In the symbols expressing the quantitativeclassification of a rock the use of a parenthesis shows that a rock falls in a narrow transitional zone 

between two divisions. A prime mark indicates a less marked approach to some adjacent division. For the limits of the transitional and intermediate zones the reader is referred to the original publication suggesting these distinctions (Jour. Geology, vol. 20, pp. 554-557, 1912). 

.... 
PETROGRAPHY. 13 

claimed by Washington and Wright 1 that 5.5 per cent of carnegieite, having the stoichiometric 

c01nposition of nephelite, is held in solid solution in labradorite of the island of Linosa. The 

nOl'DlS of many rocks show normative nephelite where no trace of that mineral Can be found 

in the rQck, and a part at least of such potential nephelite may be explained in this way .. Obviously no emphasis should be placed on this hypothesis until more evidence in its favor has been 

produced. Plagioclase is more abundant in the norm than it seems to .be in the rock, but that 

may silnply illustrate the difficulty of correctly estimating the amount of a transparent colorless nrinernl in such fine-grained aggregates. 

PLAGIOCLASE BASALT (POOR IN OLIVINE). 

Several rocks of Kauai are notably poor in olivine while rich in calcic plagioclase and augite 

and retaining the usual basaltic habit. Such rocks will be called basalts, although some of them 

may be referable to augite andesite. So long as it is unknown whether or not the paucity of 

olivine is characteristic of the whole mass represented by a given specimen, and the plagioclase 

is at least as calcic as labradorite, it seems best to recognize the affinities of these rocks with 

the basalts rather than with the andesites. 

One of these plagioclase basalts occurs in the eastern part of the Koloa sugar plantation, 

in the southeastern part of the island, in low ground near the sea. It forms a low ridge west 

of a pumplng station. In this vicinity are several centers of ash eruption and at least one 

lava flow of recent date, but the relations of the flows at the locality mentioned were not determined. It is surmised that they are .younger than: the main basaltic complex of the island. 

Thls Koloa rock is gray in color and contains many small irregular pores, into whlch project 

crystals of feldspar. T'he pronounced ophltic fabric is visible megascopically through the 

cleavage planes of many narrow plagioclase tablets, but" the interstitial augite can not be recognized. The plagioclase plates and prisms reach 2 to 3 millimeters in length. 

In thin section the rock is seen to possess a not unusual type of ophltic fabric in that the 

plagioclase blades radiate. in rude sheaves from many centers. Augite of common character 

lies between the feldspars and is developed in larger individuals than in any of the olivine 

basalts. Olivine is very sparingly present in grains similar to those of augite. The ore constituent appears in plates rather than in grains and is -probably ilmenite. Residual areas of 

gray globulitic glass with very delicate plagioclase microlites are scattered through the rock. 

A dense dike rock in the east fork of Waimea Canyon has much less olivine than the common 

types but more than the last-mentioned rock. 

LIMBURGITE. 

In the bed of I-Ianapepe River below the falls, about 7 miles from the sea, there are bowlders 

of typical dense aphanitic limburgite, associated with the usual predominant olivine-plagioclase 

basalts. There, as elsewhere, the actual quantitative relations of different rocks must be detern1ined by future work. It is believed that the various flows exposed in the walls of Hanapepe 

Canyon are of olivine-plagioclase basalt, but unfortunately specimens were not collected to 

establish this fact. It is to be supposed that the waterworn bowlders of limburgite came from 

aboye the falls. 

'I'his lin1burgite consists of augite, olivine, m~gnetite, and a subordinate dark-brown globulitic glass. The minerals named are quite like those of the plagioclase-bearing basalts. No 

feldspar has been noted. The rock is thus clearly the nonfeldspathic extreme of the basaltic 

series of Kauai. 

Added interest attaches to this rock from the nutnerous sharply angular inclusions of dunite 

and hn.rzburgite contained in it. They range in the specimens collected from fragments 4 centimeters in diameter to n1inute gru.ins. These xenoliths are granular in texture, are green or gray 

in color, and consist almost entirely of fresh olivine and pyroxenes, and of the latter enstatite is 

the most abundant variety. Some fragn1ents are nearly pure olivine. Iron oxide particles are 

rare and no feldspar, biotite, or hornblende has been detected. 

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 29, p. 59, 1910. 
14 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

This limburgite magma has thus brought up from some depth granular rocks of even simpler 

composition than its own. No other kinds of rocks were observed as inclusions in the limburgite. 

Similar xenoliths are present in certain basalts of Oahu, :M:olokai, and Hawaii, mentioned later. 

Limburgite was also found with common basalts among bowlders of the bed of Waimea 

River above the mouth of Waialae River._ 

OLIGOCLASE GABBRO, OR KAUAIITE. 

Occurrence.--In reporting the discovery of a coarsely granular rock, called "olivine diabase," 

in the west fork of Wailau Canyon, on the island of J\1olokai, Lindgren 1 states that a piece of 

very similar rock was given to him with the assurance that it had been "broken fron1 a large 

bowlder in one of the principal streams on Kauai." Through infornuttion given to me by Judge 

Hardy, of Lihue, and Mr. Francis Gay, of Kekupua, I found what I believe to be the bowlder 

from which the granular rock given to Mr. Lindgren was obtained. In the deep canyon of 

Waialae River, an eastern branch of the Waimea Canyon, there is a bowlder 12 feet long and 

6 to 8 feet high and wide, known to the natives, according to J\1r. Gay, as ''the lightning stone." 

It is composed of rock like the specimen given to Mr. Lindgren, which I have examined. 

The exact source of this granular rock is unknown. From commanding positions on the 

ridge south of the canyon where the fragments occur no outcrops suggestive of a core were seen, 

but the jungle of tropical vegetation covering many of the slop-es might well conceal a large body. 

The bowlders of granular rock occur in the strean1 bed below. the "lightning stone" for about a 

quarter of a mile, to the junction with the main Waimea, and are also found in the detritus of 

the Waimea above the forks, although no fragment so coarse grained as the rock to be described 

was noted. For perhaps 100 yards above the "lightning stone" there are a few fragments in 

the stream gravels, but for several hundred yards still farther upstream no pebbles or bowlders 

of this granular rock were found. It thus seems likely that the ridge between the main Waimea 

and the Waialae contains a mass of the peculiar gabbroic rock here discussed. 

The repeated statements of natives to Mr. Gay, that this particular bowlder is often struck 

by lightning, is not borne out by fulgurites or. other evidence noted. The upper part of the 

mass has a dark crust of weathering. On the sides it is gray in color and there are many round 

pits, an inch or two across and an ·inch deep, irregularly scattered over the surface. _These pits· 

resemble the beginning of drill holes, but they are believed to result from weathering action 

about miarolitic cavities. · 

Description.-The size and shape of the large bowlder made it impossible to obtain a hand 

specim,en of it, but smaller ones near by afforded better opportunity. The specimen of which a 

chemical analysis was made is a granular porous rock (see Pl. II, B) of dark-gray color, exhibiting 

many irregularly disposed augite prisms son1ewhat less than 1 centimeter long and 3 millimeters 

thick. It contains many tablets of plagioclase, some nearly 1 centimeter in length, and still 

more abundant is a :finer-grained pinkish-gray feldspathic mass in which augite and the larger 

crystals of plagioclase are embedded. Scattered through the mass are many irregular miarolitic 

cavities, of various sizes up to 1 centimeter or more. Crystals of augite, plagioclase, orthoclase, 

apatite, and magnetite project into these cavities, and son1e of the crystals show well-developed 

crystal planes. 

W. T. Schaller 2 has described crystals of orthoclase, apatite, and titaniferous ·augite found 

in these cavities. The augite exhibited eight determinable forms, two of which,. belonging to 

the prismatic zone, are new. 

The microscopic texture is irregularly granular. Small laths of calcic labradorite or 

bytownite penetrate both augite and olivine but are not abundant. The average or normative 

plagioclase, assuming all albite combined w,ith anorthite and orthoclase as albite-free, is about 

Ab3An1• As developed in the rock there is perhap~ the normative amount of orthoclase, namely, 

about 8 per cent. The dominant feldspar is plagioclase, most of the individuals of which have 

inner bands of labradorite and outer zones of highly sodic feldspar, probably anorthoclase. The 

1 U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 77, p. 15, 1903. 2 U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 509, pp. 85-87, 1912. 

~--
PETROGRAPHY. 15 

ln.bradorite portion is broader than the laths penetrating augite and exhibits albite, Carlsbad, 

and pe11icline twinning, the last very subordinate. The albite and Carlsbad twins indicate a 

highly calcic labradorite. · 

The zones of differing con1position are comn1only not symn1etrically developed about a 

center, but consist of bands parallel to (010), and the gradation from labradorite to alkalic 

feldspar with index of refraction lower than balsam is rapid. Definite andesine and oligoclase 

bands have not been determined. Albite-twinning lamellm are visible in the outer zones in 

places, but are not characteristic, while a mottled shadowy extinction is con1n1on. This sodic 

feldspar interlocks irregularly with other components. 

The norm of this rock sh9ws a little nephelite, but none has been found in the speci1nen 

analyzed., either· microscopically or by chemical test. Sections of the coarser-grained ''lightning stone" bowlder show crystals of apparent nephelite in small an1ount. 

Olivine of a pale-yellowish tinge is present in a few crystals. The pr01ninent augite has a 

pink or violet color, which testifies to its contents in titanic oxide. On borders it often exhibits 

mg.ir.ite-augite and in places distinct mgirite of strong green color, normal pleochroism, and 

orientation. Crystals projecting into cavities or interlocking with alkali feldspars most comInonly exhibit this gradation to mgirite. . 

Apatite, characterized by dustlike inclusions, is unusually abundant .in lttrge prisn1s. The 

norm shows that 5.0 per cent is present. Titanon1agnetite is also a pronlinent constituent, the 

character being indicated by opaque rims of.leucoxene about many crystals. 

Chemical composition.-The moderately coarse grained rock to which the above description 

particularly app~ies and which is represented by.Plate II, B, was analyzed by W. T. Schaller 

with the result given below. The notable features are low alumina, high lime, preponderance 

of soda over potash, and high phosphoric acid and titaniun1 oxide. The influence of the chemical 

co:mposition on the n1odal character of the rock is best shown by the calculation of the norm. 

Analysis and norm of kauaiite. 

Analysis. 26 

Si02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 45.81 

Al 20 3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11. 90 

li''e203 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4. 62 

]?eO ......... :........................... 8. 09 

MgO .................................... 5.39 

CaO ............................ · .......... 10.67 

Na20. .. ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 28 

1{20 ........................... · ......... ·. 1. 40 

li:aO- .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

li20+................................... . 53 

Ti02 1 ................................... 4.05 

P20 5 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2. 20 

S........................................ . 03 

1\f.nO.................................... . :1.7 

J3a0 ............................... · ..... · . 04 

SrO ................... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'rrace. 

99.65 

Mol. Norm. 

763. Orthoclase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. 34 

117 Albite ..................... : ..................... 29. 34 

29 Anorthite.... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 9. 17 

112 Nephelite....................................... 3. 69 

135 Diopside. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. 81 

190 Olivine ................... · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 82 

69 Magnetite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 73 

15 Ilmenite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7. 60 

Apatite......................................... 5. 04 

50 98.54 

15 Rest ........................................... ·. 1. 07 

99.61 

2 

.Quantitative classijication.-N orn1ative ratios showing the position of the rock n1 the quantitative systmn are as follows: 

C Sal 50.54 . lass: Fem = 48.

00=.L.05=III, salfemane. 

0 d L 3.69 ll r er: F=46.

85=0.08=5, ga are. Symbol: III.5'.2.4'. 

]') . K20'+Na20' 84 ? k'l :\>ang: CaO' 33 2.55=..,, ·1 auase. 

S b K20' 15 0 22 4' I '1 u rang: N 20,=~= . =. , n auos~. 

IJt is thought by Mr. Schuller that 'ri20 8 muy be present in small amount. Zr02, C02, Cr20a, and Li20 were sought for but not detected. 
16 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

The low alumina content of this rock, in conjunction with rather high alkalies, brings it well 

within the don1alkalic rang of the perlelic salfemanes. Clearly the l~me must largely go to the 

augite. 

Systematic relations and name kauaiite.-This. sodic gabbro is n1ost nearly related to the 

lavas of Kilauea among Hawaiian rocks. The basalts of the Olokele Canyon rim are 'far less 

hlkalic in their Jeldspathic contents. The subrang kilauose is represented by few analyzed 

rocks, as a glance at Washington's Tables will show. Division VII of the table on page 70 gives 

analyses of the few close analogues found for this rock and the nearest allied lavas of Kilauea. 

The rarity of analogous granular rocks shows that the Kauai type is not adequately characterized by calling it gabbro or augite diorite. With my concurrence, J.P. Iddings 1 has applied 

the name kauaiite to "oligoclase-augite diorites" richer in salic constituents than the commoner 

andesine-bearing augite diorites, having reference to this rock as a chemical representative. 

Manifestly the magrrias of this composition may vary considerably as. to the composition of 

their plagioclase, one phase being the labradorite-anorthoclase development of the rock of 

Kauai. · MELILITE-NEPHELITE BASALT. 

Occurrence.-Adjacent to the landing. place for interisland boats on the north shore of 

Kilauea Bay, in northern Kauai, are ledges of black basalt overlain by tuffs. The basalt is rich 

in augite, olivine, nephelite, melilite, and magnetite and is best named melilite-nephelite basalt. 

On several accounts this rock deserves description, although the material at hand is scanty. 

This basalt was observed only at and near the Kilauea Bay landing. It there forms a ledge 

a few yards thick, so far as noted. The overlying stratified basaltic tuffs form the principal 

part of a narrow headland separating Kilauea Bay from a nearly sen1icircular bay on the north, 

which is believed to occupy a portion of the crater of one of the numerou~::? recent explosive vents 

that abound on Kauai. Bedded tuffs dipping south, west, or northwest from a point in the bay 

seem to indicate the position and size of the crater, more than half of which has been cut away, 

apparently by marine erosion. It is deemed probable that the flow of Kilauea Bay came from 

this center, but no specimens of the tuff were collected by which this relation might have been 

established. 

Description.-The rock is dark gray and almost aphanitic, the only prominent element 

being white zeolitic aggregates filling minute pores. Examination with a hand lens reveals 

small crystals of olivine and suggests the actual holocrystalline character of the mass. 

In thin sections olivine, augite, melilite, nephelite, and magnetit~ are found to be abundant 

constituents, in the order named. Apatite is also abundant and minute biotite flakes occur 

sparingly. All these minerals are nearly fresh ~nd possess the characters common to them in 

basaltic rocks. 

A rude microporphyritic texture is given to the rock by the size of some of the olivine 

crystals, but this texture is obscured by the serial gradation from the larger crystals to the 

smaller grains corresponding in size to those of the oth.er constituents. The large olivines 

measure 1.5 millimeters in length and are more perfectly developed crystals than the smaller 

ones. 

Melilite is next to olivine in size. It occurs in fresh tablets, the largest being 1 millimeter 

wide and 0.2 millimeter thick. The basal planes are not present and the crystals tend to the 

· rude biconcave form chara,cteristic of the mineral. Augite, magnetite, and nephelite penetrate 

the melilite substance. Cleavage parallel to the base is broken by many vertical partings. 

"Peg structure" is shown only in rudimentary form in a few crystals. 

There is no glassy base. The original pores of the rock, of irregular shape, are surrounded 

by fresh crystals of nephelite, augi.te, magnetite, and apatite. The fine radiate, fibrous, zeolitic 

filling does not appear to be a product of decomposition of the surrounding rock. 

Chemical composition.-An analysis of the rock by W. F. Hillebrand is given under No. 43 

of the table on page 17. Under No. 43a is shown the analysis of that part of the rock soluble 

in dilute nitric acid (1: 40). 

1 Igneous rocks, pt. 2, p. 173, 1913. 

\. 
PETROGRAPHY. 

Analyses and nonn of melilite-nephelite basalt. 

Analyses. Norm. 

43 43a 

i~~::._:::~~~~~~:::::i:::~::::::: ::::::::::::: ~~8:. ·. ~::: .· ::. ·. ~:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : 

37. 50 15. 84 

9. 12 7. 68 

5. 59 1.47 

8. 81 . 47 

13. 72 3. 39 

13. 85 5. 21 

Leucite ............................... . Nephelite ............................ . Anorthite ............................ . 

8ff~~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Akermaui te .......................... . 

Rest ................................. . 

· itL~~~~·:·:·:·:·:::::::::: :::::::::::::: 

~~U:_:.::_;_;;;;;;:;;::::::::;;;;;;; 

2. 69 2. 28 . 63 . 60 

1.05 1.05 

2.35 2.35 

3.21 . 05 . 02 ................. . 27 . 27 . 90 . 90 . 05 . 03 

Magnetite ............................ . Ilmenite .............................. . 

~r~~r~~~ ·. ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 

8 ...................................... . Trace . ................ 

~;g,~~-· .. · .. · .. · .. · .. · .. · .. ~. :_ :_::: : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : . 07 ................. 

. 05 .................. 

. 04 .................... MnO .................................. . .15 .................... 13a0 .................................... . . 07 .................... 81'0 ................................... . . 05 ................. 

100. 19 41. 59 

17 

43 

2. 62 

12. 21 

ll. 12 

31. 04 

18.56 

3. 92 

8. 12 

6.08 

2. 12 

. 60 

96.39 

3. 68 

99.97 

As shown in Division XIV of the table on page 77 this rock is similar in chemical composition to other 1nelilite-bearing basalts of Texas, Baden, and Bavaria. 

Quantitative classijication.-The position of this rock in the quantitative system is shown 

by the ratips given below: 

01 Sal 25.9 ass: Fom = 69 _

9=0.37=IV, dofomane. 

0 d PO 53.7 

3 7 . r or: 11= 2 14_

2= . 7= , scotaro. 

S b d p 29.9 I . 

u or er: o=23.8=1.38= 3, texiare. Symbol: IV.2.'3.2.2 . 

. MgO+FeO _500 Rang. -. - 0a

0

v--202=2.31=2, uvaldase. 

S b MgO 343 2 ld u rang: Feo=157= .77=2, uva ose. 

BASALTS DESCRIBED BY MOHLE. 

The Schauinsland collection contains but .three rocks from Kauai, and these are olivineplagioclase basalt, r~ch in olivine, from a locality given by :Mohle 1 as Tipukai, which may refer 

to an area called IGpukai, 3 or 4 n1iles southwest of Nawiliwili Bay. 

ISLAND OF OAHU. 

INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The island of Oahu, upon which Honolulu is situated, embraces about 600 ·square miles. 

It 'lies about 70 nules southeast of ICauai and is the next younger island according to one idea 

of the history of the I-Iawaiian group. Oahu is a volcanic doublet, exhibiting two main centers 

of eruption, represented now by two mountain ranges rather than by forms referable to great 

1 Neues Jahrb., Beilago Band 15, p. 90, 1902. 

48730°-15-2 
18 LA VAS OF HAW Ail AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

craters. The western range is called the Kaala and the eastern the Koolau, and each exhibits 

a great an1ount of denudation. The structure of each range is well .shown in cliffs and gorges. 

In Oahu, as in Kauai, the sculpturing of the older volcanic piles into n1ountai;ns of about 

the present character was followed by a renewal of volcanic activity, resulting in many relatively 

sn1all cinder cones and lava flows. Some of these, like the Punch Bowl and Diamond I-Iead 

tuff cones, near Honolulu, are so little modified by erosion that they must be considered as 

very recent. 

Although many geologists have visited Oahu, but few of its lavas have been closely studied 

and identified. In 1889 E. S. Dana 1 gave petrographic descriptions of 12 massive lavas of . 

Oahu. Most if not all of these came from the older eruptions of the islf\nd, and all are basalt, 

but they have variable olivine content, and Dana remarked as to a few specimens that "their 

highly feldspathic character and the microscopic structure made it seem as if they might more 

properly belong to the andesites." 

In 1896 A. B. Lyons 2 published analyses and brief descriptions of four rocks of Oahu, 

referring to them as basaltic lavas, but commenting on the abundance of feldspar in one' of them. 

The discovery of a nephelite-melilite basaltnear Honolulu was announced by G. P. Merrill 3 

in 1900. This rock is describ~d on pages 20-22. 

These three publications embrace all the earlier definite determinations of the lavas of 

Oahu from known localities. C. H. Hitchcock/ in describing· the geology of the island, calls the 

rocks basalts, with special reference to the prominent olivine in some of them. Other writers 

have been equally general and it seems to have been commonly assumed that nearly all the 

lavas must be of norn1al basaltic character. 

In 1899 Hitchcock made a collection of the lavas of Oahu for the National Museum, and 

among them was the nephelite-melilite basalt described by Merrill. Knowing of this collection I made little attempt to obtain further material from Oahu. Having been unable through 

pressure of other work to complete his petrographic study of the Hitchcock collection, Dr. 

Merrill has very generously placed these specimens, with thin sections, at my disposal, and they 

form the basis for the greater part of the discussion which is to follow concerning Oahu. 

Prof. Hitchcock has supplemented the coUection just mentioned by additional material 

gathered while this study was in progress, partly in response to my requests. . I am therefore 

under direct obligation to him for n1aterial aJ.?.d information of much value. 

RANGE OF LAVAS. 

The known lavas of Oahu are perh~ps all referable to the great basaltic group, but they 

exhibit notaole varieties expressed by the following terms: Olivine-plagioclase basalt, bronzite 

basalt, plagioclase basalt (olivine free), nephelite basalt, nephelite-melilite basalt, teplujte, 

limburgite, and gabbro. All these varieties, except the las~, express notable chemical differences 

in the magn1as. 

OLIVINE-PLAGIOCLASE BASALT. 

Basalts in which plagioclase, olivine, augite, and tita;niferous magnetite are the.only prominent minerals are not abundant in the Hitchcock collection. Twenty specimens may be thus 

described and they fall into three rather distinct groups. Most of them ·are normal in that all 

the silicates named are abundant, though in varying proportions. The small amount of plagioclase in three rocks produces a more basic type than the normal, and a marked decrease in 

· olivine makes a third variety. Magnetite is not abundant in any of these lavas, and in some 

of them the amount is very small.· Naturally the basalts·exhibit many textural phases, as is 

usual in such rocks. 

The normal basalts are widely distributed. Only two of them come from the Koolau 

E,ange, and these occur at the southeast extremity, one in the tract called Niu, northwest' of 

the cinder cone ICoko Head, and the other in a spur of the range northeast of the cone.· 

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, pp. 466-467, 1889. 

2 Idem, 4th ser., vol. 2, p. 424, 1896. 

s Am. Geologist, vol. 25, p. 812, 1900. 

• Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 11, pp. 15-60, 1900. 
PETROGRAPHY. 19 

Five specin1ens come from the Kaala Range, but only two of these belong surely to flows, 

one in the ~1akua Cliffs and the other at the extreme north end of the range. The groundmass 

of the latter rock contains a notable amount of biotite-a rare mineralin Hawaiian rocks. A 

specimen from the watershed ridge west of the military reservation has an unusual texture. 

It is rich in labradorite (Ab3An7) tablets 0.5 centimeter long and has an ophitic groundmass 

with interstitial glass. It is also vesicular and resmnbles the 'rock near Hilo described farther 

on. The n1ode of occurrence is not stated. The other two rocks of this group occur as dikes, 

at Kaena Point and in ~1alrua Cliffs, respectively. The former is so nearly granular that it may 

well be tern1ed olivine diabase, the augite being developed in grains inclosing plagioclase. 

Two typical basalts occur in low exposures north of Pearl Harbor-at Eva Church and on 

the east line of the Eva plantation, on the Government road. Possibly these belong to old 

flows of the Kaala center, but the fact that normal basalt occurs in the Kuna cone, .at the 

south end of the l(aal.a Range, one of the recent group called by Hitchcock 1 the "Laeloa craters/' seems to indicate a possible recent age for the lowland rocks mentioned. 

The recent center of eruption in the low country east of Honolulu, called Kaim.uki or Telegraph I-Iill, is characterized by normal basalt represented by four specimens in the Hitchcock 

collection. Maumae, a crater cone lying a little north of Kaimuki, is likewise a center of recent 

eruption of normal basalt. 

'1\vo specin1ens of common.basalt from East Koko Head, a tuff cone at the extreme southeast point of Oahu, may represent the lavas of the Koolau series of flows, as Hitchcock states 

that these older rocks are exposed beneath the tuffs of the cone. 

The feldspathic basalt poor in olivine came from a quarry at the east end of Judd Street, 

at the south extremity of the spur between Pauoa and Nuuanu valleys, Honolulu. It is a 

1ninutely vesicular rock from a flow of the pahoehoe type and may belong to the Koolau flows. 

The basalts poor in plagioclase but rich in olivine and augite come from recent eruptions 

east o:f I-Ionolulu. One of then1 occurs as a dike in the tuffs of Diamond Head and the other 

represents a recent lava flow at the point called Kupikipikio, just east of Diamond Head. 

BRONZITE-BEARING BASALT. 

Basalts of the usual habit and c01nposition, except that olivine is to some extent r~placed 

by a rhotnbic pyroxene, are widely distributed in Oahu. The relat~ve proportions of olivine 

and bronzite-as the pyroxene may best be called-differ greatly in the rocks examined. Some 

are rich in both nlinerals, others carry both in small amount, in some olivine strongly predominates, and in others bronzite appeal'S to the exclusion of olivine. . 

The rh01nbic pyroxene is often colorless, with faint pleochroism, and must be less rich in 

iron than hypersthene. It occurs only in prismatic phenocrysts, so far as observed, and plays 

throughout a re>le like that of olivine .. 

These rocks are apparently more abundant than the normal basalts in the Koolau Range. 

Si..'\:teen specilnens in the original Hitchcock collection come from the following localities in that 

range: (1) Niu, near Koko Head, (2) Manoa Valley, (3) Kalihi valleys, (4) east base of Tantalus, (5) spur between Manoa and Nuuailu valleys (several specimens), (6) the Pali, (7) Waialua 

J?laiu, (8) Waunea Gulch, on raih·oad, (9) cliffs back of Kahuku plantation, (10) cliff at Laie 

Point. 'rhese localities are distributed from the southeast to the northwest extremity of the 

range. 

The later collection made by Hitchcock shows that bronzite-bearing basalts are common 

near Ifonolulu. Several specimens were obtained near the polo grounds, in Moanalua. 

Protu the Kaala. Range but three specimens were obtained-one from a dike in the Makua 

Cliffs, one from Kaena Point, where it is cut by the dike of ophitic texture above referred to, 

u.nd one from 'the highest point in the valley between the Kaala and Koolau ranges, nearer to 

the l(aala. 

The. other bronzite basalts occur as fragments in the tuffs of Makalapa and Oliamn.nu, 

two of the recent cinder cones near Pead Harbqr. They probably represent old lavas of 

I Gcol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 11, p. 36, 1900. 
LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

the Koolau Volcano. It is noteworthy that this rock was not found among the products of 

recent eruptions near Honolulu. 

The Dana collection embraces 12 basalts of Oahu, and all belong apparently to the lavas 

of the older centers. In 11 of these rocks an almost colorless rhombic pyroxene occurs in 

variable amount. These rocks came from Moanalua, Punaluu, Kahuku, and the Waialua 

Plain, the first three localities belonging to the Koolau center, while the last is between the 

two mountain ranges of the island. Dana 1 specially refers to two highly chrysophyric rocks, 

·and these serve admirably to illustrate the variations in composition and ·possibly the genetic 

relations of several phases of these lavas. 

A chrysophyre of Kahuku IIead contains an extraordinary amount of olivine in prominent 

phenocrysts. Dana estimates the olivine as probably two-thirds of the mass. Nearly all 

the phenocrysts are olivine, with rare comparable ones of bronzite. The ground.inass is in 

its composition and texture nearly a counterpart of many of the finer-grained lavas of Oahu, 

which contain microphenocrysts of bronzite in a mass of augite, plagioclase, and magnetite. 

Olivine is rare or lacking in the latter rocks and, as Dana pointed out, they approach pyroxene 

andesites very closely in co.mposition. 

A rock of Waialua Plain contains augite and bronzite associated with the dominant olivine 

phenocrysts and also some co~responding labradorite crystals. The groundmass is here also 

similar to some of the olivine-poor lavas. 

In general these olivine-poor bronzite basalts of Oahu seem similar in composition to 

the Mesozoic olivine weisselbergite of Rosen busch 2 where bronzite and olivine play the same 

role, replacing each other with slight differences in chemical composition of the rock, especially 

as to silica. W eisselbergite is classed by Rosen busch with the andesites (augite porphyrites). 

PLAGIOCLASE BASALT (OLIVINE-FREE). 

Several basalts of the Hitchcock collection consist almost wholly of augite, labradorite, 

magnetite, and a small amount of apatite. Olivine is rare or absent. These rocks are aphanitic and contain no notable phenocrysts of any kind. In both composition and texture they 

correspond to the groundmass portion of f?Ome of the normal basalts. Labradorite is older 

than the augite, which occurs in small grains between the feldspars and not in large chadocrysts inclosing them. N,"o doubt t];le rocks of this group exhibit in some occurrences a development of augite and la.bradorite phenocrysts and other. textural variations not shown in the 

specimens at hand. 

Nine specimens b~longing to this group have been examined. Four of them occur at the 

Pali gap in the Koolau Range. Two at least occur as dikes; the others are not specified 

as to whether flows or dikes. It is a natural suggestion that these rocks belong not to the 

oldet: series of Koolau lavas but to the comparatively recent eruptions of this locality noted 

both by Hitchcock and by me. 

Four other rocks free from or very poor in olivine occur in ledges on the Oahu plantation, 

in the broad, low valley between the Kaala and Koolau ranges and 2 or 3 miles north of the 

recent vents adjacent to Pearl Harbor. Presumably 'these rocks are exposed in the walls of 

channels cut through the soil, etc., by streams from the Koolau Range, but the source of the 

lavas may not be determinable. In all these rocks an insignificant amount of olivine or bronzite, 

or both, occurs in very small phenocrysts or in anhedra like those of augite. 

NEPHELITE-MELILITE BASALT. 

Occurrence.-The existence of the nephelite and melilite bearing basalt of Oahu was first 

announced by Wichmann 3 in 1875 on examination of ballast rock brought by a ship to 1-Iamburg. 

The source of the material was said to be Oahu, but the exact locality was not known. Cohen 4 

later studied som.e of these ballast.fragments and confirmed Wichn1ann's statements as to 

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, p. 466, 1889. a Neues Jahrb., 1875, p. 172. 

2 Mik:roskopische Physiographie der massigen Gesteine, '>!th ed., p. 1094, 1908. 4 Idem, 1880, vol. 2, pp. 23-62. 
PETROGRAPHY. 2f 

nephelite and melilite, and Stelzner 1 completed the identification of the nielilite. Mohle 2 

refers to a 1nelilite-nephelite basalt f~om the vicinity of Honolulu. 

'"!''he rock collected by Ifitchcock and described by Merrill 3 in 1900 ·appears to be the 

first nephelite-1nelilite basalt from Oahu of which the occurrence is known. I visited the 

locnlity from which the rock described by Merrill was obtained. It is so unusual a type as to 

warrant further microscopical and chen1ical study and description. 

The Schauinsland collecthn described by Mohle contained one specimen of nephelite-melilite 

basalt from Oahu, but as the locality is indefinite, being "aus der Umgebung von Honolulu," 

it is uncertain whether this rock belongs with one of the occurrences to be described or not. 

The rock described by Merrill as "nepheline-melilite basalt" and ftirther discussed below 

occurs in a quarry near Moiliili Church, about n1idway between Punch Bowl and Diamond 

I-Iead, in the eastern suburbs of I-Ionolulu. The small outcrops are surrounded by alluvium, 

and the source of the lava stream which the rock represents is not definitely known. Ifitchcock 4 says of this occurrence: 

It is surmised that this rock came from Rocky Hill, as there is a slope from the crater to the quarry and to the 

church. There ttre several masses of cinders interrupting the continuity of the basalt, which are suggestive of blowholes 

and steam vents. Amygdaloidal and zeolitic minerals occur at the quarry. Phacolite and laumontite have been 

identified mnong them. Calcite and amorphous silica are also present, the latter on surfaces several square feet in 

extent in rudely.parallellines. The bluff is traversed by small veins full of nephelite, granular melilite, and augite. 

Either of these minerals may form a layer of crystals, closely crowded together, all standing vertically to the plane 

of occurrence. Veins 3 inches wide or less abound in these minerals, mixed with a multitude of acicular crystals of 

kaliophilite. :M:r. ~irt Tassin has identified these species. 

In the I-Iitchcock collection there are many specimens from the Moiliili quarry and also 

of similar rock fro1n the following localities: (1) At and near Rocky Hill, Manoa Valley, (2) 

]{alibi Valley, north edge, (3) Gulick Stream, west of Kamehameha School, Honolulu, (4) half 

a nrile east of Bishop :Museum. 

Boclc .f1·om quaTry near Moiliili. OhuTch.---;The specimens from the quarry near Moiliili 

Church exhibit some textuTal differences, but on the whole a marked uniformity. I will first 

describe the type analyzed, collected by me. 

This rock is 1negascopically a gray massive 'trap of millimeter grain, the holocrystalline 

character of which is suggested by numerous glistening crystal or cleavage faces of unrecognizable 

minerals. The hand lens reveals a large amount of light-colored minerals. No phenocrysts 

can be observed. There are son1e small irregular cavities lined with a thin zeolitic crust. The 

co.nstituen.ts are olivine, augite, 1nelilite, nephelite, magnetite, and apatite, all but the apatite 

being abundant. All the 1ninerals are very fresh, and the absence of iron hydroxide and other 

stains :makes recognition of almost every particle possible. 

Olivine occurs in colorless, nearly euheilial prism·atic crystals reaching a maximum size of 

1.5 millimeters. It is nearly free from inclusions, and much of it exhibits no alteration. It 

semns to form about one-filth of the rock, as found also in the norm. 

Augite is less abundant than olivine and less prominent, for it occurs in anhedrons interlocking n1ost irregularly with other minerals and in some places being the oikocryst or matrix 

crystal of the poikilitic fabric. Its major diameter seldom exceeds 0.6 millimeter. The augite 

has the reddish or yellowish-brown pleochroic colors of titaniferous varieties but not very 

strongly. 

:Melilite appears in the usual basal tablets, presenting most commonly long rectangular 

outlines. The prism faces are much sharper than the basal, interlocking with nephelite and. 

1nagnetite in particular being common on the basal sides. The melilite is fresh, without "peg 

structm·e" in the rock analyzed, has a few marked basal cleavage planes·, and seldom contains 

inclusions. It is colorless and of pale-bluish or milky polarization color in thin sections. The 

substance of last deposition in the outer basal zones, between particles of other minerals, is 

1 Nouos Jahrb., 1882, vol. 1, p. 229. 

Jldom, Beilago Band 15, p. 83,1902. 

a Am. Geologist, vol. 25, pp. 312-313, 1900. 

4 Geol. Soe. America Bull., vol. 11, pp. 46, 47, 1900. 
22 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

of.too nf higher double refringence than the central zone, appearing yellowish in polarized light. 

The melilite forms about 15 per cent of the rock. 

Nephelite is· dev~loped in very sharply defined euhedral or subhedral grains, few of which 

exceed 0.1 lll:illimeter in diameter in the rock analyzed. It includes magnetite and apatite 

especially but is penetrated by all other minerals. It is fresh and has a very slightly higher 

refractive index than Canada balsam. It forms nearly or quite one-quarter of the rock. 

Magnetite occurs abundantly in subhedral crystals and gToups, nearly as large as the 

nephelite. It gives no special indication of titanium content, but a test of powder separable 

with the magnet gave 13.4 per cent Ti02 • No perofskite was noted, but Merrill reports that 

mineral as present. Apatite is developed in minute long prisms. 

A photomicrograph of this rock is given in Plate III, B. 

The Hitchcock GOllection shows that the rock of the Moiliili quarry varies .little. in 

composition and texture. Olivine has less tendency to phenocrystic development in some 

specimens. Augite often appears more markedly as an irregular oikocryst, inclosing nephelite 

and magnetite, but in some of the rock it is found only in small roundish grains. In the coarsestgrained specimens nephelite and a part of the magnetite reach a diameter of 1 millimeter and· 

the texture is nearly equigranular. 

The analysis, by George Steiger, and the calculateclnorn1 of this rock are given below: 

Analysis and norm of nephelite-melilite basalt. t jl.• 

Analysts. ·.. Norm. 

40 

Si02••••••• ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • 36. 34 

Al20 3 ••••••• ; ••••••••••.•••••• ~ ••••••••••. 10. 14 

Fe20 3 •••••••••••• ·••••••••••••.••••..••••• 6. 53 

FeO... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.66 

l\fgO............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. '68 

CaO..................................... 13.10 

Na20.................................... 4. 54 

K20.. .. . ................................ 1. 78 

H 20-............ .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 1.00 

H20-t ............... ·........ .. .... .. . . . 1.oo 

Ti02·············........................ 2. 87 

002 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .15 

P20 5 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••• 1. 92 

8................ .... ... . .. ... . .. .. .. . .. .04 

MnO..................................... .20 

100.05 

Mol. 

606 Leuci te .... ~.. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 8. 28 

99 Nephelite...................................... 21. 02 

41 Anorthite .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . 1. 67 

148 Diopside....................................... 17.39 

267 Olivine........................................ 20.23 

234 Akermanite.................................... 11. 95 

74 $Iagnetite ... ~.................................. 9. 51 

19 Ilmenite........................................ 5. 47 

Apatite........................................ 2. 35 

36 

3 HzO ........................................... . 

7 Calcite ........................................ . 

3 

97.87 

2.00 

.31 

100.18 

Q.uantitative classijication.-The position of this rock in the quantitative system is shown 

by the ratios given below: 

. ·. Sal _ 30.97 _ -'IV d f Class. Fern - 66 _

90-0.46- , o emane. 

P+O 49.57 Qrder: ---xr-=14_

98=3.10=2, scotare,-

. . ·p 17.39 ( ) Section: 0 = 32_

18=0.54= 3 4 (unnamed). Symbol: ;IV.2.(3)4.2(3).2(3). 

. (FeMg)O 418 _ Rang. 6

aO" 225 1.86-2(3), casselase. 

MgO 267 Subrang: FeO = 151 =:=1.77=2(3), casselose. 

The rock thus falls in casselose but is transitional in several respects. The rang and subrang to which it is transitional are unnamed as yet, but through its near approach to section 3 

of order 2, texiare, it becomes also transitional to uvaldose, a subrang containing the nephelitemelilite basalt of Kauai and the picritic basalt of Haleakala. The relation of this rock to other 

melilite basalts is brought out in Division XII of the table on page 75. It is certainly significant that the ''black sand" or ash, so abundant about Honolulu, has a 1p.arked resemblance to 

this basalt of the Moiliili quarry in composition, as is also illustrated in Division XII. 
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 88 PLATE Ill 

.A. SODA TRACHYTE, LAUNIUPOKO HILL, NEAR LAHAINA, MAUl. 

B. NEPHELITE-MELILITE BASALT, NEAR HONOLULU, OAHU. 

au =augite, m =magnetite, me= meli lite, ol =olivine. 

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF HAWAIIAN ROCKS. 
PETROGRAPHY. 23 

NEPHELITE BASALT AND ALLIED ROCKS. 

In the I-Iitchcock collection are several rocks which in the current nomenclature must be 

called nephelite basalts, although this nan1e unduly emphasizes a very subordinate constituent. 

It is probable, I think, that these lavas, like the melilite-bearing and other extreme types, are 

of recent origin and local occurrence, but so little is known of the actual field occurrence and 

. relations of these rather obscure rocks that extended description is scarcely desirable at present. 

In general, these rocks are rich in augite, olivine, and magnetite. They are all aphanitic, 

and as a rule olivine is the only phenocryst. The dominant and often obscure mass of augite 

and n1agnetite is very fine grained and in some places there is a small amount of residual glass. 

Olivine probably takes some part in this almost unresolvable mix:ture. 

'rhe nepbelite oc~urs in mostly anhedral specks penetrated by augite and magnetite. Its 

habit is the same as in the finer grained of the melilite basalts and identification rests on this 

fact, with the close agreement of its index of refraction with that of balsam and the weak birefringence. In one specimen an alkali-rich feldspar is associated with the nephelite in small 

atnount. 

Alnong the localities for nephelite basalt is_the Punch Bowl, near llonolulu-probably from 

u. dike; another is Kapuai, one of the Laeloa craters;t a third is one of the Salt Lake craters; 

and a fourth is a dike in the Pali, 750 feet below the road pass, on the east side. l\1ohle 2 fol.ind 

a nephelite basalt in the Schauinsland collection, from son1e locality near IIonolulu. 

Allied rocks which may be called nephelite basanite occur at Diamond I-Iead (.dike~) and 

:Kapolei, a crater of the Laeloa group. The speci1nens representing thmn are very dense basic 

rocks deserving further study on better material. 

The rock of one of the dikes in the Pali, near the road, is ~.erhaps best na1ned a lin1burgite. 

BASALTIC TUFFS AND ASHES OF RECENT ERUPTIONS. 

From a review of all available data it appears that most if not all of the tuff cones and 

craters of comparatively recent age on Oahu represent eruptions of lavas more basic than 

nonnal basalt. The melilite and nephelite bearing rocks and other varieties described above 

semn the common products of these centers. · 

'rhe tuffs themselves have seldom been described. In the Schauinsland collection l\1ohle 3 

found palago.nite tuff from the Punch Bowl and more normal basaltic tuff from the vicinity of 

Pearl I-Iarbor and from the Salt Lake craters. Lyons 4 has analyzed several lime and magnesia 

rich hydrated tuffs of Punch Bowl, Dimnond I-Iead, and other localities. 

I-Iitchcock 5 has given valuable data concerning the general character of many of these recent 

centers of eruption near I-Ionolulu, under the heading "Secondary craters," but without petrographic detenninations. Although the Hitchcock collection contains many specimens of tuff 

and fragments, most of them are m.uc4 altered or otherwise unsuited to be taken as representative of the cones from which they came. The petrographic nature of the eruptions from a given 

center can be·satisfactorily determ~ed only by careful field studies made by a petrographer. 

The occurrence of the peculiar ''black ash," a volcanic sand of notable homogeneity forming 

a deposit over a large area about IIonolulu, has been examined by Hitchcock 6 with much care. 

I-Iis conclusion is that it originated in Punch Bowl, Tantalus, and a third ·crater. Lyons's 

analysis of the ash 7 bears so close a resmnblance to that of the nephelite-melilite basalt of the 

l\1oiliili quarry that I have included it in the collection of igneous-rock analyses (No. 37, p. 48), 

believing that it _represents a particular magma. It seems possible that this ash and the Moiliili 

fiow of basalt came from the same center, or at least that they are contemporaneous eruptions. 

It is noteworthy that these two rocks contain much n1ore potash than the other basic 

rocks of the islands, and it is reported by chenl.ists of the agricultural experiment station near 

1 Hitchcock, C. H., Gcol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 11, p. 37, 1900. 

2 Ncucs Jahrb., Bcilage Band 15, p, 83, 1902. 

Bldcm, p. 85. 

4 Am. Jom. Sci., 4th se1·., vol. 2, p, 427, 1896. 

~ Op. cit., pp. 36-52. 

o Idem, p. 49. 

1 Op. cit., p. 424. 
24 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Honolulu that much of the volcanic ash in the lowlands of Oahu is rich in potash. In fact, a 

Honolulu newspaper quotes E. V. Wilcox, of the experiment station laboratory, as saying that 

some ashes analyzed have 7 per cent of potash. 

From a petrographer's standpoint it would be singular to find an ash anywhere in Hawaii 

which is richer in potash than in soda. But the rocks just mentioned show such unusual richness 

in potash that the possibility of still richer ones ·must be acknowledged. If highly potassic 

tuffs or ash beds occur in the islands it is to be hoped that their petrographic relations may be 

determined and their source established. 

ISLAND OF MOLOKAI. 

ROCKS DESCRIBED BY MOHLE. 

The principal contribution to the petrography of Molokai is the description by F. Mohle 1 

of about· 50 specimens of massive rock collected by Schauinsland. These specimens are said 

by Mohle to come from points scattered all over the island, but he gives details of locality for 

only a few of them. A large part of the material came from the Pali, a cliff facing the leper 

settlement on the north coast, and represents lavas of the great eastern volcanic center, which 

Dana2 regarded as having heen divided by a fault running near the north coast, the Pali being 

considered as practically a fault scarp. 

The lavas of Molokai are said by Mohle to be of typical basaltic character, consisting of 

plagioclase, augite, olivine,· and magnetite, but there is much variation in the quantitative 

relations of these constituents and he accordingly distinguishes three groups, which are connected by intermediate rocks. First and most abundant are types characterized as normal 

olivine-bearing basalts, with the qualification that the olivine content is not high; second come 

rocks in which olivine is rare or, in six specimens, entirely lacking; third, and contrasting with 

the second group, there are rocks in ~hich olivine is abundant and augite rare or lacking. 

The so-called normal basalts are generally porphyritic, with tabular phenocrysts of labradorite and prisms of augite or rhombic pyroxeJ.?.e, the latter in two rocks only. Olivine appears 

to be decidedly subordinate for a normal basalt, and in his conclusion that these rocks are 

basalts rather than andesites J\1ohle seems to be. influenced mainly by the silica contents, which 

he found in three lavas to be 48.21, 46.47, and 45.11 per cent. 

The augite-free basalts are said to have an abundant colorless glass base, and biotite occurs 

in one of them. They are co~pared to lavas from Hawaii described by Cohen, to which reference will be made. 

An aphanitic aphyric rock from Kalae is called "N ephelinbasanitoid" by Mohle. Besides 

predominant feldspar, augite, olivine, and magnetite, there are a few crystals of nephelite in 

thi-s rock. Tests with hydrochloric acid are thought to have confirmed the optical identification of nephelite. The locality called Kalae is said to be in the interior of the island, at about 

500 meters above the se,a. I have not been able to find the name on any map of J\1olokai. 

The rocks of this island app,ear -to deserve much more detailed description than is given 

them by Mohle, and chemical investigation is specially to be desired. It seems probable that 

many of the lavas are nearer to trachydolerite or pyr:oxene andesite than to typical olivineplagioclase basalt. 

ROCKS DESCRIBED BY LINDGREN. 

In his paper on the water resources of Molokai Lindgren gives but little space to the 

petrography. He refers to the lavas observed 3 as chiefly "normal feldspar basalt, somewhat 

glassy, and with olivine, occasionally also containing phenocrysts of soda-lime feldspars." 

We are indebted to Lindgren for the very interesting discovery of coarsely granular "olivine 

diabase" in the west fork of W ailau Gulch, which penetrates to the heart of the mountains 

of eastern Molokai. The bed of the west fork contains many bowlders of this rock, which are 

thought by Lindgren .to come from a large crosscutting body near the head of the gulch. The 

1 Neues Jahrb., Beilage Band 15, pp. 71-82, 1902. aU. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 77, p. 14, 1903. 

2 Characteristics of volcanoes, p. 291, New York, 18::10. 

.. 
;..: 

I' 

PETROGRAPHY. 25 

diabase was not found in place and is not present in the east fork of the gulch. As described 

by Lindgren, 1 this interesting rock is composed of very calcic plagioclase, near anorthite, with 

augite, magnetite, and olivine, the last named being in much smaller quantity than the augite. 

By comparison of Lindgren's specin1ens with the sodic gabbro of Kauai they are seen to be 

very similar, even to the violet color of the augite. 

ISLANl> OF MAUl. 

Maui., the naxt to the yo~ngest island of the Hawaiian group, embraces about 728 square 

miles. It is a volcanic doublet, like Oahu, and the. two mountainous parts, which are of unequal 

size, are known as West and East Maui. The older of these is West ~1aui, a huge volcanic pile 

some 25 nriles north and south by half as much east and west. The highest central point is 

Puu 1\::ukui, which has an elevation of 5,788 feet, according to the old Government map. From 

the vicinity of this peak valleys and ridges radiate. The deepest canyons are on the east and 

north sides. 

Although in the main West Maui is appaJ\ently a great volcano long dead and deeply 

dissected by erosion, there are, as in Kauai and Oahu, numerous small comparatively modern 

lava and tuff cones or craters distributed over the scarred flanks of the old giant, from sea 

level nearly to the summit. Lava flows from some of these recent vents no doubt cover portions 

of the slopes in practical conformity with much older flows. 

East Maui has for its central feature the great volcano of Haleakala, the irregular crater of 

which has often been described This enormous volcanic pile has also been deeply scored on 

the windward side, but many canyons appear to have been filled up, wholly or in part, by lava 

floods from recent vents not yet clearly identified. Still later than these flows there are, as on 

West Maui, many cinder and lava cones of so recent formation that their slopes have been 

little modified by denudation. 

West Maui. 

So far as I am aware, no specimens definitely representing the old central complex of 

West ~1aui have ever been described by a petrographer. I examined with some care the 

bowlders occmTing in the stream heds of the lao and W aihee valleys at the road crossings of 

these rivers near Wailuku, on the east coast. The heads of these valleys are tren1endous 

crater-like gorges cut deep into the core of the volcano under Puu Kukui and may be supposed 

to reveal the character of the deeper parts of complex more extensively than the other shallower valleys. 

BOWLDERS OF W AIHEE VALLEY. 

Dark :fi_ne-grained or aphanitic rocks predominate in the Waihee Valley, but there are few 

of distinct olivine-plagioclase basalt. Some bowlders exhibit olivine and augite phenocrysts 

and less abundant plagioclase. 

An10ng the types collected is a porphyritic olivine-plagioclase basalt, which is less basic 

than the norn1al. It is a dull pinkish-gray rock with many small phenocrysts of labradorite 

(2 to 3 nrillin1eters) and a few of olivine, embedded in a dominant aphanitic groundmass. The 

holocrystalline groundmas~ consists chiefly of andesine microlites, augite, olivine, and magnetite. The last three average about 0.1 millimeter in diameter. Orthoclase and possibly nephelite are present in subordinate amount. The rock differs from the basalts of Oahu in that 

labradorite rather than olivine is its dominant phenocryst and it contains a larger amount of 

alkali feldspar. 

Another notable type among the W aihee bowlders is a dark-gray perpatic olivine aphanophyre. Some of the olivine phenocrysts are aggregates of several grains. The groundmass 

is holocrystalline and consists· of augite, olivine, oligoclase or andesine mim;olites, and magnetite, with orthoclase and nephelite in small amount. · The augite, olivine, and magnetite average 

about 0.01 millimeter in diameter, but the rock is so fresh that each grain is clearly defined. 

1 Op. cit., p. 15. 
26 LAVAS OF· HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

A third type is a black, perpatic.labradorite aphanophyre, the phenocrysts of feldspar 

ranging from minute specks to crystals having a diameter of 3 millimeters. . The groundmass 

is holo.crystalline but extremely fine, equigranular, and made up of augite, olivine (~),magnetite, 

and a colorless mineral, all averaging about o:o1 millimeter in diameter. The colorless mineral 

is apparently alkali feldspar, or perhaps in part nephelite. 

BOWLDERS OF IAO VALLEY 

The rocks noted in lao Valley resemble those of the. V\T aihee, the dark labradorite aphanophyre being common. Of. particular interest is a millimeter-grained, ~quigranular olivine 

diabase of ophitic fabric and very simple composition. Olivine is much subordinate to both 

augite and labradorite in this rock. No orthoclase or quartz appear in the thin section. As 

lao Valley heads directly under Puu Kukui this granular rock may belong to a core mass in 

the heart of the volcano. 

ROCKS DESCRIBED BY MOHLE. 

Nearly all the rocks of the Schauinsland collection from :Maui 1 were o btaJ.ned near Lahaina, 

on the west coast. Among them is a type called augite andesite by l\1ohle, which he considers 

to be probably the same as the highly feldspathic rock described by Dana-the rock here 

described as soda trachyte. · A silica determination yielded 61.48 per cent, agreeing closely with 

the 61.63 per cent reported by Dana. Mohle adds that orthoclase is present in several large 

grains, the determination resting on the parallel extinction and lack of twinning. The texture 

is described as panidiomorphic trachytoid. Besides the predominant feldspars Mohle mentions 

only magnetite and a prismatic mineral of wine-yellow color, thought to be augite. No biotite, 

hornblende, or olivine were found. 

Melilite-nephelite basalt was identified by 1\fohle in one specimen obtained near Lahaina. 

'It is a gray porphyritic rock, in which many of the olivine phenocrysts are large i:nterpenetration 

twins. Melilite is partly developed in phenocrysts. The groundmass of melilite, nephelite, 

augite, and magnetite is rather coarsely granular. Perofskite is absent. The rock is said to 

resemble the melilite basalt of the Schauinsland collection from the Vicinity of Honolulu, Oahu. 

Normal plagioclase basalt is, according to Mohle, the term best describing the other rocks 

collected near Lahaina, 20 in number. His description however, shows that olivine is not 

ab1:1ndant in most of them, though a few are rich in that mineral. It seems q~te possible 

that magmas of considerable range of normative con1position are represented in this group of 

so-called normal basalts. 

A gray fine-grained basalt from Wailuku is said by Mohle to have but little olivine. This 

must also belong to the lavas of West l\1aui. 

SODA TRACHYTE NEAR LAHAINA. 

Occurrence and character.-E. S. Dana 2 described a rock of unusual character collected by 

the late S. E. Bishop from Launiupoko Hill and Mount Ball, near Lahaina. Dana quotes 

·statements of Bishop concerning the occurrences of this rock to the effect that it seems to be a 

crumpled lava, whose fragments have disintegrated in part under the influence of weathering, 

leaving harder crustlike portions which in places assume grotesque forms. Launiupoko Hill 

is a cone shown on the map of West Maui as about 3 miles southeast of Lahaina. "Mount 

Ball,".said to be "2! miles above Lahaina," does not appear under that name on the map. It 

·may be the hill called Paupau, on the slope east of Lahaina. 

The remarkable character of this rock was duly recognized by Dana and he plan:ned further 

investigation of.its occurrence and composition, which has, unfortunately, not proved feasible. 

Material from both of these occurrences has been given to me by Prof. Dana, for examination 

and c01nparison with the trachyte of Puu W aawaa. The rock of Mount Ball is a schistose, 

1 Mohle, F., Nenes Jahrb., Beilage Band 15, pp. 67-il, 1902. 2 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, pp. 464-466, 1889. 

,-""'. 
•• 

PETROGRAPHY. 27 

friable 1nass, easily crmnbling between the fingers, and 1nade up chiefly of silvery scalelike 

crystals of oligoclase. Dana described them as interpenetration twins on the Carlsbad law, 

.mostly a.rranged parallel to the brachypinacold and hence showing no other kind of twinning. * * * The extinction 

[on 010] makes an angle of a few degrees with the basal edge, varying + or - with a slight change in the direction 

of the section. This optical character and the further fact that the acute bisec~ is nearly normal to the brachypinacoid would make the feldspar an oligoclase. 

Besides the oligoclase there ·is a little olivine in fragments of crystals and a little brown 

biotite. 1'he silica of this rock was determined by Wheeler at 61.'63 per cent. 

The specimen from Launiupoko Hill is a gray compact-appearing rock containing many 

minute pores. It is not foliate like the· rock of Mount Ball, but has, as seen under the microscope, a typical microlitic trachytic fabric with little tendency to a development of scales or 

flal\;es. The microlites are on the average 0.3 nlillimeter long and 0.02 millimeter wide. The 

fabric of this rock is illus.trated by Plate III, A (p. 22). The maximum refracti~e index of the 

1:nicrolites is about that of Canada balsam. Between the microlites is irregular anhedral 

alkali feldspar. with notably lower index. 

The 1nafic constituents, which seem fairly prominent in the rock, as seen in thin sections, 

consist of nlinute irregular black sp'ecks and larger prismatic or irregular grains of brown or 

green color. The opaque specks, of dull metallic luster by reflected light, can not be magnetite, 

as the analysis shows only 0.07 per cent of FeO. They do not exhibit the brilliant luster nor 

red ·color of hematite, and their character has not been determined. 

The brown constituent is cloudy and appears to be partly limonitic, but part of it has 

homogeneous optical behnvior and extinguishes nearly parallel to the apparent vertical axis. 

At the ends of these crystals project small green prisn1s of the same orientation, and a larger 

growth of the green mineral is common in the prismatic zone. Isolated green particles also 

occur. The larger the crystal the deeper the green color, and all optical behavior indicates 

regirite as the gree:n nlineral, wllile .it is believed th~t the brown is acmite. If the analysis is 

correct these n.1afic elCinents are rich in Fe20 3, with Ti02 and MnO probably more abundant than 

FeO. The fenlic 1nolecules of the norm amount to but 7.50 per cent. 

Among the analogues of this trachyte of which analyses are given in Division I of the 

table (pp. 63-64) is a trachyte of Sardinia, of which Dr. Washington has kindly given me perlnission to publish his analysis in advance of his description of the rock. It is noteworthy that 

in that trachyte brown and green minerals occur, which are probably of the same character as 

those in the rock of :Maui. In the Sardinian trachyte the Fe20 3 is also greatly in excess over FeO. 

Chemical composition.-Therock of Launiupoko Hill (Dana's No. 28) has the following composition, according to analysis by George Steiger. Its molecular ratios and norn1 are also given. 

Analysis and norm of rock of Launiupoko Hill. 

. Analysis. 

Si02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Al 20 3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

:Fe20 3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

li'eO ................................ . 

MgO ................................. . 

CaO ................................. . 

Na20 ................................ . 

1(20 ................................ . 

H20-............................... . 

1120+ .............................. . 

'fi02 ........................... : ... . 

Zr02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

002 ................................ . 

P2011 ... ····························· s ................................... . ~1:n0 ............................... . 

:I3a0 ............................... . 

SrO .. ·············.·················· 

1 

61.69 

17.33 

5.30 

. 07 

.16 

1. 05 

7.47 

3.47 

. 42 

1. 93 

. 67 

.16 

None. 

. 05 

. 02 

. 21 

. 07 

. 03 

100.10 

Mol. Norm. 

1, 028 Zircon ......................................... . 

170 Quartz ......................................... . 

33 Orthoclase .................................... . 

1 Albite ......................................... . 

4 Anorthite ..................................... . 

19 Diopside ...................................... . 

120 Enstatite ..................................... . 

37 Hematite ..................................... . 

9 

1 

3 

1 

Ihnenite ...................................... . 

Titanite ...................................... . 

Rest ... : ...................................... . 

0.24 

2.88 

20.57 

62.88 

3.61 

. 43 

. 20 

5.28 

. 61 

. 98 

97.68 

2.44 

100. 12 
28 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

As analysis and norm indicate, this rock is a soda trachyte standing in composition very 

near the rock of Puu Waawaa, on Hawaii (p. 35), and, as Division I of the table (pp.63-64) 

shows, its nearest analogues in chemical character are a tinguaite of Essex County, Mass., two 

acmite trachytes of the Crazy Mountains, Mont., a trachyte of Westerwald, in Hesse-Nassau, 

and the trachyte from Sardinia referred to above. 

Quantitative classification-The position of the trachyte in the quantitative system is 

shown by the following data: · 

01 Sal 90.12 2 021 1 1

· ass: Fern= 7_

50=1. =,persaane. 

. Q 2.88 

Order: F=s7.

06=0.03=5, canadare. 

R . K 20 1+Na20 1 _157 _ _ 1 d k 

ang. Ca01 -13-12.08-1 , nor mar ase . 

Symbol: 1'.5.1'.4. 

. K201 _ 37 _ _ Subrang. Na01 - 120-0.31 -4, nordmarkose. 

Its intermediate position in regard to class and rang shows a near relationship to umptekose 

in Class II and to laurvikose in rang pulaskase of Class I. 

East Maui. 

The great volcano of Haleakala, East Maui, has long been celebrated, especially for· its 

wonderful summit crater, but the only important earlier petrographic description of its lavas 

is embraced· in the publication by E. S. Dana 1 already cited. The specimens described by him 

were collected by J.D. Dana 0) and nearly all came from the central crater or near it. As my 

own collection contains all the earlier recognized types and is probably from the same or adj acent localities, the description may profitably consider all the material together. 

To begin with, it seems probable that only comparatively recent lavas of this center are 

represented in the collections made. The deeper canyons not occupied by recent flows may 

exhibit much older lavas than any to be mentioned, and of different types. The basis for this 

view is presented in another place (p. 92). 

The crater of Haleakala, the west rim of which has an altitude of 9,000 to 10,000 feet, is 

approached by trails only from the south, through the Kaupo Gap, or from the north, by a long, 

gentle ascent to the western rim and a descent into the crater at its southwestern extremity. 

My route led through the Kaupo Gap, along the full east-west length of the crater and down by 

the trail on the northern slope. The rocks collected by me represent the flow descending from 

the Kaupo Gap to the sea, several recent eruptions within the crater, and the rim rock on the 

west. None came from the walls of the crater. There are but two general varieties among 

these rocks. 

PICRITIC BASALT. 

Occurrence.-A black vesicular basalt whose abundant and prominent phenocrysta of 

augite and olivine led the elder Dana to characterize it as '' augitophyric and chrysophyric" 

covers much of the surface sloping away from the western rim of the crater, but I do not know 

how far it extends down the slope. Several observers have spoken of the well-formed augite 

crystals which have weathered out of this rock and strew the ground in son1e places along the 

trail. 

Much vesicular basalt closely resembling the rock just described is also found on the floor 

of the crater, according to J. D. Dana. I saw some such lava and collected a specimen of it 

from the north base of the cone called Namaunakeakua, beside the trail about 2 miles from tho 

western extremity of the crater. 

Description.-The dark rock is of prominent porphyritic fabric, its well-formed, fresh augite 

and olivine phenocrysts, many of which exceed 0.5 millimeter in diameter, lying in a sharply 

defined groundmass of approximately equal amount-that is, the rock is sempatic. The augite 

often exhibits a pale violet outer zone and is full of ferritic devitrified inclusions. The olivines 

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, pp 441-467, 1889. 

. ... 

< 

... 
PETROGRAPHY. 29 

are unusually fresh, seldom being even stained th1·ough alteration. There are many roundish 

sn1ooth-walled pores or vesicles. 

The groundtnass is :fine grained, nearly holocrystalline, and consists of an obscure mixture 

of augite and 1nagnetite with inconspicuous labradorite microlites and a few minute grains of 

nephelite. The feldspar is considerably less than the amount indicated by the norm calculated 

:frmn the analysis·, so that presumably the augite is rather highly aluminous. 

O"hemical com1Josition.-This basalt from Haleakala has been analyzed by George Steiger 

with the result given below. The norm is also stated with the analysis. 

Analysis and norm of picritic basalt from Haleakala. 

Analysis. 

Si02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Al 20 3 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

}'i'o:J03 •••••••••••••••••.••••.•••••.••••• 

FoO ................................. . 

}.1g0 ............... ···················· 

CaO .................................. . 

Na20 ................................. . 

1{20 ...... · ........................... . 

If20-............................... . 

11:30+ ............................... . 

~ri0 2 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Zr02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

002···································· 

P205·············· .................... , Cr20 3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

NiO .................................. . 

MnO ................................. . 

BaO .................................. . 

SrO ................................... . 

39 

42. 99 

10. 21 

3.01 

10.28 

14. 61 

12. 54 

1. 40 

. 52 

. 82 

1. 10 

2. 52 

None. 

None. 

. 29 

. 06 

. 06 

. 17 

None. 

None. 

100. 58 

Mol. Norm. 

716. 5 Orthoclase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 78 

100 Albite................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 29 

19 Auorthi to. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20. 02 

143 N epheli to.. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 3. 12 

365 Diopside ........................................ 32.28 

224 Olivine ......................................... 24. 23 

23 Magn ~tite ................................ ·.·..... 4. 41 

5 limo 1ito......................................... 4. 71 

31 

2 

1 

2 

Apa;L.ite ................. : .................... :.. . 67 

98. 51 

Rest........................................... . 98 

100.49 

Qualitative classijication.-This basalt is to be compared with the "ultrafemic basalt" of 

:Mauna Loa, the porphyritic gabbro of Kilauea, and the chrysophyre of Puna, on Hawaii, to 

be described later, but the Haleakala :rock is relatively so much richer in lime that it approaches 

the tnelilite-bearing rocks in composition. The silica, however, is so high that akermanite does 

not appear in the norm. 

In Division XIII of the table on page 76 it is shown that one of the analyzed gabbros of 

Hosswein, in Saxony, a trachydolerite of the Hhongebi;rge, and an essexitic gabbro of Tahiti 

aro near analogues of this basalt. Rocks closely corresponding to the basalt from Haleakala 

in coin]:>Osition seem to be :rare. With the related lavas of Hawaii it may be appropriately 

called picritic basalt to indicate its intermediate position between plagioclase basalts and 

peridotitic basalts, especially in magnesian minerals. 

Quctntitative classijication.-The following data show the relations of this :rock in the 

quantitative system: 

Class: ~~~~!1 =~~:~~=0.486='IV, dofe:mane. 

P+O 56.51 Order: ~= 9_

12=6.2=(1)2, scota,re. 

S . p 32.28 1 33 '3 . ectton: o=z4.23= . = 'texiare . Symbol: 'IV.(1)2.,3_2.2. 

. (l\fg.Fe)O _511 Rang. CaO" - 152=3.36=2, uvaldase. 

MgO 365 Subrang: Ji'o0-=146=2.5=2, uvaldose. 

As to order, the rock is transitional between scotare and hungarare. In the latter, pe:rpolic 

Qrder, :rossweinose corre13ponds to uvaldose, and rossweinose-uvaldose expres~es the classification 

more accurately than a single tern1. 
30 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

ESSEXITIC ANDESITE OR TRACHYANDESITE. 

General character and occurrence.-The other rocks from Haleakala described by Dana, as 

well as those collected by me, appear to form a group of contemporaneous lavas of closely allied 

types, the general nature of which may be indicated by the term essexitic andesite or trachyandesite. They are predominantly soda-rich plagioclastic lavas with some orthoclase and 

nephelite and earry olivine with other mafic silicates. ·They might have been termed trachydolerite by Rosenbusch. 

The most felsic rock of this group occurs as the principal type of the coarse breccia of 

White Hill (elevation, 9,870 feet), situated in the extreme southwestern angle of the crater of 

Haleakala. It is a dull-gray, finely banded aphyric aphanite. The banding is in general 

plane-parallel but wavy in detail and is. clearly fluidal. Fracture surfaces nearly parallel to 

the banding exhibit a slight satiny sheen. The rock is nea;rly massive, but a few minute pores 

can be seen with a lens. 

This rock apparently forms much of the debris of the western part of the crater, produced 

by explosive eruptions from several centers marked by tuff cones of gray color. It seems almost 

certain that J.D. Dana 1 refers to White Hill in speaking of" a cone near the place of descent" 

from the western rim, which is made up of "gray, compact, scarcely vesiculated rock." Probably also the "dark bluish-gray rock of uniform texture" described by E. S. Dana 2 (No. 39) 

came f;rom White Hill or some adjacent cone. E. S. Dana noted the forked olivines and flakes 

of biotite. 

J. D. Dana 3 states that "the lava of the walls [of Haleakala] is in part scoriaceous; but on 

the south and southwest sides it was commonly a very compact, rather light gray variety of 

basalt, like that of the projected blocks about some of the cones." He further states that 

"Pendulum Peak, near the summit, just north of the southwest corner of the crater * * * 

consists largely of this compact light-gray basalt, with rarely any vesiculation visible without 

the aid of a pocket lens." But it is plainly unwarranted to assume too positively the identity 

of other massive rocks with that of White Hill, in the absence of microscopical examination. 

A dark-gray aphanitic rock of ·few small phenocrysts, poor in olivine; occurring at the 

summit ("von der Spitze") of Haleakala, is the only specimen from East :Maui in the Schauinsland collection, described briefly by Mohle. 4 

The northern inne:r slopes of the great crater are dotted by many tuff cones, and here and 

there dikes or small plugs are notable. At one of these cones northwest of Oili ·Puu, in which 

tho so-called "Crystal Cave" is situated, the breccia is largely made up of gray.aphyric aphanite 

similar to tho rock of Whi to Hill. 

North of Oili Puu, near a small spring of much importance to tl'avelers dosiring to camp 

in the crater, is a dike of banded aphyric aphanite. This rock is also much like that of White 

Hill but seems slightly more basic. It contains microphenocrysts of olivine and magnetite, 

the largest seen being about 0.5 millimeter in diameter, while the grains of augite, olivine, and 

m·agnetite in the holocrystalline groundmass average about 0.02 to 0.03 millimeter. 

The lavas that form the floor of the eastern part of the crater and extend out through the 

Kaupo Gap to the sea are darker than the varieties described but have neatly the san1e character.· 

They are believed to be fairly represented by two specimens obtained fr01n a ravine west of 

Vieira's ranch house, situated at about 1,000 feet above the sea near the point called Pukalale, 

on the trail to the Kaupo Gap. 

Rocks analyzed.-The gray aphyric rock of White Hill and the darker, n1ore basaltic type 

of Vieira's ranch see1n to :represent about the extremes of these rather alkalic rocks of I-Ialeakala, 

and they were accordingly chosen for chemical analysis. These two rocks will be described in 

some detail. 

The rock of White Hill (No. 4) is almost as con1pletely aphyric in its n1icroscopical as in 

its megascopical texture, prominent crystals belonging to an early generation of apatite and 

n1agnetite being the largest components.· The microphenocrysts of magnetite measure about 

1 Characteristics of volcanoes, p. 275, New York, 1890. 

2 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, p. 463, 1889. 

a Op. cit., p. 276. 

• Neues Jahrb., Beilage Band 15, p. 68, 1902. 
' 

PETROGRAPHY. 31 

0.3 .1nillin1eter in diatneter. The rock is holocrystalline and consists of dominant felsic. minerals, 

with augite, magnetite, olivine, and apatite, named in the order of abundance. Of the felsic 

1ninerals the chief is oligoclase-andesine in lath-shaped microlites and tablets n1aking nearly 

half the rock. Orthoclase is determinable i~ irregular tablets or interstitial particles but not 

:in the mnount contained in the norm (given below). Nephelite, too, is found in minute grains, 

nu~eh less :in atnount than is shown by the norn1. Augite and olivine occur in minute prismoid, 

the augite having rounded ends and the olivine irregular or forked tern1ination. This habit of 

olivine :is very different frmn that observed in the basalts. A few flakes of brown biotite were 

noted. Apatite occurs in phenocrysts rendered dark by inclusion~, and more abundantly in 

colorless needles. Magnetite is developed principally as a fine dust, of the second generation. 

There is ahnost no trace of alteration. of the n1inerals na1ned, even the olivine being for the most 

part unstained. 

. The rock exposed in a ravine west of Vieira's ranch house (No. 6) is vesicular in places, 

but nn1eh of :it is dark and aphanitic, either aphyric or aphanophyric by virtue of small andesine 

phenocrysts with which olivine is in SQllle places associated. The megascopically aphyric 

rock is 1n:icrocrystalline and 1nicroporphyritic through phenocryst$ of andesine (1 nrillimeter) 

and 1nag.netite (0.6 n1illimeter). Augite and olivine are smnewhat more abundant than in the 

type fil·st described. ~..,luiclal texture is expressed by the arrangement of oligoclase-andesine 

nncl augite 1nicrolites. A study of the groundmass ,\rith a high power reveals two colorless 

1ninerals, .1nainly in anhedral grains, forn1ing the matrix for the better-formed microlites. One 

of these, of very faint birefringence, has about the same index as Canada balsam and occ\}rs 

rarely :in rectangular forn1s. This is regarded as nephelite. The other mineral has stronger 

birefringence but a distinctly lower index than balsam and is considered to be orthoclase or 

son1e alkali feldspar. A few irregular particles of clear glass have.been noted. Orthoclase and 

nephelite evidently make up a far greater proportion of this rock than superficial examination 

would suggest, but not so large a part as the nonn calculated from chemical analyses indicates. 

'.L'he black rock of the ICaupo 'Gap has the habit of the many aphanitic basalts of Kilauea and 

other centers, but the analysis to be given shows that the microscopical resemblance to the rock 

of White I-Iill, which is emphasized by intermediate types, is a true expression of its character. 

It :is an olivine-bearing augite andesite, ~elated to the essexitic lavas, though not so closely as 

the rock of White I-Iill. · 

Chemical comJJosition.-The chemical character brought out by the accomp-anying analyses 

and nor1ns shows the rocks to be fm~ different from basalts. 

~~l.:_::: ~~::::::::: ~~~~3. ·. ~ .·. ·. ·. ~ ~ : : ·: : ~ : : ~ : : ~~6~: : : ~ ·. · ... · .· .· ~ : : : : : : : 

:EJ:20+ ............... . 

~£8:~ ·: ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : p~~~ .................. . :Mnv .................. . :BaO .................. . SrO ................... . Inclusive ............. . 

A·nalyses and norms of e8sexitic andesites from, Haleakala. 

Analyses. 

4!).55 

:l7.78 

4.65 

5.89 

2.49 

7.01 

6. 12 

2.29 

. 34 

. 29 

2.09 

None. 

1.10 

.. 28 

. 05} 

• OS 

. 05 

lOO.OG 

Mol. 

826 

174 

29 

82 

62 

125 

98 

24 

26 

8 

4 

1 

6 

51.26 

16. 74 

2.92 

7.11 

2.80 

6.(31 

5.86 

2.25 

. 42 

. 26 

2.57 

Trace. . 81 

. 23 

.10 

. 09 

100.03 

Norms. 

Mol. 

854 Orthoclase ........................... 164 Albite .............................. 18 Anorthite ............................ 99 Nephelite .......................... 70 Diopside ............................. 118 Olivine .............................. 95 :Magnetite .................... , ....... 23. Ilmenite ............................ Apatite .............................. 

32 

Rest . .................................................. 6 

3 

1 

1 

6 

13. 34 12. 79 

34. 58 38.25 

15.01. 12.79 

9.09 6.25 

10.42 12.40 

3.80 5. 69 

6. 73 4. 18 

3.95 4.86 

2.69 2.02 

99.61 99.23 . 68 .68 

100.29 99.91' 
32 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

4. White Hill (9,870 feet) in southwest angle, crater of Haleakala. Contains also Zr02 0.01, FeS2 0.03, V20 3 0.15, 

no Li.!O, NiO, or Cr20 3 • Analyst, W. F. Hillebrand. 

6. Ravine west of Vieira ranch, south of Kaupo Gap, Haleakala. Analyst, George Steiger. 

Quantitative classijication.-The classification of rock No. 4 by the quantitative systen1 is 

indicated by the following ratios: 

Cl Sal 72.02 ? 61 II d l ass: Fem=27 .

59 - ..... = , osa ane. 

-L 9.09 Order: F=62.

93 =0.144=(5) 6, norgare. Symbol: rr(5)6.2.4. 

R K20'+Na20' 24+98 ? ang: CaO' 2 53 ..... 3= , essexase. 

K20' 24 · Subrang: Na2

o,=9S=0.24=4, essexose. 

· The amount of nephelite is barely sufficient to place the rock in the lendofelic order and its 

true position is expressed by the compound term akerdse-essexose, akerose being the corresponding subrang of the perfelic 'order germanare. · 

The ratios for rock No. 6 are as follows: 

Sal 70.08 

Class: Fern = 29 .

15=2.4=II, dosal~ne. 

Order: ~= 3~ =0.098=5 , germanare. 

K20'+Na20' 118 Rang: CaO' 46 2.56=2, monzonase. 

Symbol: II.5' .2.4. 

S b K20' 23 k u rang: Na2

o 1=gg=0.24=4, a erose. 

I-Iere the nephelite is less than in No. 4 and the rock falls in the perfelic order but is intermediate toward norgare. 

ISLAND OF HAWAII. 

CENTERS OF ERUPTION. 

The island of I-Iawaii, t~e largest and most recent of the group, has, because of its active 

volcanoes, Mauna Loa and l{ilauea, received much more attention than the others. Besides 

the two volcanoes mentioned there are three others that have taken part in building up the 

island. The oldest of these is represented by the Kohala :Mountains, forming the northern 

peninsula of the island, a district about 21 miles long from northwest to southeast and 13 miles 

wide. Its highest point has an elevation of 5,489 feet above the sea. Little has been published 

concerning the lavas of this region beyond the fact that they appear to belong to the basalt 

family, with a tendency toward the andesites. 

The central-western zone of the island contains Mount Hualalai, a volcanic cone rising to 

an elevation of. 8,273 feet with a basal diameter of nearly 20 miles, but dwarfed by comparison 

with its gigantic neighbors, :Mauna Kea and :Mauna Loa, the lavas of which surround it on three 

sides. 

The various lavas of the island will be considered in groups corresponding to the several 

centers of eru'ption. 

KOHAI .. A MOUNTAINS. 

An1ong the specin1ens from Hawaii described by E. Cohen 1 in 1880, were several from the 

Kohala Mountains, no detail of locality being given. The rocks mentioned by Cohen as occurring in the ICohala district embrace normal plagioclase basalts rich in olivine and others which 

he characterizes as forming a transition to the augite andesites. He does not state how many 

specimens from Kohala he exan1ined. 

1 Neues Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, pp. 23-62. 
.. PETROGRAPHY • 33 

Of the normal basalts one Kohala rock is specifiecl 1 as. containing olivine in its grounclmass 

in addition to its occurrence as phenocr.vsts: The transitional rocks are described as compact 

or vesicular, gray in color, and connected with basalt by the-constant presence of scanty olivine, 

and with augite andesite by the abundant basis ·and "'above all by the scarcity of augite, which 

is in some rocks not clearly present. Plagioclas·e is much more abundant than augite in all the 

rocks. 2 That such rocks are not normal basalt~ may, be .. granted, but the argument that the 

scarcity of augite shows relation to augite andesite is hardly convincing. · 

Dana and I:Iitchcock in their· works · ~:m_~!fawaiia~olcanoe( mention the-< Kohala region 

only with referen~e to its relative age and ·topography._\. Dutton makes a gel?-eral statement 

concerning the rocks which, although based on, megascopic: examination alone, seems worthy 

of citation, for it indicates a gene'i·al character for these lavas quite different fron1 that of the 

other centers. Dutton remarks of the ICohala volcano: 3 

Like all the other volcanoes of these islands its lavas belong to the basaltic group. Still they have peculiarities 

which serve to distinguish them from those of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa. They appear less ferruginous and much more 

feldspathic. Olivine does not form, as a rule, so important a part of the mineral contents of the lavas, though in some 

of them it is fairly abundant. The group taken as a whole shows a tendency to approach the andesites. Extreme 

cases may be found in which it is difficult, apart from the general relations, to say whether they should be classed among 

the augitic andesites or among the normal basalts. Those intensely black, dense, and highly ferruginous lavas which 

are universal on Mauna Loa and Kilauea do not occur on the Kohala Mountain, so far as I have discoverecl. 4 

There is no statement in Dutton's report as to the extent of his observations in the Kohala 

:Mountains, but one may infer from the text that he saw only the southern portion. 

The rmnark by Dutton that the lavas of Kohala J\1:ountains are more feldspathic thannonnal 

basalts and approach the andesites is confirmed by Lyons in a substantial way through his 

chemical analyses of two lavas. One of these (No. 3 of the rocks analyzed) Lyons 4 describes 

as follows: ''It is a bluish-gray, compact, minutely crystalline lava, containing much feldspar · 

and very little chrysolite, and is the prevailing rock in the Kohala J\1:ountain, at least in the 

Waimea neighborhood." This type is in fact far from normal basalt in composition, as shown 

by the analysis quoted in the chemical discuseion. The rock is a dosalane and falls in the subrang akerose of the quan_titative system. Its norm contains 3.6 per cent of quartz and 82 per 

cent of feldspar. With the exception of the soda trachytes, it is the most salic known lava of 

the I-Iawaiian group. 

The other rock analyzed by Lyons 5 ''is also a lava from the. Kohala J\1:ountain, * * * a 

somewhat vesicular stony lava of rather light color, porphyritic with white crystals of feldspar." 

The norm of the analysis of this second lava also shows some quartz, which means that the 

1node or actual rock can have little or no olivine. Probably it should be called augite andesite. 

The chemical relations of both rocks will be pointed out in the second part of this paper. 

,J\1:y observations on the rocks of the.Kohala Peninsula are limited to what could be seen 

during a two hours' stop of the steamer at Mahukona, on the west coast. The gentle slopes 

extending from the sea for several miles back to the main axis of the ICohala J\1:ountains appear 

to be made up of long, narrow lava flows from sources far up in the range. This leeward slope 

of the mountains .is not much dissected by erosion. . 

. The lava near Mahukona is probably well represented by specimens I obtained in a railway 

cut near and north of the boat landing. They are from the more massive parts of thin flows, 

vesicular or scoriaceous in their upper and lower zones. The rock is black, aphanitic, and 

almost aphyric, only a few tabular labradorite phenocrysts being visible megascopically. 

Under the microscope it is holocrystalline or nearly so and consists of feldspar, augite, olivine, 

magnetite, and apatite, named in order of abundance. 

The feldspar is labradorite in the phenocrysts and andesine in the abundant microlites of 

the groundmass, with probably a very scanty amount of orthoclase in irregular particles. 

1 Neur..s Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, p. 47. 

2 Idem, pp. 51, 52. 

n u-.S. Geol. Survey :Fomth Ann. H.ept., p. 171, 1884. 

• It ~hould bo noted that Dutton's failure to contribute to the microscopical petrography of Hawaii is due to the loss of his specimens while on 

tho way to Washington. 

o Am. J'our. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 2, p. 425, 18~0. 

48730°-15-3 
34 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

The andesine :rilicrolites of fluidal arrangement are separated by augite and olivine grains or 

prismoids with a tendency to ophitic fabric in some places and with thin wedges of ferritic glass 

in others. · 

Olivine is scarcely more prominent than in the trachydolerites ·of Haleakala, with which 

this rock exhibits close relationship. No nepheline could be detected under the microscope. 

It seems not unlikely that this rock is allied to that fro:rn, "Kohala }.1ountain" analyzed 

by Lyons. It may have more olivine, but it is certainly not a normal olivine-plagioclase basalt 

like ·many of the lavas of Hualalai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. 

MOUNT HUALALAI. 

:Mount Hualalai is in many respects a typical basaltic volcano of the Mauna Kea type. It 

has very gentle slopes and its summit is characterized by a group of tuff cones and pit craters. 

There is no·central or dominant c~ater of the caldera type. The last eruption of the volcan.o, 

which took place .from a vent ori the northwestern slope, in the early part of the last ·century, 

produced ~ava flows extending to these~. It is said that more than 150 cones and pit craters 

may be counted on the slopes of this volcano, making its present condition much like that of 

Mauna Kea'. 

References in literature to the character· of the lavas of Hualalai are scanty. Among the 

rocks described by Cohen 1 in 1880 are some from Hualalai which· he calls normal plagioclase 

basalt with much o"Iivine, while others belong to the transitional group mentioned in discussing 

the rocks of Kohala. 

Dutton speaks of the Hualalai lavas as rich in olivine and highly ferruginous and· says 

that they closely resemble those of Mauna Loa. Daly 2 incidentally refers to the lavas of 

.Hualalai as mainly olivine basalt. 

My observations of Hualalai were made from a· cattle ranch near Puu Waawaa, on the 

northeastern slope, as a base. 'I made o.ne trip to the summit and examined the rocks exposed 

on the Government road crossing the northern slope. 

Basaltic lavas.-The various flows exposed on the Government road from Kailua to Waimea, as it traverses the northern slope of Hualalai at an elevation of 1,800 to 2,200 feet, are 

of typical basaltic appearance .. They a;re black and more or less vesicular, and their surfaces 

in many places . exhibit the superficial characteristics of the aa or pahoehoe flows. Where 

massive or ·finely vesicular they are olivine aphanophyres, the groundmass often being greatly 

in excess of the phenocrysts-that is, they are perpatic. Labradorite is commonly formed in 

a few phenocrysts, and augite mo;re rarely. 

The groundmasses of the rocks ·examined are holocrystalline and consist of plagioclase, 

augite, olivine, and magnetite. The feldspar is labradorite as a rule and it varies in abundance, 

being in some ;rocks much subordinate to augite. and olivine. Magnetite is not· notably 

abundant. 

All other observed surface lavas of the mountain are probably olivine-plagioclase basalts, 

but specimens were not g~nerally taken and microscopical examination is of course necessary 

for positive determination. A flow ·exposed in the w~Us of a pit crater on the north slope 

near the summit is a perpatic aphanophyre containing less plagioclase than is found in the 

flows exposed on the road below. 

Dunite, gabbro, and other granular inclusions in basalt.-Some of the flows crossed by the 

. road on the north slope of Hualalai contain numerous inclusions of granular rocks, which are of 

several kinds. These xenoliths ·are generally not much more than 1 inch in diameter, but a 

few considerably larger onea were seen. They are subangular or rounded, fresh, and of mediuiG 

to fine grain. Their chief constituents can, be re~ognized megascopically. It is plain. that 

olivine, plagioclase, and pyroxene are present in very variable proportions. No fragments of 

lava or of rocks of exogenous origin were observed in association with these xenoliths. 

The origin of the olivine-bearing rocks commonly found in basalts. has been variously 

interpreted, but there seems to be no reason to doubt the genetic relation of these xenoliths to 

1 Neues Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, pp. 49, 51. 2 Jour. Geology, vol. 19, p. 304, 1911. 
PETROGRAPHY. 35 

the basalt. They are no doubt deep-seated differentiation products of the .basaltic magn1as 

formed under unknown conditions, and are common at centers of such basic rocks. Their 

occurrence in the basalt of Hanapepe Canyon, Kauai, has been noted above. "Olivine bombs" 

have been observed by Dana, Lyons, and :Mohle on Oahu, and by Daly, I-Iitchc~wk, and Dutton 

in tuff eruptions of :Mauna ICea. 

The fragments in the ·basalt of I-Iualalai are particularly abundant about 1! miles east of 

McGuire's raiJ.ch on the road, but similar occurrences were noted nearer to Puu W aawaa. The 

varieties collected 1nay be called dunite, wehrlite, and olivine gabbro, though the last includes 

transitional phases to a gabbro with some enstatite and very little olivine. 

Some of the dunite fragments are fresh, pure, typical olive-green rocks with but traces of 

augite. Small amounts of piccotite and magnetite a.re included in the olivine, but magnetite 

and othe;r iron oxide grain~ are otherwise lacking. 

"!''he wehrlite has more diallage ~han labradorite, and olivine ia subordinate. Magnetite is 

lacking and so is apatite. The diallage parting is very pronounced in some augite graina. 

The gabbroic rocks have labradorite or bytownite as theii· nlost abundant constituent, 

with augite (some of it diallagic) and olivine in variable amount. Magnetite grains ar.e plentiful in one piece. No orthoclase, highly soclic plagioclase, hornblende, or biotite has been 

noted. 

Basaltic xenoliths.-On the summit of I-Iualalai there was found a block of common basalt 

containing a :fragment of basalt of unusual texture and some peculiarities of composition. It · 

is a pinkish-gray fine-grained porphyry with many white specks of highly calcic plagioclase, 

determined as bytownite in several crystals. These spots are not single crystals, however, but 

represent aggregates of several g1~ains irregularly intergr·)Wil. The groundmass is holocrystalline and consists of plagioclase, augite, olivine, brown hornblende, biotite, magnetite, and 

apatite. Both the hornblende and the biotite are sparingly developed and in some grains the 

fonner is intergrown with augite. The plagioclase microlites vary in C·)mposit.ion from the 

highly calcic central laminre to· the strongly sodic angular projections between other mineral 

grains. Daly 1 refers to "projected blocks" found on the summit of Hualalai and describes 

one of them as an "ultrafemic gabbro" and two others as· "holocrystalline equivalents of the 

normal olivine basalt of the island." 

Trachyte of Puu Waawaa and .Anahulu.-On the north-northeastern slope of Hualalai is a 

notable cone called Puu W aawaa, the name signifying fluted or ribbed hill, according to Hitchcock. Its base is about 3,000feet above the sea, and it rises with very regular form for several 

hundred feet. This cone is much more deeply scored by radial ravines than any other one of 

Mount Ifualalai seen by me, and the name seems to give 'emphasis to this feature as being 

unusual. 

The cone of Puu W aawaa is made up of well-stratified tuffs, so far as erosion has revealed 

its constitution, and it may be plausibly regarded as of this character throughout. The materials appear to be all trachytic ash, pumice, and obsidian, of dark-gray color. No basalt was 

found in tho tuff, although many fragments are dark and aphanitic and seem basaltic at first 

sight. 

North of Puu W aawaa and separated from it by a shallow valley through which basalt 

streams from I-Iualalai and ·Mauna Loa have flowed is a terrace, the upper end of which is at 

a small cone called Puu IIuluhulu. This terrace has a gently sloping surface and extends 

northward to an elev:ation of about 1,200 feet above sea level, where it abruptly ends near a 

point called Puu Anahulu, presenting a cliff face to the north, as it does also along its western 

border. On the east it merges with the lower slopes of Mauna Loa, and several lava streams 7 

notably that of 1859, have in fact flowed out upon this terrace and tongues of lava have even 

passed over the western cliff. . . 

This terrace belongs to an old topography, as may be seen even from the deck of a steamer 

passing along tho western coaat or froni the road skirting the shore. Dutton noted 2 it from 

tho road and supposed it to be proof of uplift. Where the Government road ascends the 

1 Jour. Geology, vol. 19, p. 304, 1911. 'U.S. Geol. Survey Fourth Ann. Rept., pp. 172, 173,1884. 
36 LA VAS OF HAW Ail AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

steep face of this terrace, in pits for road metal, and at many exposures along the face, it can 

be seen that the terrace is made up of a coarse agglomerate-like mass of trachyte bowlders or 

blocks, many of which are greatly decomposed, producing a light-colored clay. 

The materials of Puu W aawaa and the Anahulu terrace have been described by me in 

detail 1 and shown to ·be trachyte rich in soda and containing only about 10 per cent of mafic 

minerals. Chemical analysis was made of the obsidian from Puu Waawaa and of the freshest 

rock of the terrace. Without going into petrographic details here it may be pointed out that 

the pitchstone has nearly the composition of several rocks of Norway, as will be clear fr01u 

the analyses of analogous rocks given on page 64. 

Puu Waawaa is topographically on the slope of Mount Hualalai, whose basaltic lavas 

surround it and bank up against it on the upper side. The relations are such as to make it 

probable that the unique trachytic eruption of this cone must have occurred during the epoch 

of IIualalai itself. The cone is more denuded than the recent cones of basaltic character scattered over the volcano, yet it has not been sufficiently eroded to permit the conception that it 

entirely antedates the greater mountain. 

The occurrence of these trachytic rocks is plainly one of great interest in the history of the 

island, but present lmowledge does not suffice for extended discussion. 

MAUNA KEA. 

It is rather remarkable that so little definite information has been published regarding the 

lavas of Mauna Kea, next to Mauna Loa the largest volcano of the Hawaiian Islands. Cohen, 

Merrill, and Daly appear to be the only petrographers who have had opportunity to study 

rocks from this source. 

Rocks described by Cohen.-In 1876 and 1880 E. Cohen 2 described a considerable number 

of lava specimens from Hawaii collected for hin1 by Dr. William Hillebrand. The greater part 

of this c-ollection represented basaltic glasses from Kilauea .and Mauna Loa, which had for 

Cohen special interest and which he de~cribed with corresponding fullness. But he .also 

referred to massive, nearly crystalline rocks, though the group descriptions are brief and details 

:as to locality are scanty, owing to the meagerness of the onginallabels. Some of these specimens came from Mauna Kea and others from Hualalai or Kohala, as has been mentioned. 

The Mauna Kea rocks studied by Cohen are referred by him to normal plagioclase basalt, 

typical augite andesite, and a group of transitional varieties. The two normal basalts of 

Mauna Kea are said to differ from others of the island in that they are dense light-gray rocks 

with platy parting and that olivine is restricted to the groundmass.3 The transitional varieties are described with those of Hualalai and Koh~la. 

Two rocks of Mauna Kea called augite andesite are described in some detail by Cohen, 

with the remark that in the opinion of Dr. Hillebrand they .are much older than the other 

specimens from that mountain and probably represent the core of the volcano. The ground 

for this opinion is not given, but Cohen points out that the unusual character of the rocks is 

in itself confirmatory of Dr. Hillebrand's idea. One of these andesites is said to occur at about 

450 meters below the summit. It is a bluish-black dense rock ringing like phonolite when 

struck. It has only a few microphenocrysts of plagioclase lying in a groundmass of plagioclase, augite, and magnetite, and a film of glass base. The second rock is greenish gray and 

has a groundmass like the first but contains pores filled with radiate masses of undetermined 

zeolites, which Cohen believes to be primary. No detail of locality is given for this variety. 

Lavas collected by Preston.-In connection with studies of the density of Mauna Kea, E. D. 

Preston collected a number of specimens representing certain lavas of the volcano. These are 

briefly described by G. P. Merrill in Preston's rej>Ort.4 Through the courtesy of Dr. Merrill I 

have had opportunity to examine Preston's collection and the thin sections, now belonging to 

the United States National Museum. 

1 Jour. Geology, vol. 12, pp. 51D-523, 1904. 

2 Neues Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, pp. 23-62. 

a Idem, p. 49. 

4 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Ann Rept.,l893, pt. 2, appendix 12, pp. 63<H332. 
PETROGRAPHY. 37 

The specilnens were collected at intervals along the trail from vVaimea, on the north of 

l\1auna Kea, along the western slope of the niotmtain to I\::alaieha in the saddle on the south, 

between Kea and Loa, on the trail thence to the summit, and at several places near the vVaiau 

station occupied by Preston in his observations. Unfortunately the character of many specimens precludes satisfactory microscopical determination. :Most of them are hypocrystalline, 

the dominant glassy or ferritic base permitting OJ;J.ly general staten1ents of composition. It is 

not unnatural to suppose that most of the specimens may come from cinder cones or local 

lava stremns and thus represent only con1paratively recent products and not. the larger flows 

of the volcano. · 

All these rocks are no doubt olivine-plagioclase basalt. Their characteristic feature, 

compared with other basalts described thus far in this volume, is the dominance of plagioclase 

and augite over olivine among the phenocrysts. The plagioclase is highly calcic, and one may 

suspect that iron oxides are more than usually abundant in the groundmass. 

Observations by D1ttton.-C. E. Dutton's references to the general character of lavas of 

Mauna Kea apP'm·ently confirm the suggestion made above that olivine is not abundant in 

them. He remarks: 1 

They [the lavas of Mauna Kea] have no great _.,ariety, but at the first glance they show a well-marked difference 

as compared with those from Mauna Loa. Olivine is abl.J.ndant but is never seen in such excessiv-e quantities. On 

the other hand, the feldspars are present in great quantity in well-marked.tabular crystals, and many large crystals 

of augite occur. The groundmass in the majority of cases inclines to bluish grayinstead of being greenish black, as 

in most of the lavas of Kilauea and Mauna Loa. 

Near the sumtuit cone of the mountain there occurs a dense light-gray ·rock long used by 

native I-Iawaiians for adzes, poi pounders, and other i1nplements. Dutton 2 refers to itas undoubtedly a basalt possessing an abundance of triclinic feldspar in exceedingly ·minute crystals and without 

olivine. It appears to be identical with a very large proportion of the basalts occurring in the western portion of the 

United S ta. tes. · 

The correctness of the last remark may be questioned. 

Rocks noted by Hitchcock.-The rock used for implements is also mentioned by C. I-I. Hitchcock,3 but he gives no further clue to its character. At the summit cone of Mauna Kea ther~ 

are, according to I-Iitchcock, n1any bomblike masses, with a core of olivip.e (dunite n and an 

envelope of" white basaltic rock" which has a supei'ficial resemblance to granite. It is suggested 

by him that this outer zone of the b.ombs is allied to the dense rock used for implements. Both 

ocmu·rences call for investigation by a petrographer. 

Roclcs described by Daly.-In 1909. R. A. Daly ascended Mauna Kea, apparently by the 

usual route from the south, .and reports 4 that fron1 the 6,000-foot contour to about the 12,000 

foot contour "The lava flows seem to be very uniformly composed of a rock species which is 

intermediate between typical olivine basalt and a -true augite andesite." A dark-gray vesicular 

lava from the 11.,000:-foot contour, which is thought to be representative of that part of the 

volcano, was analyzed for Daly in the chemical laboratory of t~e United States Geological 

Survey .. This analysis is quoted in the table on page 47 as No. 7. This rock has only a few 

very small olivine and augite phenocrysts but n1any more of labradorite (Ab1An1). The pilotaxitic groundn1ass is nearly free fron1 olivine. As shown in the table of norms (p. 51), the 

analysis yields a little normative quartz, and by the quantitative classification the rock is an 

andose with more than 68 per cent of salic molecules. 

The upper 2,000 feet of l\1auna Kea consists chiefly, according to Daly,5 of a rock called 

trachydolerite, though its analysis is very similar to that of the andesitic basalt. This dense 

gray rock has a few minute phenoerysts of olivine and augite and 1uany of andesine-labradorite 

with mo1·e alkalic borders·. Orthoclase ·may occur as interstitial material. Daly also gives an 

analysis of tllis rock (No. s· of the table on p. 47). It is an anclose with a little ·no1·mative 

olivine. The analogues of these two rocks are givep. in Division IV of the table on ·pag.e 67. 

I U. S. Geol. Survey J~ourth Atm. Rept., p. 160, 1884. 

2 Idem, p. 164. 

a Hawaii o.nd its voleo.noes, 2d ed., p. 52, 1911. 

4 Jour. Geology, vol. 19, p. 29i, 1911. 

6 Idem, p. 299. 
38 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

From Daly's observations it appears that on the surface of Mauna Kea there are lavas 

·approaching those known in Kohala. It is not yet shown that in ·either mountain such lavas 

constitute the main mass. Daly's view that :Mauna Kea consists mainly of these nonbasaltic 

lavas, above the level of 6,000 feet, and that such distribution speaks for gravitative differ~ 

entiation is discussed in a later section of this paper (p. 89) .. 

In both trachydolerite and andesitic basalt Daly found many lherzolitic nodules, analogous 

to those in the olivine basalt of Hualalai and of other localities in Oahu and Kauai that have 

been mentioned. These nodules are probably the same as those referred to by Hitchcock, noted 

above. 

Other rocks on Mauna !{ea.-The deep canyons near the coast on the east side of Mauna 

Kea give an opportunity for getting at lavas somewhat below the general surface, which has 

not yet been improved by any geologist. · The andesites described by Cohen indicate the 

presence of other than nearly normal basaltic rocks in this volcano, but their significance 

is unknown. Dr. Hillebrand's theory that they represent the core of the mountain has no 

known foundation. In this connection, it is interesting to note that fron1 his observations 

Preston 1 calculates the mass of Mauna Kea to have a mean density of 3.26, which is greater 

than that of either andesite or of the basalts collected by him. 

MAUNA' LOA. 

Much. has been written concerning Mauna Loa, the greatest of Hawaiian volcanoes .still 

active. The· phenomena of its historic eruptions are described at length by Dana, Dutton, , 

Brigham, Hitchco~k, and many other observers, but comparatively little exact information is 

available concerning the petrography of its lavas, except the most recent flows. This is natural, 

for the flows of the last century are bare, while older ones are as a rule covered by dense forests 

below timber line, and the difficulties besetting a study of tl;le upper zone deter most visitors 

from attempting it. 

No deep canyons have yet been cut into the 1nass of this new mountain, and probably the 

oldest lavas visible are those exposed in the walls of Mokuaweoweo, the summit caldera. Fortunately some attention has been given to these flows. Existmg data concerning the rocks will 

be presented in chronologie order. 

Rocks described by Oohen.-Many specimens of the Hillebrand collection, described by Cohen, 

appear to have belonged to Mauna Loa, but these were largely glassy rocks of recent eruptions 

and with a few exceptions the determinations are very general. 

Olivine-rich plagioclase basalt is reported by Cohen 2 from the crater of Mokuaweoweo. 

A basaltic pumice belonging to the flo·w of 1'868 was chen1ically analyzed by Cohen 3 and it too 

clearly belongs in this class. The analysis is quoted as No. 32 of the table of analyses (p. 48). 

Rocks described by E. S. Dana.-About 70 specimens of }.1auna Loa lavas, mainly from the 

crater }.1okuaweoweo, were collected for J.D. Dana by Rev. E. B. Baker, of Hilo, and the description of these rocks by E. S. Dana 4 gives much valuable information. Twenty specimens cmne 

from talus from the wall between the southern and central portions of the crater, 12 .from the 

east side of the central pit, and others from various places ih and about the caldera. The 

most marked differences in composition noted among these rocks lie in the variable amount of 

olivine. Some are 'rich in this mineral and others contain little or none. 

One of the two principal groups is descri~ed as very fine grained and nearly or quite holocrystalline, of clinkstone-like appearance. It consists mainly of plagioclase augite and magnetite. "Chrysolite * * *. is absent or only sparingly present." This rock is, however, 

called basalt. · 

The other notable group is prominently chrysophyric, the olivine in some places forming 

one-half of the mass~ These are rather. basic olivine-plagioclase basalts of various textures. 

A less common type of rock from M~kuaweoweo is described as "light. gray in color, not 

vesicular, and sparingly provided with chrysolite if it is present at all, and characterized by a 

1 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Ann. Rept., 1893, pt. 2, appendix 12, p. 630. 

2 Neues Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, p. 49. 

a Idem, pp. 34, 41. 

4 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, pp. 441-458, 1889. 
PETROGRAPHY. 39 

very uniforn1 granular mixture of augite and plagioclase. A specimen taken from a vein of the 

western wall [of the crater] belongs here." Other localities for this type are specified. The 

collection included also some glassy or hypocrystalline forms, the exact ·composition of which 

is not detenninable. o · 

It is plain that the rocks of :Mokuaweoweo studied by Dana must have a considerable 

range in chen1ical composition, and it seen1s probable that some of them .are true augite andesites. 

Several of the 1uodern lava streams on the slopes of :Mauna Loa are represented in the 

Baker collection, including those of 1843, 1852, 1855-56, 1859, 1868, i880-81, 1882, and 1887. 

All these are said to be of dark-colored chrysophyric rocks belonging with the second group of 

the crater lavas. . · 

Rocks described by Daly.-Theo flow of 1852 from :Mauna Loa was crossed by Daly on .the 

trail fron1 Kilauea toward Mauna Kea, and he describes the rock and gives an analysis. 1 The 

rock is called an "ultrafemic olivine basalt" and it is said to be richer in olivine phenocrysts 

than any other lava seen by Daly in Hawaii. ·By the Rosiwal method the olivine contents 

are esti1uated at 32 per cent. An analysis of this olivine is given, showing 82.29 per cent of 

forsterite, 15.94 of fayalite, and 0.20 of tephroite, with 1.91 per cent of impurities. The groundlUass is diabasic and contains plagioclase microlites, augite granules, magnetite, and probably 

ihnenite. The rock is vesicular but contains no glass. 

The analysis of this rock is given under No. 38 in the table of analyses (p. 48). The position 

of the rock in the quantitative sy~ten1 is shown in the table facing page 56. Close chemical 

analogues of this lava are rare, the nearest being an olivine diabase of New Jersey and a picrite 

of the Crazy Mountains, Mont.. (p. 76). The chrysophyric basa~t of Puna (p. 43) is of very 

similar constitution. The tei'm "picritic basalt" seems to express the general character of this 

rock, and it is so referred to in later pages. 

Rocks collected in 1.902.-In traveling fr01n Kilauea through Kau and Kona to Mount Hualalai along the road I had opportunity to see several flows of Mauna Loa erupted during. the last 

century. 1\1ost of these are represented in the collection studied by E. S. Dana, and I can in 

most cases only confirm his statements. · In general these flows consist of olivine-pl~gioclase 

basalt of normal character. 

The flow of 1.823, crossed by the road about halfway between Kilauea and Punaluu Harbor, 

in Kapapala, is of the usual basaltic habit, but my specimen, taken near the eastern edge, is 

nearly olivine free. The rock is aphanitic, aphyric, and irregularly vesicular in subordinate 

degree. In thin section it appears to be made up of labradorite, augite, magnetite, and a 

sn1oky glass base, all of co:i:nmon basaltic habit and fabric. Olivine is very subordinate indeed. 

I do not know whether the flow as a whole is so poor in olivine. · 

Several flows froin Mauna. Loa which passed between Mauna Kea and Hualalai were 

exmnined where they are crossed by the road from Kailua to Waimea. The flow of 1859 is 

dark vesicular aphanite of normal basaltic composition. Other flows a few miles east of that 

of 1859 are of similar character, varying only in texture; from place to place. 

Review.-1"'he lavas of Mauna Loa, erupted during the last. century, are apparently all 

normal olivine-plagioclase basalts with the possible exception of that of 1.823, which in the 

single specin1en examined is abnormally poor in olivine. This chrysolitic type is also represented in and about the crater of 1\1okuaweowe·o, but many of the rocks exposed.in the walls of 

that great caldera in 1888 are of andesitic composition, as described by Dana .. 

KILAUEA. 

General statement.-I{ilauea, perhaps the best-known basaltic volcano in the world, has 

been visited by a host of' geologists; the history of its eruptions has been compiled by J.D. Dana,2 

Dutton, 3 I-Iitchcock, 4 and Brigham,5 while the story of particular eruptions has been graphi· 

cally told by many eyewitnesses. But with the exception of Dana all these writers have paid 

lJour. Geology, vol. 19, p. 294, 1911. 

DChamotoristlcs or volCilllOOS, New York, 1890. 

s U. S. Oeol. Survey l<'ourth Ann. Ropt., pp. 75-219, 1884. 

• Hawaii and its volcanoes, ·2d ed., Honolulu, 1911. 

5 Bernice Pauahi Bishop Mus. :M:em., vol. 2, No.4, pp. 379-600, 1909. 
40 LAVAS Ol!' HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

attention to the physical phenomena only. The lavas are referred to as basaltic, and it is true 

that their characteristic external features give general confirmation to this classification. With 

few exceptions the described rocks of Kilauea have not b~en collected by the petrographers 

who have studied them. The most notable contributions to the petrography of Kilauean lavas 

are those by Cohen/ Silvestri,2 and E. S. Dana.3 

Chemical analyses which may be considered sufficiently reliable for petrographic discussion 

have been made to the number of 21, and several others which are not satisfactory have been 

published. Four of the ·analyses are of "Pele's hair," two of" basalt obsidian," one of material 

collected as molten lava, and several others are of hypohyaline rocks. Obviously all these lavas 

can be adequately classified only by normative study of the analyses. For this reason the 

results of such study, detailed in the tables of norms and normative ratios, will be used in grouping 

the rocks for description. A more detailed study of the Kilauean lavas, with reference to their 

normative character, is given in a later section of this paper (p. 60). 

Megascopically, the lavas of Kilauea present the usual range of textures found in any great 

basaltic complex. The visible variations in olivine, augite, or plagioclase phenocrysts give no 

ground for referring any occurrences to another group than basalt. The aphanitic and hyaline 

pha~es are relatively more abundant than at most other centers and the hyaline rocks have 

received so much attention frmn Cohen, Krukenburg/ and E. S. Dana as to make them classic 

illustrations of basic if not of basaltic glasses. · 

As a rule the exact localities of the rocks of Kilauea of which microscopical and chemical . 

studies have been made are not definitely stated. . In general they belong, however, (1) to the 

lavas of the floor of Kilauea which have issued from the center of I-Ialemaumau within the last 

three or four decades; (2) to the older lavas exposed in the walls of the main caldera; or (3) to 

fragments from the tuff breccia on the outer slopes. While none of the rocks are as old as 

those o~ most other volcanoes· of the islands, it is of son1e interest to consider these groups 

separately. 

Recent lavas.-Only the more recent lavas of I-Ialemaumau, the active center of historic 

times, which are slowly filling the caldera of Kilauea, can now be seen, for the flows of 1880-1894 

have covered those of earlier elate. 

Four recent lavas of docrystalline texture were described by E. S. Dana 5 as" clark-colored 

vesicular basalts, containing chrysolite but not in large amount. My own specimens correspond 

to this statmnent. From .the table of norms of the 11 rock analyses representing mostly hyaline 

forms of these recent magmas, it appears that they all fall i_n Class III, the salfemanes, and 10 

of then1 in the perfelic order germanare, while 1 is in the quardofelic order vaalare. Seven of 

them are similar in that their total salic contents range only frmn 53 to 58.1 per cent, while thre~ 

.have less than 50 per cent of Sal.· The rocks of dorninarit salic contents vary somewhat in the 

character of the normative feldspar. Five of them are in the alkalicalcic rang camptonase. 

These are of nearly the sarne relative abundance of albite over orthoclase, four of them belonging 

to the dosodic subrang camptonose (III.5.3.4) and one to the persodic ornose (III.5.3.5) but so 

near the line that it should be called camptonose-ornose. The other three rocks with•more than 

50 per cent of salic molecules in their norms have relatively more anorthite but are, like the 

others, low in potash and are assigned to auvergnose (III.5.4.4-5), in which albite is greatly in 

excess of orth<?clase. The lavas falling in auvergnose are much more normal basalts than those 

in camptonose. 

The most femic of the lavas of Kilauea analyzed is a specimen of "Pele's hair" (No. 34). 

Its 41 per cent of normative salic n1olecules includes but 8 per cent of anorthite, owing to the 

low alumina. The percentage of diopside is correspondingly increased. The ratio of alkali 

feldspars to anorthite in the norn1 is 2.1 :1. The holocrystalline form of this magma would necessarily have rather strongly alkalic plagioclase, and as the norm shows 0.8 per cent of quartz and 

as the olivine contents could not be high, the rock might be an augite andesite, not a basalt. 

t Neues Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, pp. 23-02. · 

2 Com. geol. Italia Boll., vol. 19, pp. 128-147, 168-196, 1888. 

a Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, pp. 441-467, 1889. 

4 Mikrographie der Glasbasalte von Hawaii, Inaug. Diss., Tubingen, 1877. 

sAm. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, p. 458, 1889. 

r. 
. PETROGRAPHY. 41 

Five other recent lavas of IGlaue~ contain normative quartz, ranging fi·om 0.8 to 8.5 per 

cent. It is plain that these lavas can have no large amount of olivine in their crystalline modes 

unless acc01npanied by free silica, and while they are so rich in anorthite as to make it probable 

that these \7 arieties would here be called plagioclase basalt (olivine free), they are manifestly 

near to pyroxene andesites. 

The la,ras of Ifalmnaumau do not contain nonnative nephelite in notable amount, contra.Sting 

in this respect with someof the rocks next to be considered. 

The magma of 1911 has the composition given under No. 30 in the general table of analyses 

(p. 48). The material for this analysis was dipped from the basin of 1noltenlava by Perret and 

Shepherd 1 and presumably represents the general character of the magma of the present period 

of eruption, which has now continued for several years. This magma is ornose-camptonose and 

transitional also to auvergnose (111.5.3(4).4(5)). It is near the average magma of Halemaumau. 

Another recent lava, thought by Day to be probably that of 1894, has the composition shown 

by analysis 29 of the table, which is that of a specimen collected by Day. It is auvergnose 

(111.5.4.4-5) and nearly like other lavas of this group. 

Roclcs of the caldera walls.-Eight rocks of the walls of the caldera have been analyzed by 

Silvestri,2 giving interesting evidence of much n1ore diversity in chemical composition than would 

be suggested by the megascopic aspect of the rocks themselves. No specific data as to locality 

or character of the rock n1asses are given. As clastic rocks are rare at Kilauea, it may be 

plausibly inferred that Silvestri's analyses represent lava flows of the uppm: 200 to 300 feet of 

l{ilauea, erupted before the present caldera was formed.· 

On studying the analyses by me~1s of the norn1s, it at once appears noteworthy that they are 

nearly all of rocks more salic than any of the more recent lavas. Three of them fall in the dosalane class, although two of these are very near the salfemane line. The small amount of olivine 

and the general character of one of these varieties led Silvestri to call it augite andesite, while 

another one is described as intern1ediate between andesite and basalt, the scanty olivine alone 

preventing reference to andesite. :His augite andesite contains, however, 6 per cent of noFmative 

olivine. (See No. 11 in table of norms, p. 51.) 

The table of norn1s shows that two of the rocks under discussion belong to the subrang 

an close and one to salemose. One of the forn1er is a camptonose-andose an~ is thus nearly related 

to several other lavas of Kilauea. It is rather high in orthoclase and olivine. 

The two remaining dosalanes are notable as possessing normative nephelite and olivine, 

one of thmn carrying a sufficient amount of nephelite (9.7 per cent) to put it in the lendofelic 

order. This rock is also remarkable, if the analysis is correct, for its orthoclase content (16.7 

per cent), which exceeds that of albite and is surpassed in but two known rocks of Hawaii, namely, 

the soda trachytes. Altogether these rocks approach the essexitic c01nposition shown by the 

lavas of I-Ialeakala, already described. 

The next interesting phase of these rocks is represented by two hornblende-bearing types 

of kilauose (III.5.2.4). The characteristic chenrical feature of these n1agmas is their relatively 

high alkali feldspars and low anorthite. One of then1 is near the lendofelic order in which nlonchiquose (111.6.2.4) is the corresponding subrang. Both rocks are also near to the. essexose of 

I-Ia.leakala, us a glance at the norn1s will show. Hornblendic rocks are very rare in I-Iawaii, 

and these two types have both normative and 1nodal peculiarities not expressed in calling them 

COlUUlOll basalts. 

Two of Silvestri's "basaltoids" are camptonose of nearly the same composition. With 

the camptonose-andose these forn1 a group of olivine-plagioclase basalts of no unusual features 

except a general high ratio of alkali feldspar to anorthite. . 

The remainjng rock is a more calcic plagioclase basalt, but so high in silica that its norm 

shows 3.4 per cent of quartz. It is chen1ically almost identical with the lava of 1883, already 

1nentionecl. Owing to the rarity of phenocrysts of olivine, augite, and plagioclase, which 

Silvestri considers characteristic of true basalts, he proposes for this rock the name kilaueite. 

1 Day, A. L., and Shepherd, K S., Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 24, p. 285, 1913. 

2 Com. geol. Italia Boll., vol. 19, pp. 128-147, 168-196, 1888. 
42 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR. RELA':['IONS. 

The six rocks fron1 the walls of Kilauea described by E. S. Dana 1 are olivine-plagioclase 

basalts with little in the brief descriptions to aid in correlating them with special types analyzed 

by Silvestri. One of then1, from Waldrons Ledge, is unusually rich in olivine and is the most 

mafic lava of the volcano now known. 

Fragments in the tuffs.-The slopes surrounding the caldera· have a coating of volcanic 

ashes, in some layers of which there are many fragments of basaltic character. The collection 

studied by E. S. Dana contained specimens of 11 such ejected rocks, from the rim of the caldera, 

especially on the west side. I collected three representative types from loose fragments near the 

triangulation station on the north rim. The pyroclastic deposits are heaviest and most extensive 

to the southwest of the main caldera. J. D. Dana 2 referred this material to the last important 

explosive eruption of Kilauea, in 1789 or 1790, but Hitchcock 3 has· pointed out that the mass 

of the tuff-breccia is larger than is plausibly referable to that outburst, of which accounts, 

obtained from the natives, have been published. 

Whatever the. date of eruption may be, the interest attaching to these materials in the 

present review lies mainly in the evidence they afford as to the petrographic character of Kilauean 

lavas of older date than any flows now visible. J. D. Dana, 4 who examined the tuff-breccia 

with care in 1887, has briefly described the megascopic appearance of the rock fragments as 

foll.ows: 

The ejected stones vary in size up to several cubic feet. Those of 1 or 2 cubic feet are common, many are 20 tO 

30, and one seen by the author on the west side of Kilauea measured 100 cubic feet and must have weighed over 8 tons. 

Part are ordinary volcanic scoria, but the most of them consist of the more solid basalt, sparingly vesicular, and many 

of the larger are of a light-gray kind, very slightly vesiculat or hardly at all so, very sparingly chrysolitic, and frequently 

having on the worn exterior a faint banded appearance from alternating variations in compactness of texture. Another 

kind varies in color from faintly reddish to gray, is more or less vesicular, and contains a large amount of chrysolite. 

E. S. Dana's description 5 of material collected by hiB father from fragments thus described 

shows that there is considerable variety among them. Some are said to be coarsely granular 

rocks I:ich in olivine and labradorite and presumably containing augite and iro.n ore, though 

these are not mentioned. Other light-gray lavas contain little olivine and seem to belong to 

the group of rocks near to pyroxene andesite, of which several examples have been given. Some 

are vesicular basalts with prominent olivine. 

Of the thr.ee specimens of ejected fragments collected by me, one is a comriJ.on vesicular 

olivine-plagioClase basalt similar to some .of the recent flows from Halemaumau. Another is 

a light ash-gray, megascopically aphyric aphanite with a few minute pores· containing feldspar 

and ore tablets. This is no doubt like certain rocks described l;>y E. S. Dana, the vesicles of 

which have tablets of labradorite and ilmenite. This rock is a very even grained, almost holocrystalline mixture of augite, labradorite, arid magnetite particles of pronounced micro-ophitic 

fabric. Olivine is rare and the rock is essentially an aphanitic diabase. 

The third fragment of my collection is a dark-gray, very dense perpatic aphanophyre. Its 

phenocrysts are partly discernible by the naked eye, and a hand lens shows some of them to 

be olivine, while the n1icroscope proves the majority to be augite. There are a few microphenocrysts of labradorite and scattered groups of the three -silicates. The groundmass is a 

holocrystalline granular mi.-x:ture of straw-yellow augite, in almost equidimensional grains less 

than 0.01 millimeter in diameter, plagioclase laths 0.02 by 0.006 millimeter in average dimen-

. sions, and magnetite dust. Plagioclase seems ·also to be the irregular matrix of the mass. No 

olivine has been recognized in the groundmass. 

As this rock seemed to be more basic than most Kilauea basalts and poor in olivine it was 

submitted to analysis, with the result given in column 33 of the table of analyses. It proves 

to belong in the subrang auvergnose (III.5.4.4-5) and to be considerably more basic than any 

I I d b S.l t . It h Sal 42·

9 d . . hi . h · ava ana yze y 1 ves r1. . as Fern= 56.

6 an 1s 1n t s ratio near t e "Pele's ha1r" 

analyzed by Cohen; but its normative plagioclase is much more calcic than that of the glass. 

1 Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, p. 459, 1889. 4 Op. cit., p. 44. 

2 Characteristics of volcanoes, p. 41, New York, 1890. 6 Op. cit., p. 460. 

a Hawaii and its volcanoes, 2d ed., p. 168, Honolulu, 1911. 
PETROGRAPHY·. 43 

.The norn1 shows 0.8 per cent of quartz, and naturally there is neither olivine nor nephelite. 

The rock is either a plagioclase basalt (olivine poor) or an olivine-bearing augite andesite. 

Gabbro of the Uwelcahuna "laccolith."-Daly 1

. has described· the rock of an apparently 

intrusive n.1ass, a section of which is· exposed· in the caldera wall near the Uwekahuna triangulation station, as "porphyrit~c gabbro." The facts of occurrence stated by Daly do not, it 

semns to 1ne, den1onstrate the intrusive character of this body, said to be 20 n1eters thick and 

160 1neters wide. If intrusive the magma was injected into the thin upper zone of the volcano, 

while presumably son1e form of conduit led to the surface near by. 

The rock is characterized by numerous olivine phenocrysts which reach· a maximum 

dimneter of about 4 millimeters. The groundm~ss is millimeter-grained as to its augite and 

labradorite (Ab2An3). The grain is thus not m~ch coarser than that of many basaltic flows. 

r.rhe modal percentage composition of the rock is estimated by Daly at olivine 40, augite 31, 

labradorite 27, magnetite and ilmenite 1.7, and ap~tite 0.3. The analysi.s of this rock made by 

Steiger, for Daly, is given under No. 42 of the table of analyses (p. 48). · It is very qlear thA.t this 

porphyritic gabbro is almost identical in composition with the chrysophyric basalt of Puna, 

erupted in 1840, which is described below. It is next to the most fernie rock of Hawaii 

thus far analyzed, and is in general near wehrlite in chemical composition, as Daly has pointed 

out. Division XIV of the table of analogues (p. 77) gives analyses of several analogues of th.is 

gabbro and of the basalt of Puna. 

Summary.-The lavas of Kilauea exhibit much variety in chemical composition, but are 

predonunantly olivine-poor basalts of the subrangs camptonose (III.5.3.4) or auvergnose 

(III.5.4.4-5). A number of the analyzed rocks have quartz in their norms. The gabbro of 

.the Uwekahw1a "laccolith" and the chrysophyre of Waldrons Ledge, noted by E. S. Dana, 

show that very fenlic 1nagmas have also appeared at times. The lavas of the outer caldera wall 

show gre11ter variation than those of Halen1aun1au, and there are certain apparently persistent 

differences between these groups of lavas (pp. 60-62). No very salic magmas are known from 

Kilauea. 

PUNA. 

The district culled Puna, including the southeastern point of Hawaii and extending on the 

west nearly to the crater of Kilauea, is characterized by a number of cones and pit craters. 

Most of these lie in a narrow belt extending east-northeastward nearly the entire length of Puna. 

Owing to their evident connection with Kilauea, shown by activity nt several points in '1840, 

culminating in a lava flow son1e 12 miles long that reached the sea at Nanawale, these minor 

cones of Puna are considered by Brigham 2 and other writers ''a part of the K:ilauea system." 

Little is known as to the petrographic character of the lavas of Puna. E. S. Dana 8 refers 

·to the highly "Clu·ysolitic character" of the N ana wale flow of 1840 and to the small amount 

of olivine in the crystalline lavas of :Makaopuhi, a cone in the zone referred to, near Kilauea. 

The aa flow of 1840 is represented in 1ny collection by specin1ens taken near the tuff 

"sand hills'' fonnecl by explosive action where the lava plunged into the sea, about 20 miles 

southeast of I-Iilo. This. olivine-rich basalt is so different from most known Kilauean lavas 

that it has been analyzed and will be described in some detail. 

The rock is a clark-grn.y chrysophyre and is variously vesicular in different parts of the flow. 

The specimen analyzed has abundant rounded but irregular vesicles, reaching a maximum 

diameter of about 1.5 centimeters and occupying about one-third of the space. No secondary 

minerals are present in the cavities. It seems to the unaided eye that about half the rock 

must be olivine, but accurate estimate is impossible because of the serial gradation from crystals 

1 centi1neter in diameter clown to those identifiable only with the microscope. The olivine 

is very fresh, most of it exhibiting the characteristic clear yellowish green, while many of the 

larger crystals display brillia.nt iridescent colors. No other phenocrysts occur. 

The microscope shows the groundmass to be nearly holocrystalline and of very simple composition. Besides the smaller olivine grains it is made up of augite> labradorite> magnetite, 

1 Jour. Geology, vol. 1!), pp. 291-2!>4, 1911. sAm. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 37, p. 4Gl, 1889. 

~ Dcmicc Prmnhi Bishop Mus. Mem., vol. 2, No.4, pp. 379-600, 1909. 
44 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

with obscure opaque or dark globulitic interstitin1 material that plays the part of glassy 

base, though no actual gla~s has been seen. Augite occurs in grains and irregular prismoids 

less than 1 millimeter in diameter. The largest labradorite n1icrolites do not exceed 0.5 millimeter in length. The maximum extinction of the labradorite microlites indicates a rather_ 

highly calcic variety. No orthoclase or nephelite has been detected. l\1agnetite is much· 

obscured by the ferritic residual material in which it is embedded. 

The analysis, by George Steiger, and the norm calculated fron1 it are as follows: 

Analysis and norm of olivine-rich basalt from Puna. 

Analysis. 

Si02 ••••••••••••• -- •• ------------------

Al20 3 ••••••••• - • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Fe203 • _ •••• ____ ••• _ ••• - - - - - - - - - - - - - - •• 

Feo. _____ · _______________ · ____________ _ 

MgO·----------------------------------

CaO ................. ------------------

Na20----------------------------------

K20·---------------------------------

H20+ --------------------------------

H20- ---------------------------------

Ti02 .............. -- -------------------

Zr02 ••••••• --- ____ --------------------

C02 ------------------------------------

P20s--------------------- -------------- Cr203 ..... -- __ - __________ . ______ . ____ _ 

NiO-----------------------------------

MnO ................. ------------------

BaO .. --~--------- ---------------------

SrO------------------------------------

41 

47.25 

9.07 

1.45 

10.41 

19. 96 

7. 88 

1. 38 

. 35 

. 08 

. 04 

l. 61 

None. 

None. 

. 21 

.12 

. 09 

. 13 

None. 

None. 

100.03 

Norm. Mol. 

787 .. 5 Orthoclase ................ _._ .. . 

89 Albite ....... _________ ._. ___ . __ 

9 Anorthite ___ . ________________ _ 

144 Diopside. ____________________ _ 

199 Hypersthe.ne ____ . ___ . ________ _ 

140 Olivine ... _ ----- ________ .. _ . _ . 

22 Magnetite. __ - ______ . ____ .. _._. 

3. 5 Ilmenite. ___ .... __ . __________ · __ 

20 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Apatite. ___ .--_- .. _ ... --- ... __ 

Rest .. ____ --- .. -.- .. -------.--

1.67} 

11. 53 30. 99 

17. 79 

16.22} 

19 45 35. 67} 

. . 63. 03} 27. 36.-----

:J:}::: : : .. ~--1~ 68. 50 

99.49 

. 24 

99. 73 

The subordinate role of the feldspars and the abundance of magnesia in pyroxene and olivine make a distinction from common basalt desirable, and the term picritic basa1t is used for 

this purpose. The N ana wale flow is notably similar in composition to the porphyritic gabbro 

of Kilauea, thought by Daly to be an intrusive. The analyses and norms of .these rocks and 

of several analogous rocks are compared in Division XIV of the table of analogues (p. 77). 

The quantitative classification of the rock is show~ from the accompanying ratios: 

Cl · Sal-30·

99 -0 452-'IV d f ass. Fem-68.50- . - ' o emane. 

0 d . P+0_63.03_12 28-1' 1 r er. M - 5_

13- . -. , mngara:re . 

. s . . p 35.67 -130-'3 h .. . ectwn. o=27 .36- . - ' unganare. Symbol: 'IV.1' .,3.1 (2).2 . 

(MgFe)O 645 

Rang: CaO" -= 76 =8.49=1(2), wehrlase. 

l\fgO 499 

Subrang: (Fe, Mn, Ni) 0 146 3.42=2, wehrlose. 

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF HA,VAIIAN LAVAS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago represent the higher summits of a chain of 

.mountains, mainly submarine, known to extend for about 1,800 miles in a genernl northnorthwesterly direction. Soundings have shown the existence of many other mountains in 

addition t.o those whose summits now project above sea level. The ocean floor from which 

these mountains rise is more than 20,000 feet below the surface of the sea, but the configuration of the sea bottom is largely a n1atter of conjecture. Dana and others have supposed 

that deep troughs exist on either side of the island chain. 

r' 
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROCKS. 45 

All the known islands of this midocean range are volcanic except for insignificant surface 

deposits, largely nf coral reef or sand, and the volcanoes appear to be situated along a line of weakness in the subn1arine crust. The date at which eruptions began and the duration of the period 

of eruption are alike questions which can not be answered. It seems reasonable -to assume that 

the v·olcanic activity has continued during all of Tertiary time, at least, and may have begun in 

the N[esozoic era. J. D. Dana 1 has said that ."There is reason for believing that the fires along 

the I-Iawaiian line broke out all together at some tin1e in the long past, but only I-Iawaii has kept 

on piling up lava streams from that remote time of outbreak until now, and·hence has come 

the altitude of these lofty volcanic mountains of the Pacific." But it is certainly possible 

that the earliest eruptions occurred nt the west end of the zone, and that in general there has 

been a progression in the appen,rance of activity at centers toward the southeast. 

Frmn the study of certain snails which are widely distributed among the islands, Pilsbry 1 

has advanced the hypothesis that the present islands are the result of a subsidence which affected 

a large area, subn1erging the lower lands formerly connecting them. 

The I-Iawaiian Archipelago appears, then, to form a very simple petrographic province. Its 

igneous rocks are clearly comagmatic or consanguineous, to use terms in current use. The 

region appears to be one especially suited to furnish the means of testing several broad generalizations of the day regarding the genetic relations of igneous rocks-generalizations based, as 

it seems to me, on a rather hasty survey of a great ma-ss of undigested or disordered materioal 

frmn all over the earth. . 

A study of I-Iawaiian rocks will now be undertaken for the light it may throw on some of 

these important questions-first, the broad geographic problen1 involved in the original distinction of the Atlantic and Pacific branches or kindred of rocks; second, the idea of restricted 

genetic associations of two great series of igneous rocks, whether considered in connection with 

differentiation from various parent n1agmas or "\vith tectonic history; third, the distinction 

itself, often spoken of as natural and of fundamental genetic or systematic importance, between 

the rock series variously designated as Atlantic and Pacific, alkali and subalkali, alkali and 

calc-alkali, or alkalic (alkaline) and calcic; fourth, the process of differentiation. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROCKS. 

MINERAL COMPOSITION. 

·General review.-Plagioclase, augite, olivine, and magnetite are the most important n1inerals 

in a great n1ajority of I-Iawaiian rocks, and in many lavas no other constituents of note are 

present. The quantitative relations of these components vary greatly, as has been shown in 

the preceding descriptions. · 

Further variety is produced by the appearance of nephelite and melilite in a considerable 

group of younger rocks and of bronzite in the basalts of Oahu. The potash feldspar molecule 

is an abnost constant constituent, as shown by the analyses, but it is rarely developed in recognizable :form and is presumably an occult element in the plagioclase. 

The alferric silicates, hornblende, and biotite are conspicuous by their absence, as a rule. 

The fonner is mentioned by Silvestri as occurring in two or three lavas of Kilauea but has not 

been noted by other petrographers. Biotite was observed only in insignificant development in 

the groundmass of one basalt of Kauai. 

Ilmenite is possibly a companion of magnetite in some rocks, but the high content of Ti02 

revealed by analysis is principally concealed in augite or in titanomagnetite. Only rarely is its 

presence revealed by a violet color of the augite. . 

The sin1plicity in modal con1position indicated by this review deserves further scrutiny if 

it is to be used as the basis for an adequate classification and nomenclature in the qualitative 

system. This is particularly true as to the composition of the plagioclase and the r6le of both 

occult and abnormative constituents. 

Plagioclase.-~1ost published descriptions of Ilawaiian rocks give little defmite information 

concerning the observed pln,gioclase. In fact, mmiy of the lavas examined are hypohyaline, 

1 Characteristics of volcanoes, p. 327, New York, 1890. 
46 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

several of those analyzed are perhyaline, and not a few are without any noted crystals, as in 

the specimens of "Pele's hair." Moreover, while a part of the plagioclase is in distinct phenocrysts of labradorite or andesine, a larger part of more sodic character is present in microlites 

of the groundmass or in potential form in residual glass. 

As it is desirable to classify these rocks, even in the qualitative system, by their real rather 

than their apparent characters, it is necessary to take into account the average composition of 

the plagioclase, which is shown, as closely as is possible, by the table of norms. Only by such a 

method can these lavas be systematically compared with their granular equivalents. Thus 

the "Pele's hair," No. 34 of the table, must certainly be considered as practically a hyaline. 

phase of the kauaiite or olivine-bearing oligoclase gabbro (No. 26), and not simply a basaltic 

glass. . 

The approximate amount and character of the normative plagioclase may be readily seen 

by a glance at the percentages of albite and anorthite in the table of norms. From those figures 

the average or normative composition of the plagioclase may be taken as follows: 

Albite in No. 2. 

Ab17An1 in No. 1. 

Oligoclase in Nos. 3, 6, 13, 26, and 34=5. . 

Andesine in Nos. 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 25, 27, 28, 19, 32, 23, and 30=16. 

Labradorite in Nos. 9, 11, 17, 24·, 21, 20, 22, 33, 29, 14, 31, 35, 36, 38, 41, and 42=16. 

Bytownite in No. 39. 

It further appears that in 27 rocks the normative plagioclase has a composition between 

Ab2An1 and Ab1An2 with an average close to Ab1An1 • 

Now, several factors affect the agreement between this normative plagioclase and the average 

·coni position of the modal plagioclase. On the one side are two factors which t.end to make the 

alkalic components more prominent in the mode th~n they are in the norm. Orthoclase is present 

in the ~ode in. such subordinate amount that presumably it .has been drawn with albite into the 

plagioclase, at least to a considerable extent. There is no biotite, and rarely hornblende, to 

take up potash, and potash is relatively insignificant in most analyzed augites. 

Albite is doubtless directly increased over the normative percentage wherever olivine is 

abnormatively developed in rocks corresponding to those whose analyses show normative 

nephelite. This has been discussed in another place (p. 55). 

The influence of these factors to raise the alkalic element of the modal plagioclase is partly 

offset or entirely counterbalanced by the entrance of sodic and aluminous molecules into the aiferric augite. The composition of the augite of these rocks is unknown. But there is rarely evidence of the acmite molecule, and it is not to be overlooked that normative anorthite is perhaps 

as likely as_the albite to furnish alumina for the augite. 

On ·reviewing these factors, I regard it as probable that the average modal plagioclase of 

the Hawaiian basalts is at least as rich in the alkalic element as the normative plagioclase, 

. figured fro.m the perc~ntages of albite and anorthite. . 

Lenads.-The prominence of nephelite in several rocks of Oahu, Maui, and Kauai has been 

sufficiently emphasized in describing them. The normative nephelite of many other rocks is 

usually not to be detected, and its significance has been discussed (p. 54) under the head ''Relations of norm and mode." But, although so elusive, the potential nephelite, which might 

undoubtedly become modal under conditions of consolidation such as many rocks of equivalent 

composition have experienced, is an element to keep in mind in systematic discussion of the 

Hawaiian lavas. Leucite is prominent in the norms of three rocks of Oahu, but it has not been 

detected in the mode. 

Quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite.-Free silica in any form has been recognized in very few 

Hawaiian lavas, but the norms point conclusively to the fact that many of them are, potentially at lea~t, equivalents of quartz-bearing rocks of other regions. Certain lavas are very near 

to the quartz basalt of Mount Shasta in composition, and others correspor:d to quartz-bearing 

granular rocks. Tridymite was found in several rocks in very obscure development, quite unlike 

the aggregates which are so common in andesites and dacites. The various possible forms of free 
• 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROCKS. 47· 

silica are to be regarded as of much importance in· many Hawaiian lavas, as showing general 

petrographic affiliations, and they should be looked for with due care in all holocrystalline 

basalts of low olivine contents and may occur in those rich in olivine, as proved by the· basalt 

of Olokele Canyon, in Kauai. 

Augite and olivine.-The augite of these rocks has common characters of ba8altic augite. 

It is colored by the regirite molecule in few rocks and is never very strong brown in color. It 

1nust have the general composition of the combined diopside and hypersthene molecules of the 

nonns 1nodi.fied by the entrance of some soda and alununa calculated as belonging to albite and 

governed also by the different ratios between the FeO and MgO silicates entering respectively 

~n.to augite and olivine. 

Daly 1 has published the following analysis, by George Steiger, of olivine fron1 the basic 

basalt of Mauna Loa, flow of 1883: 

Analysis of olivinefrom basalt of ~Mauna Loa.. . 

Si02 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 40. 42 

ll'o0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. 44 

!\1.n0 ................ ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

NiO.................................................................................... . 34 

!\fgO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7. 08 

Inclusive............................................................................... . 96 

100.34 

rrhis shows about 5 forsterito to 1 fu.yalite. The norm of thU:; basalt (No. 38) has olivine of 

· tho c01nposition of about 3 forsterite to 1 fayalite. This goes to show ·that for this. rock the 

augite is richer in iron metasilicate and the olivine richer in magnesian or~hosilicate than the 

corresponding normative molecUles. Very probably this relation holds good for other rocks of 

1-Iawaii. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 

'While knowledge of Hawaiian lavas is clearly very incomplete, inany varieties have been 

identified by microscopical examination, and there exists a really notable series of chemical a'nalyses, so that the general character of the rocks may be seen. This character will be brought out 

by tables of analyses, norms, and ratios, by a diagram (Pl. IV), and by discussion of the points 

of most importance. Analyses of Hawaiian lavas. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

SiOd ..... ~ ...... -. 61. 69 62. 19 58.06 49.55 50. 92 51. 26 

Al2 s···· ......... 17. 33 17.43 18.'21 17. 78 17. 59 16. 74 

li'o'603 ••••••• -.---- 5. 30 1. 65 4.87 4. 65 3.80 2. 92 

Ji'o ............ - . 07 2. 64 2.01 5. 89. 6. 69 7.11 

MgO .............. .16 .40 1. 59 2.49 3.90 2.80 

CaO .............. 1.05 . 86 3. 29 7.01 6. 97 6.61 

Na~?-············ 7.47 8. 28 6. 12 6. 12 4.28 5.86 

K2 . - ........... 3.47 5.03 2. 75 2. 29 1.86 2. 25 

~~20+ ... -... -.-. 1. 93 . 39 (a) . 34 . 79 . 42 

¥r82~::.·.:::::::: . 42 .14 .......... . 29 . 35 . 26 . 67 . 37 1.88 2.09 2.55 2. 57 

oo6 ............... . 02 ........ None . .......... Trace. 

pll cr ............. . 05 .14 . 65 1. 10 .40 . 81 

Mn .............. . 21 . 32 . 36 . 28 . 20 . 23 

13n.O .............. . 07 . 03 ......... . 05 ........ .10 

Inclusive ........ b. 21 c. 04 d,20 e.13 ........ f. 09 

Sum ....... 100. 10 99. 93 99. 99 ............ 100.30 100.03 

a Analysis or ignited materiaL b Zr02, 0.16; S, 0.02; SrO,~.,. 0.03. c Zr02, 0.04; traces or Cr2vs and LbO. NoS, SOa, NiO, SrO, or V208• 

d CuO, 0.10; SOs, 0.05; S, 0.05. e Zr02, 0.01; FcS2, 0.03; SrO, 0.08; V20a, 0.015. No Cr20s, NiO, or LhO. 

1 Jour. Geology, vol. 19, p. 295, 1911. 

7 8 9 10 11 

49. 73 46. 30 48. 71 49.01 50. 16 

16.39 17.95 18.87 16. 29 17.97 

7.58 6.21 3. 18 7.61 2.23 

3.98 6. 79 8. 00 4.89 6.25 

4.06 3.67 4.85 3.'62 4.70 

7. 17 8. 17 9.87 9. 79 11.85 

4. 12 3. 92 4. 15 3.82 3.50 

1. 93 . 89 1.52 . 80 2.80 . 54 (a) .......... ---~~) ___ } . 90 . 81 

3.05 5.35 1.81 3.93 

None. .. .......... . ........ ........ . 84 . 53 Trace . . 49 . .. 23 . 26 Trace . . 27 . 03 . .......... .. ....... ........ Y.07 h. 28 . ....... i. 32 

100. 53 100.32 100.96 100.84 

J SrO, 0.09. No Zr02, Cr20s, or NIO. g Zr02, 0.03; NiO, 0.04. No 808, S, or SrO. h CuO, 0.17; SOa, 0.06; S, 0.05. i CuO, 0.10; SOa, 0.20; S, 0.02. 

Trace. 

········ Trace . . 30 ........ 

. ....... 

100. 66 
48 

Si02 ............. . 

~!~g:-. ·_ ·_ ·_ ~ ~ ~·: : ~·: : : 

FeO ............ . MgO ............. . CaO ............. . Na20 ............ . K 20 ............ . 

12 

45. 61 

15. 98 

8.25 

11. 60 

3.75 

6.42 

3. 50 

1. 82 

H20+ ........... } . 27 

LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

13 

49.45 

13. 97 

8. 10 

11. 17 

1. 90 

5. 92 

5.05 

1. 75 

1. 19 

Analyses of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

14 

51. 77 

15. 66 

8.46 

6. 54 

4. 95 

9. 56 

2. 17 

. 96, 

15 

47. 63 

15. 02 

8. 15 

10.40 

3. 50 

6.87 

4. 92 

1: 80 

. 30 

16 

48.04 

14. 62 

9. 18 

11. 68 

2 .. 17 

7. 66 

4.00 

1. 28 

17 

47. 61 

16. 09 

7.00 

10. 60 

.3. 10 

8. 15 

2. 98 

1. 15 

. 70 

18 

45. 79 

15. 09 

5. 34 

5. 58 

5. 92 

10. 21 

3. 67 

. 90 

(a) 

19 

49. 88 

13. 79 

9. 65 

2. 61 

6. 12 

9. 59 

3.30 

.17 

(a) 

20 

48. 82 

15. 22 

5. 72 

9. 65 

4. 55 

10.40 

2. 10 

. 90 

None . 

21 

49. 20 

'14.90 

4. 51 

12. 75 

3. 90 

9. 20 

1. 96 

. 95 

. 10 H 20-.......... . Ti02 •••••••••••••• 1. 15 Trace. . 12 Trace. . 39 3. 25 3. 97 1. 16 1. 72 

22 

50. 75 

16. 54 

2. 10 

7.88 

7. 65 

11. 96 

2. 13 

. 56 

. 35 

C02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

P20r;-····--....... . 72 . 16 .. . . .. .. . 08 . 45 Trace. . 29 .. 26 Trace. . 42 ...... .. MnO .............. 1.20 .85 .82 .so 1.91 1.72 .49 .67 .67 .28 ....... . 

BaO .................. · ............ ········ ········ ········ ········ ········ ········ ········ ········ ········ Inclusive.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b 2. 72 ............................... . 

Sum. . . . . . . 100. 27 99. 51 100. 89 99. 59 100. 99 99. 49 99. 25 j100. 26 I 99. 19 j 99. 89 I 99. 92 

a Analysis of ignited material. b SOa, 2.54; CuO, 0.18. 

23 24 25 26 27 28 

I 

29 30 31 32 33 

Si02 .............. 53. 81 50. 76 49. 80 45. 81 51.41 51. 63 50.07 49. 74 48. 99 51. 12 50.03 

Al20 3 ••••••••••••• 13. 48 14. 75 13. 76 11. 90 12. 92 12. 10 13. 32 12. 36 13. 73 10. 09 12. 10 

Fe20 3 ••••••••••••. 3,02 2. 89 3.09 4. 62 2. 87. 8. 67 1. 92 1. 64 1. 60 5. 35 2. 10 

FeO ............. 7.39 9. 85 11. 97 8. 09 9. 29 . 3.10 9. 28 10. 08 10.46 8. 59 9. 97 

~:8.·.-.·.-~::::::::: 6.46 0 6. 54 5.02 5. 39 5.45 9.40 8.01 8. 83 13. 53 9. 68 9. 57 

10. 34 11. 05 10.25 10. 67 11.46 9. 17 10. ·64 10. 88 7. 34 9. 72. 10. 58 

Na20 ............. 3. 23 2. 70 3.00 4. 28 2. 92 3. 10 2. 16 2.45 1. 62 3.38 2.01 

K 20 ............. . 64 . 88 1. 15 1.40 . 70 .. 30 . 45 . 55 . 27 . 56:· . 44 

H20+ ........... } . 57 ......... { . 53 } . 32 ........ { . 49 .17 . 27 } 1.31 { . 32 

H20-........... ............. . 47 . 22 . 05 . 10 . 16 

Ti02 .............. 2.01 ................. . 95 4.05 2. 61 2.47 2. 70 2.49 1. 73 ............... 2. 57 

002··············· ............... -------- ................ None. ................. ................ None. None. . 24 ................ .. .............. 

P20., .............. ................. . 26 . 22 2. 20 -------- . 26 . 26 . 41 . 13 .. .............. . 21 

MnO .............. . 41 .10 .17 .16 . 30 .16 .14 . 20 ................ .16 

BaO .............. ................. -------- ................. . 04 ................ .. ............... None. Trace . ............... ............... .. ............. 

Inclusive .......... a.03 ................ -------- b . 28 c. 33 d . 17 -------- ................ 

Sum ....... 100. 95 100.09 99. 31 99. 65 I 100. 11 101.08 I 99. 97 100.08 100.38 I 99. 80 100.22 

aS, 0.03: trace of SrO. No Zr021 SOa, Cr~Oa, or Li20. Part of titanium may be present as Ti20a, affecting figures fDr Fe20s, FeO, and 'ri02. b Cl, 0.08; S, 0.11; Cr20a, 0.05; N10, 0.04; traces of SrO and ?.toOa. No Zr02, SOa, F, or V20a. c Cl, 0.10; S, 0.04; Cr20a, 0.04; NiO,_ 0.05; ~rO.z~0-~7; V 20'l.t 0.02; MoOa,. 0.01. aS, 0.04; Cr20a, 0.02; V203, 0.06; N10, O.Oo . .NO Zr02, Sva, SrO, or L120. 

34 35 36 37 38 39 I 40 41 42 4.3 

Si02 ••••••••••.••.•••••• -.·. 50. 82 45.48 36. 85 35. 86 48. 57 42.991 36. 34 47. 25 46. 59 37. 50 

~!~g:-.·--~-------~::::::::::::: 9. 14 11. 87 11. 97 12. 10 10. 51 10.21 10. 14 9.07 7. 69 9. 12 7. 37 1. 98 13. 90 7.82 2. 19 3.01 6. 53 1.45 2. 20 5. 59 

FeO ...................... 7.03 9.87 6. 54 8.09 9.45 10. 28 10. 66 10.41 10. 4'6' 8.81 

~!8.-.:.-.·.~:::::::::::::::: 7.22 13. 28 10. '73 9. 72 17. 53 14. 61 10. 68 19. 96 21. 79· 13. 72 

11. 63 10. 97 9.00 12. 08 8.06 12. 54 13. 10 7.88 7.41 13.85 

Na20 ...................... 3.06 2.21 4. 13 6. 23 1. 59 l. 40 4. 54 l. 38 1. 33' 2. 69 

K 20 ...................... 1.02 . 77 . 79 1. 93 . 34 . 52 l. 78 . 35 . 28 . 63 

~:8~::::::: ~:::::::::::: } 1. 74 { . 74 } (a) (a) { . 37 1. 10 1.00 . 04 . 37 2.35 . 23 .10 . 82 1.00 . 08 :04 1. 05 

'l'i02 ..................... 1. 90 4.05 2. 90 1.48 2. 52 2. 87 1. 61 1. 83 3. 21 

~~d ~- -~ ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 

None. -------- --·----- None. None. .15 None. None. . 27 . 25 1. 25 1.08 .19 . 29 1.02 . 21 .11 . 90 

.-38 . 04 1. 13 . 39 . 16 .17 ~ 20 .13 . 18 .15 

BaO ....................... -----·-· Trace. -----··- ·-----·- ··--·--- None. ............. ............ .............. . 07 

Inclusive ................. .............. b .19. c. 28 d l. 92 e.18 /.12 g.04 h.21 i. 25 i. 28 

Sum ................ 99. 37 99. 94 100. 62 100. 12 I 100. 72 100. 58 100.05 100.03 100. 53 100. 19 

a Analysi'l of ignited material. b FeS2, 0.03; Cr203, 0.08; V203, 0.04; NiO, 0.04. ·No LhO or Zr02. c CuO, 0.10; CoO, 0.04; S, 0.14. d CuO, 0.25; so~ o.27; FeS2, 1.40. e Cr20a, 0.10; N1 , 0.08. ; Cr203, 0.06; NiO, 0.06. No Zr02 or SrO. g s, 0.04. h Cr20a, 0.12; NiO, 0.09. No Zr02 or SrO. i Cr203, 0.13; NiO, 0.12. No Zr02.~,~S0 , or SrO. J Zr02, 0.02; Cl, 0.05; Cr20s, O.o7; .NiO, 0.04; SrO, 0.05; V20a, 

0.05; trac~ ofF (?), S, and LhO. 

,. 
CHARACTERJ:STICS OF THE ROCKS. 49. 

. ROCKS ANALYZED. 

1.. Soda trachyte (Cross), nordmarkose, 1'.5.1'.4. Launiupoko Hill, a cone near Lahaina, west coast of Maui. 

Analyst, George Steiger. Specimen in Peabody Museum, Yale University. 

2. Soda. trachyte obsidian (Cross), nordmarkose-umptekose, (I)II/5.1.4. Puu Waawaa, north base of Mount 

Hualalai, Hawaii. Analyst, W. F. Hillebrand. Specimen No. 1857, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. 

Survey. 

3. "Feldspathic lava" (Lyons), larvikose-akerose, (1)1!.5.2.4. ·waimea, Kohala district, Hawaii. Analyst, A. B. 

Lyons, Am. J'our. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 2, p. 424, 1896. 

4. Trachyandesite (Cross), akerose-essexose, II.(5)6.2.4. White Hill, a cone in the cr.ater of .Mount Haleakala, 

~faui. Analyst, W. F. Hillebrand. Spe~imen No. 1860, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

5. "~L'rachydolerite" (Daly), andose, II'.5.3.4. Poliahu cone, near summit of Mauna Kea, Hawaii: Analyst; 

George Steiger. Specimen No. 1849, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

6. Tmchyandesite (Cross), akerose,. II.5'.2.4. Near Vieira ranch, south base of Mount Haleakala, Matri. Analyst, 

George Steiger. Specimen No. 1859, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

7. "Andesitic basalt" (Daly), anpose, II.5.3.4. 11,000-foot contour, S. 75° E. of smnmit of Mauna Kea, Hawaii. 

Analyst, George Steiger. Specimen No. 1850, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. · 

8. "Highly feldspathic lava" (Lyons), beerbachose-andose, II'.5.3.4(5). Waianae Mountains, Oahu. Analyst, 

A. B. J~yons, loc. cit. 

9. "Basalto a struttura microgranitica" (Silvestri), salemose-andose, II1 .5(6).3.4. Wall of caldera, Kilauea, 

Hawaii. Analyst, 0. Silvestri, Com. geol. Italia Bull., vol. 19, p. 187, 1888. 

10. "Porphyritic lava" (Lyons), andose-beerbachose, II(III).5.3'.(4)5: Kohala Motmtain, northern district of 

Hawn.ii. Analyst, A. B. Lyons, loc. cit. · 

11. "Andesite augitica" (Silvestri), limburgose-salemose, II(III).'6.3.(3)4. Wall of caldera of Kilauea, Hawaii. 

Analyst, 0. Silvest;ri, op. cit., p. 191. 

12. "Basaltoide microgranitica" (Silvestri), camptonose-andose, II(III).5.3.4. 'Vall of caldera of Kilauea, 

HtLwaii. Analyst, 0. Silvestri, op. cit., p. 173. · 

13. "Orneblendafiro basaltico" (Silvestri), kilauose-akerose, II(III).5.2.4. ·wan of caldera, Kilauea, Hawaii. 

Analyst, 0. Silvestri, op. cit., p. 178. 

14. BasaJt stalagmite (Phillips), auvergnose-koghose, (II)III.4(5).4.4-5. In ~a.va cave in caldera of KilaueJl,. 

Collected by Libbey. Analyst, A. H. Phillips, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 47, p. 473, 1894. 

15. "Basaltoicle" (Silvestri), monchiquose-kilauose, (II)III.5(6).2'.4. \Vall of caldera of Ki~auea, Hawaii. 

Analyst, 0. Silvestri, op. cit., p. 181. 

Hi. "Basaltoide" (Silvestri), anclose-camptonose, (II)III.5.3.4'. Wall of caldera of Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, 

0. Silvestri, op. cit., p. 175. 

17. "Basaltoide" (Silvestri), auvergnose-camptonose, (II)III.5.3(4).4. Wall of ca1dera of Kilauea, Hawaii .. 

Analyst, 0. Silvestri, op. cit., p. 183. 

18. "Pole's hair" (Lyons), ornose-camptonose, 'III.5.3.4(5). Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, A. B. Lyons, loc. cit. 

19. Hnsalt (Lyons), ornose, '111.(4)5.31 .5. Koolau Mountains, Oahu. Analyst, A. B. Lyons, loc. cit. 

20. Basalt, "kilaue.ite" (Silvestri), auvergnose, 'III.'5.4.4-5. Wall of caldera of Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, 0. 

Silvestri, op. cit;., p. 185. · 

21. Bnsal1; (Silvestri), auvergnose, III.'5.4.4-5. Lava of May, 1883, Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, 0. Silvestri, op. 

cit., p. 135. 

22. Basalt (J'. D. Dana), auvergnose, III.5.4.4-5. ·Kilauea, Hawaii. Analysts, F. J. and 0. D. Allen, Am. Jour. 

Sci., 3d set·., vol. 18, p. 134, 1879. 

23. "Basalt obsidian" (Cohen), camptonose-ornose, III.'5.3.(4)5. Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, E. Cohen, Ncues 

Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, p. 41. 

24. "Pole's hair" (Phillips), ornose-auvergnose, III .5.(3)4.4-5. Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, A. R. Phillips, loc. cit. 

25. ccLava doleritica" (Silvestri), camptonose, III.5.3.4. Recent lava, Halemaumau, Kilaue;~., Hawaii. Analyst, 

0. Silvestri, op. cit., p. 141. 

26. Kauai.ite or oligoclase gabbro (Cross), kilauose, III.51 .2.4'. East branch of Waimea Canyon, Kauai. Analyst, 

V•l. T. Schaller. Specimen No. 1861, petrographic reference collection, U.S. Geol. Survey. 

27. "Basalt obsidian" (Cohen), ornose-camptonose, III.5.3'.4(5). Lava of 1843, Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, E. 

Cohen, 1oc. cit. 

28. "Traplike basalt" (Lyons), ornose, III.(4)5.3.5. V\7aianae Motmtains, Oahu. Analyst, A. B. Lyons, loc. cit. 

29. Pahoehoe basalt, auvergnose, III.5.4.4-5. Floor of Kilauea, flow of 1894 (?). Collector, A. L. Day. Analyst, 

J. B. Ferguson, Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory. 

30. Basalt (hyaline), ornose-camptonose, III.5.3(4).4(5). Fluid lava, dipped from basin in Halemaumau, Kilauea. 

Collected by l.,erret and Shepherd, 1911. Analyst, J. B. Ferguson, Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory. 

31. Plagioclase-olivine basalt (Cross), auvergnose, II].5.4.4-5. Flow, border of Olokelc Canyon, Kauai. · Analyst, 

\V. '1'. Schaller. Specimen No. 1863, petrographic refoerence collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

32. Basalt pumice (Cohen), camptonose-ornose, III'.5.(2)3.(4)5. Flow from Mauna Loa, 1868, Hawaii. Analyst, 

E. Cohen, loc. cit. 

33. Plagioclase-olivine basalt (Cross), auvergnose, III'.5.4.4-5. Fragment in old tuff, Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, 

~eorge Steiget·. Specimen No. 1862, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

487a0°-15--4 
50 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

34. "Pele's hair" (Cohen), kilauose, III'.5.21 .41 . Kilauea, Hawaii. Analyst, E. Cohen, loc. cit . 

. 35. Plagioclase-olivine basalt (Cross), camptonose-auvergnose, III'.5'.(3)4.4-5. Flow, border of Olokele Canyon, 

Kauai. Analyst, W. F. Hillebrand. Specimen No. 1864, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

36. "Basaltic scoria;' (Lyons), monchiquose, III(IV).6'.2(3).(4).5. Cinder cone, Punahou, near Honolulu, Oahu. 

Analyst, A. ·B. Lyons, loc. cit. 

37. "Black sand" (Lyons), casselose. (III)IV.2.14.2(3).2'. Recent. lapilli, Punahou, near Honolulu, Oahu. 

Analyst, A. B. Lyons, loc. cit. 

38. "Ultrafemic olivine basalt" (Daly), palisadose-hilose, (III)IV.1(2).2'·1(2).2. Flow of 1852, Mauna Loa, 

Hawaii. Analyst, George Steiger. Specimen No. 1848, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

39. Picritic basalt (Cross), rossweinose-uvaldose, 1IV.(1)2.13.2.2. Smpmit of Mount Haleakala, Maui. Analyst, 

George Steiger. Specimen No. 1866, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

· 40. Nephelite-melilite basalt (Cross), uvaldose-casselose, 1IV:2.(3)4·2(3).2(3). Moiliili, I'ear Honolulu, Oahu. 

Analyst, George· Steiger. Specimen No. 1868, petrographic reference ecollction, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

41. Picritic basalt (Cross), rossweinose-wehrlose, 'IV.1'.13.1(2).2. Flow of 1840, Nanawale, Puna. Hawaii. Analyst, George Steiger. Specimen No. 1865, petrographi~ reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

42. "Porph;rritic gabbro" (Daly), rossweinose-wehrlose, IV.l(2).3.1(2).2. Uwekahuna laccolith, Kilauea, Hawaii. 

Analyst, George Steiger. Specimen No. 1847, petrographic reference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

43. Nephelite-melilite basalt (Cross), uvaldose, IV.2.13.2.2. Kilauea Bay landing, north coast of Kauai. Analyst, 

W. F. Hillebrand. Specimen No. 1867, petrographic ·teference collection, U. S. Geol. Survey. 

Silica and alumina.-A review of the analyses of the foregoing table shows a great range for 

every constituent. Silica is, relatively to its total amount, the least variable of all components, 

in 35 out of 43 analyses falling between 45 and 54 per cent. In 25 rocks it varies less than 2 per 

. cent from 50 per cent. Of the extreme rocks, four are notably basic, and but three are even 

m0derately high in silica. 

Alumina ranges from 18.87 per cent in No.9 to 7.69 per cent in No. 42. The variations in 

alumina are quite independent of those of silica· and of individual bases. This finds correct 

expression in the norms by the great variation in orthoclase, albite, and anorthite in rocks of 

similar silica contents. · 

Iron oxides.-Some of the determinations of the ~on oxides may be more or less incorrect as 

to the relative amounts of Fe20 3 and FeO. The totals of the two oxides range from 4.29 per 

cent in the trachyte of No. 2 to 20.86 per cent in the "basaltoid" of No. 16. The latter rock 

was analyzed by Silvestri, and it is notable that in most of his analyses the total of iron oxides 

is higher than in those of similar rocks by other analysts. In 13 of the analyses made in 

the laboratory of the Geological Survey the range for the combined iron oxides is only from 10.03 

to 14.40, the average being 11.93. By excluding five extreme rocks it is found that all the 

analyses except those of Silvestri report the iron oxides as ranging only from 9.98 to 14.40 per 

cent. This agreement appears to raise s~me question as to the accuracy of Silvestri's figures 

for the iron oxides, which average 15.75 per cent for 10 rocks .. On the whole there is a ra:ther 

remarkable constancy in the iron contents of niany kinds of Hawaiian lavas. 

Magnesia and Zime.-Magnesia varies most notably in these rocks. Exclusive of the trar 

chytes, Nos. 1 and 2, it ranges from 1.59 (No. 3) to 21.79 (No. 42). In 12 analyses of rocks, 

most of which have been called basalt by the petrographers describing them, the magnesia content falls below 4 per cent; in 9 analyses it exceeds 10 per cent .. This great variation in magnesia 

is quite independent of the development of olivine, as will be shown in another place. 

Lime 'is also a variable constituent, ranging from 0.86 per cen~ (No. 2) to 13.85 per cent 

(No. 43). In only 7 analyses is it reported below 7 per cent, and in 22 it exceeds 9 per cent . 

. Alk.alies.-The alkalies taken together are very abundant in many of the Hawaiian rocks. 

In 16 analyses more. than 5 ,per cent is given. The trachyte is naturally the most richly alkalic 

rock, but several other types, including some of the most mafic, are also rich in alkalies. 

The most notable chemical characteristic of these rocks is the predominance of soda over 

potash. In only one rock, the ''andesite augitica'' from Kilauea, analyzed by Silvestri, is the 

reported .potash molecularly equal to one-half the soda. In most of the rocks the potash is less 

than one-third of the soda. These molecular relations are given in the table of normative ratios, 

except for a few rocks in which there is some fernie soda. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROCKS. 51 

Mino1· constituents.-Of the 1ninor chemical constituents titanic acid must be considered 

as highly characteristic of these lavas. In 14 analyses from the laboratory of the Geological 

Survey, not considering those of trachytes (Nos. 1 and 2), the range for Ti02 is from 1.48 (No. 38) 

to 4.05 (No. 36), with an average of 2.44 per cent. In eight analyses by Lyons the range is from 

1.88 (No. 3) to 5.35 (No.8), with an average of 3.47 per cent. In the 22 rocks analyzed by 

Lyons and the Survey chemists the average for Ti02 is 2.81 per cent. From these data it seems 

probable that Silvestri's determinations of Ti02 are too low, in most cases at least. He reports 

a trace of Ti02 in three rocks, a maximum of 1.81 per cent and an average for 10 rocks of but 

0. 73 per cent. lfis rocks were all from Kilauea, but all other modern analyses of rocks from that 

center show high contents in Ti02 • Phosphoric acid is probably present in all Hawaiian lavas, 

though seldom reported in.noteworthy amounts. It is most abundant in the alkalic gabbro, 

kauaiite (No. 26), there reaching 2.20 per cent. The water content of Hawaiian rocks is 

decidedly low:. Lyons's analyses were all made on ignited material and thus show no water. 

Only the analyses fro1n the Geophysical Laboratory and the Geological Survey distinguish 

between water expelled above and below 110° C. In these 17 analyses the water above 110° 

C. is less· than 1 per cent in all but the three basic rocks, Nos. 39, 40, and 43. Water expelled 

below 110° C. is usually of very small amount. Baryta and strontia were found in determinable 

a:mounts in most of the rocks analyzed in the Survey laboratory. Manganese is present in considerable amount in these lavas. It is notable that Silvestri reports more than 1 per cent in 

several rocks, while Lyons g~ves a corresponding amount only in the black ash of Honolulu (No. 

37) and 0.32 per cent is the maximum found by the chemists of the Geological Survey in 15 

analyses. Among the rarer substances Zr02, Cr20 3, V20 3, S, and NiO have been determined, 

each in several rocks. Lyons reports CuO in most of his analyses, but no other analyst has found 

it, and it seems possible that the copper detected by Lyons came from utensils used in his analysis. (A recent determination, by George Steiger, of the CuO in a c01nposite sample representing 71 specimens from Hawaii yielded 0.016 and 0.015 per cent in two tests by different 

1nethods.) 

It is notable that the two recent analyses of lavas from Kilauea, made by Ferguson in the 

Geophysical Laboratory, show Cl and Mo03 • While investigating the occurrence of molybdic 

acid in igneous rocks Ferguson found a trace of it in the trachyte obsidian of Puu Waawaa, using 

the sa1ne 1naterial which had been analyzed earlier by Hillebrand (No. 2 of table, p. 47). 

NORMATIVE COMPOSITION. 

The table of norms.-For the interpretation of the variations exhibited in any group of rock 

analyses I find it a great help to translate the analyses into norms. The accompanying table 

gives the norms calculated from the analyses, presented in the same order: 

Norms of Hawaiian lavas. 

1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 9 4. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 7 0. 3 3. 1 

Orthoclase........ 20. 6 29. 5 16. 7 13. 3 11. 1 12. 8 11. 1 5. 0 8. 9 5. 0 16. 7 

Albite............ 62.9 51.9 5L4 34.6 36.2 38.3 34.6 33.0 22.5 32.0 11.0 

Anorthite..... . . . . 3. 6 12. 8 15. 0 .23. 4 12. 8 20. 9 28. 9 28. 4 25. 0 25. 0 

Nephelite................ 5.4 ........ 9.1 6. 3 .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. 6. 8 9. 9 

Zircon............ . 2 ............................................................................... . 

Corundtun... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .4 ............................................................... . Na2Si0a.......... . . . . . . . . . 6 ....................................................................... . 

Actnite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 6 ....................................................................... . 

1Jiopside......... .4 2.9 ........ 10.4 6.8 12.4 7.1 6.3 17.2 16.0 27.8 

Hypersthene...... . 2 4. 0 . .. .. . .. 7. 3 6. 9 6. 3 . . . . . . . . 1. 7 ........ Olivine........... .. . . . .. . 3. 2 .. . . ..... 3. 8 3. 2 5. 7 . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . 9. 3 . . .. .. .. 6. 0 

Magnetite........ . 5. 3 . .. .. .. . 2. 1 6. 7 5. 6 4. 2 4. 6 6. 7 4. 6 5. 3 3. 3 

Hematite......... .6 ........ 3.4 ........ ........ ........ 4.5 1.6 4.0 ....... . Ilmenite.................. .8 3.·7 3.9 4.9 4.9 5.8 10.0 3.4 7.5 ....... . Apatite........... .. . . . . . . . 3 1. 3 2. 7 1. 0 2. 0 2. 0 1. 2 1. 2 ....... . 'l'.ttanite........... 1. 0 ................................................................................ . 

97. 7 99.2 99.9 9g. 5 99.5 99. 4 99.2 99. 3 101. 1 100. 8 99.7 
52 LAVAS OF HA WAll AND- THEIR RELATIONS. 

Norms of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

12 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

8~~~~~~~~-: : ~ ~ ~: : · · · ii: i · · · · io: 6 · ~: ~ · · · ii: i · · · · · 7: s · · · · · 7:2 · · · · · 5:6 · t i ~: ~ ~: ~ Jllbite ........... 29.3 38.3 18.3 27.8 33.5 25.2 26.2 27.8 17.8 16.8 

Jlnorthite ..... _.. 22.2 10.0 30.3 13.3 18.1 27.0 22.0 22.2 29.2 28.6 

22 

'3.3 

18.3 

33.6 

Nephelite ........ -------- 2.6 7.4 ---------------- 2.6 ------------------------ --.-·---- Diopside ......... 4.0 15.8 13.9 17.5 14.6 11.5 21.2 18.1 18.7 11.7 21.1 

Hypersthene ..... 3.7-------- 12.0-------- 7.7 14.5-------- 6.9 14.3 21.4 16.6 

Olivine . . . . . . . . . . 1,3. 7 9. 1 . . . . . . . . 10. 0 3. 1 2. 7 4. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 6 

Magnetite ........ 12.1 11.8 12.3 11.8 13.2 10.2 7.7 8.4 6.5 3.0 

Hematite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. 6 ....................... . Ilmenite . . . . . . . . . 2. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . 8 6. 2 6. 8 2. 3 3. 2 ....... . ilpatite . . . . . . . . . . 1. 7 . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 0 . . . . . . . . . 7 .. 3 . . . . . . . . 1. 0 ....... . Titanite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 0 1· ....•.....•.•••.•...... 

. 100. o 98. 5 100. 9 99. 21 99. o 99. 1 96. 8 99. ~ 1 99. 5 99. 8 99. 5 

23 25 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 

Quartz. . . . . . . . . . . 3. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 4 5. 0 2. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 8 

Orthoclase . . . . . . . 3. 9 5. 6. 7. 2 8. 3 3. 9 1. 7 2. 8 3. 3 1. 7 3. 3 · 2. 2 

J.llbite ........... 27.3 23.1 25.2 29.3 24.6 26.2 18.3 21.0 13.6 28.3 16.8 

J.lnorthite . . . . . . . . 20. 3 25. 3 20. 6 9. 2 20. 0 18. 3 25. 0 20. 9 29. 2 10. 8 23. 1 

Nephelite ............. · ... ---------------- 3.7 -·-·---- -------- ................ -------- ........ -------- ·niopside .... _____ 25.2 23.0 24.2 23.8 30.3 19.9 21.2 25.0 5.1 30.1 22.9 

Hypersthene..... 11.8 10.5 7. 0 . . . . . . . . 9. 3 14.3 20.9 16.9 36.8 10.6 25.6 

Olivine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. 0 8. 3 4. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 6 7. 2 7. 5 ....... . Magnetite . . . . . . . . 4. 4 4. 4 4. 6 6. 7 4. 2 5. 1 2. 8 2. 3 2. 3 7. 7 3. 0 

Hematite ...... ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 1 ..................................... _ .. Ilmenite . . . . . . . . . 3. 8 . . . . . . . . 1. 8 7. 6 5. 0 4. 7 5. 2 4. 7 3.2 ............ 4.8 

J.lpatite . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . 5 . 5 5. 0 . 6 . 6 1.0 .3 ...................... .3 

100.5 100.4 99.4 98.4 99.71 100.9 99.0 99.71 99.41 98.3 99.5 

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 

Quartz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 8 4~ 5 ......................... · .......... ______ . _ .. ___ ....... . Orthoclase ............ _ . . . 6. 1 4. 5 4. 5 2. 2 2. 8 1. 7 1. 7 

J.llbite ................ _ _ _ _ 25. 7 12. 8 10. 0 13. 6 6. 3 . . . . . . . . 11. 5 11. 0 _______ _ 

Jlnorthite ................. 8.1 20.·6 12.2 20.3 20.0 1.7 17.8 14.7 11.1 

r:E~i~~~~-::~~~~~:::::::~: :~·:~::~~ ----~~~- ---~~~~- 2~:~ -------- ----~~~- 2~:~ ::::~~~: :~:~~~~: 1~:~ J.lcmite ................... _ .......... ·- . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ..... _____ . ___ .. _ ... _ . _ . _ ..... _ . _ : _ . _ . _ . _ . __ . __ _ 

Diopside ................... - 39.8 26.4 . 19.4 13.4 14.9 32.3 17.4 16.2 16.8 31.0 

Hypersthene.............. 6.4 ........ _, ______ -------- 23.9 -------- ........ 19.5 17.9 ... · .... . Olivine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 24. 5 12. 5 16. 3 18. 7 24. 2 20. 2 27. 4 30. 8 18. 6 

J.lkern1anite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 2 ...... ; . . . . . . . . . 12. 0 ... _ . __ . . . . . . . . . 3. 9 

Magnetite................. 10.7 3. 0 13.0 11.1 3. 3 4. 4 9. 5 2.1 3. 3 8.1 

Hematite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 0 ....................................................... . Ilmenite.................. . . . . . . . . 3. 7 7. 7 5. 5 2. 9 4. 7 5. 5 3. 0 3. 5 6.1 

J.lpatite........................... .5 2.7 2.7 .4 .7 2.4 .3 .3 2.0 

Chronrite ........................................................................... ~ ... _ . . 2 

97.5 98.9 100.4 98.5 100.2 98.5 98.0 99.5 100.2 95.6 

N O'l'E.~The norms of analyses published in Washington's Tables have been recalculated in order to show apatite 

and use MnO, BaO, SrO, etc., which were sometimes disregarded in the original calculations. · 

Object of normative study.-For the benefit of petrographers who have not utilized the 

norm as a means of studying rock analyses, it may not be superfluous to point out again that 

the analysis of an igneous rock represents as completely as is now possible the composition of a 

former magmatic solution which under certain physical conditions has solidified into that rock_:_ 

hyaline, ~ypohyaline, or crystalline. A magmatic solution is a most. complex system which, 

as crystallization progresses, naturally suffers niany changes. corresponding to those of attendan~ 

conditions, especially of temperature. Now,- it is well known that many magmas may resolve 

into 1nore or less markedly different mineral combinations or modes under the influence of 
CHARACTERISTICS OF TE_[E ROCKS. 53 

varying and little-understood conditions. Yet the general laws of chemical affinity control the 

result of crystallization to a high degree, and the norm is a s~t of standard mineral molecules, 

chosen with regard to the laws of chen1ical affmity, into which all rock analyses may be translated for purposes both of c01nparison and of classification. In fact, the norn1ative n1olecules 

are chiefly those which 1nany petrographers regard as present in the magmatic solution shortly 

prior to consolidation, if not at that time. Moreover, the normative molecules correspond to 

those o.f the n10de to a nniCh greater extent than many petrographers realize. 

Salic molecules.-On taking the elements of the norm in order, it appeal'S at once a striking feature of these basaltic rocks that 13 of them contain normative quartz, and that the 

rocks so characterized are not as a group the ones richest in Si02 or salic molecules. This 

feature is discussed in another place. 

Orthoclase occupies the subordinate place determined by potash. Albite is notably prominent, as a rule. By taking nephelite and albite together the strong sodic character of the 

group is 1nade very clear. 

N ephelite appears in 15 norms, indicating ip.sufficient silica for the formation of albite, but 

the abnorn1ative n1ode as regards this constituent is one of the interesting points to be discussed elsewhere. 

Leucite appears in but three norn1s, and these of very basic rocks. 

Femic molecules.-Diopside, which depends on the excess of lime after anorthite and apatite, 

is found in all but one norm-No. 3. The rock is one analyzed by Lyons and is briefly described 

as rich in feldspar m'ld poor in olivine. · 

I-Iypersthene occui·s in all norn1s except those with nephelite and varies greatly in importance, being at a 1naxinnm1 of 36.8 per cent inN o. 31. It is usually rich i;n magnesia, and in some 

norn1s has no iron. This 1nay be due to analytical errors as ·regards the determination of iron 

oxides. 

Olivine is highly variable, and is in n1anynonns less thari in the mode of the rocks analyzed, 

n. discrepancy t.o be conunented on in discussing relations of norn1 and mode. 

The total of iron-bearing oxides js small in ma;ny norn1s, and yet it is higher than it should 

be in all those where Fe20 3 has been erroneously determined in excess, as may be assumed to 

be the fact in so1ne of the analyses. The ilmenite, which runs unusually high, corresponds with 

the abundance of Ti02 in the analyses. . 

Apatite is variable, rising to 5 per cent in the alkalic gabbro of Kauai and appearing to 

the mnount of about 2 per cent in son1e of the more alkalic rocks. It is very low in most of the 

notably basic lavas, but becomes prorllinent in the recent and relatively alkalic nephelite-melilite 

bn.salt and sinrilar rocks near Honolulu 

Diagram of norms.--The norn1s are graphically expressed in a new form of diagram (Pl. 

IV), which also shows the distribution of the rocks in Classes II, III, and IV of the quantitative 

syste1n. This diagram is simply a rectangle the diagonal of which expresses the possible variation of salic (Sal) and fernie (Fern) components from 0 to 100 per cent. The scale and form of 

the rectangle n1ay, of course, be suited to the needs. of special cases. The norms being recalculated to 100 per cent, where necessary, the position of a given rock·in this diagram is shown 

by the percentage of Sal or Fern. Fron1 the point on the base of the rectangle thus determined 

an ordinate 1nay be drawn which will be divided by the diagonal intq parts corresponding to the 

mnounts of Sal and Fern. The elements of Sal and Fern may then be laid off additively on 

tlris ordinate. The norm may be represented by all the molecules stated or by groups of these, 

or the chem.ico-nrineral character 1nay be expressed in greater detail by using the constituent 

parts of cmnpound1nolecules, such as diopside, hypersthene, and olivine. · 

In the n.ccmnpanying diagran1 the salic n1olecules are shown as in the norn1s, but the fernie 

silicates have been split into lin1e, iron, and magnesia n1etasilicates and orthosilicates. The 

smn of the n1etasilicates equals diopside and hypm'Sthene; that of the orthosilicates equals olivine. 

The arrangement of the diagra1n is such as to show readily the total of liine a;nd magnesia silicates, 

through placing anorthite and wollastoni~~ together, and enstatite and forsterite. The iron 
54 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

metasilicate is placed between those of lime and'nlagnesia; but fayalite comes next to magnetite, 

which is followed by hematite a:r+d iln1eni:te, so that all the iron-bearing molecules come together 

except the metasilicate. By placing. akermanite next to anorthite, when it occurs, all limebearing molecules come together except the subordinate apatite. 

By this diagram the normative mineral character of the whole series of analyses, which is 

useful as an interpretation of the chemical statement, is brought out in a striking manner. 

It 1nay be well to call attention to the fact that the quartzose orders 4, 3, etc., may be 

readily distinguished on thj.s diagram from the perfelic order 5, when the salic part of the norn1 is 

free from corundum. If the normative quartz is plotted next to the upper boundary of the 

diagram, lines may be drawn through -the sections of Classes I, II, and III, representing 12.50 

and 37.50 per cent of normative quartz. These lines represent the limits of the quardofelic 

order 4, as against the perfelic order 5 on the one side and the quarfelic order 3 on the other. 

Orders 2 and 1 can obviously also be expressed by the lines representing 62.50 and 87.50 per cent 

of normative quartz in the salic division. 

RELATWN OF- NORM AND MODE. 

The Hawaiia;n rocks range from those in which feldspars greatly predominate, and for 

which norm and mode must be in practical agreement, to those which are rich in augite and 

olivine, and for which several couditions lead to marked divergence between norn1 and mode. 

This divergence is due partly to the abnormative character of the alferric augite, partly to the 

entrance of FeO and Ti02 into the augite, instead of forming the full amount of normative 

magnetite and ilmenite, ·and partly to a greater development of olivine than is necessary considering the amount of siliua present. Other minor causes of variation are to be recognized. 

Quartz.-The appearance of quartz in the norms of 13 rocks raises. at once the query 

whether the silica determinations. in the analyses concerned are correct. But there seems to 

be no good reason for casting suspicion on these figures, for the normative quartz is not especially· 

prominent in those rocks that have the highest silica contents. Eight of the 13 rocks are 

from I{ilauea, and were analyzed by ·Cohen (3), Silvestri {2), Phillips (1), Steiger (1), and Ferguson (1). These rocks of Kilauea embrace the kilaueite of Silvestri, from tlie outer caldera 

wall, one fragment in tuff, and severru modern flows from Halemaumau, including those of 

1843, 1883, and 1894. The five rocks analyzed by Lyons which show normative quartz include 

bronzite basalts of Oahu and highly feldspathic lavas of the Kohala Mountains. 

If the normative quartz is due to analytical errors, the mistake is more likely -to lie in an 

excessive amount of ferric oxide. Such an error results in the appropriation of an undue amount 

of FeO for magnetite. The analyses of Lyons are especially subject to this suspicion. 

By the normative calculation FeO is assigned to Fe20 3 and Ti02 in the ratio 1: 1 be~ore any 

FeO is allotted to a fernie silicate. No doubt the silicates are richer in FeO than appears in 

the norm, but it is to be remembered that Ti02 also enters into the silicates with the FeO, and 

hence the amount of .Si02 needed for the augite is perhaps no greater than that allotted in the 

normative calculation. 

As an offset to the possible decrease of free silica comes the increase where olivine is developed in the rock in excess of the normative figure. As has been shown in the case of the basalt 

of Olokele Canyon, Kauai, this may result in the presence of abnormative, modal free silica. 

It is believed that this excessive development of olivine is common among Hawaiian rocks and 

that in consequence free silica in some form must be present in many of them, even where it 

would not appear in the norm. · · 

No modal quartz or tridymite has been reported from the rocks whose analyses show normative quartz, but several of them were partly hyaline. The obscure development of tridymite 

and cristobalite in the chrysophyre of Kauai gives a warning ~hat free silica may readily be 

ov~rlooked where the assumption of its occurrence might be considered as painfully heterodox. 

Feldspars and lenads.-As to the feldspars, the norms must represent nearly the modal 

composition, except for isomorphous mixt:ure. Micas .being a~sent and hornblende being 
0 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Quartz 

Orthoclase 

Leu cite 

Albite 

Nephelite 

CLASS I 

2 3 

Q 

CLASS II 

4 56 8 9 10 II 121314 

or 

CLASS Ill 

15 19 21 22 23 2425 36 37 36 

DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE VARIATION IN NORMATIVE COMPOSITION OF HAWAIIAN LAVAS. 

39 4041 

ab 

4Z43 

I 

I 

c 

~ ne 

I 

.---------· 

an 

CLASS IV 

Metasilicates 

Diopside 

Hypersthene 

Iron oxides 

PROFESSIONAL PAPER 88 PLATE IV 

CLASS V 
CLASSIFICATION. 55 

known only in two rocks described by Silvestri, augite is the only alferric silicate whose presence 

can materially interfere with the development of the feldspars in the normative proportions. 

Analyses of augite from IIawaiian lavas are not at hand, but in many of them this mineral has 

the characters of varieties presumably not rich in alumina and the alkalies. 

Orthoclase doubtless occurs in part in solid ·solution in the plagioclase and in part in minute 

unrecognized interstitial particles or in the ·vitrophyric base of many rocks. 

Leucite has not heen obse;rved, but is certainly a potential constituent of a few lavas and. 

n1'1.1st appear where such rocks are holocrystalline. 

Nephelite, which appears in 15 norms, is probably present in the JIIOde of but few rocks, 

aside from the nephelite and melilite basalts of the basic end of tlie series. Its absence from 

rocks like many of those analyzed may be directly accounted for in two ways. In the first 

place, an abnormative development of olivine in any rock with normative nep4elite must free 

silica which would very probably be utilized in turning a certain amount of normative nephelite · 

into albite. In the second place, it appears probable that the normative nephelite may be concealed as carnegieite in solid solution in plagioclase. The possibility of such occult molecules, 

to use Iddings's expressive term, is certainly to be taken into account in studying the rel.ations 

of norm and mode. The norm may prove to be an important aid in the detection of such · 

occult constituents. 

Nephelite "ms observed in the flow from Haleakala as represented by the specimen from 

Vieira's ranch (No. 6), but in less amount than appears in the norm of this rock. 

Pyroxenes.-The acmit.e or regirite molecule appears in the norm of but one rock, namely, 

the trachytic obsidian of Puu Waawaa (No. 2), a .rock which would no do.ubt exhibit some 

alkalic .and ferric pyroxene or amphibole were it to be found in fresh, holocrystalline st-ate. 

The regirite molecule is visible in part of the augite of the granular kauaiite (No. 26) and appears 

also in the soda trachyte of :Maui (No. 1). 

The combined normative diopside and hypersthene of these rocks must represent approximately the modal augite with some aluminous and alkalic molecules added thereto. Titanium 

also doubtless enters into the augite, but s.eldom betrays itself by a pinkish color, as in the 

kauaiite. . 

Olivine.-The abnormative develqpment of olivine in many Hawaiian lavas has been 

referred to in several places, especially with reference to its effect upon the occurrence of 

quartz, or some other form of free silica, and of nephelite. It appears to be a notabLe feature 

of the Hawaiian lavas that olivine occurs in greater abundance ·than it would if the available 

silica of the magma had been utilized to produce compounds of the highest possible silicitythe assumption at the base of the normative calculation. Such excess of olivine must be 

accompanied by a decrease in the metasilicate expressed in the norm as hypersthene. 

Akermanite ·and meZiZite.-Akermanite appears in three norms (Nos. 37, 40, 43)· and corresponds to the development of melilite, though not an accurate expression of its abundance. 

The akermanite Jnolecule is here, as in many other roc.ks, a serviceable though not entirely 

satisfactory representative in the norm of the complex n1odal melilite. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

QUALITATIVE SYSTEM. 

An appropriate classification and naming of Hawaiian lavas by the current mineralogical 

or qualitative system is a task of great difficulty. They belong mainly to the general family 

of basalts, but even here arises the quest.ion, vital to adherents of the Rosenbusch system, 

whether they are t'rue basalts or trachydolerites. Apparently it is inadmissible to say that 

both occur together, and I must leave this problem for those who believe in a distinction of 

alkalic and calcic members of the great basaltic group, with reference to data bearing on this 

point presented in later s.ections of this discussion. . 

In these lavas each of the essential elements of basalt, plagioclase, augite, and olivine varies 

in amount from dominance almost or quite to disappearance. The character of plagioclase 
56 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

varies fron1 calcic labradorite to andesine or oligoclase. Considering the rarity or absence of . 

olivine in some of the lavas, Cohen, E. S. Dana, Lyons, and ·Silvestri have called certain 

rocks andesite or pointed. ot1t the gradation to andesite. If the character of the plagioclase 

is taken in account in deciding whether rocks poor in olivine are basalts or andesites, one 

encounters the difficulty that the more distinct feldspars are apt to be labradorite where 

chemical analysis shows that much sodic feldspar and some orthoclase must be in the obscure 

or hyaline matrix. 

Of the 43 rocks analyzed, 16 have normative labradorite and the same nun1ber andesine. 

Although the tendency appears to be marked to introduce greater precision into current system 

by recognition of quantitative factors, this tendency has not gone far enough to meet the 

requirements of the variations exhibited by the Hawaiian lavas of the basaltic group. 

In Part II of Iddings's work on igneous rocks he proposes certain nan1es intended to give 

greater precision to mineralogical classification. Among these are several terms derived from· 

Hawaii. Thus hawaiite 1 is proposed for salfemic andesine basalts. This refers to normative 

andesine and implies an estimate, at least, of chemical composition. By this definition Nos. 15, 

16, 18, 19, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, and 32 belong to hawaiite, when they also carry olivine. Several 

of them, however, are hyaline, and one must refer to their chemical composition for this classification. 

As has been stated elsewhere in this paper, Iddings has further proposed the names 

kohalaite 2 for a dosalic oligoclase ·andesite and kauaiite 3 for an oligoclase-augite diorite, referring 

in these ~ases also to the average or normative plagioclase. 

The more felsic and more mafic lavas of Hawaii are more readily named than the feldspar 

basalt group, and their classification need not be specially discussed here, except to refer to the 

uncertainty as to whether such rocks as the dosalanes of Haleakala (Nos. 4 and 6) and Mauna 

Kea (Nos. 5 and 7) are, under the circumstances, alkalic or calc-alkalic, in the Rosenbusch sense. 

For instance, a disciple of Rosenbusch could not accept both of Daly's. names (andesitic basalt 

and trachydolerite) for the allied lavas of Mauna Kea. 

QUANTITATIVE. SYSTEM. 

The detailed quantitative classification of aU rocks analyzed -is shown in the accompanying 

table of normative ratios and symbols. This has been carried out with a fivefold subdivision of 

certain subrangs and subgrads where the threefold subdivision would have been sufficient for 

the purpose of applying the quantitative names. The purp(Jse·of this detail is to bring out more 

uniformly and clearly in the symbols certain characteristic chemical features of these rocks. 

For the same reason the divisions of Class IV have been transposed in the table to bring tP,e 

ratios and symbols for each normative datum in one column. 'The expression o~transitional 

. and intermediate relations in the symbols by the use of parentheses and accent iiuirks,. respectively, accords with the recent proposal of the authors of the quantitative system. 4 The quantitative names, with numbers corresponding to those in the table, are given below. 

Quantitative system names. 

1. Nordmarkose. 16. Andose-camptonose. 31. Auvergnose. 

2. Nordmarkose-umptekose. 17. Auvergnose-camptonose. 32. Camptonose-ornose. 

3. 'La-rvikose-akerose. 18. Ornose-camptonose. 33. Auvergnose. 

4. Akerose-essexose. 19. Ornose. 34. Kilauose. 

5. Andose. 20. Auvergnose. 35. Camptonose-auvergnose. 

6. Akerose. 21. Auvergnose. 36. Monchiquose-(unnamed). 

7. Andose. 22. Auvergnose. 37. Casselose. 

8. Beerbachose-andose. 23. Camptonose-ornose. 38. Pal:isadose-hilose. 

9. Salemose-andose. 24. Ornose~auvergnose. 39. Rossweinose-uvaldose. 

10. Beerbachose-andose. 25. Camptonose. · . 40. Uvaldose-casselose. 

11. Limburgose-salemose. 26. Kilauose. 41. Rossweinose-wehrlose. 

12. Camptonose-andose. 27. Ornose-camptonose. 42. Rossweinose-wehrlose. 

13. Kilauose-akerose. 28. Ornose. 43. U val dose. 

14. Auvergnose-koghose. 29. Ornose-camptonose. 

15. Monchiquose-kilauose. 30. Auvergnose. 

1 Igneous rocks, pt. 2, p. 198, New York, 1913. 2 Idem; p. 193. a Idem, p. 173. 4 Jour. Geology, vol. 20, pp. 554-557,1912. 
No. 

Clas3. 

Sal 

Fem 

' I 

Order. 1 

Q-L j 

F 

.N&mative ratios and symbols. 

ClasAes I and n.-Pel'5a.lanes and dosalanes. 

r I 

Subrang. , Grad. 

1 

Section of l SublUR<L ! Section of I ~· 

CaO' 

Symbols. 

~'!~0 ~~~~~~·----~--~!~--~.--~,--~,--~~--~~--- ! Na~O' ~ M I 0 I CaO" ! FeO Class. Order. l Rang. II Subrang. i Grad. I ~. of Subgrad. ~~~~f 

--1 ! 1---- I ~--- I l---------

···················-'·········· l' 5 1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

12.02 

6.97 

5.89 

2.61 

2.46 

2.4 

2.20 

2.09 

1.93 

1. 83 

I. 72 

I. 70 

I. 66 

1.64 

1.50 

1.50 

1.49 

1.39 

1.33 

1.28 

1.28 

1.25 

1.22 

1.16 

1.14 

1.05 

1.04 

1.03 

. 95 

. 827 

. 81 

. 76 

. 76 

. 72 

. 70 

.66 

0.03 

. 066 

.05 

.144 

.00 

.098 

.025 

.004 

.113 

.05 

.182 

.00 

.04 

0.156 

.1418 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.115 

.06 

. 09 

.00 

.07 

. 00 

.00 

.08 

.05 

.11 

. 05 

. 00 

.00 

. 00 

. 02 

.02 

.08 

. 50 

12.08 

00 

2.78 

2.30 

. 94 

2.56 

1.14 

. 69 

. 81 

. 77 

. 95 

. 95 

2.81 

0.41 

2.06 

1.20 

. 63 

. 87 

. 69 

. 42 

. 42 

. 34 

. 81 

. 59 

. 82 

2.55 

. 75 

. 80 

.44 

. 613 

.28 

I. 54 

. 43 

2.07 

. 58 

1. 68 

-- ----- ---·- --

Class. Grad. Su~frd. No. Sal L 

Fem F CaO' 

37 0.596 00 00 

38 .563 0.0 0.41 

39 .49 .11 . 39 

40 .46 17.5 15.5 

41 .452 .0 . 39 

42 . 38 .0 .45 

43 . 37 1.33 1. 23 

-

48730°-15. (To face page 56.) 

0.31 

.45 

. 33 

.24 

. 29 

.24 

. 30 

.143 

.24 

.15 

. 54 

. 36 

.24 

0.29 

. 25 

. 22 

. 27 

.17 

.04 

. 29 

. 34 

.17 

.13 

. 23 

. 37 

. 22 

.15 

. 96 

.137 

.15 

.11 

.11 

.12 

. 22 

. 23 

.12 

0.11 

14.9 

.44 

I. 33 

1.65 

2.00 

. 94 

. 69 

3.31 

1.04 

10.40 

I. 49 

2.11 

2. 11 

2.27 

I. 92 

2.61 

1.86 

1.52 

3. 10 

3.42 

13.65 

4.50 

9.41 

6.11 

2.00 

4.30 

2.28 

5. 30 

6.62 

8.95 

6.30 

6.16 

4.32 

7.56 

1.24 

2. 50 3. 40 . 2. 44 (I)II 5' oo 5. 61 1. 21 (I)II 5 

2. 74 2. 00 . 72 II (5)6 

4. 43 4. 84 1. 05 II 5 ~~ aM .~ II ~ 

oo 3. 02 1. 76 II 5 oo 4. 63 . 94 II' 5 

1. 85 3. 10 1. 09 • II' 5(6) oo 1. 94 1. 26 II(III) 5 

4. 67 1. 73 1. 30 II(III) 16 

. 56 8. 00 . 53 II(III) 5 

1. 74 3. 10 . 28 II(III) 5 

Class m.-Salfemanes. 

00 3.63 1. 24 fll)III 4(5) 

1.75 3.24 . 57 (IIrii 5(6) 

7.2 3.42 . 33 (II III 5 

9.71 5.08 .456 (II III 5 

4.57 2.18 1.70 'Ill 5 00 2.36 3.40 'Ill (4)5 00 3.17 . 79 III 5 00 5.47 . 54 III '5 

10.58 3. 22 1. 75 III 5 00 3.36 1.57 III '5 

4.14 3.07 1.15 III 5 

3. 75 2.68 . 75 III 5 

4.94 I. 58 1.18 III 5' 00 2.01 1.04 III 5 00 3. 13 4.43 III (4)5 00 3. 31 1.52 III 5 

9. 03 3.03 1.556 III 5 

5.82 18.7 2.28 III 5 

5.41 2.69 2.03 III' 5 00 3.58 1. 70 III' 5 00 1. 58 1. 77 Ill' 5 

1.09 3.86 2.39 Ill' 5' 

I. 56 3.20 2.50 III(IV) 6' 

- --------- --

Class IV.-Dofemanes. 

Section of Section of 

sub grad. Order. order. Rang. Subrang. 

K20' P+O p (MgFe)O MgO 

Na20' ~ 0 CaO" FeO Class. Grad. 

0.20 2.55 0.49 1. 69 2.01 (III~ IV 9 

.15 9.37 2.08 R53 3.57 (III IV 5 . 22 6.20 1.33 3.36 2.50 'IV 5(6) . 26 3.10 .54 1.86 l. 77 1 IV 9 

.14- 12.28 1.30 8.49 3.42 1IV 5 

.14+ 9.36 1.11 8. 77 3.70 IV 5 

.14- 3.77 I. 38 2.31 2.77 IV 7 

1' 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3' 

3 

3' 

3 

3 

4 

2' 

3 

3(4) 

3 

3' 

4 

4 

4 

3 

(3)4 

3 

2 

3' 

3 

4 

3(4) 

4 

(2)3 

4 

2' 

~3)4 2 3) 

Sub grad. 

1 

4 

4 

1 

4 

'4 

3 

I 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4(5) 

4 

4(5) 

(3)4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4' 

4 

4(5) 

5 

4 

4 

4(5) 

(4)5 

4' 

4 

4' 

4(5) 

5 

(4)5 

4(5) 

!:li 

4' 

4' 

(4)5 

1' 

4 

'3 

(2)3 

2' 

3 

3' 

2 

3 

1' 

(2)3 

2' 

2' 

2 

2' 

2 

2(3) 

(2)3 

2 

2 

1 

'2 

1(2) 

(1)2 

2' 

2 

2 

(1)2 

1(2~ 1(2 

H~~ 2 

1(2) 

3 

Symbols. 

Section of Order. sub grad. 

4' 2 

4(5) 1(2) 

4' (1)2 

4 2 

(4)5 1' 

4(5) 1(2) 

(4)5 2 

2 

1 

2 

'2 

2' 

1 

1 

2(3) 

1 

'2 

(3)4 

2(3) 

1 

2(3) 

1 (2) 

1' 

'2 

1 

1 

1 

F 

1 

2 

2 

'2 

1 

1 

1 

1 (2) 

(1~2 (1 2 

1 

1 

3 

(2)3 

Section of 

order. 

'4 

2' 

'3 

(3)4 

'3 

3 

'3 

2 

(1)2 

2' 

'2 

2 

2 

'2 

2 

2' 

2(3) 

1(2) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

'2 

2' 

2 

2 

'2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

(2)3 

2' 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

(2)3 

2 

2 

Rang. 

2(3) 

1(2) 

2 

2(3) 

1(2~ 1(2 

2 

2 

3 

3' 

3 

3' 

2(3) 

3 

3 

3 

'3 

(3)4 

4 

3 

(3)4 

4 

'4 

2(3) 

2 

3 

~3)4 2 3) 

(2)3 

3 

3' 

3 

3 

'2 

2(3) 

3 

2 

2' 

2(3) 

2(3) 

2 

2 

Subrang. 

2' 

2 

2 

2(3) 

2 

2 

2 
CLASSIFICATION. 57 

General ?'esult of the classijication._;_All but the three most salic rocks come within the range 

of two cln.sses; that is, in Class III or the adjacent halves of Classes II and IV. 

As to the relation of feldspar to quartz or lenads, determining orders in Classes II and III 

and grads in Class IV, one is quardofelic and 36 are perfelic. Of the latter, two are transitional 

to the quardofelic and tlu·ee to the lendofelic order. Three are lendofelic, one of them transitional to perfelic, and tlu·ee of the basic rocks are still richer in lenads. It is interesting to note 

that the rocks richest in noi·mative quartz are mostly near the center of Class III. 

The strong position of alkali feldspar and lenads ns compared with anorthite is brought out 

strikingly in the· symbols. But 11 rocks are docalcic and none percalcic, while four are 

peralkali0. 

'fhe dominance of sodic over potassic silicates is most strongly emphasized in the symbols, 

whieh indicate that 32 rocks are dosodic, only one of them being transitional to the sodipotassic 

subrang, while seven are transitional to the persodic divisions and 11 a1·e persodic. This is the 

most persistent characteristic brought out by the normative analysis. 

'fhe ratio p ~ 0 is one of the most irregular and is very directly affected by analytical error~~ 

if such there are, in the determination of Fe20 3 and FeO. High Fe20 3 increases the magnetite or 

hmnatite~ and thus has 1narked effect on this ratio. The great majority of the norms are dopolic, 

and n1ost of the poln1itic ones belong in Class II. 

J The low atuount of normative olivine causes a great many rocks to fall in the perpyric divi-

. sion, while another large group is dopyric, and the pyrolic rocks are almost restricted to Class 

IV. Only three rocks are domolic. 

The ratio for (l\6~~~~ 0 is one of the least variable, 35 out of 42 rocks in Classes II, III, and 

IV yielding domiric norms, while five are pern1iric and only two calcimiric. 

'In the relation of magnesia to ferrous iron, there is a general don1inance of magnesia, 

which increases in relative amount from Class II to Class IV, all the latter rocks being domagnesic, 

while most of the former are mag:riesiferrous or doferrous. 

Analytical errors doubtless affect some of the ratios, but the general characters of the 

group of rocks analyzed must be correctly expressed in the symbols and stand out at a glance 

with great clearness. 

Quamtitative names.-A striking feature of the table of quantitative names is the predominance of con1pound nan1es. This arises from the fact that a large majority of all rocks are 

transitional in some one of the four or five factors involved in the classification as far as subrang. 

Many are transitional in 1nore than one respect, and were it practicable such rocks should bear 

1nore than two parts in the compound name expressing their classification. But if symbols 

expressing transitional· character are used, the full compound te~·m is not necessary. It is 

desirable, however, as my own experience indicates, to use the simple term only for the rock that 

has no transitional relations. · 

'fhe disadvantage of a long name is self-evident, but it seems to me small compared with 

the advantage of the greater accuracy of characterization which is possible with the compound. 

Naturally, this can not be carried too far. Compound names are often recognized as desirable 

in the nuneralogical system, and manifestly must come into frequent use if the names of that 

system are really defined, with. bounds. · 

The relations of the various rocks belonging to camptonose, ornose, and auvergnose are 

pretty clearly indic.ated by the names of the table, but still n1ore effectively by the symbols. It 

should be ren1embered that the last name of a con1pound is that of the subrang to which a given 

rock strictly belongs, and that the first name indicates transitional relations which n1ay exist 

· either in subrang, rang, order, or class. 

G?'OU1J8 under the quantitative system.-When the data brought together in the table of 

ratios, symbols, and names are reviewed the chemical characteristics of the analyzed rocks, as 

interpreted by the normative calculations, are clearly brought out. The largest group of rocks 

of closely allied normative composition embraces those, 18 in number, belonging to auvergnose 
58 LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

(8), camptonose (6), and orno~Se (4). Considering first the salic molecules, through which this 

c1assification as far as subrang is reached, we may place these rocks either in the alkalicalcic 

rang camptonase or the docalcic rang auvergnase. The ratios show.that 8 out of the 10 rocks 

falling in camptonase belong in the more calcic half and that 7 out of 8 in auvergnase come in its. 

less calcic half. That means that 15 rocks of these adjacent rangs fall within a range equal to 

that of a rang. 

The 18 rocks of this group are all dosodic or per~Sodic and fall, in fact, within a range equal 

to that of a full subrang. 

As to the fernie constituents there is also a close correspondence between most of the rocks 

of this group. Twelve fall in the dopolic grad, ·five others are in the narrow transitional zones 

on either side, and one is perpolic. 

The ratios of pyroxene to olivine bring 12 of these rocks in the perpyric section, five in the 

dopyric division; two of these being transitional to perpyric, and but one is pyrolic. 

That magnesia and iron strongly dominate over lime in the fernie molecules of this group 

is shown by the fact that 17 out of 18 rocks belong in the domiric subgrad, while the remaining 

one is permiric. . 

The relation of magnesia to iron is shown by the reference of 12 of these rocks to the adjacent transitional zones, while five are strongly domagnesic and but one is markedly doferrous. 

The ne:x:t most important group of the analyzed rocks comes in Class II and represent~S the 

dosalic lavas corresponding to camptonose ill being alkalicalcic and dosodic. Five rocks fall 

in subrang andose (II..5.3.4) and three other~S are transitional to it. 'This is not so homogeneous 

a group as the larger one just discu13sed. But two rocks belong in the central division of andose. 

Two are in the transitional zone to the percalcic subrang beerbachose, corresponding to ornose. 

Three are transitional as regards class, being very near camptonose. One is transitional to the 

lendofehc 13ubrang salemose (II.6.3.4). 

The rocks belonging in or adjacent to andose vary considerably in their femic constituents, 

as the ratios and symbols show. They represent in the main a gradation from the more fernie 

camptonose to the more salic akerose. 

Akerose, the 'domalkalic subrang adjacent to andose, is represented by three rocks, while 

two others are transitional to it. Kilauose, the corresponding subrang of Class III, has the same 

representation. These are the domalkalic rocks and all retain. the dosodic character. One 

akerose is transitional to the p~rsalic larvikose. 

The rocks of Class IV are similar in their femic characters, but differ notably in the salic 

constituents, two being peralkalic and four docalcic. The peralkalic rock~' are also perlenic. 

DISTRmUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAWAIIAN ROCKS. 

IN THE HAWAIIAN GROUP. 

General distribution.-It is evident from the statements of the first part of this paper that 

each of the larger islands contains several kinds of rocks showing important differences in both 

chemical and mineral composition. ·The converse proposition is also true, that several kinds of 

rocks are known in all or nearly all the larger islands. But our knowledge concerning all the 

centers of eruptio,n is so meager that we may well assume that nearly all the varieties described, 

and perhaps some others, actually occur on each of the principal islands. 

From the accompanying table the reader may quickly see the facts of known distribution 

for the entire Hawaiian group. Basaltic lavas of several varieties are the most common, but, 

as appears in further discussion of the rocks thus far a:nalyzed, there is a great range in the composition of the basalts and we do not yet know to what extent the basalts of individual centers 

have peculiarities of their own. One notable apparent limitation is that of the bronzite basalts, 

which are especially abundant in Oahu, at both of the great centers, and are at least rare in other 

islands. The melilite-nephelite basalts have been found on three islands and may well be 
1:-.-

', 

DISTlUBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OP HAWAIIAN ROCKS. 59 

present on all, among the products of recent and subsidiary eruptions. Possibly that stage of 

differentiation and eruption which these rocks represent has not yet been reached on Hawaii, 

w:Uess perhaps in Kohala, the oldest and least-known center. Not much attention has been 

paid to the products of the minor and recent eruptions of Kauai, Oahu, and other extinct centers, but we can reasonably assume from general experience -that they are, as a ruJe, notably 

more mafic or 1nore felsic than the lavas of older eruptions. ·The discovery in other islands 

of a variety equal to that occUlTing in the vicinity of Honolulu may plausibly_ be expected. 

Felsic lavas which may be considered as complementary to the highly mafic lavas of Oahu 

and Kauai have not yet been found on those islands. The trachytes of Puu W aawaa, on 

· I-Iawaii, and of Lahaina, on Maui, however, represent in a general way such felsic magmas, and 

the occurrence of nephelite-1nelilite basalt with the trachyte of Lahaina indicates the genetic 

connection. 

Xenoliths of peridotite and pyroxenite are reported from Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and 

I-Iawaii and doubtless occur in other places. 

Distribution of rocks in Hawaiian Islands. 

Soda tmchyte. Oligoclase rocks. •rrachydolerite. Olivine-poor basalts. Bronzite basalts. 

Lesser islands ......................................................................... . 

Kauai ......................... l{p.uaiite ................ Ra1:e? Recent? ................ . Oahu ................................................... Recent? ........ Common .... .. Moloka.i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1\iohle) ....................... . Maui. ......... Lahaina ................... Haleakala. (Mohle) ....................... . Hnwaii ........ Puu Waawaa. Kohalaite... MaunaKea. Kilauea, Ko- ............... . 

Pieritio basalt. Limburgite. 

hala (Cohen). 

Nephelite basalt. Nephelite-melilite 

basalt. 

Normal basalts. 

Laysan Neckar 

(Mohle). 

Common. 

Rare? 

Common (Mohle). 

West Maui (Mohle). 

Common. 

Periclotitio xenoliths. 

Kauai........ .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. Probably rare. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . One occurrence... In limburgite. · Oahu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. . . .. • .. . . .. . Several occur- Several occur- Salt Lake craters. rences. rences. ~folokai ................................................................................. . Mmri ........... Haleakala ............................................... Lahaina (Mohle) . Hnwaii ......... Mauna Loa, Kilauea •........... : .......................................... Mauna Kea, Huala.lai. 

Lack of information concerning roclcs· of some is·lands.-The rocks of islands not mentioned in 

the table of distribution have not been identified by any petrographer. But there is no ·reason to 

question the general correctness of the term basalt,. which is usually applied to these rocks 

where they have received casual mention. It is rather curious that three islands in the main 

group have received practically no attention from geologists. Lanai and Kahoolawe, situated 

to the west of :Maui and visible from it, the former 139 square miles in extent and 3,400 feet in 

elevation, the latter covering 69 square miles and rising 1,4 72 feet abo-ve the sea, receive bare 

mention by Dana 1 and a brief paragraph each by Hitchcock. 2 The lavas of Niihau, which lies 

but 15 miles southwest of Kauai, is 97 square miles in extent, and reaches 1,300 feet above the 

sea, are likewise without any positive identification. Nihoa, or Bird Island, situated 300 miles 

west-northwest of Kauai, is described by Bishop 3 as embracing about 250 acres, with two summits each nearly 900 feet· in elevation. While Bishop considers the island a remnant of a large 

volcano and reports 40 or 50 dikes observed during a brief examination, no description of the 

rocks has been given. 

Associated lavas of Kilauea.-It is only for Kilauea that the analytical data suffice to show 

the prevalent character of the associated magmas at any one center for a considerable period. 

1 Chnraoteristios of volcanoes, p. 27, Now York, 1890. 2 Hnwali and its volcanoes, 2d ed., p. 45, Honolulu, 1911.. . a Idem, p. 9. 
60 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR Rlj)LATIONS. 

Even at Kilauea we know little concerning lavas that are older than those exposed in the walls 

of the caldera, which fonn in fact merely the uppermost part of the volcano. 

Twenty-one analyses of Kilauean lavas have been given in the table. Eleven of these represent rocks from the active center of Halemaumau, nine rocks exposed in the walls of the main 

caldera, and one a fragment in tuff from the crest of the rim. 

The 11 lavas of Halemaumau represent a number of eruptions, from the current one back 

as far as 1843, at least. All are very similar in composition; in fact, 9 of them belong to the 

camptonose-ornose-auvergnose group (hereafter called C.-0.-A.), which has been referred to 

(p. 58) as the most notable rock group of the islands. Seven of these nine rocks are within a 

single division, having the scope of a subrang, about the center point of the C.-0.-A. grou.p, 

and the other two are only a trifle too rich in orthoclase to c0me within this division. Of the 

two rocks not belonging to the C.-0.-A. group, one is a "P.ele's hair," analyzed by Cohen, which 

is the do.malkalic kilauose, adjacent to camptonose, and the other is like the C.-0.-A. group 

except in its high normative quartz, which brings it in order 4, vaalare. 

Quartz appears in six norms of Halemaumau lavas (ranging fr()m 0.8 to 8.46 per cent), 

olivine in five (3.6 to 8.3 percent), and nephelite in one·(2.6 per cent). It appears, then, that 

the lavas of Halemaumau can not be rich in olivine except with coexistent free silica. As nine 

of the analyses are so nearly in accord, it seems worth while to strike an average for them as 

representing the lavas of Halemaumau of the last 70 years fairly well. The two analyses not 

used in obtaining this average, Nos. 34 and 14, by Cohen and Phillips, respectively, are apparently less trustworthy. In neither is Ti02 , P20 5 , or :MnO determined. Both have normative 

quartz, the latter containing 8.46 per cent. The forn1er has very low alumina. The average 

of the other nine analyses of the C.-0.-A. group is as follows: 

Average of nine Hale:rnaumau lavas. 

Analysis. 

Si02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Al20 3 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••••.•••• 

Fe20 3 ••••.•• : ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

FeO .......................................... . 

MgO ........................................... . 

CaO ........................................... . 

Na20 .......................................... ·. 

K20 .......................................... . 

Ti02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

P20s············································ 

MnO •... ~ ............................... .- .... . 

50.18 

14. 12 

3.04 

10.45 

6.42 

10. 67 

2.69 

. 75 

1.75 

. 21 

.19 

100.47 

Norm. 

Orthoclase ................... : ................ . 

Albite ...................... · .................... . 

Anorthite ..................................... . 

Diopside ...................................... . 

Hypersthene ...... : ........................... . 

Olivine ....................................... . 

Magnetite ..................................... . 

Ilmenite ....................................... . 

Apatite ....................................... . 

4.45 

22. 53 

24. 19 

22·. 42 

17.02 

1. 48 

4.41 

3.34 

. 51 

100.35 

A rock of this composition would be camptonose-auvergnose, with symbol III.5.(3).4.4'. 

Such a magma must yield an almost olivine-free holocrystalline rock if the available silica is 

all utilized in forming metasilicates in preference to orthosilicates, among the fernie molecules, 

as is supposed to be the normal.condition in n1agmatic solutions. If the two analyses omitted 

had been included, Si02 would have been increased and Al20 3 dec:r:eased in the average and 

quartz would have replaced olivine in the norm. 

. The table contains eight analyses, by Silvestri, of lavas from the caldera walls. Such flows 

must of course antedate the formation of the caldera and thus belong to a period of eruption 

considerably older than the historic eruptions of Halemaumau. Now, it happens that although 

the analyses of these older lavas are apparently very similar to those of lavas of the later epoch, 

the normative study reveals certain rather characteristic differences which will be discussed. 

As all the analyses of the older rocks were made by Silvestri, one might suspect that the difference is due to analytical methods were it not tlia~'Silvestri's two analyses of Haleinaumau lavas 

agree with others of rocks from that center. 

•..; .. '. 

. . 
DISTlUBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCKS. 61 

The recent lavas of I-Ialemaumau contain on the average 2.14 per cent more Si02 than the 

older rocks. Only one of the recent lavas has as low Si02 as the average of theolder ones, and· 

none of the older rocks contains as much Si02 as the average of the recent lavas. 'lhis relation 

has its converse in the alumina contents of the two groups. The recent lavas have an average 

of 13.81 per cent and the older ones of 16 per cent of Al20 3• But one of the younger lavas 

has 1uore than 16 per cent of Al20 3 and not one of the older rocks carries less than 13.97 per 

cent. The exceptional recent lavas, low in Si02 and high in Al20 3, are not the ones analyzed 

by Silvestri. 

'rhese analytical differences find striking expression in the norms. The lavas of Halemaumau, with their higher silica and lower alumina, have normative quartz or low olivine, with 

lower feldspars and lenads. The older rocks, with less silica and more alumina, have more 

feldspar, lenad, and olivine, and but one has normative quartz. 

These differences find still further expression in the quantitative classification of the rocks. 

'rhe uorn1s of the older lavas of the caldera wall are so rich in feldspar and nephelite, by virtue 

of their high alumina, that with one exception they belong in Class II or (in three cases) in 

the ·narrow transitional limits of Class III. The average of the ratio FSal for the Halemaumau 

em 

lavas is 1: 15, for the older rocks 1: 54, and these figures, striking as they are, probably fail to 

emphasize this difference sufficiently, for one exceptional rock in each group is open to suspicion. 

The most salic of the Jialemaumau rocks is a stalagmite from a lava cave (No. 14) analyzed by 

Phillips. It is natural to suppose that the drippings in this cavern were richer in Si02 than the 

average of the flow. If this analysis, which is not of high grade in other respects, is excluded 

the av-erage l~al for the recent lavas is lowered to 1:10. 1em 

The exceptional rock for the older. group is the "kilaueite' of Silvestri, an aphanitic 

saccharoidal basalt which is ~lassified as auv-ergnose and belongs in the C.-0.-A. group embracing 

n1ost of the liulemaumau lavas. As Silvestri's specimens were not collected by a geologist 

the susi)ic.ion n1ay be entertained that this kilaueite represents a flow from I-Ialemaumau that 

reached the foot of the caldera wall. If this rock is stricken from the list of older lavas the 

av-erage ratio ]~al for thmn becomes 1:64. ~em 

The classification of the older la\Tas is as follows: 

9. Kilauose-akerose ............................................... II(III).5(6).3.4 (olivine 9.3). 

11. Limburgose-salemose .......................................... II(III).'6o3o(3)4 (olivine 6.0). 

12. Camptonose-andose ................ 0 ........ 0 ..................... II(III)o5o3.4 (olivine 13o7)o 

13. Kilauose-akerose ...... 0 .......................................... II(III)o5o2.4 (olivine 901). 

15. :Monchiquose-kilauose ......................................... (II)III.5(6) 02'.4 (olivine 10.0). 

16. Andose-camptonose ............................................... (II)lllo5o3.41 (olivine 301). 

17. Auvergnose-campto11ose ............................. : ........... (II)Illo5o3(4).4 (olivine 20 7)0 

200. Auvergnose ........................................................... _ ......... III 5.404-5. 

If the last-named rock, the kilaueite, is ornitted, the older lavas of Kilauea are shown by the 

data giv-en to fo:nn a group no,tably different from the lavas of I-Ialemaumau. The normative 

oli\Tine content, which is doubtless less, if anything, than the modal, makes them apparently 

typical basalts, though high in feldspars. True, one of them, No.6, is called" andesite augitica" 

by Silv-estri, though it has 6 per cent normative ·olivine. 

vVhat 1uay be the significance of this difference between the lavas of different periods of 

eruption remains to be deterrnined. The rocks considered do not represent the complete range 

of lav-as erupted in these two periods, for Dana found a lava very rich in olivine at the base of 

Waldrons Ledge, and Daly's gabbro of Uwekahuna is also ver~y highly fernie. Then, too, the 

olivinic lav-a of 1840, in Puna, was apparer1tly connected with IGlauea. (See p. 43.) 
,· 

62 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR R.ELATIONS, 

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF HAW AllAN MAGMATIC TYPES. 

Method of study of distribution.-lt is proposed to set forth in this part of the discussion 

· the results of an examination of the occurrence and association in other parts of the world of 

igneous rocks which are most nearly like the Hawaiian lavas in chemical composition. The 

rocks selected as analogues of Hawaiian types are by no means identical with them in chemical 

composition, but they approximate identity more closely than any other rocks that have come 

to my notice.' The analogues have been chosen on the basis of similarity in norms rather than in 

analyses, as it is through the norm that the significance of the several differences between analyses 

may best be understood. · 

The approach to chemical identity between the rocks compared naturally varies somewhat 

with the number of analyses available for comparison or the abundance of the given variety. 

But in general the degree of similarity is much greater than that which is commonly considered 

significant by petrographers discussing relationships in special cases. In fact, most of the 

similarities to be pointed out are as great as the decided correspondence between different lavas 

of Halemaumau erupted during the last 60 years. 

Many analyses and norms have been copied from· Washington's well-known Tables 1 and 

such norms have generally not been recalculated and no further reference is deemed necessary. 

I am greatly indebted to Dr. ·Washington for placing at my disposal a number of his own 

unpublished analyses of rocks from· Sardinia and Pantelleria, as well as numerous calculations 

of norms made by him from analyses found in recent publications, in the course of preparation 

for a new edition of his invaluable Tables. The original sourc3s of these analyses are not given. 

1 U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 14, 1903. 
DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAWAIIAN ROCKS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas. 

i1~': _::;::_:_~: ~ ~:: ~: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~:: ~ ~ ~-~ ~: ~ ~: ~ ~:::: ~ ~ ~:: ~ ~~3: ~: : :: :: :::: : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ~~e?. : : ~ : : : ~ : : : : : : ~ : : : ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ::i~8 ~ :::: ~ ·. ·. ·.·: .. : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : ... : : : : : : : : : 

~~?6 ~_:_~~:::::::::::::::::::::::: :·:::::::::::::: 

BaO .......................................... . Inclusive ...................................... . 

Stun ...................................... · 

I. 

1 

61. 69 

17. 31 

5.30 

. 07 

.16 

1. 05 

7.47 

3.47 

1. 93 

. 42 

. 67 

. 07 

. 21 

. 07 a. 21 

100. 10 

H. 

60.05 

19.97 

4.32 

1. 04 

. 23 

. 91 

7.69 

3.24 

1. 26 

.15 

. 11 

................. 

. 79 ............... b .28 

100.04 

b c 

64.33 62. 17 

17.52 18.58 

3.06 2. 15 . 94 1.05 . 34 . 73 . 56 1.57 

7.30 7.56 

4.28 3.88 . 95 1. 63 . 04 . 07 

Trace. Trace . Trace . .11 . 35 Trace . ............. ................ 

.................. .................. 

99. 67 99.50 

d 

62. 15 

20. 97 

1. 68 

1. 01 

. 41 

1. 56 

7.88 

3.02 .................... 

1.02 

.14 

. 58 ............... 

................... 

.................. 

]00.42 

63 

e 

59.92. 

14.30 

7.50 

. 42 

. 72 

1. 90 

5.32 

5. 77 

2.49 

. 34 

. 87 

. 58 

. 06 

. 05 

.17 

100.30 

Qun,rtz .. . . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . · 2. 88 1. 3 8. 9 . 6 2. 44 5. 40 

Orthoclase . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 20. 57 18. 9 25. 6 22.8 17. 77 34.47 

Albite............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 62. 88 64. 5 61. 3 63. 8 66. 55 41. 39 

Anorthite... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 61 4. 4 2. 8 5. 3 4. 17 ......... . Corundum.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 26 ......... . Zircon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. 18 ................................................. . Aclnite ................................................... ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 77 

Diopside . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 43 .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2. 0 .. . .. .. .. . 3. 67 

Rypel'sthene................................... . 20 . 6 . 9 1.1 1.13 .10 

Magnetite .................................................. · 3. 2 3. 0 3. 2 2. 55 ......... . Rematite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 28 2. 0 1. 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 56 

Ihnenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1. 06 

~r~~:t~e: :: ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : · · · · · · .- 98 · : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ..... ~··. ~~. 1

: ~~ 

97.62 97.2 98.5 98.8 

a Zr02, 0.16; S, 0.02; SrO, 0.03. b Cl, 0.28. 

l. Soda Lrachyte, nordmarkose, 1'.5.11 .4. Cone near Lahaina, west coast of Maui (p. 27). 

n. Biotite tingun,ite (Eakle). Gales Point, Essex County, Mass. 

b. Acm.ite trachyte (Wolff and Tarr). Sixteenmile Creek, Crazy Mountains,. Mont. 

c. Acmite trachyte (Wolff and Tarr). Northern part of Crazy Mountains, Mont. 

d. Trachyte (Schneiderhohn), nordmarkose, 1.5.1.4. Haarweiden, Westerwald, Hesse-Nassau. 

e. Trachyte (Washington), ilmenose, 1II.5.1.3. Monte Muradu, Macomer, Sardinia. 

99.51 97.54 
64 LAVAS OF HAW Ail AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Analog'IJ,es of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

!-Continued. 

2 a b c d e f 

64.28 62. 70 63.20 63.24 60.50 

15.97 16.40 17.45 17. 98 18.20 

2.91 3.34 3.60 2.67 1. 34 

3.18 2.35 ..................... . 85 1. 89 

Si02 ••• ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 62.19 

Al20 3 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .17. 43 F~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . . . • • • . • • • • 1. 65 

FeO ...................... : . . . . . . . . . . . 2. ·64 

63.43 

16.31 

2.04 

3. 14 . 03 . 79 . 75 . 63 1.18 ~:8. ·_: ~ _· _. .-. ·_ ·_ ~ : : . 85 . 95 1. 40 . 93 1. 75 ': ': : : : : : : : : ~ : : : : : : : : : :··: : ~~ .78 

1. 70 

Na20................................. 8. 28 7.28 7.13 6.90 6. 27. 7.25 6.71 

K 20.................................. 5.03 5.07 5.25 5.88 5.47 4.45 4.31 

} . 20 { ..... ~ :~. . 50 . 80 ...................... . 37 } 2.30 { . 50 . 92 .46 . 38 . 92 ....................... ....................... ........................ ....................... ....................... 

H 20+................................ .39 

H 20-... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Tl02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • 37 

C02···............................... . 02 

.18 

. 26 

1.19 

None . P20 5 •••••••••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .14 . 08 ....................... ....................... . 22 ... ....................... . 20 

MnO................................. . 32 .......................... ....................... ....................... . 04 ... ...................... . 04 

BaO ....... ·. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03 ....................... ...................... ....................... . 25 .. ...................... . 05 

Inclusive ...................................... . .12 ...................... ...................... .03 .. ...................... .11 

Sum ........................... . 99. 93 100.33 100.53 100.14 100. 14 99. 78 100.45 

Quartz ............................ · . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 8 . . . . . . . . . . 3. 9 

Orthoclase . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29. 4 7 30. 0 31. 1 35. 0 32. 8 26. 7 25. 6 

Albite............................... 51. 87 53. 4 55. 0 48. 2 52. 9 54. 3 56. 6 

Anorthite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 4 3. 6 1. 7 

~~r~til!t~~~--~~--~~~----_-_-_-_-_-~~----_-_-_-_-_-_-~~ :~~- :::~:::::: :::::::::: -----~--~-- :::::::::: ------~~~-- :::::::::: 

Acmite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 62 6. 9 4. 6 1. 4 ............................. . Diopside ............................. 2.88 3.7 3.9 5.9 .......... 4.0 4.8 

~?i~~~t~~~~: : : : : : :: :: :: :: : : : : : : : :::: ..... 3.' 24 ...... ~-- ~ ....... i.' i ....... 2.' 4 ....... ~~ ~ ....... i.' 5 .......... ~-- ~. 

~~~a~l~~e::~-------_-~:::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::: ...... ·.: ....... ~--~ .. :::::::::: i:~ ..... ~--~ .. ------~~~- Ilmenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 . 9 1. 7 . 9 . 8 · 1. 7 2. 3 

Apatite.............................. . 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 

99. 19 100.4 100.0 99.2 98.5 97.5 99.8 

2. Trachyte obsidian, nordmarkose-umptekose, (I)II.5'.1.4. Pun Waawaa, island of Hawaii (p. 35). 

a. Glaucophane-salvsbergite (Washington), ilmenose-umptekose, (I)II.5.1.(3)4. Andrews Point, Cat)e Ann, 

Essex County, Mass. 

b. Hornblende salvsbergite (Bragger), ilmenose-umptekose, (I)II.5.1.(3)4. Laugendal, Christiania district, 

Norway. 

c. Nordmarkite (Bragger), phlegrose-nordmarkose, I(II).5'.1.(3)4. Tonsenas, near Christiania, Norway. 

d. Biotite trachyte (Hague and Jaggar), phlegrose-nordmarkose, 1.5.1.(3)4. Dike Mountain, Yellowstone National 

Park. 

e. Phonolite (Lacroix), nordmarkose, 1'.5.11 .4. Va'irao, Tahiti. 

f. Trachyte (vVashington), umptekose-nordmarkose, I(II).5.1.4. Montagne Grande, Pantelleria. 

. .. 
DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAWAIIAN ROCKS • 65 

• Analogues of Hawaiian .lavas-Continued. 

II. 

a b c d e f g 

~:}:~~-:-_:_:_:_~~~~::~~:~:~:::: 1J! rH~ rut rn~ 60.44 59. 95 

16. 67 17. 47 

2.31 2. 59 

3.09 3. 15 

60. 98 57. 59 

19.09 22.38 

1.76 3.09 

1.15 . 78 

~{~8::: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ~ : ~: ~~ ~: ~i !: ~~ 5: ~~ 2. 18 1. 18 4. 22 3. 25 . 65 2. 34 

3.67 3.23 Na~..O-..................... 6. 12 6. 15 5. 95 5. 52 

K2u........................ 2. 75 2. 81 2. 88 3. 06 

f~E?::\:::::-:-:-:-·: :::::H:: ~----~:E -----i:E :::::::E 

MnO....................... . 36 . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Trace. 

BaO .............................................................. . Inclusive................... a. 20 ....... : ..................... . 

5. 18 6. 38 

2. 71 2. 98 

1.43 {. 0 •• ~--~:. . 60 1. 57 . 48 ................ 

. 29 . 02 

.13 .................. 

. 12 ............... 

SrO. 11 ................. 

6. 70 6. 11 

3. 53 3. 40 

. 44 } . 70 . 48 

. 36 ......... . . 52 ......... . .10 ......... . 

. 151 ......... . 0 43 ......... . SrO. 28 ......... . 

Sum ............... . 99. 99 100.02 99.47 _99. 41 1 99. 96 99.88 100.29 99.62 

Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8. 82 3. 42 1. 62 ......... . Orthoclase................. 16. 68 16. 7 17. 24 18. 3 16. 12 17. 79 20. 57 20. 0 

Albite...................... 51. 35 50. 8 50. 30 45. 6 43. 49 53. 97 56. 59 51. 9 

Anorthite.................. 12. 79 12. 8 12. 79 19. 2 14. 46 10. 01 11. 68 16. 1 

Nephelite. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 ........................................................... . Corundutn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 8 

Diopside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 00 8. 2 2. 26 5. 0 1. 57 4. 91 3. 83 ......... . Hypersthene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 71 7. 9 7. 64 1. 70 ................... . Olivine ................. ·... . . . . . . . . . . 3. 2 2. 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 1 

1\fagnetite ................. · 2. 09 2. 1 3. 71 . . . . . . . . . . 3. 25 3. 71 2. 55 2. 6 

Hen1atite.................. 3. 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 3 

Ilmenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 65 3. 0 1. 22 1. 8 l. 22 3. 04 . 76 ......... . Apatite.................... 1. 34 1. 2 2. 17 . . . . . . . . . . . 67 . . . . . . . . . . . 24 ·'• ....... . Rest. • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1. 6 . 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 02 ......... . 

99. 95 100. 2 99.42 98. 5 97. 24 98.551 99.86 98.8 

a CuO,_ 0.10; SOs, 0.05; S, 0.05. 

3. l'i'eldspathic lava (Lyons), larvikose-akerose, (I)II.5.2.4. Kohala Mountain, near Waimea, island of Hawaii. 

a. Leouwfontoinite (Brouwer), akerose, 'II.5.2.4. Leeuwfontein, Pretoria district, Transvaal. 

b. Natron-minetto (Hackmann), akerose, 'II.5.2.4. Autionsaari, Tavajarvi, Kuusamo, Finland . 

. c. Akerite (Broggor), andose-akerose, (I)II.5.2(3).4. Ramnas, Christiania region, Norway. 

d. Quartz monzonite porphyry (Cross), dacose-akerose, (I)II.(4)5.2'.4. Dike, Deadwood Gulch, La Plata Mountains, Colo. 

o. Akerite (Lacroix), larvikose-akerose, (I)II.5.2.4. Bras Rouge, Cilaos, Reunion Island. 

f. Monzonite porphyry (Cross), larvikose, 1'.5.2.4. Dike, north spur of Mount Pennell, Henry Mountains, Utah. 

g. Augite syenite (Brogger), larvikose, 1'.5.2.4. Fagerheimason, Nottero, Norway. 

48730°-15-5 
6G 

r~~~::::::::::::::::::::::: FeO ........................ MgO ....................... CaO ....................... 

Na20----·-····-----------· 

K20 ........................ 

~~g ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : : ~b~:~ ~ ~ ~ ~: ~ : : : ~ : : ~ : : : : : : : ~ ~ 

~cr -_: -_ ~: ~ : ~ : : : : : : : : : ~ : : : : 

BaO ....................... Inclusive .................. _ 

Sum .................... 

LAVAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

ni. 

a b c d 6 

52. 67 49. 24 53. 04 49.84 51. 26 

15. 35 15. 84 17. 34 17. 78 16. 74 

3. 82 6.09 2. 12 5. 86 2. 92 

5.42 7. 18 6. 96 2. 62 7. 11 

4.40 3.02 2.49 3.02 2. 80 

5.91 5. 26 5.86 7. 35 6. 61 

4.50 5.21 5. 61 5. 20 5.86 

2. 68 2. 10 3.00 3.04 2. 25 . 37 1.61 . 37 2.02 . 42 

.14 1.08 .................. . 34 .. 26 

4.04 1. 84 2. 12 1.43 2.57 ............... ................ ................... . 52 Trace . . 75 1. 47 . 83 . 76 . 81 ............. . 29 .................. . 21 . 23 ................. . 09 ............... . 22 .10 ................ a.21 ................ b. 21 c. 09 

100.05 100.46 99. 74 100.45 100.03 

4: e f 

49. 55 52. 83 55. 07 

17. 78 17. 67 19. 57 

4.65 7. 50 3.38 

5.89 1. 68 3.42 

2.49 2.47 1. 68 

7.01 7.35 5. 56 

6. 12 6.61 7. 10 

2.29 2. 52 3.34 . 34 } 2.32 . 29 {_-- .. _·_ ~~ 2.09 ................... ................. 

None. ................... ............... 

1. 10 ................... ................ 

. 28 ................ -----·--·· . 05 .................. ................ d .13 .................. .................. 

100.06 100. 95 99. 50 

Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 20 ..................................................................... . Orthoclase................. 16. 12 12!23 17. 79 17. 79 12. 79 13. 34 15. 0 19. 5 

Albite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38. 25 .44. 01 39. 30 32. 49 38. 25 34. 58 35. 6 36. 2 

Anorthite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 34 13. 62 13. 34 16. 40 12. 79 15. 01 10. 8 12. 0 

N ephelite..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 26 6. 25 6. 25 9. 09 11. 1 12. 8 

Diopside ..............•... ·s.64 2.97 8.57 9.94 12.40 10.42 13.4 13.1 

Hypersthene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 00 2. 49 ........ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 5 ......... . 'Olivine ........................... _. 6. 36 6. 99 2. 03 5. 69 3. 80 . . . . . . . . . . . 8 

Magnetite................. 5. 57 9. 05 3. 02 4 87 4. 18 6. 73 5. 3 4. 9 

Hematite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 8 ......... . Ilmenite .. _............... 7. 75 3. 50 4. 10 2. 74 4. 86 3. 95 ......... _ ......... . Apatite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 68 3. 36 2. 02 1. 81 2. 02 2. 69 ................... . 

99.55 97. 59 99. 39 96. 72 99. 23 99. 61 

a F, 0.18; S, 0.03. c SrO, 0.09. b SrO, 0.18; Zr02, 0.03. a Zr02, 0.01; FeS2, 0.03; SrO, 0.08, V203, 0.015. 

a. Basalt (Washington), akerose, II.5.2'.4. Mount San Mateo; Ploaghe, Sardinia. 

b. Mugearite (Harker), akerose, IL5.2'.4. Island of Skye, Scotland. 

c. Olivine trachyandesite (Lacroix), akerose, II.5.2.4. Bellouve, Reunion Island. 

d. Trachydolerite (Graton), akerose, II.5'.2'.4. Bull Cliff, Cripple Creek district, Colo. 

98. 5 

6. Trachyandesite (Cross), akerose, II.5'.3.4. Vieira's ranch, south of Kaupo Gap, Haleakala, Maui. 

4. Trachyandesite (Cross), akerose-essexose, II.(5)6.2.4. White Hill, crater of Haleakala, Maui. 

e. Carmeloite (Lawson), akerose-essexose, II.(5)6.2.4. Sunium Point, Carmelo Bay, Cal. 

f. Rhombenporphyr (Brogger), essexose, 11.6'.2.4. Stoksund, Norw11y. 

99.3 
DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCKS. 67 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

IV. 

0 d 0 t. 5 7 g h 

---------

~l~d~::: ::::::::::::::::: 48. 67 48. 63 47. 61 52. 18 50.92 49. 7~1 16. 88 17.01 17.47 18. 19 17 59 16.39 

Feb03 •••••••••••••••••••• 4. 98 2.92 3.44 3.31 3.80 7.58 

l'i'e ...................... 6. 37 8. 85 8.78 4.36 6.69 3. 98 

52. 92 56.47 54. 70 54. 19 

17. 70 15. 33 18.05 16.28 

3. 16 2.54 3. 63 5.08 

4.48 4.53 3.31 3.46 

~:8. ::.: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4. 62 3.87 2.49 4. 69 3. 90 4.06 8. 63 7.90 7.04 5. 61 6.97 7. 17 

4.34 5.08 3.90 2.98 

5.90 6. 93 6.36 6.34 

II·;:.;;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 

3. 85 3.98 4.49 4. 58 4.28 4. 12 

1.26 1. 76 1. 60 1. 88 1. 86 1.93 . 32 . 22 3. 71 2.00 . 79 . 81 . 02 .84 . 75 . 35 . 54 

2.12 4.02 . 87 . 99 2.55 3.05 . 28 None . None. 

1. 85 . 77 1. 10 . 29 .·40 . 84 

.13 .14 . 20 . 23 

4.08 3. 81 4.08 4.05 

2.24 1.66 1.97 1. 98 

1.42 1.65 3.28 3. 67 ........ ........ . ....... ........ . 94 . 99 1.09 1. 56 

········ ········ ........ . 07 

.18 .54 Trace. . 43 

Trace. .18 ........ ........ BaO ..................... ........ ········ ......... .11 . 03 ........ ········ ........ ........ nlclusive ................. ········ ········ ......... . 06 . 07 . 09 .13 .14 

Sum ................ 99. 57 99. 93 99.85 100.04 100.30 100.53 100.45 99. 71 100. 50 100.23 

Quartz................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 7 3.5 6.8 4. 7 8.0 

Orthoclase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 0 10. 6 9. 5 11. 1 11. 1 11. 1 13.9 10.0 11.7 11. 7 

Albite.................... 32. 5 34. 1 36. 7 38. 8 36. 2 34. 6 34.6 32.0 34.6 34. 1 

Anorthite................. 23. 9 22.2 22. 5 23. 4 23. 4 20. 9 23.1 22.5 25.0 20.6 

Nephelite................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ....................................................... . Diopside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 6 10. 0 4. 2 7. 2 6. 8 

Hypersthene.............. 10. 3 1.1 3. 8 7. 3 

Olivine................... 2. 0 8. 0 12. 2 5. 8 3. 2 

7.1 5.0 6.8 5.4 6.5 

6. 9 12.0 14.0 8.6 4.5 ......... ........ ········ ........ ........ Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 2 4. 2 4. 9 4. 9 5. 6. 

He1natite ........................................................ . 4.6 4.6 3.5 5. 1 7.4 4.5 ........ ........ ......... . ....... Ihnenite . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . 3. 9 7. 6 1. 7 1. 8 4. 9 5.8 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.9 

Apatite ..... ~ ............. 4.4 1.7 2.7 1.0 2.0 1.2 1.0 

99. 8 99.5 95. 3 96.8 99.5 99.2 98.4 98. 5 97.1 96.7 

c. Norite (Pirsson), camptonose-andose, II(III).5.3.4. Slide Brook, W;a.terville, N. H. 

d. Basalt (Lacroix), andose, II.5.3.4. Avirons, Reunion Island. 

e. Porphyrite (Sheight and Finlayson), andose, II.5.3.4. Carnley Harbor, Auckland Islands. 

f. Diabase (Hague and Jaggar), andose. Shoshone Canyon, Yellowstone National Park. 

5. Trachydolerite (Daly), andose, Il'.5.3.4. Poliahu Cone, near summit of Mauna Kea, Hawaii. 

7. Andesitic basalt (Daly), andose, II.5.3.4. At 11,000 feet S. 75° E. of summit of Mauna Kea, Hawaii. 

g. Hornblende andesite (Iddings), andose. Sepulcher Mountain, Yellowstone National Park. 

h. Pyroxene andesi.te (Iddings), andose. Near Dunraven Peak, Yellowstone National Park. 

i. Porphyrite (Lossen), andose. Heichweiler, St. WencJel, Harz Mountains, Germany. 

j. Basalt (Lossen), andose. Idarthal, St. Wendel, Harz Mountains, Germany. 
'68 LAVAS OF HAW All .AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

a 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-:-Cont~nued. 

v. 

b c d e 8 10 f g 

i:l:_:_:_~::::::::·:::::::: ~u~ iu~ in~ i!:fi ~nt iiJi 1U! ~l:ll ~u~ ~~8_-_ _._._:::::::::::::::::: ~:!b ~:~i ~:~~ ~:~~ ~:~~ ~:~~ ~:?~ 1g:·~~ ~:~~ 

~:o~ ·_ ._. ~ : :.: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4

: ~: i: i~ i: ~i t ~; i: ~b 3

: ~~ 3: ~~ 3: ~~ r: ~~ H20+ ..................... 29 .99 1.02 .10 2.02 ................ 2.53 .59 

h 

51.98 

17.20 

8.22 

2.00 

5.41 

8. 17 

3.84 

. 90 

. 62 

H20-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 .. . 21 . 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

.Ti02............................. l. 81 2. 64 . 27 1.16 5. 35 3. 93 1.... .... 1.18 . 36 

~?d~ _. _. _. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : .... .- i 7 ..... .- 39 ..... .-52. : ~~ ... ".-53 ..... .- 49. : : : : : : : : .... .- 42 ...... .- 99 

Mnl,! .. .'.................. . . . . . . . . .17 . 06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 . 27 ....................... . BaO............................. . 06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07 

Inclusive................................. .18 . 20 . 28 . 32 .14. 

Sum................ 100. 42 100. 17 99. 84 100. 14 99. 98 100. 32 100. 84 100. 22 99. 92 99. 69 

guartz ................... .6 4. 5 .2 1.6 .3 3.1 3.2 2.2 4.8 

rthoclase ................ . 44 7.2 7.2 6. 1 7. 8 5. 0 4.5 5. 6 7.8 5.6 

Albite .................... 35. 6 36. 1 30.9 33.0 35. 6 30.0 32.0 33.0 29.9 32.5 

Anorthite .. ~ .............. 30.3 31. 7 24. 7 30. 9 31. 7 28.9 25.3 22.5 25.9 27.0 

Diopside .................. 9.2 5.2 3.8 8.0 9.0 6. 3 15.8 19. 3 11.1 5.4 

Hypersthene .............. 16.9 4. 6 17.2 9.8 6. 7 6.3 1.8 2.0 13.7 11.0 

Olivine ................... 5.2 ........ ········ ......... ......... ·······- . ....... ......... ........ Magnetite ................. 3.0 4.2 3. 9 7. 7 3.2 6. 7 5. 3 8. 1 6.6 6.5 

Hematite ................. 2.4 1.6 4.0 4.2 3.7 

Ilmenite .................. ········ 3.5 5.0 .5 2.2 10.0 7. 5 2.3 Ap~tite ................... ......... . 7 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 2.4 

100.0 98.3 98.2 99. 9 97. 8 ° 99. 3 100. 5 97. 9 100.5 98.9 

a. And€site-basalt (Diller), beerbachose. Delta, Shasta County, Cal. 

b. Olivine dolerite (Harker), andose, II.5.3'.4'. Druim na Criche, near Portree, island of Skye. 

c. Basalt (Washington), andose. Uras, Monte Arci, Sardinia. 

d. Hypersthene diorite (Chelius), beerbachose-andose, II.5.3( 4).4(5). Lichtenberg, Odenwald, Hesse, Germany. 

e. Dolerite (Lossen), andose. Sattel, Niederkirchen, N ahethal, Rhenish Prussia. 

8. Highly feldspathic lava (Lyons), beerbachose-andose, 1!'.5.3.4(5). Waianae Mountains, Oahu. 

10. Porphyritic la.va (Lyons), andose-beerbachose, II(III).5.3'.( 4)5. Kohala Mountain, northern district of Hawaii. 

f. Gabbro (Wadsworth), andose. Near Baptism River, Minn. 

g. Basalt (Patton), andose. Red Cone, Crater Lake, Oreg. 

h. Basalt (Hoppe), andose. Cerro de Guadalupe, Puebla, Mexico. 
DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCKS. 69 

Analog'Ues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

VI. 

9 a b c d 11 e 12 1 g h 

Sio6 ............... 48. 71 43.94 48. 60 45. 10 45. 67 50. 16 44.25 45. 61 48.33 48.98 46.45 

Al2 a· ............. 18.87 16.17 17.87 19. 30 17.84 17.97 16.27 15. 98 16.2-9 16.88 16.98 

Jre§a· ...... , .... 3.18 3.96 6. 20 1.55 9 .. 54 2. 23 1.50 8.25 3.24 3.30 3.94 ]~e .............. 8. 00 10.06 5. 76 8. 70 4.04 6. 25 10. 30 11. 60 8. 73 7.29 8.57 

MgO ............. 4. 85 5.05 4.32 5.30 3:85 4. 70 6. 51 3. 75 5. 70 5.27 5.94 

Cn.O ............... 9.87 9.59 9. 11 9. 81 9.78 11.85 10. 14 6.42 8.50 8 .. 86 7. 64 

Nn.6o .............. 4. 15 2. 93 4. 66 4.32 3.88 3.50 3. 24 • 3. 50 3.59 3.39 3.50 

1(2 ····· ...•..... 1.52 1.51 2.06 1.58 1.44 2. 80 1.98 1. 82 1. 49 2. 11 1.43 

H20+ ............ 1.42 1. 78 . 75 1.97 . 90 2.40 . ... ·. ~:.} . 82 { . 52 . 68 

H,20- ............ .13 1.78 . 24 

'1'102 ............. 1.81 4. 13 .......... 3.49 1.57 ........... 3. 65. 1. 15 2.40 1.28 3. 11 

cca·············· . 09 ......... ............... ............. . .............. .. ............. . 06 . 41 

pl! () ............. Trace. . 69 .............. . 57 .............. .............. . 63 . 72 . 79 . 30 . 51 

M.n ............. Trace. Trace. ............ ............... ................ . 30 .. ............. 1. 20 .11 . 31 . 48 

Inclusive ......... .............. ........... ............. ................ ............... .............. .. ............ ............. .. ............. .08 . ............. 

Sum ........ 100.96 99. 67 100.36 100.47 99.58 100. 66 100.87 100.27 99. 99 100.41 100.88 

Orthoclase ....... 8. 9 8. 9 12.2 9.5 8.3 16. 7 11. 7 11. 1 8. 9 12.2 8.3 

Albite ...... · ..... 22. 5 22.0 22.5 17.3 24.8 11.0 11.5 29.3 30.4 28.8 29.3 

Anorthite ........ 28.4 26. 7 21. 7 28. 6 27. 2 25.0 24.2 22.2 '23.9 24. 7 26. 7 

Nephelite ......... 6.8 1.4 9. 1 11. 1 4. 2 9. 9 8.5 ................ ............... ........... ............ Diopside .......... 16.8 13.4 18.8 11.1 16.4 27.8 18.4 4.0 11.0 14. 6 G.3 

Hypersthene ..... ............. ............. 3. 7 2. 7 .. .......... 2. 2 

Olivine ........... 9.4 10.5 5.2 12.2 1.4 6.0. 13.8 13. 7 11. 5 9. 7 12.7 

Magnetite ........ 4. 6 5.8 9.0 2.3 8. 6 3;3 2. 1 12. 1 4. 6 4.9 5.6 

Hemn.tite ........ 3.5 .......... ............. .. ......... ............. ............. ........... Ilmenite .......... 3.5 7. 9 ........... 6. 7 3.0 ............. 7.0 2.2 4. 6 2.4 5.9 

Apn.tite .......... 

-~~~-~-.I 1..7 ............. 1.3 ............. .......... 1.3 1. 7 1.9 .7 1.3 

98.3 100.5 100.1 97.4 99. 7 98.5 100.0 99.5 98.0 98.3 

9. Basalt (Silvestri), &'l.lemose-andose, II' .5(6).3.4. Wall of caldera, Kilauea. 

a. Essexite (Pirsson n.nd ·washington), andose-camptonose, (Il)Ill.5.3(4).4. Lockes Hill,.Mount Belknap, N.H. 

b. Dolerite (Speight), salemose. Dyers Pass, Cn.nterbury, New Zealand. 

c. N ephelite gabbro (theralite) (Lacroix), salemO'Se, -II' .'6.3.4. Pape1ioo Valley, Tahiti. · 

d. N ephelite tephrite (BUcking), andose, II' .5' .3 .4. Suchenberg, Rhongebirge, Germany·. 

11. Augite andesite (Silvestri), limburgose-salemose, II(III).'6.3.(3)4. Wall of caJdera, Kilauea. 

e. Basalt (Ln.croix), camptonose-limburgose, 'lii.(5)6.3.4. Papenoo Valley, Tahiti. 

12. Basaltoid (Silvestri), camptonose-andose, II(III).5.3.4. Wall of caldera, Kilauea. 

f. Alkali feldspar bearing basaltic bomb (Kozu), camptonose-andose, II(III).5.3.4. Volcano Ondake, Fukae, 

Goto Isln.ncls, Japn.n. · 

g. Olivine basn.lt (Card), n.ndoee, II' .5.3.4. Northeast of St. Georges Head, New South Wales. 

h. Bn.salt (Tyrrell), camptonose-andose, II(Ill).5.3' .4. Stockiemuir, Kilpatrick Hills, Scotland. 
'70· LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

VII. 

13 a 15 b c d 

Si02 .. _ .. __ .................... -... 49. 45 52. 85 47. 63 49. 16 49. 78 50. 15 

~:~:_:_:_::::::::::::::::: :::::::::: ~H~ H~ ~g: ~ 1i ~ ~: ii ~: ~ ~:8. -.-_ ~ ~: ~ _- .-. -_ -_ ~ ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ~: ~g ~: ~i ~: g~ ~: ~~ ~: ~~ ~: r: ~~~::_:_:_:_::·:·:·:::: :::::::::::: ::~: t ~g tji t :~ ~J~ ~: ~ q~ H20-........... -......... -....... } 1. 19 {. ...... } . 30 {. . :·. ~~. . 08 . 12 

!:~;;~ ~::::::::::: ~:::::: :::::::::: .... jf .... :_ ;~. jg .... ·_ ~~ .... ~:_ ~~ .... ~:_ ~~. BaO ....................................... .- ..................................... . Inclusive ......................................................................... . 

Sum........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99. 51 100. 41 99. 59 I 99. 49 . 99. 71 j 100. 35 

26 

45.81 

11: 90 

4. 62 

8.09 

5.39 

10. 67 

4. 28 

1.40 

. 53 

. 47 

4.05 

2.20 

.17 

.04 

. 03 

99. 65 

Orthoclase ... ~ ............... - . . . . 10. 6 8. 9 11. 1 12. 8 13. 9 15. 6 8. 3 

Albite ................... _ .. .. .. .. . 38. 3 35. 1 27. 8 29. 3 26. 7 28. 3 29. 3 

Anorthite ............ _............ 10. 0 10. 6 13. 3 11. 7 8. 3 14. 2 9. 2 

Nephelite..... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. 2. 6 2. 6 7. 4 5. 1 7. 1 4. 5 3. 7 

Diopside.......................... 15. 8 23. 4 17. 5 16. 5 21. 2 13. 3 23. 8 

Olivine .......... _._ .. _ ...... -..... 9. 1 14. 0 10. 0 12. 4 11. 2 13. 8 4. 8 

Magnetite ......................... 11.8 3.5 11.8 7.5 3.3 2.3 6.7 

Hematite ... _ .. -. _ .............. _ ......... _ .................................... __ ••........ Ilmenite ................................... 6 ................ 5.9 6.4 7.6 

Apatite ................ ~ ...•....... 3 1.0 .3 1.7 1.7 5.0 

98. 5 99. 7 99. 2 95.3 99.3 100.1 98.4 

13. Hornblende- basalt (Silvestri), kilauose-akerose, Il(ITI).5.2.4. Wall of caldera, Kilauea. 

a. Basalt (Hoppe), kilauose. Cerro San Miguel, Puebla, Mexico. 

15. Basaltoide '(Silvestri), monchiqose-kilauose, (II)III.5(6).2'.4. Wall of caldera, Kilauea. 

b. Kersantite (Pohlmann), kilauose-akerose. Barenstein, Thuringia, Germany. 

e 

44.85 

12. 55 

3.33 

'5.30 

10. 24 

8. 32 

4. 77 

. 72 

2.01 

. 95 

5.07 

1. 17 

. 07 

········ . 23 

99. 60 

4. 5 

28.3 

10. 6 

6.5 

17.9 

12.2 

2.3 

1.8 

9. 7 

2.7 

96.5 

c. Basalt (Washington), kilauose-monchiquose, III.(5)6.2.4. Monte Cuccuruddu, Keremale, Sardinia. 

d. Basalt (Washington), kilauose-akerose, II(II1).5'.2'.4. Mount Lisiri, Itirreddu, Sardinia. 

26. Sodic gabbro=kauaiite (Cross), kilauose, III.5.2.4'. Waimea Canyon, K.auai. 

e. Leucite basanite (Washington), kilauose. North of Scano, Monte Ferru, Sardinia. 

f. Basalt (Pirsson), kilauose. Volcano Butte, Castle Mountains, Mont. 

-~ 

f 

46. 52 

10.48 

4.40 

7. 79 

10. 58 

9.49 

3. 12 

1. 55 

1. 79 

2.98 

. 83 

.11 ........ . 73 

100.37 

8. 9 

24. 1 

10. 3 

1.1 

24. 6 

14.8 

6. 5 

5. 7 

1. 9 

97.9 
DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCKS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

vm. 

1!) .a b 27 c 

71 

d e 

Stml............................. 100. 26 99. 69 101. 19 101. 08 99. 76 100.05 99. 63 

l=======l===========l======l=========i=======l===========~========= 6. 3 2. 6 4. 7 2.5 6. 9 

4.4 Quartz .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 9 1. 5 

Orthoclase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 1 3.3 1. 7 1. 7 3. 9 1. 1 

Albite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27. 8 22. 5 25.2 26.2 26. 2 26.3 23. 1 

Anorthite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 2 26.4 27. 5 18.3 26. 1 20.9 20. 0 

13.6 12. 7 

21. 7 17.3 

26. 2 15.0 21.0 

4.0 12.2 13.8 Diopside............................. 18. 1 33. 5 

Hypersthene......................... 6. 9 11.3 

9.0 13.5 3.0 3.0 7.2 .......... ·········· ~:~~~tl~~e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~: ~ ~: : : : ~ ~ ~ : : : : : : ~ ~ ~ ~ ..... 9." 6. . 6.4 --------------------------~-- ~- llmenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 6. 8 .......... .......... 

~ft~~;:e-.-_-_._._._._._._._._._. _. _- _. _. _. _. _. _. _. _. _. _._._._._ ·_: . 1: ~ .......... .......... 

99. 7 99. 7 100.4 

19. Basalt (Lyons), ornose, IIL(4)5.3'.5. Koolau Mountains, Oahu. 

4.8 

. 3 

99.9 

2.0 

. 3 

97. 1 

a. Olivine-diabase (Cohen), auvergnose. North Kimberley, Griqualand, West South Africa. 

b. Diabase porphyrite (Cohen), auvergnose. Pfandstall, Colesberg, Cape Colony, South Africa. 

27. TraJ)liko basalt (Lyons), ornose, IIL(4)5.3.5. Waianae Mountains, Oahu. 

c. Diabase (Melville), ornose. Mitchel Canyon, Mount Diablo, Cal. 

d. J3asalt obsidian (Streng), ornose. Londorf, Vogelsberg, Hesse, Germany. 

o. Basalt' obsidian (Cohen), ornose. Lava of 1867, Ninafou, Tonga Islands. 

3.5 3.2 

98. 7 98.6 
72 LA VAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

IX. 

A a b c d e f g h 1 j 

Sio6 ............. 50. 18 50. 56 52.68 50. 71 47.28 48. 68 48.26 48.22 51.68 50. 19 48. 84 

Al2 a· ........... 14. 12 14.49 14. 14 14. 78 13.24 15. 70 14. 74 14. 74 13.88 14. 65 14. 62 

Fe20a-............ 3.04 1. 78 l. 95 3. 52 4.44 1.81 2. 49 2.24 6. 59 3.41 2.08 

FeO .............. 10.45 10.20 9. 79 8. 95 10. 50 9. 75 8.95 9.38 4.44 6.96 9.00 -I 

MgO ............. 6. 42 5. 90 6. 38 5. 90 5. 94 6.08 6. 76 7.01 7.87 7.95 7.15 

CaO ............. 10. 67 10. 13 9.38 8.21 11.04 11.64 12. 39 12.26 10.99 9.33 9. 33 

~:a~~.·.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : : ~ 2. 69 2. 91 2.56 2. 76 2. 62 2.32 2.38 2.23 2.93 2. 64 2.86 . 75 . 38 . 87 l. 39 . 31 . 88 . 90 . 89 . 81 . 75 . 89 

H 20+ ............ l. 50 l. 60 1.78 2.00 .10 .15 . 06 . 74 2.38 . 49 

H 20-............ . 20 ........ -······· .............. .. ............. ... .............. .. ........... ............ . 66 . 07 

Ti02 ••••••••••••• l. 75 1.67 .. . .. . . .. . .. 1. 92 1.48 2.68 2.81 .2. 72 ............. l. 13 3.57 

C02 .............. ......... ·.25 . .......... ............... ............. . ............ .............. ............. P20d ............. . 21 . 46 .44 . 38 .18 . 36 

l\in ............. .19 .25 .44 . 31 .40 . 07 . 04 

BaO ............. .............. .............. .......... ............. .. ............ .............. .............. ........... ............. ............. ............ Inclusive ......... ............ !£.28 ............. .............. .. ............. . ........... .............. .. ............. ............... b. 59 

Sum ........ 100.47 100.25 99. 79 100.48 99.25 100. 10 100.27 100.11 99. 93 100.30 99.89 

Quartz ........... ........... .5 2.1 1.9 .. ............ ···-···· ............... ............ 1.9 .8 1.4 

Orthoclase ....... 4.5 2.2 5. 0 8. 3 1.7 5. 0 5. 6 5. 6 5. 0 4.4 5. 6 

Albite ............ 22. 5 24.6 22.0 23. 1 22.0 19.4 20.4 18. 9 24.6 22. ·5 20.4 

Anorthite ........ 24.2 25. 3 23. 9 23.9 23.6 30.0 27.0 27.2 22.2 25.8. 26. 1 

Diopside ......... 22.4 20. 7 18. 9 13. 7 25.5 20.6 26.0 25.3 25.3 . 15.6 13. 9 

Hypersthene ..... 17.0 18. 9 22. 9 18. 7 12.6 14.0 5. 6 7.8 10.4 20.8 20.0 

Olivine .......... 1.5 ............. .............. ............. 2.3 2. 3 5. 8 5. 9 ............ ............ ........... Magnetite ........ 4.4 2.8 3.0 5.1 6. 3 2. 6 2. 1 3.3 9.5 4.9 3.0 

Ilmenite ......... 3.3 3.2 ............. 3. 5 2.8 5.2 6.8 5.2 ............ 2.1 6.8 

Apatite .......... .5 ............... .............. ............ ......... 1.0 1.0 .9 ... ....... .3 1.0 

100.3 98. 1 97. 8 98.2 96.8 99. 95 100. 3 100.1 98. 9 97.2 98.2 

aS, 0.28. b 803, 0.05; Cl, 0.42; NiO, 0.08; SrO, 0.04. 

A. Average of nine analyses of basalt, Halemaumau, Kilauea. Camptonose-auvergnose, III.5.(3)4.41 • 

a. Basalt (Diller), auvergnose. Cedar Creek, near Ophir, Oreg. 

b. Dolerite (Hawes), auvergnose. Mount Holyoke, Mass. 

c. Diabase (Teall), camptonose. Whin Sill, Durham, England. 

d. Basalt (Teall), auvergnose. Cape Flora, Franz Josef Land. 

e. Basalt bomb (:Lacroix), auvergnose, III.5.4.4-5. Reunion Island. 

f. Basalt (Lacroix), auvergnose, III.5.'4.4-5. Lava of 1863, Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island. 

g. Basalt (Lacroix), auvergnose, III.5.'4.4-5. Average of eight analyses, Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island. 

h. Olivine diabaee (Cohen), camptonose. Colesburg, Cape Colony, South Africa. 

i. Basalt (Lewis), auvergnose, III.5.(3)4.41 . Hartshorn's quarry, Springfield, N.J. 

j. Feldspar basalt (Washington), auvergnose, III.5.4.4. Monte Ponente, island of Linosa. 
~-

DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAWAIIAN ROCKS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

X. 

29 a b c d e 30 f g 

.. ---------

SiOd .............. 50.07 52.40 52. 78 48. 64 51. 78 51.88 49. 74 47. 12 44. 77 

Al2 s-- .......... 13.32 13. 55 13. 66 14. 13 12. 79 14. 53 ' 12.36 14.43 12.46 I~c§s· ........... 1. 92 2. 73 2.40 3.01 3. 59 1.35 1.64 3.33 4. 63 

11'c .............. 9.28 9.79 8. 64 8. 92 8.25 9. 14 10. 08 11.71 12. 99 

:MgO ............. 8.01 5. 53 7. 95 7.01 7. 63 7.78 8. 83 6.05 5.34 

CaO. ~ ........... 10. 64 10.01 9. 52 12. 34 10. 70 9. 98 10. 88 9. 63 10.20 

~~o~::.:::::::::: 2. 16 2. 32 2.34 2.25 2. 14 2.06 2.45 2. 58 2.47 . 45 . 40 . 20 . 81 . 39 . 93 . 55 1.11 . 95 

H20+ ............ . 49 1. 05 1. 89 . 08 . 63 . 97 .17 . 34 . 48 11:.~0- ............ . 22 . 62 ........... ............ ............. .12 . 05 . 28 .12 

'l'i02 ............. 2. 70 1.08 .. 23 2.61 1. 41 1. 35 2 . .49 3.27 5.26 cod .............. ............. .. .......... . 37 

P;~ ~--··········· . 26 .12 . 35 .14 .14 . 41 . 28 

M.'11 ............. .16 . 26 .11 .44 .10 .14 .17 

Inclusive ......... . 28 .13 ........... ............... ........... ............. . 33 ............... . 26 

Sum ........ 99. 97 99. 99 99. 72 100. 15 99. 89 100.33 100.08 99. 85 100. 75 

Quartz ........... 2. 2 6. 7 4. 7 ............. 5. 4 2. 1 . ......... ............ ........... Orthoclase ........ 2. 8 2.2 1.1 5.0 2.2 5.6 3.3 6. 7 5.6 

Albite ........... 18. 3 19.4 19.4 18. 9 17. 9 17.3 21. 0 22.0 21. 0 

Anorthite ... : .... 25.0 25. 6 26.4 25. 9 24.5 27.6 20.9 24.5 _19.5 

Diopside ......... 21. 2 19. 7 16.8 26.5. 22.6 17.'5 25.0 19.3 25.9 

Hypersthene ..... 20.9 18. 1 25.7 11. 2 18. 7 24.4 16. 9 7.3 4.0 

Olivine .......... 3.0 ............... .......... 4. 6 8. 6 5. 9 

:Magnetite ........ 2.8 3. 9 3.5 4.4 5.3 2. 1 2.3 4. 9 6. 7 

Ilmenite .... · ..... 5.2 2.2 . 5 5.0 2.7 2.6 4. 7 6.3 9. 9 

Apatite .......... .6 ........ .......... 1.0 .3 .3 1.0 ......... .6 

99.0 97.8 98. 1 100.9 99.6 99.5 99. 7 99. 6 99. 1 

29. Basalt (Day), auvcrgnose, III.5.4.4-5. Flow of 1894 (?), Kilauea. 

a. Olivine basalt (Hobbs), koghose-auverguose, III.(4)5.4.4-5. Pine Hill, South Britain, Conn. 

b. Epidioritc (Harrison), auvergnose. Urinambo, Barama River, British Guiana. 

c. Basalt (Lacroix), auvergnose, III.5.'4.4-5. Plaine des Osmondes, Reunion Island. 

d. Dolerite (Hawes), koghosc-auvergnose, III.(4)5.4.4-5. West Rock, N:ew Haven, Conn. 

c. Basaltic diabase (Lewis), auvergnose, III.5.4.4-5. Weehawken, N.J. 

73 

11. 1 

47.28 47.48 

13.24 12.00 

4.44 4.86 

10.50 8. 73 

5. 94. 9.89 

11.04 11.02 

2.62 2.32 . 31 . 48 

2.00 2. 16 . ........... .......... 1. 48 . 79 ............. . ......... 

········ ........... . 40 ............. ............ .. ......... 

99.25 99. 73 

............. .......... 1.7 2.8 

22.0 19.4 

23. 6 21. 1 

25. 5 26. 9 

12.6 9,3 

2.3 9.5 

6.3 7.0 

2.8 1.5 . ......... ........ 

96.8 97.5 

30. Basalt (Day and Shepherd), ornose-camptonose, 1!!.5.3(4).4(5). Dipped from lava basin, Halemaumau, 

Kilauea. 

f. Diabase (Washington), camptonose. Rockport, Cape Ann, Essex County, .Mass. 

g. Gabbro (Kemp), camptonose. Lincoln Pond, Essex County, N.Y. 

h. Basalt (Teall), auvergnose. Cape Flora, Franz Josef Land. 

i. Issite (Duparc and Pamphil), auvergnose, III.5.4.4-5. Kamenouchki, southern Ural Mountains, Russia . 

• 

• 
• 

74 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

XI. 

31 a b c 35 d e f g 

Si02 •••••••••••••• · ••••••••••••••••• 48. 99 50. 88 48. 35 45. 69 45. 48 44.06 44. 75 45. 71 44. 71 

Al20 3 ••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 13. 73 13. 17 15.40 13. 92 11. 87 15. 10 13. 22 10. 80 11. 24 

Fe20 3 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• l. 60 1.11 4. 04 3.06 l. 98 5. 23 l. 20 4. 43 5.48 

FeO .............................. 10.46 9. 66 4. 63 9. 02 9. 87 7. 93 10. 50 9. 35 8.21 

~;g:_._· ~: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13. 53 13. 05 11.61 11. 45 13.28 9.·84 10.85 13. 75 14.32 

7. 34 10. 19 10. 38 10. 49 10. 97 12. 56 11.50 10.48 '10.22 

~~0~·-·::::::::::::::::::::·:::::::: 1. 62 l. 17 1. 87 l. 76 2.21 2.20 l. 95 l. 58 2.50 . 27 . 31 . 35 .11 . 77 . 93 l. 27 . 85 l. 01 

H 20+ ............................ . 27 .14 3.60 . 79 . 74 . 30 l. 62 . 97 . 21 

H 20-............................ .10 ............... ................. . 78 . 23 ................ ................ ................. ............... 

Ti02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• · ••• 1. 73 ................. ............... 2.00 1. 90 l. 80 3.45 l. 83 2.00 

C02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• . 24 . 08 .77 .............. ................ ................ ............... ................ 

Pz05········· ...................... - .13 ................ ................ . 81 . 25 . 53 . 38 .11 . 37 

MnO ............................... . 20 ................ ................. . .............. . 04 . 36 ................ .17 ............. 

Inclusive ......................... . 17 ............... ................ ................ . 19 .. .............. ................ ............... ................ 

Sum ........................ 100.38 99. 67 100.31 100.65 99. 94 100.84 100. 71 100. 13 100.27 

Orthoclase ........................ 1. 7 1. 7 2.2 .6 4. 5 5. 6 7. 8 5.0 6. 1 

Albite ............................. 13.6 10.0 15. 7 14. 7 12.8 11. 0 10. 5 13. 1 13.4 

Anorthite ......................... 29.2 29. 7 32.5 30.0 20. 6 28.6 23.4 20.0 16.4 

Nephelite .......................... ................ ............... ............... .. .............. 2.9 4.0 3.4 4. 2 

Diopside ..... ·.· ................... 5. 1 16. 9 15.0 13.5 26.4 24. ·o 24. 9 26.2 24. 9 

HypersthenG ...................... 36.8 35. 4 21. 1 21. 9 ............. ............... .. .............. 6.3 

Olivine ........................... 7.2 4.3 4.3 6. 9 24. 5 15.1 20.0 18. 3 22. 9 

N::ni~i:~. ·.:: ~ .· .· .·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ~ 2. 3 1.6 5.·8 4.4 3.0 7.4 1.9 6. 5 7. 9 

3.2 ............... ................. 3. 8 3. 7 3.5 6. 5 3. 5 3.8 

Apatite .......................... .3 .............. ............. 2.0 .5 1. 3 1.0 1. 0 

99. 4 99. 6 96. 6 97.8 98. 9 100. 5 99.4 98. 9 100. 5 

31. Basalt (Cross), auvergnose, III.5 . .4.4-5. Flow, Olokele Canyon, Kauai. 

a. Olivine-hypersthene diabase (Campbell and Brown), auvergnose. The Twins, Culpeper County, Va. 

b. Greenstone (diabase) (Williams), auvergnose. Upper Quinnesec Falls, Menominee· River, \Vis. 

c. Basalt (Schottler), auvergnose, III.5.4.4-5. Wartfeld, near Griiningen, Giessen, Hesse-Darmstadt, Germany. 

35. Basalt (Cross), camptonose-auvergnose, III'.5'.(3)4.4-5. Flow, Olokele Canyon, Kauai. 

d. Basalt (v. John), auvergnose. Punta Delgada, San Miguel, Azores. 

e. Olivine basalt (Lacroix), camptonose-auvergnose, III.5'.(3)4.4-5. Papenoo Valley, Tahiti . 

. f. Hornblende picrite (Iddings), auvergnose, III'.5.41 .5. Conical Peak, Crazy Mountains, Mont. 

g. Basalt (Reinisch), limburgose-camptonose, III(IV).5(6).3.4. Heard Island, Antarctic region . 

• 

-• 
DISTlUBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCKS. 75 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

XII. 

36 a b 37 40 c d c r 

r~~::i:.:_:_:_~~: ~: ~~~~::::~~ :~:::::~: t~: ~ tHf t~~ ~ ~u~ ~Hi 11~ l if iui iiJ! ~~8.-.·.·.·::::::::::::::::::::::::::: .~:bg ~:~~ i~:~~ 1~:b~ i~:~~ i~:~~ ib:~~ g:~~ ~~:g~ 

~~6~·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~~ t~: t~~ t~~ i:~~ r:~~ ~:g~ ~:~~ :~~ H20+ ....... ·............................. . 47 1. 42 1. 00 2. 74 . 63 1. 82 

H 20-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

Ti02.......... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. 4. 05 3. 41 . 25 2. 90 2. 87 8. 38 2. 02 1. 56 2. 93 

~~d~.'.: .' .'. ·.:::::::::::::::::::::::: ... i.· 25. : :~ : ~~ ... i.· os. 1: ~~ : ~~ .... .' 99 ..... i.'i3 

MllU............................... 1.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 . 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 

BaO...................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06 

Inclusive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 . 29 1. 92 . 04 2. 90 2. 49 . 33 

Sum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100. 62 99. 78 100. 59 100. 12 100. 05 100. 64 100. 15 100. 94 100. 13 

Ot·thocluse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 5 11. 1 11. 1 ........................................ 1 ..•.••.. 

Albite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 0 10. 5 10. 0 ............................................... . Anorthite......................... 12. 2 12. 5 13. 3 1. 7 8. 6 3. 9 2. 8 18. 6 

Nephelite .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . 13.4 8. 2 10.8 28.1 21.0 13.9 15. 9 22. 7 9. 9 

Leucite................................................... 8. 7 .8. 3 7. 4 9. 2 8. 7 3.1 

Acn1ite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ....................................... . Diopside.......................... 19.4 23.7 25.6 13.4 17.4 

Olivine........................... 12. 5 18. 3 17. 3 16. 3 20. 2 

22.0 21. 6 22. 7 13. 5 

24.6 25. 6 17. 7 26. 1 

Akermani to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 2 12. 0 a 5. 6 4. 9c 8. 1 13.8 

Magnetite......................... 13. 0 6. 5 7. 9 11. 1 9. 5 

Hematite......................... 5. 0 6. 0 ....................... . 8. 6 12.5 5. 3 3.8 ......... .......... .......... Ilmenite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. 7 6. 5 . 5 5. 5 5. 5 9.9 3. 9 3. 1 4.4 

Apatite . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 2. 7 1. 0 2. 0 2. 7 2. 4 

Cliromite ................................................................. . .7 2.2 2.6 

4.3 .......... ......... .......... 

100.4 98. 3 98. 5 98. 5 98. 0 100.1 94.3 100. 5 97.3 

a Perofskite. 

36. Basaltic scoria (Lyons), monchiquose-(unnamed), III(IV).6'.2(3).(4)5. Cinder cone, Punahou, near Honolulu, Oahu. 

a. Nephelite basalt (Klautsch), monchiquose-limburgose, III'.6.(2)3.4. Lava of 1905-6, Matavuna volcano, 

Savaii, Samoan Islands. 

b. Basalt (Beyschlag), limburgose. Hi.inenberg, Blatt Melsungen, Prussia. 

37. Black sand (Lyons), (unnamed)-casselose, (III)IV.2.14 .2(.3).2'. Recent lapilli, Punahou, near Honolulu, 

Oahu. 

40. Nephelite-melilite basalt (Cross), uvaldose-casselose, 'IV.2.(3)4·2(3).2(3). Moiliili, near Honolulu, Oahu. 

c. Melilite basalt (Grubenmann), uvaldose. Wartenberg, Hegau, Baden. 

d. Melilite-nephelite basalt (Rinne), uyaldose. Hohenberg, Bi.ihne, Westphalia. 

e. Nephelite basalt (Stock), uvaldose. Schafberg Plateau, Lobauerberg, Saxony. 

f. Nephelite-melilite basalt (Cross), casselose. Near Uvalde, Uvalde County, Tex. 
76 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued .. 

Si02 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Al20 3 ••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 

~:§.3 ~ · .. .- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ : : ~ 

~!8: : : : : : : ~ ~ ~ : : : : : : : : ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ : : ~ : ~ : ~ ~ Na20. ····--··-·--·------·---·------- K20 ..................... : ........... . 

H 20+········-······----······:······ H 20-.. ; ............................ . Ti02 •••••••••••••••••••••••••• __ ••••• 

~o: ·.: ~:::::::: ~:: ~::: ~::::::::::::: Inclusive .................. _._. __ . ___ _ 

38 

48.57 

10.51 

2.19 

. 9. 45 

17.53 

8.06 

1. 59 

. 34 

. 37 

.10 

1.48 

.19 

. 16 

.18 

Sum ......................... ,.. 100.72 

XIII. 

a b 

45.71 49.02 

10.80 10.14 

4. 43 1. 54 

9. 35 10.46 

13.75 17.25 

10.48 8. 29 

1. 58 1. 59 . 85 .. 40 

. 97 ; 75 

1.83 .99 

.11 .11 

.17 .16 

100. 13 100.70 

Orthoclase ............... , . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 2 5. 0 2. 2 

Albite ................... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 6 13. ~ 13. 6 

Anorthite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20. 3 20. 0 19. 2 

Nephelite ...................... _ .................................. . Diopside............................. 14.9 26.2 17.0 

Hypersthene ......... __ ........ _ . ___ . 23. 9 6. 3 22. 9 

Olivine.............................. 18.7 18.3 20.7 

Magnetite............................ 3.3 6.5 2.1 

Ilmenite.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 9 3. 5 2. 0 

Apatite ......... ...., .......... ~ . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . 3 

39 

42.99 

10.21 

3.01 

10.28 

14.61 

12.54 

1.40 

. 52 

1. 10 

. 82 

2.52 

. 29 

.17 

.12 

100.58 

2.8 

6.3 

20.0 

3. 1 

32.3 ................... 

24.2 

4.4 

4.7 

.. 7 

c 

48.29 

10.00 

2.93 

5.46 

17.22 

11.80 

2.78 

.45 

1.95 ............... 

.................. 

.................... 

.................... 

................... 

100.88 

2.8 

13.1 

13.3 

5. 7 

35.7 ............. 24.1 

4.2. .......... 

........... 

d e 

41.03 41.50 

11.07 12.31 

4.65 5.20 

7.05 8.46 

15.75 11.29 

10.59 14.05 

1.71 2.06 . 94 .48 

1.36 .50 

2:s5 . ................... 

2.43 4.78 

.41 .06 ................. ..................... .................. .................... 

99.84 10'0. 69 

5.6 2.8 

6.3 3.1 

20.0 23.1 

4.3 7. 7 

23.6 36.7 

.... 23:'7 .. . ............ 10.1 

6.7 7.7 

4.6 9. 1 

1.0 ·······--· l~------ll--------l--------l--------l-------1·-------l·--------

100.2 98.9 100.0 98.5 98.9 95.8 100.3 

38. Ultrafemic olivine basalt (Daly), palisadose-hilose, (III)IV.1(2).2.1(2).2. Flow of 1852, Mauna Loa, Hawaii. 

a. Hornblende picrite (Iddings), auvergnose, Conical Peak, Crazy Mountains, Mont. 

b. Olivine diabase (Lewis), palisadose, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 

39. Picritic basalt (Cross), rossweinose-uvaldose, 'IV(1)2.132.2. Summit of Mount Haleakala, MauL 

c. Gabbro (Sachsse and Becker), rossweinose.. Etzdorf, Rosswein, Saxony. · 

d. Trachydolerite (Bucking), auvergnose, III(IV).5(6).4.4-5. Platzer Kuppe, Rhongebirge, Germany. 

e. Essexitic gabbro (Lacroix), unnamed subrang, (III)IV.2.2.2.2. Papenoo Valley, Tahiti. ' 
DISTlUBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCH::S. 77 

Analogues of Hawaiian lavas-Continued. 

XIV. 

41 a b c 42 d 43 c f g 

~~:~_: _:_:_ :_ :_ ~ ~ ~ : : : : ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 47.25 47.75 39.07 40.79 46.59 48. 15 37.50 39.92 38.87 39.16 

9.07 10.56 9.95 10.41 7.69 9. 5i 9.12 8.60 11.94 10.06 

1. 45 . 74 5.15 3.52 2.20 2.98 5.59 4.40 4.02 6.54 

10.41 8.34 10.37 6.39 10.46 5.46 8.81 8.00 6.00 7. 71 

t~3.-.-:::::::::::::::::::: 19.96 19.09 19. 19 23.34 21.79 17.42 13. 72 20.17 15.24 13. 74 7.88 9.62 6.29 8.48 7.41 11.91 13.85 10.68 10.87 15.30 

~~0~. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. · .... _. .· .·:: : ~ : : : : : 1.38 1. 32 . 97 1.71 1. 33 2.34 2.69 1. 91 2.59 2.38 . 35 .12 .19 .71 . 28 .40 . 63 1.03 1. 64 1. 46 

H20+ ..................... . 04 2.06 7.65 4.04 . 37 2.35 2.35 1. 45 1. 55 

H20-..................... .08 . 05 ............ ............. .04 1.05 . 43 -------- ............... 

~~:: ~: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~: ~ ~ ~: : ~ ~ : : : : 

1.61 . 37 . 68 1.83 3.21 2. 70 4.79 1.52 ................ .09 .. .............. ............... ................ . 27 .. ............. ................ . 58 . 21 . 03 . 13 ............... .11 ................ . 90 . 51 . 75 

.13 .10 .17 ................ .18 ............... .15 . 24 .11 

BaO ...................... ................ .. ............ ................ ................ .07 . 06 .. .............. ................ Inclusive .................. . 21 . 31 . 05 . 25 . 28 . 35 3.06 

Sum .................. 100.03 100.46 99.95 99.39 100.53 100. 53 100.19 100.45 99.02 100.86 

Orthoclase................ 1. 7 . 6 1.1 2. 8 1. 7 2. 2 ............................... . Albite.................... 11.5 11.0 8. 4 11.0 14.7 .............................. .. Anorthite................. 17. 8 22. 8 22. 2 18. 9 14. 7 14. 2 11.1 12.0 16.1 12. 2 

r:E~l~~i~e:::::. ~ ~:::::::::: ::: ~ ~::: :::::::: :::::::: 1: ~ .......... _ ~-- ~.. 1~: ~ t ~ 1~:: 1~: ~ Diopside .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 16. 2 19. 8 6. 6 18. 4 16. 8 35. 4 31. 0 24. 6 25. 0 16. 7 

Hypersthene.............. 19.5 16.3 9. 7 17.9 ....................................... . Olivine .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 27.4 25.8 34.3 41.6 30.8 24. 5 18. 6 32.1 18.5 23.3 

Akennanite ....... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 9 2. 4 2.0 13.7 

Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 1 . 9 7. 7 5. 1 3. 3 4. 4 8. 1 6."3 

Hematite ......... : . ..................................................................... . 1.2 9.5 3.2 

Ilmenite.. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . 3. 0 . 8 1. 4 3. 5 6. 1 5. 1 8.9 2.8 

Apatite................... .3 ........ .3 ........ .3 2.0 1.2 

Chromite...... ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ....................... . 1.8 

4.5 

99.5 98.0 91. 7 95.4 100.2 98.2 95.6 97.1 98.7 98. 1 

41. PicriLic basalt (Cross), Rossweinose-wehrlose, 'IV.l'.,3.1(2).2. Flow of 1840, Nanawale, Puna, Hawaii. 

a. Diabase? (Turner), rossweinose. Cathay Hill, Mariposa County, Cal. · 

b. Picrite. Sechshelden, Nassau. 

c. Picrite-porphyrite (Tschermak), custerose. Giimbelberg,· Neutitschein, Moravia. 

42. Porphyritic gabbro (Daly), rossweinose-wehrlose, IV.1(2).3.1(2).2. Uwekahuna laccolith, Kilauea, Hawaii. 

d. Gabbro (Sachsse and Becker), rossweinose. Etzdorf, Rosswein, Saxony. 

43. Nephelite-melilite b~alt (Cross), uvaldose, IV.2.13.2.2. Kilauea Landing, north coast of Kauai. 

e. ·Nephelite basalt (Cross). Black Mountain, Uvalde Cotmty, Tex. 

f. Melilite basalt (Grubemnann). Hohenhowen, Hegau, Baden. 

g. Nephelite basalt (Leppla and Schwager). Oberleinleiter, Franken Jura, Bavaria. 
78 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

General facts of distribution.-The foregoing table presents clearly many features which 

it is almost superfluous to repeat in words. But it may be well to summarize some "'of the 

more important facts. The analogues of Hawaiian magmas. are widely distributed over the 

world, 36 occurring in various countries of Europe, 32 in North America, 10 in Africa or the 

adjacent island of Reunion, 11 in other islands of the Pacific, and a few others in scattered 

localities. Continental Asia has no representative and South America only one, but this is 

surely due to the degree of similarity sought for and to meager material for comparison. The 

broad facts are shown in the table given below. The roman numerals at the head of the columns refer to the corresponding divisions of the preceding table. 

Distribution of analogous rocks. 

II III IV v VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV 

---------1---1--------------------------------------

Oceanica: 

Tahiti........... . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . 1 ..... . Samoa............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ........... . Tonga ...................... _ .... _ ... _ ........ _ .... __ .. _ _ _ _ 1 ................ _ ............ _ ..... . New Zealand .................................. _ 1 .... __ .................... _ .................... . Auckland .................. __ .... _ . 1 .......... __ .. ____ .................... __ . _ ................. . 

Australia .................... -----·............ 1 --·--- -----· ------------ ....................... . Japan .............................. ~ _... . . . . . . 1 ............................................... . North America: 

California and Oregon .... _ . . . . 1 .. __ . . 2 .......... _ _ 1 1 ......... _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Mexico ........... -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . Montana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . ... _ _ .. _ . . . . . . . . . . .. : . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . 1 ..... . Colorado and Utah. . . . . . . 2 1 ... _ ............. _ ........................... _. _ ................. . Yellowstone National 

Park.............. 1 . . . . . . . . . . 3 ........................................................... . Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... _ .. _ .. _ .. _ . _ _ . . . . . . . ... _ _ ... _ . . . . . . . . . . __ . . . _ . __ . 1 .. ___ . 1 

Minnesota and Wisconsin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. _ _ _ _ .. __ . 1 . ___ . _ _ _ ... _ .. ___ . ____ . _ _ , _ . . . 1 _ . _ . . . _ . _ . . . _ .... . 

NewJersey-Virginia ............................ -----· ...... ...... 1 1 1 ...... 1 ..... . New England. . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 .... __ ... _ .. _ . __ . ___ . __ _ 

Europe: 

England and Scotland . . . . . . . . 1 . _ . . . . 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ............................. . Germany.-.-.--.-.--. 1 . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 2 4 

Norway ............... 2 2 1 ·----- --·--· ------------------ -·-··- ............................. . Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ·- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . Sardinia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . 1 . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ ... _ _ .. _ . _ . Africa: 

Transvaal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. -.. - . . . . . . . .... . Cape Colony ............................... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 .................. ______ .. _ .. . Reunion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 ..................... _ .. 

South America ............... --·- ...... --·--- .................. ----·------- 1 .................. ·----· 

Analogous rocks of Oceanica.-It would seem natural to find that other island groups of the 

Pacific contained lavas very similar to those of Hawaii. But such similarity is not very clearly 

shown by the meager chemical data at hand for som~ of the groups most nearly resembling 

Hawaii in general character. It is highly probable, however, that future work will disclose 

strong analogies between Hawaii and several of the groups of Oceanica. 

The rocks of Tahiti, recently described by Lacroix/ with analyses by PiSani and Boiteau, 

bear the closest analogy to those of Hawaii. The Tahiti analogues come mostly from the deepcut valley of Papenoo and embrace both lavas and granular intrusives. Of two Papenoo 

basalts, one is an analogue of an olivine-rich basalt of Olokele Canyon, Kauai (No. 35), and the 

other of a basalt from the caldera walls .of Kilauea (No. 11). Of the granular intrusives of 

Tahiti, a rock called "gabbro nephelinique" or theralith by Lacroix is like another basalt of 

the wall of Kilauea (No. 9), and a "gabbro essexitique" corresponds to the summit picritic 

basalt of Haleakala (No. 39). Although the "gabbro essexitique" has no lenad, according to 

Lacroix, the norm contains 7. 7 per cent of nephelite, which is more than twice that in the picritic 

basalt of Haleakala. 

1 Soc. geol. France Bull., 4th ser., vol. 10, pp. 91-124, 1910. 
DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION OF HAW AllAN ROCKS. 79 

There is also a lava of Tahiti, called phonolite by Lacroix, although it contains but little 

nephelite, which is very near the trachytic obsidian of Puu W aawaa in composition, as the 

French petrographer has pointed out. 1 Lacroix also describes tinguaite (miaskose), syenite 

(borolanose), nephelite syenite, nephelite monzonite, camptonite, and hauynophyre (all these 

four belonging to essexose), microgabbro (camptonose), and picrite (custerose), in addition to 

those forms which are more particularly compared with rocks of Hawaii. The prevalent 

resemblance to rocks commonly referred to the alkalic series is recognized by Lacroix. 

The significance of this similarity between the rocks of Tahiti and Hawaii is emphasized 

by the fact that the more direct analogues include highly salic, intermediate, and strongly fernie 

magmas, suggesting similar lines of differentiation at the two centers. 

The lavas of the Samoan Islands, formerly referred to in. general terms as basaltic, may 

very likely be found to possess as great a variety as is exhibited by those of I-Iawaii. How 

great a similarity exists between these lava series remains to be determined, but Weber 2 has 

shown the existence in the several islands of the Samoan group of common plagioclase-olivine 

basalt, limburgite, several nephelite-bearing varieties included under trachydolerite, phonolite, 

and alkali tr~chyte. Unfortunately the analyses given by Weber (Dr. Hobein, analyst) are 

too incomplete and otherwise inadequate to furnish a basis for satisfactory chemical study. 

It seems plain that in a general way the Samoan and Hawaiian rock series show many interesting 

points of similarity. 

The single rock of Samoa shown by analysis to be a close analogue of a I-Iawaiian type is 

the lava of 1905-6 from the great volcano of Matavuna, on Savaii, described by Klautsch.a 

As shown in the table, this lava approximates in composition a scoria from a small recent cinder 

cone at Punahou, near I-Ionolulu, and is quite different 'from the lavas of the large Hawaiian 

volcanoes. In contrast to this relation of the Matavuna lava, it appears that the lava of 1867 

in the Tonga group is very near one of the old basalts of Oahu. 

Comparison with roclcs of Reunion.-The most striking analogy noted is between the lavas 

of I-Iawaii and those of the island of Reunion, recently described by Lacroix/ who recognizes 

the similarity. It appears that the lavas of the active center of the Piton de la Fournaise bear 

a close resemblance both in range of variation and in average composition to those of Kilauea. 

Lacroix presents analyses of these recent lavas, most of them belonging to auvergnose, and has 

calculated their average. This average and the analyses of two individual rocks are compared 

in Division IX of the table. (p. 72) with the average of nine analyses from Halemaumau. This 

mean of the Reunion rocks is still nearer, however, to the two lavas of Halemaumau given in 

Division X. 

Aside from this analogy of recent lavas it is of particular interest to find that among the older 

lavas on the flanks of the extinct and dissected Piton de N eiges, Reunion, are several close 

analogues of I-Iawaiian types not found at Kilauea: One of these corresponds to the kohalaite 

(Division II), another to the trachydolerite of Daly from Mauna I(ea (Division III), and a third 

to the trachydoler!te fr01u Ifaleakala (Division IV). A feldspathic picrite lava alternates with 

trachydolerite in some places, furth~r emphasizing the relation to conditions in I-Ialeakala. 

Euro1Jean analogues.-Among the countries of Europe, Germany has the greatest number 

of rocks resembling those of Ifawaii in composition. These rocks come from widely separated 

localities, but a considerable number of them occur in I-Iesse, Nassau, and the Rhoen Mountains. 

The Gennan rocks cited are analogues of several of the more salic lavas and especially of the 

ultrabasic lavas of Divisions XII, XIII, and XIV of the table. Rather singularly, the modern 

lavas of I(ilauea and the normal basalts of Kauai have no discovered close analogues among 

German rocks, though such analogues doubtless exist. 

The extremely salic lavas of Divisions I, II, and III find counterparts in Norway among 

the alkalic rocks of the Christiania region, but here the detected analogy ends. The intermediate 

and basic rocks of I-Iawaii seem to have no equivalents in Norway. Comment will be m~de on 

this point later on. 

1 Op. cit., p. 124. 

:~ K. bayor. Akad. Wiss. math.-phys.Klass£'1 A bh., vol. 24, pt. 2, pp. 287-310, 1909. 

a K. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt Jabrb., 1907, p. 1i4. 

~ Compt. Rend., vol. 155, pp. 538-54, 1913. 

I! 
80 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

A notable number of Hawaiian types, including older lavas of I{ilauea and three of the 

more alkalic rocks, find analogues in Sardinia. 

No other district is particularly noteworthy on account of the number of its rocks standing 

in close relation~?hiP to those of Hawaii, but there are points of interest attaching to many of the 

analogies brought out in the table which will be emphasized in the theor~tical discussion .. 

THEORETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PRESENTED. 

GEOGRAPHiC DISTINCTION BETWEEN ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC REGIONS. 

It is perhaps unnecessary to register any further protest against the use 9f the tern1s 

Atlantic and ·Pacific. as expre~sing the distribution. of the so-caJled Alkalic and .Calcic branches 

<?r Sippen of. igneous rocks. But ·a brief resume of the situation seems appropriate in this place. 

The original proposition by Harker 1 was to distinguish "an Atlantic and a Pacific facies 

of igneOUS rocks, COrresponding \Yith distinct phases in Crust movements of a large oider." 

But he later made the more definite generalization that these "branches" were geographically 

restricted in their distribution in the "'Atlantic and Pacific.regions," which he outlined.2 

The work of Weber, Lacroix, Daly, and myself, together with scattered evidence from 

many quarters, demonstrates that the Pacific island groups are characterized by alkalic rather 

than by calcic magmas. On the shores of the Pacific are many occurrences of alkalic rocks. 

It is tP,erefore not appropriate to use the terfils Atlantic and Pacific for petrographic regions 

supposed to be characterized by chemically different magmas. · 

The primary idea of Harker and Becke was to make a petrogenetic generalization parallel 

to that of Suess as to the tectonic diff~rences of the mountain ranges adjacent to the two oceanic · 

basins. Whatever relation may exist between tectonic and petrographic provinces, its nature 

has not yet been established, and Harker 3 has abandoned, 'tentatively at least, the use of the 

terms Atlantic and Paci:&c for the Alkalic and Calcic branches of igneous rocks. 

REFERENCE OF HAWAIIAN LAVAS TO ALKALIC OR CALCIC SERIES. • I • •• 

With the data of chemical and mmeral composition and association of Hawaiian volcanic 

rocks and the world-wide occurrence of analogous types befort3 us, it ren1ains to see whether 

these facts substanti~te or refute the genetic and systematic generalizations as to the distinction 

between the Alkalic and Calcic series. The Hawaiian lavas have been generally considered by 

petrographers as true basalts-an assignment which refers them to the Calcic series. Rosenbusch 4 cites one analysis of a lava of Kilauea (No. 23 of the table on p. 48) and one. of Mauna 

Loa (No. 32) as of true basalts. Harker 5 considers that the- trachvte of Puu Waawaa is not 

sufficient to throw discredit on the designation of the Hawaiian roc~ and those of other Pacific 

island groups as assemblages of typical subalkalic (calcic) character. 

Soda trachytes.-Of the two soda trachytes of Division I of the tabl~ of analogues, the 

rock of Puu Waawaa (No. 2) must surely be considered a true alkali trachyte, in the Rosenbusch sense, as it contains no normative anorthite. But t;he rock of Lahaina (No. 1) has 

3.61 per cent of norn1ative anorthite, and as. some of the soda is present in regirite the mode 

of this rock must contain correspondingly more anorthite in its plagioclase. Were the same 

rule applied to the syenites as to the granites this trachyte would belong to the Calcic series. 

But it contains regirite, and the names and associations of the analogous rocks show then1 to 

be currently considered as typically alkalic. 

Kohalaite.--The kohalaite of Division II of the table has normative oligoclase (±Ab4An1), 

Unfortunately, I do not know the mode of this rock, analyzed by Lyons and said to be a dense 

gray lava, and I have found no close analogue among surface rocks. As the table shows, its 

1 Science Progress, vol. 6, p. 26, 1896. 

2 Natural history of igneous rocks, pp. 93-100, London, 1909. 

a British Assoc. Adv. Sci., Section C, Presidential Address, p. 4, Portsmouth, 1911. 

4 Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 3d ed., p. 399, Stuttgart, 1910. 

6 Op. cit., pp. 96-97. 
THEQR.ETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PRESENTED. 81 

nearest relatives are leeuwfonteinite, nation minette, akerite, and augite syenite of well-known 

regions of nutrkedly alkalic types. But the two monzonite porphyries, d and f of Division II, 

raise interesting questions for consideration. 

The rock marked f is the most highly alkalic type of the original Gilbert collection from the 

Henry Mountains/ associated with intrusive types of quartz monzonite and quartz diorite porphyries such as are common in the Rocky Mountain region and surely can not be regarded as 

of the Alkalic series. Its augite is strongly eolored by the regirite molecule but retains a large 

extinction angle. The rock is richer in alkalies than the kohalaite or any of the cited analogues 

and is poorer in lin1e than· most of them. It is considerably poorer in lime and normative 

anorthite than the akerite of Ramnas, cited also by Rosenbusch 2 as typical of its group of the 

alkali syenites. 

The other 1nonzonite porphyry (d) compared with kohalaite, while not so near it as the 

rock of the IIenry ~fountains, is certainly of very similar character. Its associates in the 

La 'Plata Mountains, Colo., are monzonite, augite syenite, various quartz monzonite porphyries, lmnprophyres allied to cainptonite, etc. Some of these might be called alkalic in the 

Rosenbusch sense, but others do not seem to be so. 

Kohalaite has, then, some rather marked chemical features requiring its assignment to an 

AU\:alic series. Its analogues are mainly associates of pronounced alkalic types, partly of calcic 

assmnl1lages. 

T1·achyandesites.-The rocks of Haleaka.la (Division III of the table) are evidently of 

trachyandesitic character, and their analogues are recognized as of the Alkalic series. Rosenbusch 3 cites, under trachydolerite, the same analysis of mugearite given in the table and also 

one of basalt from San l\1ateo, Sardinia, probably the same rock of which I quote a new analysis 

by Washington. Lacroix 4 compares the trachyandesite of Reunion with mugearite. The 

rock of Bull Cliff, Cripple Creek, Colo., is associated with phonolites in a marked alkalic center. 

Carmeloite is called an augite andesite by Rosenbusch, 5 but· its normative composition seems to 

place it systCinatically very near to the trachyandesite of Haleakala. As the norms show, one 

phase of the rhon1bic porphyry of Norway belongs in this group. 

Rocks of ~fauna J(ea.-The lavas of Mauna Kea described by Daly (Division IV of the table) 

contain nUich more normative anorthite than the trachyandesites, and although Daly calls one 

of thmn trachydolerite, I am not sure where they would ·have been placed by Rosenbusch on 

tho basis of composition. The analogous rocks of the table are apparently calcic and occur in 

districts where alkalic rocks also occur. Pirsson 6 has pointed out this relation of the norite 

with un1ptekite, nwnzonite, camptonite, and gabbro. The basalt of Reunion has both alkalic 

and calcic associates according to LacroL-x:. 7 . The andesites of the Yellowstone hav<:} not been 

qt.testioned by Rosenbusch but have vp.rious alkalic associates in the park. The rocks of the 

I-Iarz Mountains seem calcic. Altogether I should say ·that the Mauna Kea rocks are intermediate but have striking analogues of more clearly calcic affinities. 

Roclcs of Division V.-The two similar feldspathic basalts of Division V of the table, analyzed 

but not microscopically described by Lyons, are poor in normative quartz and orthoclase, with 

anorthite nearly equal to albite. The normative plagioclase would be andesine near labradorite. 

From the cornposition they appear to be calcic, and most of the analogues of the table occur in 

districts where alkalic rocks do not prevail. The olivine dolerite of Skye is included in the table, 

in spite of its normative olivine, to show the nearest Hawaiian analogue of the rock which, 

according t.o I-Iarker, is a part of the same mass as the mugearite of Division III. 

'fhese basalts are intermediate and from my standpoint might be expected to have analogues 

of various associations in different districts. 

Rocks of Kilauea's caldera waZZs.-Division VI of the table deals with three of Silvestri's 

rocks from the caldera walls of Kilauea, one of which he calls augite andesite. The first two 

1 U.S. Geol. Survey Fourteenth Ann. Rept., pp. 176,226,1894. 

, momenta der Gcsteinslehre, 3d ed., p. 132, Stuttgart, 1910. 

a Op. cit., p. 440. 

4 Compt. Rend., vol. 155, p. 540 (analysis 3). 

48730°-15-6 

5 Op. cit., p. 380. 

o Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 31, p. 428, 1911. 

7 Op. cit., p. 544. 
82 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR R·ELATIONS. 

(Nos. 9 and 11) appear to have the chemical character of trachydolerites, for they carry norinative nephelite and olivine and are richer in orthoclase than the common basalt of Hawaii. 'rhe 

analogues of these rocks are also rather alkalic types-two of them from Tahiti. 

The basalt No. 12, while free from normative nephelite, has a higher proportion of alkali 

feldspars than the other_ types of Division VI. The analogous rocks of Japan, New South Wales, 

and Scotland are recognized by Kozu, Card, and Tyrrell, respectively, as containing more alkali 

feldspar than normal basalt, and it may be assumed that they belong in the trachydolerite group 

of Rosenbusch. 

The allied rocks of Division.VII are so distinctly alkalic through the subordination of normative anorthite that their reference to the Alkalic series can not be questioned. It is interesting to note that one of the analogous types occurs in Cerro San Miguel, Mexico. Three of the 

analogues of this division are from Sardinia. 

Basalts ofOahu.-The Oahu basalts of Division VIII are unu~ual types, and as. they have not 

been described in detail by Lyons the accuracy of the analyses might be questioned were it.not 

a fact that many Oahu basalts are poor in olivine and rich in bronzite· (p. 19).' 'rhe Oahu 

basalts have very low potash, and, although alkali feldspars exceed the anorthite in the norms, 

I should suppose that such magmas must be assigned to the Calcic series. The only close analogues found are not helpful in. decidirig this question. They are all more calcic and the analyses 

are more ~r less questionable, except that by Melville of a somewhat altered rock from Mount 

Diablo, Cal. 

Average lava of Halemaumau.-The relations of the modern lavas of Halemaumau to the 

so-called Alkalic and Calcic series are of almost critical importance in the discussion of the 

merits of the theoretical conceptions or systematic uses made· of those series. In Division IX 

of the table is given the average composition of nine lavas of Halemaumau and in Division X 

the two n1ost recent analyses. The data of these divisions may well be discussed 'together. 

The analyses and norms give no ground, so far as I can see, for changing the reference of 

these rocks to the normal basalts, in accordance with the views of all petrographers ~ho have 

discussed then1, unless the norn1ative quartz or low o·livine is held to require an assignment to 

augite andesite. The norn1ative plagioclase of the average is labradorite near andesine. 

Let us .now apply the three rules given by Rosenbusch as of value in deciding between the 

alkalic and calcic relations in such cases. First, there is no nephelite or other lenad, normative 

or modal, and no soQ.ic pyroxene or amphibo.le. Second, the sum of the alkalies is· only about 3 

per cent, while 5 per cent is the limit cautiously set by Rosenbusch above which one may suspect 

trachydoleritic affinities. Third, the character and associations of analogous rocks clearly 

support the reference to the Calcic series. 

·Among the closely analogous rocks cited in t~e table are five Triassic diabases of the eastern 

United States defined by Rosenbusch as typical of the Calcic series. Besides the cited rocks 

many others might have been noted, showing a very notable, general, or specific resemblance to 

several lavas of Hawaii. Rosenbusch 1 quotes the cited analysis of diabase from West Rock, 

Conn., as representative o.f "Hu!illediabas." 

The Whirr Sill of England is _,also "Hunnediabas," according to Rosenbusch,t who cites an 

analysis of that rock from Durham corresponding closely to that of a rock from the same locality 

quoted in Division IX of the table. The Whirr Sill is less strongly calcic than the Kilauea lavas 

with which it is compared. 

In Cape Colony, South Mrica, Rosenbusch 1 finds another representative of "Hunnediabas'' which is similar to the rock of Colesburg, South Africa, cited in Division IX. The 

resemblance between the recent lavas of Piton de la Fournaise, on Reunion Island, and those of 

Halemaumau has been noted (p. 81) and is illustrated in Divisions IX and X. The island of 

Linosa furnishes another significant analogue. 

Basalts of Ka·uai.-Two adjacent basalt flows of Olokele Canyon, Kauai, cited in Division 

XI, appear, from analysis and mode, to be highly calcic, though they vary in silica so that one 

1 Op. cit., p. 410. 
THEORETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PR.ESENTED. 83 

has normative nephelite while the other has not. One of these rocks (No. 31) is the chrysophyre 

containing modal tridymite and cristobalite. (See p~ 11.) The only closely analogous basalt 

I have found is one from Hesse-Darmstadt. A near analogue is an olivine-hypersthene diabase 

of Culpeper County, Va., cited by Rosenbusch 1 as a calcic diabase. · Another is an old greenstone 

diabase of the Lake Superior region. 

~ehe second basalt of Division ·XI has fairly close analogues in basalts· of the Azores and 

.rrahiti and a picrite of the Crazy Momitains, Mont. These may be considered by some 

petrographers as alkalic because of their associated rocks, but the value of such a conclusion 

is brought in question ·by the direct association, in Olokele Canyon, of the two rocks of Division XI. 

Fernie basalts near Honolulu.-The three Oahu ·rocks of Division XII are of local and 

comparatively recent er\].ptions near Honolulu, regarded as extreme products· of subsidiary 

differentiation. (See p. 91.) They undoubtedly show characters requiring their reference, 

under current ideas, to the Alkalic series, and this conclusion is confirmed by the analogues and 

their associates. All these lavas belong in the class of lamprophyric effusives recently given 

definite recognition by Rosenbusch, 2 who quotes the lava of 1905-6 from Mat.avuna (a, 

Division XII) as one of the Alkalic series.3 · · 

The interesting and significant point here is that of genetic relation to the prevalent ·hypersthene-be.aring, olivine-poor basalts of Oahu, such as are represented in Division VIII, which 

seem to indicate approximately the probable calcic nature of the original magma of Oahu. 

Picritic basalts of Mauna Loa and Haleakala.-Two of the most basic lavas of the large 

centers are cited in Division XIII. The Mauna· Loa flow of 1852 is decidedly calcic as to its 

normative molecules and. has no nephelite. The lava of Haleakala, with considerably more 

lime and even less soda than the Mauna Loa rock, has normative nephe}ite, which is s~ clearly 

a result of the lower silica that it seems unreasonable to give the nephelite any weight as sho'wing 

alkalic character. 

As to the home associations of these types, the lavas of Mauna 'Loa are not yet k:riown to 

include alkalic varieties, and Rosenbusch cites one of these lavas as a true (calcic) basalt. The 

bas£Llt of lialeakala, however, is closely associated with trachyandesite of undoubted alkalic 

stamp. . . 

The cited an.alogues are mostly intrusive rocks or lavas of centers where. alkalic types 

abound, but in Tahiti, at least, other more calcic forms are known. The olivine diabase of 

Englewood Cliffs, N. J., so very near to the :Mauna Loa lava, is one of the Triassic traps of 

the Eastern States, other members of which resemble lavas of Kilauea, as has been shown 

above. The analogy with the gabbro of Rosswein is not very close, this rock being ~elatively 

nlkalic in its salic elements. 

Divisio.n ..:-YJV.-The three most fernie rocks of I-Iawaii thus far analyzed are dealt with 

in Division XIV of the table. Two of these are nearly related chemically-one from Kilauea 

(No. 42), the other erupted in Puna (No. 41) but perhaps a direct product of the Kilauea 

reservoir. No. 41 is a picrite basalt and No. 42 is called by Daly porphyritic gabbro, but both 

rocks are so rich in magnesia and so poor in alumina as to fall with the picrites, these being 

defined as effusive forms of peridotites, in agreement with Rosen busch. No Tertiary lavas 

have been found for comparison with these fresh :Hawaiian flows, and the nearest analogues are 

the picrites and gabbros of Division XIV. 

The analogues of the nephelite-melilite basalt (No. 43) are all rocks whieh must be called 

alkalic by adherents of the Rosenbusch system. 

Resurne.-On applying Rosenbusch's rules to the analyzed lavas of Hawaii, it appears 

that about 15 of them are referable to the Alkalic series, that a somewhat larger number are as 

clearly of the Calcic series, and that a sn1aller number are of questionable affinities. The 

d01,ninant basalts of the islands, as shown by both chemical and microscopical data, are true basalts, 

1 Op. cit., p. 410. 2 Idem. p. 473 .. a Idem, p. 483. 
84 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

or "gabbroic effusives," to use the expression of Rosenbusch/ but essexitic effusives, or trachydolerites, also occur. The alkalic types are known on all the main islands except Molokai, 

no rocks from that center having been analyzed. 

THE ALKALIC AND CALCIC SERIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS. 

Current views regarding the series.-The sharp and far-reaching distinction between the Alkalic 

(granito-dioritic) and Calcic (foyaitic-theralitic, alkalicalc) series among igneous rocks is often 

referred to in petrographic literature as the most important contribution to petrography made by 

Rosenbusch. The fundamental significance of the distinction is tacitly admitted in most discussions of petrogenesis, and the application of this principle in systematic classification as attempted 

by Rosenbusch has seldom been criticized. Still it-must be admitted-by all petrographers that 

the criteria for separating rocks of the two series have not been clearly formulated and that the 

generalizations as to occurrence and association deserve the closest' scrutiny on the basis of · 

observation. The study of the Hawaiian rocks, generally treated as belonging to the Calcic 

series but including many analogues of alkalic types, furnishes a basis for testing the truth of 

oft-repeated assertions concerning the natural relations of the two great series. 

One may search petrographic literature in vain for a clear statement as to the distinctive 

characters of the series or the criteria for recognizing then1 or an explanation why closely 

similar rocks of intermediate eomposition must nevertheless be divided· between two series.of 

almost antagonistic relations to each other. When the thoughtful student of the complex 

relations of igneous rocks reviews the strongly stated generalizations as to the contrasting 

characters and independent occurrence of the Alkalic and Calcic series, and the basis of fact on 

whieh they rest, he must conclude that those g~p.eralizations have been .hastily drawn and go much 

too far. There is reason to recall many instances where incorrect and extravagant generalizations have retarded the development of petrographic system. 

In the Elemente der Gesteinslehre Rosenbusch carries through, so far as he is able, the 

distinction between alkalic and calcic rocks, and as his classification in that work is based on 

chemical data and is illustrated by tables of chemical analyses, one might naturally expect to 

find some justification for the idea of the two rock series; but in fact, although the question 

is of such fundamental importance, it is not discu~sed at all except incidentally. 

The first- n1ention of the two series comes not where the system is outlined but under the 

description of granite. After the si1nple statement 2 that alkali granite contains no lime-soda 

feldspar, in distinction to alkalicalc granites, follows 3 the bare, unqualified assertion that the 

two granite groups occur in different geologic provinces ·and with different accompanying dike 

rocks. It is further asserted that alkali granites are associated only with alkali syenites, nephelite syenites, essexites, and their basic relatives, and similar restrictions are placed on the 

associations of nlkalicalc grnnites. The syenites are nvowedly but not actually treated like 

the granites. 

Some of the alkalicalc granites and corresponding syenites cited by Rosenbusch contain 

less than 1 per cent of lime entering into anorthite, as calculated by him (on the principle of 

the norm) from the excess of alumina, after soda and potash have been satisfied. One is tempted 

to inquire how it can be supposed that differentiation may be assumed to have proceeded so 

far, within the alkalicalc series, without allowing the possibility of the next small step by which 

the alkalies might increase, relatively, to the point where the n1olecular ratio of alkalies to 

alumina becomes 1 : 1. 

It is noted by Rosenbusch 4 that the alkalicalc granites are very much more abundant 

than the corresponding syenites. That peculiar situation is, in my opinion, due mainly to the 

fact that lime feldspar bearing associates of alkali granites are, on an arbitrary principle, 

not recognized by Rosenbusch as possible, while larvikite, akerite, and other rocks carrying 

.considerable normative anorthite are treated as alkali syenites (!) and as grading into the monzonites, a truly intermediate group, which Rosenbusch is forced to treat n,s belonging with 

1 Op. cit., p. 402. 2Idem, p. 78. s Idem, p. 84. • Idem, p. 119. 
THEOR.ETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PRESENTED. 85 

the Alkalic series. Ife recognizes the fn,ct that an alkali granite can not grade through quartz 

monzonite and granodiorite into quartz diorite, or the distinction of Alkalic and Calcic series 

fails, even among the tnost highly salic rocks. 

The distinction of. essexites and trachydolerites, through their inherent cluuacters as 

alkali rocks, from gabbro and basalt is adn1itted by Rosenbusch 1 to be at the present time impossible because the characteristic differences have not as yet been fully detennined, but 

. he believes such differences exist. 

In his "l\1assige Gesteine," on page 1159, Rosenbusch takes the impregnable position that 

he would not consider himself justified in assigning a given rock to trachydolerite or basalt 

proper when the evidence of the rock itself does not suffice to indicate such assignment. But 

in the "Elemente," on page 402, he lays down certain rules (Regeln) which may be used in 

assigning a basaltic rock to trachydolerite. These rules are cited here to serve as the best 

available basis for judging whether the Hawaiian basalts may be referred to the Alkalic or 

calc-alkalic series in the sense of Rosenbusch. 

The rules are briefly as follows: (1) The presence of even the smallest amount of nephelite, 

leucite, socialite, or other lenad or of alkali-pyroxene or alkali-amphibole shows the rock to be 

a trachydolerit(:). (2) n1ore than 5 per cent of combined alkalies, especially with high potash, 

does no·t speak for true basaltic character. (3) Geologic association with alkali trachyte, phonolite, or other alkali rocks speaks for the trachydoleritic nature, and association with trachyte, 

andesite, dacite, etc., for the true basaltic character. 

The third rule clearly violates the principles set up by Rosenbusch for his own guidance, 

as above quoted, and is manifestly illogical and misleading so long as there is any question of 

fact as to whether clearly marked alkalic and calcic types occur together. The second rule is 

certainly vague enough and has no practical application to Hawaiian basalts, in many of which 

the combined alkalies exceed 5 per cent, though in most they are much less than 5 per cent. 

The first rule is an exaggerated statement based on facts in the association of many rocks. 

As to nephelite and leucite, particularly, its universal applicability may be questioned. It 

seems to me that nephelite has long been given a systematic importance in the qualitative systmns of classification far beyond its merits. Its presence in moderate amount is not so much 

an indication of highly sodic or alkalic character of a magma as of relatively low silica. Like 

olivine, nephelite and leucite are dependent for their development on physical conditions a::; 

well as chemical relations. 

Rosen busch 2 remarks as to olivine: ''The absence or presence of olivine is not a consequence 

of the chemical composition of the magma but of. the conditions of crystallization and specially 

of the more. rapid or slower consolidation and the correspon'ding shortened or lengthened 

period of resorption." Aa has been repeatedly pointe.d out in this paper, an abnorJUative development of olivine must free silica, which becomes available to increase the silicity of other 

molecules, and may prevent the formation of small amounts of nephelite. There may be conditions which increase the amount of nephelite. 

Probably all petrographers recognize that there are recurrent peculiarities in the rocks _of 

different regions which are apparently derived from similar parent magmas. Iddings, Brogger, 

Lacro.i.-x:, Washingt<?n, and many other students of notable areas have made this conclusion 

incontestable. Rosenbusch has made it the basis of systematic classification. But has he not 

gone much too far in the sharp distinction of the Alkalic and Calcic series and the generalization, 

to which he gives all the force of an established law, that the members of the two series do not 

and may not occur together as differentiation products of one magma~ Is there not a mass of 

evidence to prove that tjrpes of the two assun1ed series do mingle in many petrographic provinces or centers of eruption, as differentiates from the same parent magma~ Before such a 

general law can be accepted as a basis for systematic classification is it not incumbent ·on petrographers to demand at least a reasonable hypothesis to explain why two similarly constituted 

magmas, one an andesite and the other a trachyandesite, or one a basalt and the other a trachy1 Mlkroskopische Physiographic der massigen Gesteine, 4th ed., p. 1159, 1908. 

2 Elemcnte dcr Gestcinslehre, 3d eeL, p. 395, Stuttgart, 1910 . . 
I 

86 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

dolerite, may not on differentiation produce many similar and even identical types~ If such 

overlap is impossible, why is it not also true of the derivatives from two basaltic or two trachydoleritic parent magmas, which may well differ from each other in composition more than many 

pairs of rocks whose analyses are quoted by Rosenbusch, one of trachydolerite and the other 

of basalt~ 

The facts presented concerning the Hawaiian lavas and their relations seem to furnish 

significant data, bearing on these questions, which will be discussed in the next section. 

Distinction between Alkalic and Calcic series.-The chemical characters of Hawaiian lavas 

and the circumstances of their association demonstrate that so-called alkalic and calcic 

magmas may and do occur together as derivatives from a,. common source. This evidence is 

supported by the facts of many other eruptive centers, some ·of which will be cited. The current generalization-always largely assumption-that this distinction between the Alkalic and 

Calcic series is of fundamental importance in petrogeneais and may serve as a factor in a natural 

system is, in my opinion, absolutely false and is leading to needless confuaion in various problems 

of igneous rocks. . 

Much of the world-wide evidence bearing on this question is not readily put in convincing 

form. The table of analogues of Hawaiian lavas presents many suggestions for further investigation, when the new edition of Washington's Tables is available. A general review of the 

subject has led Iddings 1 to express his belief that the distinction under discussion is not in 

accordance with the facts of nature. 

Studies of Tahiti and Reunion have led Lacroix 2 to the clearly expressed conclusion that 

in those islands alkalic and calcic magmas are comagmatic associates. Weber's studies of 

Samoan lavas resulted in the same conclusion for that island group, in spite of an evident predisposition to accept the Rosenbusch· generalization. Weber 3 mentions several places, in 

different countries, where alkalic and calcic rocks occur together, and raises the question whether 

the idea as to the separation of the series has not been carried too far. Washington has shown 

in a recent study of rocks from Sardinia that alkalic and calcic rocks a.re there associated as 

derivatives from the same magma, and he expresses the opinion. that the Rosenbusch generali-· 

zations are incorrect. Many other writers have pointed out·instances where rocks of the two 

series are associated, but in many such instances· it has not been clear that the rocks were of 

. the same period of eruption and were genetically associated. 

DIFFERENTIATION OF HAWAIIAN MAGMAS. 

The general proble~.-It appears to be. impossible to escape from the conclusion that the 

series of Hawaiian lavas hav.e been derived from a general magma of nearly the same character 

in all parts .of the province .. The origin of this provincial magma is a still broader problem,. 

beyond the scope, of this discussion.· The process or processes. involved in this secondary 

differentiation are perhaps no more clearly indicated by definite evidence here than in other 

regions, and I confess to the feeling that all current hypotheses fail to render satisfactory 

explanation of all the ph~nomena or relations observed. And in the present state of knowledge 

(or of ignorance) concerning the processes of differentiation, it is reasonable, I think, to believe 

that there may be forces operating on magmatic solutions in the chambers or conduits of the 

earth's crust, the potency of which to produce the observed results has not been appreciated, 

or even that there may be forces of which we are now ignorant. 

Speculation and the formulation of hypotheses and theories on this subject are highly 

desirable and may be of great value, but it is only necessary to review the recent literature of 

magmatic differentiation to make 1t clear that there is no adequate basis of physical and chemical 

facts pertaining to this question from which speculation and hypothesis must start. The fact 

that Daly has recently published a paper on the differentiation of Hawaiian magmas gives a 

natural trend to the brief discussion which follows. 

1 Igneous rocks, pt. 2, p. 464, New York, 1913. 

2>Soc. geol. France Bull., 4th ser., vol. 10, pp. 91..:.124, 191Q; Compt. Rend., vol. 155, pp. 538-544, 1913. 

a K. bayer. Akad. Wiss. math.-phys. Klasse Abh., vol. 24, pt. 2, p. 305, 1909. 

' 

. \ 
THEORETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PRESENTED. 87 

The first essential is, as Daly remarks, to establish the approximate character of the parent 

magma, as nearly as n1ay be, to review the composition of the known products of differentiation, 

and then to consider the processes involved. 

The provincial magma.-The con1position of the parent magma of the Hawaii-an province 

can not be closely deternrined, of course, but the average composition of rocks analyzed seems 

likely to be nearly representative of the general ·Hawaiian magma. A large number of the 

:Hawaiian analyses are of the basaltic types, so that the rare and more or less imperfectly complementary extremes .have less e~ect on the average than is commqnly the case when similar 

averages have been calculated, with fewer analyses. 

In the subjoined table the column marked a represents the average of the 43 anq,lyses of the 

table on pages 47-48, (J is the average of 29 analyses of lavas of the island of Hawaii, r is the 

average of 9 analyses of lavas of Halemaumau, of the "C.-0,-A. group" discussed on page 60; 

/J is the average of 198 analyses of basalt, calculated by Daly 1 .to represent the world basalt; 

tis the analysis of the dolerite of Londorf in Hesse, quoted by Rosenbusch 2 as a type of true 

or calcic basalt. The norms corresponding to the averages and the Londorf rock are also given. 

4 ve:rag() analyses and. norms of lavas. 

Analyses .. NormR. 

a (J r lr ' a (J r 0 ' 

Si06 ......... 48.60 50.12 50. 18 49.06 49.08 Orthoclase ... 7.23 7.78 4.45 8.90 6. 1 

Al2 a··· ..... 14.00 14.32 14. 12 15. 70 13.43 Albite ....... 29.87 27.77 22.53 26.20 28.8 

Fe20 3 •••••••• 5.03 4.61 3.04 5.38 6.49 Anorthite .... 18. 63 20.29 24. 19 24.46 18.3 

FeO ........ 8.01 8. 52 10.45 6.37 5.92 Diopside ..... 0 18.57 17.89 22.42 13. 60 17.6 

MgO ......... 7. 12 6.23 6.42 6.17 9.58 Hypersthene . 3.46 11.42' 17.02 12 .. 07 8.3 

CaO ......... 9.00 8.82 10.67 8.95 8.92 Olivine ...... 9.33 4.18 1.48 1. 70 7.0 

NabO ........ 3.55 3.31 2.69 3. 11 3.42 Magnetite .... 7.19 6.73 4.41 7.89 9.3 K2 ........ 1. 24 1. 25 . 75 1. 52 1.00 Ilmenite ..... 4.41 2.58 3.34 2.58· 3.5 

'l'i02 ......... 2. 29 1. 37 1.75 1. 36 1. 82 Apatite ...... 1. 16 . 52 . 51 1. 07 1.3 

P:~Od········· . 49 . 22 . 21 . 45 . 51 

Mn ......... . 41 . 43 .19 . 31 ........ 99.85 99.16 100.35 98.47 100'. 2 

99,83 99.20 100.47 98.38 100. 17 

Rocks of the composition of the averages a and (J and the dolerit~ of Londorf fall in subrang 

ca.mptonose (III.5.3.4) and are not transitional in any respect. The Londorf rock corresponds 

to the general average a in its normative co!llposition more closely than any other basalt of which 

I have found an analysis. The "C.-0.-A." average ·of Halemaumau (r) falls in subrang ·auver-

• gnose (III.5.4.4-5) through its lower soda but is transitional to camptonose. The world basalt 

of Daly (/J) is more salic than. the Hawaiian averages, in consequence of its higher alumina, 

and is andose-camptonose ((II) III.5 .3 .4}. 

The data at hand seem to require that a discussion of differentiation in the Hawaiian 

province should assume the parent n1agma to have had neB~rly the composition of the concordant 

averages a H.nd (J, and that lavas of widely variant composition have been derived from_ that 

magma by differentiation, .directly or indirectly. 

The differentiates .. - Whatever the parent. n1a~a may have been, the nature of the differentiation that has taken place is repres~nted, though doubtless imperfectly, by the rock analyses 

which have been cited. 0 

An examination of the analyses and of the .table .of normative ratios 

(opposite p. 56) will show the in1portant phases of this differentiation in many details. A 

summary of the leading» features of variation fron1 the n1ean of the 43 analyses (a) may be 

of interest at this place. 

With regard to the relation FSal, 21 rocks are more salic and 22 more fernie than the mean. ~em · 

At the salic extren1e are three rocks separated by a large gap from the -next most salic type 

(No. 4), while there is a. more continuous gradation through tlie more fernie part of the series. 

1 Jour. Geology, vol. 19, p. 305, 1911. 2 Elemerrte der Gesteinslehre, p. 399, 1910. 
88 LA VAS OF HAW Ali AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

The variation in silica in these rocks has some interesting features. Only three rocks are 

notably higher in Si02 than the mean, and five are somewhat poorer in it. For 34 rocks the 

variation in Si02 is but 3 per cent on either side of the mean of 48.69, yet these rocks range in the 

quantitative system from near the middle of Class II well into Class IV, showing how relatively 

unimportant the variations in Si02 may be compared with those· of the bases. Two of the most 

fernie rocks have only about. 2 per cent less Si02 than the mean. 

In these rocks Si02 does not vary in accord with any other particular constituentt While 

the most alkalic are also the most siliceous rocks, Nos. 3 and 4 have the same contents in Na20, 

nearly equal combined alkalies, and about 10 per eent difference in Si02 • 

The variation in alumina is much more important than that in silica, both quantitatively 

and for its influence on the mineral composition. While in many of the rocks Al20 3 varies with 

N a20 or the combined alkalies, in some high Al2(\ goes with low alkalies, causing a great increase in normative anorthite, as in Nos. 8, 9, 11, 17, and 22. Among the more fernie rocks the 

relations of Al20 3, Si02, and alkalies are also extremely variable. Thus in Nos. 33 and 37, each 

with 12.10 per cent Al20 3, the Si02 is high and alkalies lr:>w in the former and the reverse in the 

latter rock. · 

Lime is also independent of other oxides in its variations. Rocks carrying less CaO than 

the mean are scattered through the list from No. 1 to No. 42, the Si02 ranging in these same rocks 

from 62.19 to 36.85 per cent. No. 36 has the same CaO as the mean, with 12 per cent less of 

Si02, and No. 28 has the same CaO with 3 per cent more Si02 than the mean, so that the.re is a 

range of 15 per cent in Si02 with the same CaO contents. 

The alkalies range from 1.61 per cent (No. 42) to 13.31 per cent (No.2), and while the most 

salic rocks are highest in alkalies there is no regular variation, as a glance at the table will show. 

Soda is much more abundant than potash and there is a tendency for the two to vary in accord, 

though some exceptions are notable. 

Th~ most variable constituent oxide of the Hawaiian magmas is magnesia. It ranges 

from 0.16 to 2U.79 per cent and goes even higher in the peridotitic xenoliths. There is a general 

increase in magnesia with increase in fernie moleeules of the norm. This is natural, for MgO 

is only found in fernie silicates. 

The determinations of the iron oxides are open to so much question as to their accuracy 

that it is best to consider the variation in the· total iron contents of the rocks. 'While it would 

be more accurate to calculate all the iron to FeO, this is unnecessary for the general purpose of 

the present discussion, for it is manifest that iron is not. distributed in the same manner as magnesia, in spite of the fact that its normative compounds are all in the fernie group. A glance 

a~ the table of analyses, which are arranged on the ratio of FSal , will show that the amount of 

em 

iron is most strikingly independent of the abundance of fernie molecules. In No. 4, with 37.6 

per cent of Fern, there is 10.5.4 per cent of iron oxides, while in No. 42, with 72.7 per cent of Fern, 

the ir:m.oxides form but 12.66 per cent. Rocks numbered 12, 13, 15, and 16, all of which belong 

to the transition zone between Classes II and III, are richer in iron than any four rocks of Class 

IV, or, indeed, than any of the entire 27 rocks richer in fernie molecules. Among the rocks more 

fernie than the average (a) only four are richer in iron, while seven more salic rocks have higher 

iron contents. The variations of all other principal constituents are greater than those of iron. 

It has been pointed out that Silvestri's analyses are apparently too high in iron oxides, 

but the general statement in regard to the variation in iron is true, . even if all Silvestri's 

analyses are disregarded. · 

· Titanic oxide shows no special tendency to concentration, being distributed quite inded f h . Sal 

pen ent o t e ratio Fern· 

Processes of dijferentiation.-The results of differentiation in Hawaii are known only as 

effusions, with a few dikes near the surface. No large intrusion, no s.tock or conduit has been. 

found. The differences in c0mposition shown by the lavas are such as may originate in the space 
THEORETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PRESENTED. 89 

belonging to the volcano, in its conduit., or in the chamber or reservoir for its magma. Assimilation of foreign material can not be plausibly assumed to have modified the magma, as it is 

supposed to have done in many other igneous centers. . 

Daly 1 has approached the problem from practically the same standpoint and explains the 

formation of the more mafic and felsic lavas by certain definite processes. Gravitative adjust-

. 1nent within the conduit is thought ample to explain the ultrafemic and some of the salic lavas, 

while the assimilation of coral limestone has indirectly ~eel to the formation of the rare trachyte, 

in accordance with the hypothesis formulated by him a few years ago. 2 

Let us see ho'w far the facts cqntribute support to Daly's hypotheses. 

Gravitative di.fferentiation.-It is not difficult to conceive of a kind of differentiation due to 

gravitative adjustment in u. body of magma containing heavy crystals of olivine, pyroxene, 

magnetite, ere., in a still liquid, lighter, salic residue-given sufficient time. But apparently 

this process is more readily conceived in the study than carried out in nature; for, while there 

are a goodly number of intrusive sills and laccoliths where a concentration of the heavier constituents in the lower zones has been plausibly attributed to this process, such concentration 

is conspicuously absent in a vastly larger number of apparently similar occurrences. I have 

not found any such case in many seasons' experience in the examination of intrusive bodies. 

Daly explains the more mafic lavas as due to the sinking of heavy silicates by gravity to 

low levels in the volcanic conduit, where they are resorbed and gradually change the character 

of the dissolving magma. At the same time the magma of the upper part of the conduit becomes 

more salic. After extensive changes of this kind an eruption from the upper portion of the 

conduit would produce andesitic or similar lavas, while if the deeper parts of the lava column 

were tapped highly fernie magmas, such as the Mauna Loa flow of 1852, would come to light. 

l-Ie says 9 that "no fact in the field relations opposes the assumption of a very deep, direct 

source for these heavy magmas." 

'fhe facts that the 1852 flow issued from MaunaLoa 1,300 meters below its summit and that 

the porphyritic gabbro of Kilauea occurs 3,000 meters below the same level are cited in favor 

of the assumption. To these data may be added the occurrence of the olivine-rich basalt of 

Puna at sea level and of the picritic basalt of Haleakala at its summit. This range of level for 

tho four heaviest known lavas of Hawaii and Maui scarcely supports any generalization as to 

a relation between the specific gravity of a lava and the level of its issue. 

The complementary proposition, that lighter lavas are apt to occur at higher levels, is 

thought by Daly 4 to be illustrated in Mauna Kea. This mountain is described as practically 

stratified, in that it is supposed to consist of olivine basalt below 6,000 feet and generally lighter 

rocks above that level to the summit, where the lightest rock, trachydolerite (No. 5), occurs. 

I-Ie~·e, again, Daly's data are, I think, obviously inadequate to serve as the basis for such a conclusion. I-Iis observations appear to have been limited to a traverse from the saddle· on the 

south, at about 6,000 feet, to the summit and back, the usual route of approach. The constitution of this ·great volcano is still almost unknown by direct study of its lavas. . 

But even if lavas lighter than normal basalt descend on all sides of Mauna Kea to about 

6,000 feet, they must be considered as simply a veneer of the later eruptive~ and give no evidence of the charactet· of underlying lavas, which must have descended likewise from vents 

above. Moreover, the collection studied by Cohen 5 and that made by Preston 6 showed the 

presence of heavier basalts on the upper slopes of Ma:una Kea, though their distribution and 

occurrence are unknown. 

The occurrence of very mafic and felsic lavas together at the summit of Haleaka:la has been 

described (pp. 28-30). 'l'rachytic rocks occur at low levels on both Hawaii and Maui, and on 

reviewing the data of occurrence at my disposal I can see no sufficient ·basis for the generaliza1 Jour. Geology, vol. 19, pp. 289-31G, 1911. 

2 Oeol. Soc. America Bull., val. 21, pp. 87-118, 1910. 

a Op. cit., p. 306. 

4 Idem, p. 310. 

6 Neues Jahrb., 1880, val. 2, pp. 23-62. 

6 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Ann. Rept., 1893, pt. 2, appendix 12. 
90 LAVAS OF HAWAII AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

tion that on Mauna Kea or in the Hawaiian Island group the more basic (that is, heavier) lavas 

have issued more frequently from lower levels while the lighter ones characterize the upper 

slopes of the volcanoes. ' 

Mauna Kea is the only one of the. great volcanoes of IIawaji in which the occurrence of 

the lighter lavas near the summit is supposed by Daly to be in accord with the gravitative 

hypothesis. At the other centers the conditions are recognized as having been unfavorable to. 

gravitative differentiation, mainly on account of the energetic "two-phase connection," a process 

resulting in the vesiculation of the magma at considerable depth. 1 

Origin of trachyte and melilite basalt.-Daly considers that the soda trachyte of Puu Waawaa 

and the nephelite-melilite basalts may have resulted from the absorption of coral or foraminiferal limestones, "such as are known to be interbedded with the older lavas of the archipelago," 2 

and according to the process formulated by him to explain the alkalic rocks in general. 3 The 

occurrence of soda trachyte and nephelite-melilite basalt in proximity on Maui would presumably be considered by him as favoring such an explanation_. 

With regard to this hypothesis I can see no reason for supposing that the rocks mentionf!d 

are not, in Hawaii and elsewhere, products of the same general process of differentiation as the 

other rocks with which they are associated. They are simply the extreme phases of the group 

now known and are connected by intermediate lavas with rocks assumed by Daly to result from 

gravitative differentiation. To be sure, the trachytes do not occur at the summits of volcanoes, but that does not form a valid reason for excluding them from the category of phenomena having a bearing on the gravitative hypothesis. 

I am not aware of any basis for the broad statement that limestones are generally associated with the older lavas of the archipelago, nor indeed that they occur in such association 

at any point. Coral rock is known on the south shore of Oahu at considerable depths and to 

some extent alternating with lavas and ash beds, but that these belong to the old lavas of the 

principal centers rather than to later eruptio.ns is not demonstrated ancJ- is, indeed, questionable. 

The limestones occur in what Hitchcock 4 calls the Pearl Harbor series, which Dall considers 

to be of late Tertiary age .. The sweeping conclusion drawn by Hitchcock, 5 on the basis of the 

character of this series, that "there is ground for the belief that the foundation of the whol'e 

archipelago. is a Tertiary limestone traversed by eruptives," needs some statement of tha.t 

ground. . 

Granting that there may be superficial deposits of coral limestone abou~ some of these 

islands, it is necessary, for Daly's hypothesis, to show how such material can gain access to 

the volcarnc conduit in mass sufficient to produce any notable result. It is certainly true that 

the alkali-rich lavas are not present about Honolulu, where the limestone deposits are best 

known. By Daly's hypothesis for the alkalic rocks the felsic lava should be at the upper levels 

and the mafic below. If this arrangement existed at the time of the numerous subsidiary 

eruptions about Honolulu, it seems remarkable that no alkalic magma came to eruption. 

The importance attached to the associa-tion of limestones and alkali rocks emphasized by 

extensive tables in Daly's original paper presenting his hypothesis 6 appears to n1e quite unwarranted. If ·an alkali rock cuts ·a limestone in dikes or stocks, this fact proves that t'hat limes none did not have apything to do with the alkalic character of the crosscutting body. The 

fortuitous association of limestone and alkali rocks in many parts of the world is natural enough, 

but that it. has any significance for this. problen1 remains to be shown. The few known cases 

where magmas have been injected into limestones under conditions causing assimilation and 

reactions leading to important modifications of the n1agma appear to be of local importance only. 

The interesting hypothesis recently advanced by Smyth 7 that magmatic mineralizers have had 

an important part in the concentration of the alkalies and of other rare elements often found in 

pegmatites, deserves careful consideration. The general conclusion of Smyth that alkalic. rocks 

are simply special derivatives from a" subalkalic" magma agrees entirely with n1y own views. 

1 Jour, Geology, vol. 19, p. 311, 1911. 

2 Idem, p. 309. 

a Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 21, pp. 87-118, 1910. 

4 Idem, vol. 11, p. 32, 1900. 

5 Idem, p. 33. 

o Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 21, pp. 92-109, 1910. 

7 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 36, pp. 33-46, 1913; 
• 

THEORETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PR:ESENTED. 91 

Dijferentiation and the sequence of lavas.-The exhaustive descriptions of Kilauea given by 

Dana, I-Iitchcock, and Brigham, together with comparatively meager observations of less accessible centers, have made that the accepted type of basaltic volcano of the world. Nevertheless 

this type is usually described in terms suggested by observations bearing on only a part of the 

history of such a volcano. That this is true will be appreciated by any geologist seeking to 

compare the sequence of chemically different lavas in relation to the life history of the volcano. 

The early periods of each center are actually unknown, either as to their physical phenon1ena or as to the character of the lavas. There has been no attempt to examine, except in a 

casual way, the eroded cor~ of- any I-Iawaiian volcano. It has been tacitly assun1ed that the 

early lavas of all were basalts. comparable to those ofK~lauea. Perhaps they were, but it is 

certainly desirable to ascertain the facts at the most deeply dif:lf:lected centers of Kauai, Oahu, 

and the remnants of large volcanoes presented by some of the swaller islands. · 

While the older history is difficult to.unravel, there is a later period which has received very 

slight attention, except from its physical side, although th~ data for its study are very ·abundant 

on all the larger· islands.· This period began at about the time when the great low-arched shield 

of the volcano was complete and eruptions of the con1n1on types had ceased. But apparently 

volcanism was by no 1neans fully extinct at this time, and it came again and again to eruptive 

n1anifestation during the long epoch of dissection and de~tr~ction of the volcanic pile. 

While my own observations are quite insufficient to permit an adequate sketch of the phenomena of this later period, the pro.blmn of differentiation in I-Iawaii is so bound up with its 

history that I wish to outline what seems to me the general character of the epoch of decadence 

in volcanic activity and its. relation to the chemical composition of the recent lavas. 

J\1auna Loa and J\1auna I(e·a are twin giants of the same general size and low dome or shield 

outline. The form~r is still active and the latter is referred to as extinct. A striking difference 

between thmn .is found in the great nun1ber of cones of ash and cinders, with or without local 

flows, 'vhich are sc'attm·ed over the surface of l(ea and are rare or lacking. on Loa. Whether 

such subsidiary eruptions occurred in the earlier history of these volcanoes or not, they were 

certainly more abundant in .and characteristic of the decadent period. There are cones and 

local flows irl' Puna, adjacent to IGlauea, which seem plausibly related to that center. 

These small eruptions were not confined to .the time immediately after the cessation of the 

normal type of basaltic eruption, by which the rnotintains had been built up, but wer~e repeated 

at intervals long after the n1ountains had been dissected even to t4e point where it becomes 

difficult to locate the old center of eruption. · 

Apparently these subsidiary outbreaks were at first n1o.st .ntimerous on the upper slopes 

of a volcano, as indicated by their distribution on ·J\1auna Kea and I-Iualalai, but as the main 

conduit became more and more effectively clogged the spasmodic outbreaks occurred n1ore 

frequently on the lower slopes. In '\Vest J\1aui, Oahu, and Kauai many o.f the more recent ash 

eruptions have occurred at or near sea level. On Oahu and Kauai ash and cinder deposits occur 

at various altitudes on ridges and in canyons or on precipitous slopes, and I have the impression 

that some of these deposits were not derived fron1 visible centers of lower level. 

The relation of this subsidiary volcanisrn to n1agmatic differentiation appears in the fact 

that the n1ore salic and femic lava types are as a rule products of these recent and local eruptions. 

I am not in a position to assert either that they are restricted to such outbursts or that all lavas 

of these eruptions a~·e of highly differentiated character. But that such is the general rule is 

well established. 

As I look at it, the relations of magmatic differentiation, as suggested. by the sequence of 

lavas, to the history of I-Iawaiian volcanoes corresponds approximately to the followingoutline. 

If we a.ssume that the initial n1agn1a at each center of eruption was of a basaltic character, 

similar to the average a of the table on page 87, it seems that during the more active period of 

each v_olcano differentiation was seldmn if ever able to produce partial magn1as of extremely 

salic or femic character. This might be due to short periods of quiet in the magma chamber or 

reservoir, insufficient to produce great differentiation. Even between eruptive periods there 
92 LAVAS OF HAW All AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

might be internal movements of the n1agma, accompanying changes of temperature, sufficient 

to again mingle parts of somewhat different composition. At any rate the lavas of extreme 

composition are not known in the main mass of any volcano. 

The "ultrafemic basalt" of 1852, from Mauna Loa, and possibly some other similar lavas 

may be exceptions to this generalization. But it is ~so possible that such lavas indicate a 

slowing of the activity at any center and the beginning of a period in which differentiation is 

able to produce more fernie or more salic magmas than before. Further investigation is necessary 

to determine how early in the sequence of lavas at a given volcano such fernie magmas may 

appear.· 

No very salic lavas have been found on Mauna Loa or Kilauea. The interesting rocks 

belonging to andose; found on the upper slopes of Mauna Kea, by Daly, are probably products 

of su bsid~ary eruptions. Daly states that the "trachydolerite" of which he submits. an analysis 

(No.5) issued from a cinder cone near the summit. All the flows of this rock are said to be short 

and some· were seen to be connected with cinder cones .. The similar "andesitic basalt" (No. 7) 

is not reported by Daly to have such evident 'connection with these recent and· local eruptions, 

but there are reasons, presented in another place (p. 89), for objecting to the view of Daly that 

all the upper 6,000 feet of Mauna Kea is composed of these salic lavas. It seems to me that they 

can be only a veneer-and probably not continuous, at that-over the basaltic summit of the 

mountains. 

Very little is known concerning the constitution of the old volcanic center represented by 

the mountains of the Kohala district, forming the northern peninsula of. the island of Hawaii. 

Dutton's general statement that the lavas are, as a rule, more nea:r:ly andesitic than basaltic 1 

must be questioned in view of the occurrence of normal basalts (of unknown localities) described 

by Cohen.2 The highly salic kohalaite and another rock analyzed by Lyons (Nos. 3 and 10) 

came from the southern slope of the mountain near Waimea, and as the map of Hawaii shows 

subsidiary cones to be abundant on that slope, as well as scattered over other parts of the peninsula, it is not unreasonable to assume that the salic lavas came from the late eruptions of the 

Kohala center and that the main mass may be of common basaltic rocks. 

The genetic relations of the soda trachyte of Puu W aawaa and the Anahulu terrace (p. 35) 

are as yet questionable. Puu Waawaa seems to belong among the subsidiary cones of Mount 

Hualalai but is older than some of its basaltic lavas. The similarity between this trachyte and 

that near Lahaina, on Ma~i, suggests a very late date for the former in the history of the center 

to which it belongs. The query then arises, May the trachyte of Puu Waawaa be in fact an outlying eruption belonging to the K~hala center, which by chance comes .in proximity to Hualalai? 

Further observations are necessary on this point. 

The &alic lavas of Haleakala, on Maui, of which two analyses have been given (Nos. 4 and 6), 

are, with the accompanying picritic basalt (No. 39), products of the most re·cent eruptions of 

the crater of that volcano. (Seep. 30.) Apparently these are the only rock types of Haleakala 

that have been studied, and there is no distinct evidence of the r6les they play in the constitution 

of that great volcano. My own view of the relations at the summit of Haleakala rests on meager 

observations and may be quite incorrect, but I give it, with some hesitation, chiefly as a suggestion to future students of that grand volcano. 

What is commonly called the crater of Haleakala appears to me to be, in some part at least, 

a result of erosion. This great crater is about 7 miles long by 2 miles wide. At the east end, 

opening to the south, is the Kaupo Gap, 1 mile wide, and at the west end, opening to the north, 

is the Koolau Gap, 3 miles wide. The'Koolau Gap connects directly with the deep canyon-like 

Keanoe Valley, which extends 8 or 9 miles to the sea. There is no canyon south of the Kaupo 

Gap because it has been filled by great flows of trachyandesite extending from the crater to the 

sea. The Government map represents flows as extending for more than 2 miles from theKoolau 

Gap down the Keanoe Valley. East of the borders of the flow through the Kaupo Gap are 

canyons which do not head so far back as the crater but whose beds are deeper than the surface 

of the flow. These canyons and many others shown by the map indicate the character of the 

1 U.S. Geol. Survey Fourth Ann. Rept., p. 171, 1884. 2 Neues Jahrb., 1880, vol. 2, p. 47. 

• 
THEORETICAL BEARINGS OF DATA PRESENTED. 93 

gorge willch once penetrated through the Kaupo Gap into the summit crater. How much 

of the crater is erosional remains to be determined. 

The absence of any data as to the character of the rocks of the crater or canyon walls makes 

it uncertain at the present time whether the trachyandesite and picritic basalt had a part in the 

constitution of the volcano before the gaps were made or not. J.D. Dana says that the walls of 

the crater are made up of rock similar to that of the cone called Willte Hill-trachyandesite-but 

no specimens were collected, and tills statement needs confirmation. Dana's collection from 

~1aui contains two specimens of trachyandesite, said to occur near Paia, on the coast at the 

north base of the mass of Haleakala. It is not known whether these specimens represent lavas 

of the main mountain complex or local eruptions. A cone occurs near Paia. 

Until evidence to the contrary has been procured it seems most natural to assume that Haleakala is, like other Hawaiian volcanoes, essentially basaltic, and that the extreme ~alic and fernie 

rocks lmown from its crater belong to subsidiary eruptions, later than most of the canyon 

erosion to which the mass has been subjected.· 

There are numerous cinder cones on the slopes of Haleakala, but the nature of their lavas 

has not been determined. · 

West Maui presents another great volcanic pile of wh~ch little is known. On its slopes 

are many cinder cones with small flows. At one of these, near Lahaina, on the west coast, 

occurs the soda trachyte (No. 1) first mentioned by Dana and identified also by Mohle, who 

found it, together with melilite basalt; among the specimens collected by Schauinsland in the 

same vicinity. Tills occurrence seems to connect the most felsic with one of the most conti·asting or complementary mafic types, as genetically closely related. 

About Honolulu, Pearl Harbor, and many other low-lying parts of Oahu aTe numerous 

cinder cones, and, as has been shown (pp. 20-24), the ashes and lavas from the.m are usually of 

very basic character,· including nephelite-melilite basalt, nephelite basalt, limburgite, and other 

unusual types. No felsic rocks are known from these vents, but the association of extreme 

felsic and mafic types near Lahaina confirms the reasonable idea. that complementary felsic 

magma:s probably eA--ist in depths at Oahu but have not come to eruption. The perfect forms 

of Punch Bowl, Diamond Head, and other cones or crater hills of unconsolidated materials 

show how recent they are, and there is no -reason to be confident that further eruptions may 

not occur on the island of Oahu. · 

On Kauai conditions are similar to those on Oahu. The most mafic lava of the island is 

the nephelite-melilite basalt of Kilauea Bay (No. 43), on the north shore, willch is of local 

O'l'lgln. Cones, with or without craters, are scattered over the island, less abundantly than on 

Oahu, but the character of ~be materials erupted in most of them has not been determined. 

Gene_ral course of dijjerentiation.-From the preceding data concerning the differentiates of 

the I-Iawaiian primary magma and their time relations to the activity at various centers some 

tentative conclusions may be drawn. 

1.. It does not seem probable that there has been any noteworthy differentiation in the main 

reservoir beneath the Hawaiian district. It being supposed that some volcanoes are much 

younger than others, the recent ones appear to have presented the same variety of basaltic 

types during their main activity. 

2. During the active growth of each volcano the lavas presented a moderate variability 

in composition without detected system of variation. The processes of differentiation were too 

frequently interrupted to permit strongly pronounced results. · 

3. With decreasing eruptive activity and possibly· attendant contraction and limitation 

of lava chambers, a higher degree of differentiation was accomplished and is shown by more 

salic and correspondingly more fernie lavas than those of earlier date. 

4. In the long period of parasitic or subsidiary eruptions conditions were favorable to 

extensive differentiation. This may be due to a localization of smaller magmatic chambers or 

to lengthened intervals of quiet. 

5. The processes of this differentiation are still problems for investigation. To me they 

appear to have acted mainly upon the liquid magma. Movement, under gravity, of crystal 

particles 1nay have played a part. 
... · 
INDEX. 

A. 

Page. 

Acmlto in trachyte from :MauL.................................. 27 

Jl~glrlto in trachyte from :Muul... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

Akormanito,normutlvo.... .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 

A koroso. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 

Alkalic und C1\loic series of igneous rocks, discussion of. .......... 84-86 

distinction between.......................................... 86 

Allml~c ot· Calcic_s~rios, roforonco of Hawaii~1lavas to ............. 80-84 

Alkalic rocks, ongm of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 

Alkalies, mngo of, in Hawaiilll.1lavas............................. 50 

Alumina, rm1go or, in Hawaiian lava's............................ 50 

Annhulu, Hnwuii, tmcllyto of. ................................... 35-36 

Analogues, chemical, of Hawaiian lavas, distribution of.......... 78 

chemical, of :nnwailm1lnvas, table of ......................... 63-77 

Am\lyses, chemical, of basalts of Olokolo Canyon, Kauai.......... 11 

chemical, of :Hawaiian lavas, discussion of .................... 50-51 

of Hawaiim1lavas, table or ............................... 47-50 

of melillto-nepholito basalt from Kmmi .............. · ..... Hi-17 

.Ano,l,ysis, chemical, of essox.itic andes.ite......................... 31 

chemical, o·flmlH\iito........... .............................. 15 

ofnepholito-molilito basalt of Oahu....................... 22 

ofplcritic basalt.......................................... 29 

from Puna, Hawaii................................... 44 

or sod1\ trachyte.......................................... 27 

Andesite, augite, from Kollala Mountains, Hawaii................ 33 

ossoxltic, or:IJaloakl\la ........................................ 30-32 

Andositic basalt from 11t:auua K011 ................................ 37-38 

Assoch\tlou of rocks in H!lwaiian Islands ......................... 58-61 

Atlm1tic and Puciflc regions, distinction between................. SO 

Augite andesite from Maul....................................... 26 

0 r 1\:llauoa. -. ---------------. -. ------------------------------- 41 

of Kollala Mountains, Hawaii.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

or 11t:auno. l~oa.-- --------- ---. -- -- -- -- ---. -- -. ----- ---- ------- 39 

Auvoq,rnoso...................................................... . 12 

B. 

Basalt, bronzlto-boaring, of Oahu.................................. 19 

fron11lfolokai................................................. 24 

melllite-nepholite, of Kilauea Bay, Kauai. ................... 16-17 

nophellto-melilito, from point near Honolulu, Oahu, plato 

showing.............................................. 22 

of Oahu .................................................. 20-23 

nopllollto, of Oahu........................................... 23 

olivine-plagioclase, from Kauai Island ........................ 10-13 

from Kauul Island, plato showing........................ 10 

from J...aysan Island ....... · .............................. . 

from N eckor Island.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

from Olokelo Canyon, plato showing...................... 10 

of Kilauea... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-40 

of 11t:auna Loa ..... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

of Mount lTualalai, Hawaii............................... 34 

of Oahu ................... : .............................. 18-19 

or \Vest 111:aui......... .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

picritlc, from cmter of volcano of Haleak:ala .................. 28-29 

plagioclase (poor iu olivine), from Kauai..................... 13 

near Lahaina, Muui.. .. .. . . . ....... .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

(olivine-free) of Oahu..................................... 20 

Basaltic tuff nem:Irouolulu ...................................... 23-24 

Basalts near Honolulu, relatious or............................... 83 

of Kauai assigned to Calcic series ....... · ...................... 82-83 

of ·oahu assigned to Calcic series.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

"Black ash" nom· Honolulu, relation of, to nopholito-melilite 

basalt ................................................ 23-24 

Bronzitc-bearing basalt or Oahu ... · .................. , ............ 19-20 

c. Page. 

Calcic and Alkalic series of igneous rocks, discussion of . . . . . . . . . . . 84-86 

Calcic or Alkalic series, reference of Hawaiian lavas to ............ 80-84 

Caldera walls of Kilauea, rocks of... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-61 

Camptonose-auvergnose.......................................... 12 

Casselose......................................................... 22 

Chemical analyses. See Analyses. 

Chemical composition, average, of Hawaiian lavas .... ~ ........... 87-SS 

Chrysophyre of Kahuku Head, Oahu............................ 20 

of Mauna Loa ..................................... :. . . . . . . . . . 38 

Classification. See Qualitative and Quantitative classification. 

Cohen, E., on lavas of M:okuaweoweo crater...................... 38 

on nephelite-melilite basalt of Oahu .......................... 20-21 

on rocks of Kohala M:onntains, Hawaii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 

on rocks of Mauna Kea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

Copper in Hawaiian lavas........................................ 51 

Cristobalite, occurrence of, in basalt of Kauai..................... 11 

D . 

Daly, R. A., hypothesis of, as to origin of alkalic rocks........... 90 

on basalt of Mauna Loa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

on differentiation of Hawaiian magmas....................... 89 

on gabbro from Kilauea...................................... 43 

on lavas of Manna Koa ................................... .-... 37-38 

Dana, E. S., acknowledgment to................................. 8 

description of soda trachyte from hill near I~ahaina, MauL ... 26-27 

on basalts of Oahu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

on lava in Plllla, Hawaii..................................... 43 

on lavas of Halemaumau..................................... 40 

on lavas of Mokuaweoweo crater .............................. 38-39 

on rocks in tuff-breccia of Kilauea............................ 42 

on rocks of Haleakala........................................ 30 

on rocks of Oahu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

on rocks of volcano of Haleakala.............................. 28 

Dana, J. D., on essexitic andesite or Haleakala .................. _. 30 

on e.'Cplosive eruption of Kilauea............................. 42 

on history of Hawaiian eruptions............................. 45 

Day, A. L.,lavacolleoted by..................................... 41 

Differentiation and the sequence of Hawaiian lavas.· ............. 91-93 

course of, in Hawaii.......................................... 93 

gravitative, discussion of ..................................... 89-90 

-of Hawaiian magmas, discussion of .. , ........................ 86-93 

processes or, in Hawaiian volcanoes ........................... 88-89 

Distribution of Hawaiian magmatic types in the world........... 62 

of rocks in Hawaiian islands.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-61 

table of....................................................... 59 

Dnnite, inclusions of, in basalt of M:onnt Hualalai, llawa.ii.... . . . ·34 

Dutton, C. E., ou rooks of Kohala Volcano, Hawaii.............. 33 

on the lavas of Mauna Kea .... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 

E. 

East Maui, rocks of ... ·............................................ 28 

Essexitic andesite, chemical analysis of.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

or Haleakala.-- ..... ------ .. -........ -....................... 30-32 

Essexose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 32 

European analogues of Hawaiian lavas.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-80 

F. 

Fernie molecules ill norms of Hawaiian lavas..................... 53 

Ferguson, J. B., detection of molybdic acid in lavas by........... 51 

G. 

Gabbro, inclusions of, in basalt or M:onnt Hualalai, Hawaii....... 34 

of Uwekahnna laccolith, Kilauea............................. 43 

relation of. ............................................... 77,83 

95 
96 INDEX. 

Page. 

Gabbro, oligoclase, of Waialae River, Kauai ..................... 14-16 

sodic, from Waiale Canyon, plate showing ............ ~....... 10 

Gay, Francis, assistance from.................................... 14 

Gravitative differentiation, discussion of ......................... 89-90 

H. 

Haleakala, volcano of, description of rocks from.~............... .28 

Halemaumau crater, lavas of. ..................... : ........ 40-41,60-61 

lavas of, relations of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

Hanapepe River, Kauai, limburgite of.: ......................... 13-14 

Hardy, Judge, assistance from.................................... 14 

Harker, Alfred, on Atlantic and Pacific facies of igneous rocks .. :. SO 

Hawaii Island, rocks of ... ·........................................ 32 

Hawaiian Islands a petrographic province. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 

map of....................................................... 7 

Hawaiian lavas, chemical analogues of, distribution of............ 78 

table of. ...................................................... 08-77 

Hawaiite, name proposed by Iddings .............. :.............. 56 

Hillebrand, William, collection of rocks by .............. ,........ 7 

Hillebrand, W. F., chemical analyses by .................. 11,16-17,31 

Hitchcock, C. H., acknowledgment of material from.............. 18 

on explosive eruption of Kilauea............................. 42 

on geology of Oahu ...................................... :. . . . 18 

on lavas of Mauna Kea....................................... 37 

on occurrence of nephelite-melilite basalt of Oahu. . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

Hualala-i, Mount, Hawaii, rocks of.. .............................. 34-36 

I. lao Valley, Maui, rocks of........................................ 26 

Iddings, J. P., proposal of name "kauaiite" by................... 16 

Iron oxides, range of, in Hawaiian lavas.......................... 50 

K. 

Kaala Range, Oahu, rocks of..................................... 19 

Kahoolawe Island, lack of information concerning................ 59 

Kauai Island, basalts of, assigned to Calcic series ................. 82-83 

features of.................................................... 9-10 

occurrence oflavas on........................................ 9-10 

quantitative classification of basalts of........................ 12 

relation of norm and mode in basalts of. ...................... 12-13 

Kauaiite, analysis and norm oi................................... 15 

application of name to........................................ 16 

name proposed by Iddings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

of Waialae River, Kauai. .................................... 14-16 

Kilauea, associated lavas of. ......... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-61 

crater of, rocks of.. ........................................... 39-43 

crater wall of, relations of rocks of. ........................... 81-82 

Kilauea Bay, Kauaii, melilite-nephelite basalt of................. 16 

Kilaueite of Silvestri, character of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 

Kilauose. ............................ .. ..... .... ......... ........ 15 

Klautsch, A., on lavas of Samoan Islands........................ 79 

Kohala Mountains, Hawaii, rocks of... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-34 

Kohalaite, an alkalic type ........................................ 80-81 

name proposed by Iddings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

Koloa plantation, Kauai, basalt of................................ 13 

Koolau Range, Oahu, rocks of.. .................................. 19-20 

L. 

Lacroix, A., on Alkalic and Calcic series of igneous rocks......... 86 

on rocks of Reunion Island ................................. ,. 79 

on rocks of Tahiti. ........................................... 78-79 

Lahaina, Maui, rocks occurring near..... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-28 

Lanai Island, lack of information concerning..................... 59 

Larsen, E. S., acknowledgment to................................ 11 

Laysan Island, rocks of........................................... 9 

Lenads, normative ............................................... 54-55 

Lesser islands, rocks of........................................... 9 

Limburgite of Hanapepe River, Kauai.. ......................... 13-14 

Lime, range of,, in Hawaiian lavas................................ 50 

Lindgren, Waldemar, on rocks of Molokai. ....................... 24-25 

Lyons, A. B., on lava from Kohala Mountains, Hawaii........... 33 

on rocks of Oahu............................................. 18 

M. 

Magmas, Hawaiian, differentiation of.. ........................... 86-93 

Magmatic types, Hawaiian, world distribution of................. 62 

Magnesia, range of, in Hawaiian lavas .................... '"'........ 50 

Manganese, range of, in Hawaiian lavas ..................... :.... 51 

Page. 

Maui Island, features of.......................................... 25 

rocks of...................................................... 25 

Mauna Kea, rocks of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 36-38 

rocks of, relations of.......................................... 81 

Mauna Loa, rocks of..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-39 

Melilite-basalt of Hawaii, origin of................................ 90 

Melilite-bearing basalts ........................................ 16, 20,26 

Melilite-nephelite basalt near Lahaina, Maui ..................... 26-28 

of Kilauea Bay, Kauai. ...................................... 16-17 

Merrill, G. P., acknowledgment to............................... 8,18 

on nephelite-melilite basalt of Oahu.......................... 21 

on Preston's collection of rocks from Mauna Kea ............... 36-37 

on rocks of Oahu.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

Mineral composition of Hawaiian rocks ........................... 45-47 

Mode and norm, relation of, in basalts of Kauai. ................. 12-13 

relation of, in Hawaiian lavas ................................ 54-55 

Mohle, F., on basalt of Kauai... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

on nephelite-melilite basalt near Honolulu.................... 21 

on rocks of Laysan and Necker islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

on rocks of Maui. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

on rocks of Molokai. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Moiliili Church, near Honolulu, basalt of quarry near ............. 21-22 

Mokuaweoweo crater, basalts of................................... 38 

Moloka:i Island, basalt from .................. :................... 24 

rocks of...................................................... 24 

Molybdic acid in Hawaiian lavas................................. 51 

N. 

Necker Island, rocks of........................................... 9 

"Nephelinbasanitoid" ofMolokai........ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Nephelite, modal, in Hawaiian lavas............................. 46 

Nephelite basalt of Oahu......................................... 23 

Nephelite-bearing basalts ............................... 16, 20, 23,24,26 

Nephelite-melilite basalt of Oahu ................................. 20-23 

Nihoa Island, lack of information concerning..................... 59 

Niihau Island, lack of information concerning................. 59 

Nordmarkose.................................................... 28 

Norm and mode, relation of, in basalts of Kauai. ................. 12-13 

relation of, in Hawaiian lavas ................................ 54-55 

Normative composition of Hawaiian lavas, discussion of .......... 52-54 

Normative ratios of Hawaiian lavas, table of .................. ·... 56 

Normative olivine, quartz, etc. See under name of mineral. 

Norms, diagram of. ........ ·...................................... 54 

diagram of; discussion of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-54 

Norms of Hawaiian lavas, table of.. .............................. 51-52 

0. 

Oahu Island, basalts of, assigned to Calcic series.................. 82 

description of rocks of. ....................................... 17-18 

Occult molecules of nephelite and orthoclase in basalt ............ 12-13 

Oceanica, rocks of, analogous to Hawaiian lavas .................. 78-79 

Olivine, abnormative development of, in basalt... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

analysis of................................................... 47 

normative ............ ·....................................... 55 

Olivine-diabase from Molokai Island ............................. 24-25 

Olokele Canyon, Kauai, analyses of basalts from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

P. 

Pacific and Atlantic regions, distinction between................. 80 

Parent magma of Hawaiian_province, composjtion of............. 87 

Pearl Harbor, Oahu, rocks of..................................... 19 

Peridotite as xenoliths, occurrence of .......................... 13, 34,38 

Perret and Shepherd,lava collected• by........................... 41 

Petrographic province, Hawaiian, parent magma of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 

Pieri tic basalt from Puna, Hawaii................................ 43 

from Puna, Hawaii, relations of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

of crater of Haleakala ........................................ 28-29 

of :Mauna Loa................................................ 39 

of Mauna Loa and Haleakala, relati~ns of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

Plagioclase, character of, in Hawaiian rocks ...................... 45-46 

Potash in volcanic ash near Honolulu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Preston, E. D., rocks from Mauna Kea collected by ............ ·. 36 

Provincial magma of Hawaiian Islands, composition of. . . . . . . . . . . 87 

Publications cited................................................ 8-9 

Puna district, Hawaii, rocks of ................................... 43-44 

Puu 'Vaa"·aa, Hawaii, trachyte of. .............................. 35-36 
INDEX. 97 

Q. Page. 

Qualitt\tlve classification of Hawaiian lavas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-.56 

Quantitative classHlcation of basalts or Kauai.................... 12 

or Hawaiian lavt\S ............................ , ................ 56-.58 

orkauailte ........................ :.......................... 15 

ofltwas from Haleakala...................................... 32 

of melillto-nephellte basalt of Kauai.......................... 17 

or nephellto-melllite basalt of Oahu........................... 22 

or plcritlc basalt.............................................. 29 

of plcritic basalt from Puna, Hawaii.......................... 44 

or soda trachyte ................ :............................. 28 

Quartz, normative, in basaltic lavas or Hawaii ................ 46-47,54 

R. 

H.eunion Island, rocks or, analogous to Hawaiian lavas........... 79 

H.osenbusch, H., on Alkalic and Calcic series or igneous rocks ....... 84-86 

s. 

Salle molecules in norms or Hawaiian lavas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 

Samoan Islands, rocks or, analogous to Hawaiian lavas........... 79 

Schaller, W. 'L'., analysis by...................................... 11 

analysis or kaualite by. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

on minerals in kaualite....................................... 14 

Scbauiusland, H., collection or rocks by. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

Sequence or Hawaiian lavas ...................................... 91-93 

Silica, modal, in Hawaiian lavas................................. 46 

range or, in Hawaiian lavas.................................. 50 

Silvestri, 0., on rocks or Kilauea................................. 41 

Smyth, C. H., Jr., on origin or Alkalic rocks...................... 90 

Soda trachyte, chemical analysis or.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

near Lal1aina, :M{\ui. ...... _.. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . 26-28 

Soda trachytes as,alkalic types................................... 80 

Steiger, George, chemical analysis by ....................... 27,29,31, 44 

Symbols or Hawaiian lavas in quantitative system............... 56 

T. 

Tacchini, P ., collection or rocks by............................... 7 

'fahitl, rocks or, analogous to H~waiiau lavas .................... 78-79 

Theoretical bearings or data presented on Hawaiian rocks ........ 80-93 

4873Q-15--7 

Page. 

Titanic acid, range of, in Hawaiian lavas......................... 51 

Tmchyandesites of Haleakala .................................... 3Q-32 

relations or................................................... . 81. 

Tmchydolerite from Mauna Kea .................... ·~-- ......... 37-38: 

Tmcbyte of Hawaii, origin of... . . ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 9QJ 

or Puu Waawaa and Anahulu, Hawaii.. ..................... 35-3() 

soda, from hill near Lahaina, Maul, plate showing........... . 22 

Trachytic rock from Lay san Island ... .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9 

'fridymite in basalt of Olokele Canyon........................... 11 

Tuff of Kilauea, rocks in ... ) . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 42 

u. 

Uvaldose .......... · .............................................. 17,29 

Uwekahuna laccolith, gabbro of. .............................. 43,77,83 

V. 

Vieiro's ranch, Maui, analysis of lava from point near ........... . 31 

w. 

Waihee Valley, Maui, rocks of ................................... 25-26 

Washington, H. S., acknowledgment to .......................... 27,62 

on distinction between Alkalic and Calcic series. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 86 

Weber, Ma..'C, on distinction between Alkalic and Calcic series.... 86 

on rocks of Samoan Islands . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 79 

Wehrlose............... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 44 

Wells, R. C., analysis by......................................... 11 

West Maui, rocks of .................. :........................... 25 

White Hill, cmter or, Haleakala, analysis of lava from. .. .. .. .. .. . 31 

description of lava from ...................................... ·3Q-31 

Wichmann, A., on nephelite-nielilite basalt of Oahu....... .. .. .. . 20 

Wilcox, E. V., on potash in volcanic ash near Honolulu.......... 24 

World distribution of Hawaiian magmatic types................. 62 

X. 

Xenoliths in basalt of Mount Hualalai, Hawaii. .................. 34-35 

in lavas of Mauna Kea .............. :. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 38 

in limburgite ofKauai. ..... :. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 13 

a