1

Working Mothers Issue Brief

Women, including 25.1 million working mothers with 

children under age 18, are a major force in our economy. 

Over the years, many mothers have joined the labor force, 

and their role as economic providers for their families1 has 

increased. In 2015, 69.9 percent of mothers with children 

under age 18 were in the labor force, representing over 

a third (34.2 percent) of working women.i

 Moreover, 

mother-only families made up nearly a quarter of families 

with children.ii While their role in the paid labor force has 

changed, mothers continue to carry a disproportionate 

share of the unpaid household and caregiving 

responsibilities. At the same time, they still face a lack 

of adequate workplace supports and encounter barriers 

that prevent them from achieving economic security for 

themselves and their families. 

This issue brief presents statistics and information 

on working mothers, highlighting their employment 

characteristics, the changing structure of families, the 

poverty status of working mothers and their families, 

mothers as sole or primary earners, and unpaid caregiving 

and household responsibilities. The final section of the 

issue brief highlights some policies and workplace supports 

for working parents and their families. 

EMPLOYMENT CHARACTERISTICS

Women, especially mothers with children under age 18, are much more likely to participate in the labor force than 

in the past. In 2015, women’s overall labor force participation rate (56.7 percent) was about ten percentage points higher 

than 40 years ago.iii For mothers, the increase was much steeper. In March 2015, 69.9 percent of mothers with children 

under age 18 were in the labor force, up from 47.4 percent in 1975. The increase in the labor force participation has been 

even more pronounced for mothers with young children. Between 1975 and 2015, the labor force participation rate of 

mothers with children under age 3 increased by 27.1 percentage points (see Figure 1).iv

1 In this publication, family refers to family households as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau— a group of two or more people (one of whom is the 

householder) residing together and related by birth, marriage, or adoption. In this publication, families include children under age 18.
Issue brief

Page 2

Mothers’ labor force participation rates vary with the age of their youngest child and with their marital status. 

Mothers with children age 6 to 17 are more likely to be in the labor force than those with younger children. The labor force 

participation rate for fathers sees very little variation, with over 9 in 10 fathers participating in the labor force regardless 

of the age of their youngest child (see Figure 2).v Among mothers with children under age 18, unmarried mothers2 were 

more likely to be in the labor force (75.1 percent) compared to married mothers with a spouse present (67.6 percent).vi

2 Includes mothers who are never married, widowed, divorced, separated, or married but living apart from their spouse. A cohabitating partner may be 

present.

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March 1975-2015 Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement. 
Issue brief

Page 3

Race and Ethnicity

Historically, Black mothers have had the highest labor force participation rates. In March 2015, the labor force 

participation rates of mothers with children under age 18 were:

• 76.3 percent for Black mothers

• 69.6 percent for White mothers

• 62.0 percent for Asian mothers

• 61.6 percent for Hispanic mothers

Note: People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. 

Unpublished Tabulations.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Not in the 

labor force

In the labor 

force

under 

3 years

3 to 5 

years

6 to 17

 years

under 

18 years

under 

3 years

3 to 5 

years

6 to 17 

years

under 

18 years

Figure 2. Labor force participation rates of mothers and 

fathers by age of youngest child, March 2015

Age of youngest child

Mothers Fathers

30.1

69.9

25.4

74.6

32.7

67.3

38.6

61.4

7.2

92.8

8.3

91.7

6.1

93.9

5.5

94.5

Notes: Based on the civilian noninstitutional population age 16 years and older.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March 2015 Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement.
Issue brief

Page 4

While the majority of employed mothers work full-time, they are much more likely than employed fathers to work 

part-time. In March 2015, 75.3 percent of mothers with children under age 18 worked full-time. However, they were 

five times more likely than employed fathers to work part-time (24.7 percent vs 4.8 percent, respectively). Moreover, 

mothers’ full-time and part-time employment status varies with the age of their youngest child. Among employed mothers 

with children age 6 to 17, 77.2 percent worked full-time, compared to 71.9 percent of those with children under age 3. 

Regardless of the age of their youngest child, over nine in ten employed fathers worked full-time (see Figure 3).vii

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Part-time

Full-time

under

 3 years

3 to 5 

years

6 to 17

 years

under 

18 years

under 

3 years

3 to 5 

years

6 to 17 

years

under 

18 years

Figure 3. Employed parents by full-time and part-time 

status and age of youngest child, March 2015

Mothers Fathers

Age of youngest child

24.7

75.3

22.8

77.2

27.0

73.0

28.1

71.9 95.2 95.8

4.8 4.2 4.9

95.1

6.0

94.0

Notes: Based on the employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population age 16 years and 

older. Full-time is 35 hours or more per week; part-time is less than 35 hours.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March 2015 Annual Social and 

Economic Supplement.
Issue brief

Page 5

CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN UNDER 

AGE 18 

One notable change in American families has been the increase in the share of families that are one-parent, which 

has nearly doubled since 1975 (see Figure 4). In March 2015, 31.3 percent of families with children were oneparent families, up from only 16.3 percent in March 1975. In March 2015, mother-only families made up nearly 1 in 

4 families with children and the vast majority (78.2 percent) of one-parent families. Moreover, mother-only families 

were more likely to have two or more children under age 18 (51.0 percent), compared to father-only families (40.0 

percent).

While mothers make important contributions to their family’s income in married-couple families, the 

percentage of mother-only families underscores mothers’ critical role as economic providers.

Figure 4. Share of families with children under age 18 

by family structure, March 1975-2015

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Mother-only families Married-couples Father-only families One-parent families

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

16.3%

31.3%

6.8%

1.6%

83.7%

14.7%

68.7%

24.4%

Notes: Prior to 1980 the counts of families include unrelated subfamilies. 

Data for 1970 and 1980 are revised based on the 1980 decennial census. 

Data from 2014 onwards reflect redesigned questions.

Mother-Only Family 

Groups by Race 

and Ethnicity 

In March 2015, mother-only 

families represented the 

following shares of family 

groups with children under 

age 18: 

• 54.3 percent of Black 

family groups 

• 28.9 percent of Hispanic 

family groups

• 18.9 percent of White, 

non-Hispanic family groups 

• 12.1 percent of Asian 

family groups

Note: Family groups include 

all parent-child situations 

(two-parent and one-parent): 

those that maintain their own 

household; those that live in 

the home of a relative; and 

those that live in the home of a 

non-relative. People of two or 

more races are not included. 

Hispanics may be of any race. 

Notes: Data refers to families with own children—they are the biological, step, or adopted children of the householder or family 

reference person (in the case of subfamilies). Own children are also limited to children who have never been married, are under 

the age of 18 (unless otherwise specified), and are not themselves a family reference person. In one-parent families, the parent 

may have a cohabiting partner, but none of their children are also identified as the child of their cohabiting partner.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, March 1975-2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
Issue brief

Page 6

FAMILIES IN POVERTY WITH WORKING MOTHERS 

In 2014, 2.7 million families with a working mother and children under age 18 were living in poverty,3 2.1 million 

of which were mother-only families.4 viii The poverty rate for families with a working mother and children under age 18 

was 3.4 percent for married-couple families, and 28.4 percent for mother-only families.5 ix Families with a working mother 

and children under age 6 had even higher poverty rates (4.4 percent for married-couple families and 39.5 percent for 

mother-only families).x

3 Includes opposite-sex married-couple families with related children under age 18 in which both spouses worked, and those in which the wife worked 

but the husband did not; and mother-only families with a working householder.

4 In this section, the parent in mother-only or father-only families may have a cohabiting partner; the children may or may not be identified as the child of 

his or her cohabiting partner. In addition to a working householder, other workers might be present.

5 The overall poverty rate for families with children under age 18 with a working householder was 11.6 percent and 15.6 percent for families with children 

under age 6 in 2014.

Poverty Threshold

The U.S. Census Bureau uses a set of 

income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition to determine who is 

living in poverty. If a family’s total income 

before taxes is less than the poverty 

threshold, then that family is considered 

to be in poverty (the measure excludes 

noncash benefits and capital gains). For 

example, in 2014 the poverty threshold 

for a parent living with two children under 

the age of 18 was $19,073 and for a 

parent with three children, it was $24,091.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current 

Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and 

Economic Supplement

Race and Ethnicity

In 2014, the poverty rates for families 

with children under age 18 headed by a 

working mother with no spouse present 

were:

• 34.4 percent of Hispanic families

• 33.8 percent of Black families

• 23.2 percent of Asian families

• 21.0 percent of White, non-Hispanic 

families.

Note: People of two or more races are not 

included. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Another worker may be present.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current 

Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and 

Economic Supplement.
Issue brief

Page 7

Among families with a working householder and children under age 18, mother-only families were over five times more 

likely to be in poverty than married-couple families,6 and nearly twice as likely to be in poverty as father-only families 

(see Figure 5).xi In married-couple families with children under age 18, the poverty rate was higher for those in which the 

mother worked but the father did not (19.6 percent), compared to those in which the father worked but the mother did not 

(15.3 percent).xii Therefore, families in which the mother is the only parent working are more likely to be in poverty. 

In addition to families that live below the official poverty threshold, many others live near the poverty line.7 Families in 

near-poverty face similar barriers to economic security as those under the official poverty line.xiii Among mother-only 

families with a working householder, the majority of those with children under age 6 lived in or near poverty, as well as 

39.5 percent of those with children under age 18 (see Figure 5).xiv

6 In married-couple families, the householder may be either spouse. 7 This publication defines families in near-poverty as those with a family income between 100 and 130 percent of the poverty thresholds. For example, 

a family of three, including two children, with a family income between $19,073 and $24,795 would be considered to be in near-poverty based on 2014 

poverty thresholds.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Near poverty

Poverty 

under 

6 years

under 

18 years

under 

6 years

under 

18 years

under 

6 years

under 

18 years

Figure 5. Families in poverty or near poverty with a 

working householder, by family type and age of child, 2014

Married-couple families Male householder, 

no spouse present

Female householder, 

no spouse present

Age of youngest child

3.7

5.2

4.9

7.0

7.9

15.5

11.2

21.4

11.1

28.4

12.6

39.5

Notes: This publication defines families in near poverty as those with a family income between 100 and 130 

percent of the official poverty thresholds. In married-couple families the householder may be either spouse.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
Issue brief

Page 8

Even when the mother worked full-time and year-round, 14.0 percent of mother-only families with children under 

age 18 were living in poverty. Another ten percent of those families lived in near-poverty. This means that even when the 

mother works 35 hours or more per week and 50 or more weeks per year, over one million mother-only families are in or 

near-poverty.xv 

MOTHERS AS PRIMARY AND SOLE EARNERS

As more mothers have joined the labor force, the number of mothers who are the primary or sole earner in their 

families has also increased over the decades. In 2014, 39.6 percent of family households with children under age 18 

had mothers who were either the sole or primary source of income for the family, up from 10.7 percent in 1960 (see Figure 

6).8 Mother-only families represent the greatest share of families with a mother as the sole or primary earner. Of all family 

households with children under age 18, 25.0 percent are mother-only families, compared to 14.6 percent of marriedcouple families that have a married mother who out-earns her spouse.xvi 

8 A mother is considered the primary earner if she meets one of the following criteria: 1.) She is in a married opposite-sex family household with children 

under 18 and earns more than her husband or 2.) She heads a mother-only family with children under age 18. Married-couple families in which neither 

spouse is the householder are excluded. Mother-only families refer to those in which the householder is a mother who is never married, widowed, 

divorced, separated, or married but living apart from her spouse. A cohabitating partner may be present. Data are limited to the head of the household 

ages 15 and older. Earnings are based on total pre-tax personal income or losses from all income sources for the previous year. This definition and 

methodology is similar to and adopted from Pew’s definition of female breadwinner (see http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/05/29/breadwinner-moms/).

Married-couple 

families

Mother-only 

families

1960 1970 1980 1999 2000 2010 2014

14.6

25.0

3.4

7.3

10.7%

39.6%

Figure 6. Mothers as the primary or sole earners, 1960-2014

Percent of households with children under age 18 in 

which mothers are the primary or sole earner

Notes: See footnote 8.

Source: 1960 - 2000 Decennial Census and 2010 - 2014 American Community Surveys (ACS) Integrated Public 

Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files.
Issue brief

Page 9

Race and Ethnicity

In 2014, 73.6 percent of Black mothers with at least one child under age 18 were the primary or sole earner in the 

household. The corresponding proportion of mothers that were the primary or sole earner among other racial and 

ethnic groups was smaller: 

• 43.0 percent of Hispanic mothers

• 38.3 percent of White, non-Hispanic mothers

• 31.4 percent of Asian mothers 

Note: People of two or more races are not included. Hispanics may be of any race. 

Source: Women’s Bureau analysis of 2014 American Community Survey (ACS) Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample 

(IPUMS) file. 

Married mothers bring in at least some income in 75 percent of all married couple families with children under 

age 18. Around a third of married mothers contribute between 25 and 50 percent of the total family income. However, it 

is less common for married mothers to earn all the family income or to be the primary earners than for married fathers. A 

small percentage of married mothers (2.2 percent) earn all the family income compared to 23.3 percent of married fathers 

(see Figure 7). Regardless of primary earner status, the majority of married mothers contribute to their families’ economic 

security.xvii

0% (no earnings) 1% to 24% 25% to 50% 50.05% to 74% 75% to 99% 100%

Married 

Mothers

Married 

Fathers

Figure 7. Married couples share of family income, 2014 

No earnings Sole earner

No earnings

Sole 

Primary earner earner

Primary earner

Note: Percent based on opposite-sex married couple family households with own child(ren) under age 18. 

Family income refers to the sum of the wife’s and husband’s income. 

Source: 2014 American Community Surveys (ACS) Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files.
Issue brief

Page 10

A mother’s earnings can have a significant impact on a family’s overall income. In 2014, the median family income 

was $85,000 for married couples with children in which the wife was the primary earner, $5,000 more than households 

in which the father was the primary earner, and more than four times as much as the median income for families led by 

an unmarried mother ($20,900) (see Figure 8). While total family income is highest when a married mother is the primary 

provider, it is usually because both spouses contribute financially. In married-couple families where the father is the 

primary earner, he is more likely to be the sole earner.xviii 

Mother-only 

families

Father-only families

Married-couple families - Mother and father earn same

Married-couple families - Father is the sole or primary earner

Married-couple families - Mother is the sole or primary earner

All Families

Figure 8. Median annual income by family household type 

and primary earner status, 2014

$20,900

$35,000

$78,000

$80,000

$85,000

$58,000

Note: Married couple family households limited to opposite-sex couples. Values based on families with own 

child(ren) under age 18 in the household. 

Source: 2014 American Community Surveys (ACS) Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files.

UNPAID CAREGIVING AND HOUSEHOLD RESPONSIBILITIES

Despite the increase in mothers’ labor force participation, they continue to bear an unequal share of unpaid 

caregiving and household responsibilities. On an average day, employed mothers spend more time caring for and 

helping household children than employed fathers. This imbalance in unpaid responsibilities persists for full-time working 

mothers and regardless of the age of the youngest child.xix Moreover, due to women having children at a later age, 

combined with the longer life-span of their own parents and the needs of an aging U.S. population, many of today’s 
Issue brief

Page 11

women who provide eldercare9 (20.9 percent) are also parents of children under age 18.xx During 2013 and 2014, over 

3.3 million working mothers provided unpaid eldercare, two-thirds of whom were employed full-time.xxi 

In addition to unpaid caregiving responsibilities, working mothers are also more likely to perform household activities10

than working fathers. Although working fathers are spending more time on unpaid household and child care activities than 

in the past, this trend of working mothers spending more time than fathers on such activities holds true even when the 

mother is employed full-time and regardless of the age of the youngest child.xxii These additional duties, combined with 

the lack of adequate workplace supports like paid family leave, may affect the number of hours women work in the paid 

labor force and the types of jobs they hold, which may in turn affect their earnings.

WORKPLACE SUPPORTS FOR MEETING WORK AND FAMILY 

RESPONSIBILITIES

Many working parents lack access to even the most basic workplace supports, such as job-protected paid 

parental leave, earned sick days, or quality and affordable child care. The lack of these supports, coupled with the 

increase in the role of mothers as economic providers for their families, impact the ability of parents to adequately meet 

work and family responsibilities. Moreover, mothers are much more likely than fathers to work in part-time or low-paying 

jobs, and those jobs are far less likely to provide access to paid leave, flexible workplaces, child care assistance and other 

quality of life benefits.xxiii 

CHILD CARE

The cost of child care poses a considerable burden for many families and comprises a significant portion of family income. 

In 2011, 31.9 percent of families with an employed mother and at least one child under age 15 made weekly child care 

payments, which represented about seven percent of family income per month.11 Families with a monthly income of 

$4,500 or more also spent about seven percent of their income on child care. However, for those with incomes below 

$4,500, monthly child care expenditures represented a much higher share of family income—up to 39.6 percent for 

families with a monthly income below $1,500.xxiv 

According to the 2015 National Compensation Survey, only 11.0 percent of all civilian workers in the United States have 

access to childcare assistance12 through their employers. Full-time or part-time status, employer size, occupation, and 

other employer or employee characteristics can impact access to employer supported child care. For example, 13.0 

9 Eldercare providers may care for a spouse or unmarried partner, a parent, a grandparent who did not live with them, another related person (including 

grandparents who lived with the eldercare provider), a friend or neighbor, or someone else.

10 Household activities include housework; cooking; lawn and garden care; pet care; vehicle maintenance and repair; home maintenance, repair, 

decoration, and renovation; and household management and organizational activities.

11 Percent is a ratio of average monthly child care payments (prorated from weekly averages) to average monthly family income. Excludes families with 

no reported of income in the last 4 months.

12 Child care benefits are defined as a workplace program that provides for either the full or partial cost of caring for an employee’s children in a nursery, 

day care center, or a baby sitter in facilities either on or off the employer’s premises.

Access to Family-Friendly Employee Benefits

• 13 percent of workers have access to paid family leave

• 88 percent of workers have access to unpaid family leave

• 11 percent are offered child care assistance

• 6 percent have access to flexible workplace benefits

Note: Data refer to civilian workers. 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Compensation Survey, March 2015
Issue brief

Page 12

percent of full-time employees had access to child care through their employer compared with five percent of part-time 

employees, and businesses with 100 or more workers were more likely than smaller businesses to offer child care 

assistance to their employees (17.0 percent and 5.0 percent, respectively).xxv 

The federal government and states provide some child care supports in the form of subsidies, tax credits, publicly funded 

pre-kindergarten, and early childhood care programs, such as Head Start and Early Head Start. In addition, a small 

number of localities offer publicly-funded, universal pre-kindergarten for residents. However, of the 14.2 million children 

eligible for child care subsidies under federal rules, only 15 percent received government assistance.xxvi The absence of 

widely-available affordable, high-quality child care is a significant barrier to women’s workplace equality, and has other 

significant costs to children and society.xxvii

PAID FAMILY LEAVE

Most employees in the United States depend on voluntary paid leave benefits from their employers, which only partially 

meet workers’ needs and underscore the importance of securing federal family-friendly workplace policies, including 

universal paid family leave.13 The only national labor policy in the United States that offers leave opportunities for 

women and men in the workforce with family caregiving responsibilities is the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) of 

1993, which provides eligible employees up to 12 weeks of job-protected, unpaid leave.14 The United States is the only 

advanced economy that does not currently have some form of paid leave law in place at the federal level, though some 

states have passed or are exploring the feasibility of adopting paid family and medical leave laws. Paid leave is good for 

individuals, families, and our economy. For example, paid maternity leave has been shown to increase the likelihood a 

new mother stays in the labor force, and can help reduce employee turnover.xxviii 

CONCLUSION

The role of mothers as family economic providers has changed in recent decades; more mothers are in the paid labor 

force and serve as sole or primary breadwinners for their families, and the share of one-parent families has grown. 

Moreover, many working parents also provide unpaid eldercare in addition to caring for their own children. Mothers also 

continue to bear the brunt of unpaid caregiving and household responsibilities. While the landscape of America’s labor 

force has changed, workplaces have been slow to adapt. Addressing gender inequality in the workforce and expanding 

workplace supports that address the needs of parents to meet work and family responsibilities are critical to ensure both 

our continued economic competitiveness as a nation and the economic security of today’s families. 

13 As of May 2016, the following states had paid family and medical leave laws: California, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and New York. The New York paid 

family and medical leave law will take effect on 2018. 

14 The FMLA provides eligible employees with up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave per year for (1) The birth of a son or daughter or placement 

of a son or daughter with the employee for adoption or foster care; (2) to care for a spouse, son, daughter, or parent who has a serious health condition; 

(3) for a serious health condition that makes the employee unable to perform the essential functions of his or her job; or (4) for any qualifying exigency 

arising out of the fact that a spouse, son, daughter, or parent is a military member on covered active duty or call to covered active duty status. An eligible 

employee may also take up to 26 work weeks of leave during a “single 12-month period” to care for a covered service member with a serious injury or 

illness, when the employee is the spouse, son, daughter, parent, or next of kin of the service member. Employees are eligible to take FMLA leave if they 

have worked for their employer for at least 12 months, and have worked for at least 1,250 hours over the previous 12 months, and work at a location 

where at least 50 employees are employed by the employer within 75 miles. In 2012, about 60% of employees met all criteria for coverage and eligibility 

under the FMLA.
Endnotes

Page 13

ENDNOTES

i U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, March 2015. 

Unpublished Tabulations.

ii Ibid. “Table FM-1. Families by Presence of Own Children Under 18: 1950 to Present.” Accessed April 13, 2016. 

https://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/families.html. 

iii U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics LABSTAT Database (Series ID LNU01300002; accessed April 25, 2016), 

http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/srgate. 

iv U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, March 1975-2015. Unpublished Tabulations.

v Ibid. 

vi Ibid.

vii Ibid.

viii U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. “POV15: Families 

With Related Children Under 18 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” Accessed April 13, 2016. 

https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov15_100.htm.

ix Ibid.

x Ibid. “POV16: Families With Related Children Under 6 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” 

Accessed April 13, 2016. https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov16_100.htm.

xi Ibid. “POV15: Families With Related Children Under 18 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” 

Accessed April 13, 2016. https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov15_100.htm. 

xii Ibid.

xiii U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports. “Living in Near Poverty in the United States: 1966–2012.” Accessed 

April 13, 2016. https://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/p60-248.pdf. 

xiv U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2015 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. “POV15: Families 

With Related Children Under 18 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” And POV16: Families With 

Related Children Under 6 by Householder’s Work Experience and Family Structure.” Accessed April 13, 2016. 

https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/pov/pov15_100.htm and https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/

cpstables/032015/pov/pov16_100.htm.

xv Ibid.

xvi Women’s Bureau analysis of 2014 American Community Survey (ACS) Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample 

(IPUMS) file. 

xvii Ibid.

xviii Ibid.

xix U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey, 2014 Annual Averages. Unpublished Tables.

xx Ibid. “Table 2. Eldercare Providers by Sex and Selected Characteristics Related to Care Provided, Averages for the 

Combined Years 2013-14.” Accessed April 13, 2016. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/elcare.t02.htm. 

xxi Ibid. “Table 9. Number and Percent of Eldercare Providers Who Were Parents of Household Children under Age 18 by 

Sex and Selected Characteristics, Averages for the Combined Years 2013-2014.” Accessed April 13, 2016, 

http://www.bls.gov/news.release/elcare.t09.htm. 

xxii U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey, 2014 Annual Averages. Unpublished Tables.
Endnotes

Page 14

xxiii U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, March 2015. 

Unpublished Tabulations; and National Compensation Survey, March 2015. “Table 40. Quality of Life Benefits: Access, 

Civilian Workers.” Access April 13, 2016. http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/benefits/2015/ownership/civilian/table40a.htm. 

xxiv U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participations, 2008 Panel Wave 8. “Table 6. Average Weekly 

Child Care Payments of Families With Mothers Present and Children Under 15 Years, by Selected Characteristics: 2011.” 

Accessed April 25, 2016. https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p70-135.pdf.

xxv U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Compensation Survey, March 2015. “Table 40. Quality of Life Benefits: 

Access, Civilian Workers.” Access April 13, 2016. http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/benefits/2015/ownership/civilian/table40a.htm.

xxvi Department of Health and Human Services, APSE. “Estimates of Child Care Eligibility and Receipt for Fiscal Year 

2012.” https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/153591/ChildEligibility.pdf. 

xxvii The White House, Council of Economic Advisers, “The Economics of Early Childhood Investments.” Accessed May 18, 

2016. https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/the_economics_of_early_childhood_investments.pdf. 

xxviii U.S. Department of Labor, “The Cost of Doing Nothing: The Price We All Pay Without Paid Leave Policies to Support 

America’s 21st Century Working Families.” Accessed May 23, 2016. https://www.dol.gov/featured/paidleave/cost-of-doingnothing-report.pdf. 

CONTACT US

Website: www.dol.gov/wb/

E-mail: Womens.Bureau@dol.gov

Mail:

WOMEN’S BUREAU

U.S. Department of Labor

200 Constitution Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20210

Phone: 1-800-827-5335 or (202) 693-6710

Women’s Bureau

June 2016