CHAPTER 1 

The General Plan 

THE MANUAL 

Purpose and Scope of the Manual 

1-1. The Manual of Surveying Instructions 

describes how cadastral surveys of the public 

lands are made in conformance to statutory law 

and its judicial interpretation. This chapter 

summarizes the various Acts and the general 

plan of surveying based on them. Previous editions of the Manual were issued in 1855 (reprinted as the Manual of 1871), 1881, 1890, 

1894, 1902, 1930, and 1947. 

1-2. Surveying, in general, is the art of 

measuring and locating lines, angles, and elevations on the surface of the earth, within underground workings, and on the beds of bodies of 

water. A “cadastral survey” creates (or reestablishes), marks, and defines boundaries of 

tracts of land. In the general plan this includes 

a field-note record of the observations, measurements, and monuments descriptive of the work 

performed and a plat that represents the 

cadastral survey, all subject to approval of the 

Director, Bureau of Land Management. 

1-3. Details of the plan and its methods go 

beyond the scope of textbooks on surveying. 

The application to large-scale areas requires an 

understanding of the stellar and solar methods 

for making observations to determine the true 

meridian, the treatment of the convergency of 

meridians, the running of the true parallels of 

latitude, and the conversion in the direction of 

lines so that at any point the angular value will 

be referred to the true north at that place. 

These subjects are therefore explained and 

examples given with specific relation to the approved surveying practice. The use, care and 

adjustments of the solar transit are fully 

treated because of its wide use in public land 

surveying. The applications of photogrammetry and electronic instrumentation to public land 

surveying are covered for the first time in this 

edition of the Manual. 

1-4. Extended treatment is given to subdivision of sections, restoration of lost or obliterated corners, resurveys, and special surveys 

of many kinds. These now make up the major 

part of the surveying program of the Bureau 

of Land Management. Stress is placed on thoroughness in the identification and perpetuation 

of the surveys already completed. 

Development of the Manual 

1-5. The surveys of public lands have been 

conducted since 1785, when a beginning point 

was estabished where the west boundarb of 

Pennsylva R ia crosses the north bank of the 

Ohio River. The first surveys, covering parts of 

Ohio, were Aade under supervision of the Geographer of the United States in compliance with 

the Ordinance of May 20,1785. Detailed instructions were not needed ‘in these initial surveys, 

because only the exterior lines of the townships 

were surveyed, and only mile corners were 

established. Township plats were marked by 

subdivisions into sections or “lots” one mile 

square, numbered from 1 to 36, commencing 

with No. 1 in the southeast corner of the township and running from south to north in each 

sequence to No. 36 in the northwest corner of 

the township. 

1-6. The Act of May 18, 1796, provided for 

the appointment of a Surveyor General, whose 

duty was to survey the public lands northwest 

of the Ohio River. Half of the townships were 

to be subdivided into two-mile blocks, and the 

rule for numbering of sections within the town1 
FIGURE 1.-The States created out of the Public Domain. 
THE GENERAL PLAN 3 

ship was changed to that practiced today. Subsequent laws called for additional subdivision, 

and the system of surveys was gradually refined to its present form. In the early period 

advice and general instructions were given the 

Surveyor General by the Secretary of the1 

Treasury, then in charge of land sales, and later 

by the Commissioner of the General Land Office. Instructions to deputy surveyors were issued by the Surveyor General. A Surveyor of 

the Lands of the United States South of Tennessee was appointed in 1803 with the same 

duties as the Surveyor General, and eventually 

a surveyor general was appointed for each of 

many public-land States and Territories. 

1-7. In 1831 the Commissioner of the General Land Office issued detailed instructions to 

the surveyors general concerning surveys and 

plats. The applicable parts were incorporated 

by individual surveyors general in bound volumes of instructions suitable for use in the field 

by deputy surveyors. From these directions 

evolved the Manual of Surveying Instructions. 

The .Act of July 4, 1836, placed the overall direction of the public land surveys under the principal clerk of surveys in the General Land Office. 

The immediate forerunner of the Manual series 

was printed in 1851 as “Instructions to the Surveyor General of Oregon; Being a Manual for 

Field Operations.” Its use was at once extended 

to California, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and 

New Mexico. In a slightly revised version these 

instructions were issued as the Manual of 1855. 

The Manual Supplements 

1-8. The following supplements to this 

Manual are for sale by the Superintendent of 

Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, 

Washington, D. C., 20402: 

(1) Standard Field Tables and Trigonometric Formulas. Semi-hard cover, pocket-size, 

4% x 7, 245 pages. First published by the General Land Office in 1910, eighth edition published in 1956. The tables and data are designed 

for use by cadastral surveyors in the field and 

office. 

(2) The Ephemeris of the Sun, Polaris and 

Other ,“elected Stars with Companion Data and 

Tables. Paper cover, 6 x 9, 30 pages and a star 

chart. Published annually in advance since 1910. 

Data for the sun are given in terms of Greenwich apparent noon for ready use with the solar 

transit. Data for all stellar positions are given 

in terms of the Greenwich meridian, mean time 

and mean time intervals. The data are prepared 

by the Nautical Almanac O’ffice of the United 

States Naval Observatory. 

(3) Restoration of Lost OVT Obliterated Corners and Subdivision of Sections, a Guide for 

Surveyors. Paper cover, 6 x 9, 40 pages, illus. 

The subject matter under this title first appeared in the decisions of the Department of 

the Interior, 1 L.D. 339; 2d ed., 1 L.D. 671 

(1883). There have been several revisions and 

extensions, the latest in 1973. Providing an introduction to the rectangular system of public 

land surveying and resurveying, with a compendium of basic laws relating to the system, it 

answers many common questions arising in 

practical work. Although intended especially 

for surveyors outside the Bureau of Land 

Management, it is also of interest to attorneys, 

title insurance company personnel, and others 

who have professional interests in former or 

present public lands. 

THE PUBLIC LANDS 

Definition 

1-9. The original public domain included 

the lands that were turned over to the Federal 

Government by the Colonial States and the 

areas acquired later from the native Indians 

or foreign powers. Insofar as public land surveys are concerned, “public lands” are those 

which, after inuring to the United States, have 

remained in public ownership, or, after private 

acquisition, have been returned to public ownership and the status of public land by law. 

Administration 

1-10. After admission of the States into the 

Union, the Federal Government has continued 

to hold title to and administer the unappropriated lands. Various enabling acts expressly 

provide that the title to unappropriated lands 

within these States shall be retained by the 

United States. Moreover, lands in the territories 

not appropriated by competent authority be- 
4 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

fore they were acquired are in the first instance 

the exclusive property of the United States, 

to be administered, or for disposal to such persons, at such time, in such modes, and by such 

titles as the Government may deem most advantageous to the public. Congress alone has the 

power, derived from Article IV, Section 3, of 

the Constitution, of disposing of the public 

domain and making all needful rules and regulations in respect thereto. 

1-11. It is within the province of the Director of the Bureau of Land Management to determine what are public lands, what lands have 

been surveyed, what are to be surveyed, what 

have been disposed of, what remains to be 

disposed of, and what are reserved. By a well 

settled principle of law the United States, 

through the Department of the Interior, has 

the authority and duty to extend the surveys as 

may be necessary to include lands erroneously 

omitted from earlier surveys. 

Navigable Waters 

1-12. Beds of navigable bodies of water are 

not public domain and are not subject to survey and disposal by the United States. Sovereignty is in the individual states. Under the 

laws of the United States the navigable waters 

have always been and shall forever remain common highways. This, includes all tidewater 

streams and other important permanent bodies 

of water whose natural and normal condition at the date of the admission of a State 

into the Union was such as to classify it as 

navigable water. Tidelands which are covered 

by the normal daily overflow are not subject to 

survey as public land. (See discussion in chapter VII on Special Surveys.) 

Swamp and Overflowed Lands 

1-13. In Alabama, California, Florida, 11- 

linois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Oregon, and 

Wisconsin, the swamp and overflowed lands, 

though public domain, pass to the States upon 

identification by public land survey, and approved selection, the title being subject to the 

disposal by the States. 

1-14. The Act of March 2, 1849 (9 Stat. 

352), granted to the State of Louisiana all its 

swamp and overflowed lands for the purpose of 

aiding in their reclamation. The Act of September 28, 1850 (9 Stat. 519), extended the grant 

to other public land States then in the Union. 

The grant was also extended to Minnesota and 

Oregon by the Act of March 12, 1860 (12 Stat. 

3). These various grants were carried over into 

R.S. 2479 (43 U.S.C. 982). A notable exception 

to the swamp land laws is found in the Arkansas 

Compromise Act of April 29, 1898 (30 Stat. 

367; 43 U.S.C. 991), by which all right, title, 

and interest to the remaining unappropriated 

swamp and overflowed lands reverted to the 

United States. 

1-15. The provisions of the grants apply to 

elevations below the uplands where, without the 

construction of levees or drainage canals, the 

areas would be unfit for agriculture. The grants 

apply to all swamp and overflowed lands unappropriated at the dates of the granting acts, 

whose character at that time would bring them 

within the provisions of the grant. Discussion 

of swamp and overflowed lands in connection 

with field examinations and surveys is found in 

chapter VII on Special Surveys. 

LAWS RELATING TO SURVEYS 

Early Laws 

1-16. 

(1) “An ordinance for ascertaining the mode 

of locating and disposing of lands in the western territory, and for other purposes therein 

mentioned,” passed by the Continental Congress on the 20th of May 1785. 

(2) The Acts of May 18, 1796 (1 Stat. 464) ; 

May 10,1800 (2 Stat. 73) ; February 11,1805 (2 

Stat. 313) ; April 25, 1812 (2 Stat. 716) ; April 

24, 1820 (3 Stat. 566) ; April 5, 1832 (4 Stat. 

503) ; July 4, 1836 (5 Stat. 107) ; and March 3, 

1849 (9 Stat. 395). 

Based on these early laws, that part 

of the Northwest Territory which became the 

State of Ohio was the experimental area for 

the development of the rectangular system. 

Here the plans and methods were tested in a 

practical way. Notable revisions of the rules 

Principal early laws are found in: 

1-17. 
THE GENERAL PLAN 5 

were made as the surveys progressed westward 

until the general plan was complete. 

Adoption of the rectangular system marked 

an important transition from the surveying 

practice that generally prevailed in the Colonial 

States where lands were described by irregular 

metes and bounds, each parcel depending more 

or less on the description of its neighbors. 

Revised Statutes and United States Code 

1-18. The surveying system developed under the early laws was incorporated in the Revised Statutes and the United States Code: 

Duties of Director. Tke Secretary of the Interior, or such officer as he may designate, shall 

perform all executive duties appertaining to 

the surveying and sale of the public lands of the 

United States, or in any wise respecting such 

public lands, and, also, such as relate to private 

claims of land, and the issuing of patents for 

all grants of land under the authority of the 

Government. (R.S. 453; 43 U.S.C. 2.) 

The Secretary of the Interior, or such officer 

as he may designate, is authorized to enforce 

and carry into execution, by appropriate regulations, every part of the provisions of this title 

not otherwise specially provided for. (R.S. 

2478 ; 43 U.S.C. 1201). 

Rules of Survey. The public lands shall be 

divided by north and south lines run according 

to the true meridian, and by others crossing 

them at right angles, so as to form townships of 

six miles square, unless where the line of an 

Indian reservation, or of tracts of land surveyed or patented prior to May 18, 1796, or the 

course of navigable rivers, may render this impracticable; and in that case this rule must be 

departed from no further than such particular 

circumstances require. 

Second. The corners of the townships must 

be marked with progressive numbers from the 

beginning ; each distance of a mile between such 

corners must be also distinctly marked with 

marks different from those of the corners. 

Third. The township shall be subdivided into 

sections, containing, as nearly as may be, six 

hundred and forty acres each, by running 

parallel lines through the same from east to 

west and from south to north at the distance of 

one milel from each other, and marking corners at the distance of each half mile. The sections shall be numbered, respectively, beginning with the number one in the northeast 

section and proceeding west and east alternately 

through the township with progressive numbers, until the thirty-six be completed. 

Fourth. The deputy surveyors, respectively, 

shall cause to be marked on a tree near each 

corner established in the manner described, and 

within the section, the number of such section, 

and over it the number of the township within 

which such section may be; and the deputy 

surveyors shall carefully note, in their respective field books, the names of the corner trees 

marked and the numbers so made. 

Fifth. Where the exterior lines of the townships which may be subdivided into sections or 

half-sections exceed, or do not extend six miles, 

the excess or deficiency shall be specially noted, 

and added to or deducted from the western and 

northern ranges of sections or half-sections in 

such township, according as the error may be 

in running the lines from east to west, or from 

north to south ; the sections and half-sections 

bounded on the northern and western lines of 

such townships shall be sold as containing only 

the quantity expressed in the returns and plats 

respectively, and all others as containing the 

complete legal quantity. 

Sixth. All lines shall be plainly marked upon 

trees, and measured with chains, containing 

two perches of sixteen and one-half feet each, 

subdivided into twenty-five equal links ; and the 

chain shall be adjusted to a standard to be kept 

for that puk’pose.2 

Seventh. Every surveyor shall note in his 

field book the true situations of all mines, salt 

* As amended. Authority for the establishment of 

section lines at intervals of one mile was contained in 

the Act of May 10, 1800 (2 Stat. 73), cited in the text. 

The “one mile line” provision, which was not carried 

into the Revised Statutes, apparently inadvertently, 

nevertheless has been included in all printed Manuals 

issued before and after the adoption of the Revised 

Statutes. The omission was corrected by the Act of 

April 29, 1950 (64 Stat. 92). 

2The superior results obtained by the use of steel 

ribbon tapes led to the abandonment of the obsolete 

link chain, except that the ”chain unit,” which is peculiarly adapted to land surveying, has continued in use. 
6 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

licks, salt springs, and mill seats which come 

to his knowledge ; all watercourses over which 

the line he runs may pass ; and also the quality 

of the lands. 

Eighth. These field books shall be returned to 

the Secretary of the Interior or such officer as 

he may designate, who shall cause therefrom 

a description of the whole lands surveyed to be 

made out and transmitted to the officers who 

may superintend the sales. He shall also cause a 

fair plat to be made of the townships and fractional parts of townships contained in the lands, 

describing the subdivisions thereof, and the 

marks of the corners. This plat shall be recorded 

in books to be kept for that purpose ; and a copy 

thereof shall be kept open at the office of the 

Secretary of the Interior or of such agency as 

he may designate for public information, and 

other copies shall be sent to the places of the 

sale, and to the Bureau of Land Management. 

(R.S. 2395; March 3, 1925, 43 Stat. 1144; 43 

U.S.C. 751.) 

Boundaries and Contents of Public Lands; 

How Ascertained. The boundaries and contents 

of the several sections, half-sections, and quarter-sections of the public lands shall be ascertained in conformity with the following principles : 

First. All the corners marked in the surveys, 

returned by the Secretary of the Interior or 

such agency as he may designate, shall be established as the proper corners of sections, or subdivisions of sections, which they were intended 

to designate ; and the corners of half- and quarter-sections, not marked on the surveys, shall 

be placed as nearly as possible equidistant from 

two corners which stand on the same line. 

Second. The boundary lines, actually run and 

marked in the surveys returned by the Secretary of the Interior or such agency as he may 

designate, shall be established as the proper 

boundary lines of the sections, or subdivisions, 

for which they were intended, and the length of 

such lines as returned, shall be held and considered as the true length thereof. And the 

boundary lines which have not been actually 

run and marked shall be ascertained, by running straight lines from the established corners 

to the opposite corresponding corners ; but in 

those portions of the fractional townships 

where no such opposite corresponding corners 

have been or can be fixed, the boundary lines 

shall be ascertained by running from the established corners due north and south or east and 

west lines, as the case may be, to the watercourse, Indian boundary line, or other external 

boundary of such fractional township. 

Third. Each section or subdivision of section, the contents whereof have been returned 

by the Secretary of the Interior or such agency 

as he may designate, shall be held and considered as containing the exact quantity expressed in such return; and the half-sections 

and quarter-sections, the contents whereof shall 

not have been thus returned, shall be held and 

considered as containing the one-half or the 

one-f ourth part, respectively, of the returned 

contents of the section of which they may make 

part. (R.S. 2396; March 3, 1925, 43 Stat. 1144; 

43 U.S.C. 752). 

Lines of Division of Half-Quarter Sections, 

How Run. In every case of the division of a 

quarter-section the line for the division thereof 

shall run north and south, and the corners and 

contents of half-quarter sections which may 

thereafter be sold shall be ascertained in 

the manner and on the principles directed 

and prescribed by the section preceding, and 

fractional sections containing one hundred 

and sixty acres or upwards shall in like 

manner, as nearly as practicable, be subdivided into half-quarter sections, under such 

rules and regulations as may be prescribed by 

the Secretary of the Interior, and in every case 

of a division of a half-quarter section, the 

line for the division thereof shall run east and 

west, and the corners and contents of quarterquarter sections, which may thereafter be sold, 

shall be ascertained, as nearly as may be, in the 

manner and on the principles directed and prescribed by the section preceding ; and fractional 

sections containing fewer or more than one 

hundred and sixty acres shall in like manner, as 

nearly as may be practicable, be subdivided 

into quarter-quarter sections, under such rules 

and regulations as may be prescribed by the 

Secretary of the Interior. (R.S. 2397 ; 43 U.S.C. 

753). 

Rivers and Streams. All navigable rivers, 

within the territory occupied by the public 
THE GENERAL PLAN 7 

lands, shall remain and be deemed public highways ; and, in all cases where the opposite banks 

of any stream not navigable belong to different 

persons, the stream and the bed thereof shall 

become common to both. (R.S. 2476; 43 U.S.C. 

931). 

Extension of Public Surveys Over Mineral 

Lands. The public surveys shall extend over all 

mineral lands ; and all subdividing of surveyed 

lands into lots less than one hundred and sixty 

acres may be done by county and local surveyors 

at the expense of claimants ; but nothing in this 

section contained shall require the survey of 

waste or useless lands. (R.S. 2406; 43 U.S.C. 

766). 

Survey of Private Land Claims. The Secretary of the Interior or such officer as he may designate shall cause to be surveyed all private 

land claims after they have been confirmed by 

authority of Congress, so far as may be necessary to complete the survey of the public lands. 

(R.S. 2223; March 3, 1925, 43 Stat. 1144; 43 

U.S.C. 52). 

Penalty for Interrupting Surveys. Whoever, 

by threats or force, interrupts, hinders, or prevents the surveying of the public lands, or of 

any private land claim which has been or may 

be confirmed by the United States, by the persons authorized to survey the same in conformity with the instructions of the Director of 

the Bureau of Land Management, shall be fined 

not more than $3,000 or imprisoned not more 

than three years, or both. (R.S. 2412; June 25, 

1948, ch. 645, 62 Stat. 789; May 24, 1949, ch. 

139, sec. 42, 63 Stat. 95; 18 U.S.C. 1859). 

Protection of Surveyor by Marshall of District. Whenever the President is satisfied that 

forcible opposition has been offered, or is likely 

to be offered, to any surveyor or deputy surveyor in the discharge of his duties in surveying the public lands, it may be lawful for the 

President to order the marshal1 of the State or 

district, by himself or deputy, to attend such 

surveyor or deputy surveyor with sufficient 

force to protect such officer in the execution of 

his duty, and to remove force should any be offered. (R.S. 2413; March 3,1925,43 Stat. 1144; 

43 U.S.C. 774). 

SUBSEQUENT LEGISLATION AND 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT 

1-19. Additional legislation and orders pertinent to the survey of the public lands: 

Purchase of Metal Monuments. The Act of 

May 27, 1908 (35 Stat. 347) provided “for the 

purchase of metal monuments to be used for 

public land survey corners wherever practicable.” 

Penalty for the Destruction of Survey Monuments. Section 57 of the Criminal Code of 1909 

provided a penalty for the unauthorized alteration or removal of any Government survey 

monument or marked trees. The wording was 

slightly modified June 25, 1948, in ch. 645, 

62 Stat. 789; 18 U.S.C. 1858, to read: “Whoever willfully destroys, defaces, changes, or 

removes to another place any section corner, 

quarter-section corner, or meander post, on any 

Government line of survey, or willfully cuts 

down any witness tree or any tree blazed to 

mark the line of a Government survey, or willfully defaces, changes, or removes any monument or bench mark of any Government survey, 

shall be fined not more than $250 or imprisoned 

not more than six months, or both.” 

Resurvey of Public Lands. The Act of March 

3, 1909 (35 Stat. 845) as amended June 25, 

1910 (36 Stat. 884; 43 U.S.C. 772), provides 

that : “The Secretary of the Interior may, as of 

March 3, 1909, in his discretion, cause to be 

made, as he may deem wise under the rectangular system on that date provided by law, such 

resurveys or retracements of the surveys of 

public lands as, after full investigation, he may 

deem essential to properly mark the boundaries 

of the public lands remaining undisposed of: 

Provided, that no such resurvey or retracement 

shall be so executed as to impair the bona fide 

rights or claims of any claimant, entryman, or 

owner of lands affected by such resurvey or retracement, . . . . Selection of Surveyors. The Interior Department appropriation Act of 1911 (June 25,1910, 

36 Stat. 703, 740), provided, under “Surveying 

the Public Lands”: “The surveys and resurveys to be made by such competent, surveyors as 

the Secretary of the Interior may select, . . . . 

97 

?, 
8 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

This provision of law brought to a close the 

practice of letting contracts for the making of 

surveys of public lands. 

Further Authority for Resurveys. The Act of 

September 21, 1918 (40 Stat. 965; 43 U.S.C. 

773), provides authority for the resurvey, by 

the Government, of townships in which the 

disposals exceed 50 percent of the total area. 

Such resurveys will be undertaken only upon 

application of the owners of at least threefourths of the privately owned land in the 

township, and upon deposit of the estimated 

costs of the resurvey. 

Acceptance of Contributions for Surveys. The 

Act of July 14, 1960 (74 Stat. 506; 43 U.S.C. 

13641, provides that the Secretary of the Interior may accept contributions for cadastral 

surveying performed on federally controlled or 

intermingled lands. 

The National Environmental Policy Act of 

1969. The Act effective January 1, 1970 (83 

Stat. 852; 42 U.S.C. 43211, states in part that 

“The purposes of this chapter are: To declare 

a national policy which will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man 

and his environment; to promote efforts which 

will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere. . . .” The Act was implemented by Executive Order No. 11514, March 

5, 1970, which provided, under “Responsibilities 

of Federal agencies,” that “. . . . Agencies shall 

develop programs and measures to protect and 

enhance environmental quality. . . .” 

Establishment of the Bureau of Land Management. On July 16, 1946, the Bureau of Land 

Management was established in the Department of the Interior in accordance with the 

President’s Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1946. 

Under that plan the General band Office was 

abolished and its functions transferred to the 

Secretary. 

Order No. 2225, July 15, 1946, by the Secretary of the Interior, provided that the functions 

and powers of the General Land Office, and the 

United States Supervisor of Surveys, together 

with the field surveying service, be exercised 

by the Director of the Bureau of Land Management, subject to the direction and control of the 

Secretary, through such officers or units of the 

bureau as might be designated. 

In the organization of the Bureau of Land 

Management, the Division of Cadastral Survey 

is located in the headquarters office. This division has technical supervision, through state 

and service center directors, of surveying the 

public lands. The chief of the division acts as 

consultant to the Director in the formulation of 

policies, programs, standards, and procedures 

of cadastral surveys. 

GENERAL RULES 

1-20. From the foregoing synopsis of congressional legislation it is evident: 

First. That the boundaries and subdivisions 

of the public lands as surveyed under approved 

instructions by the duly appointed surveyors, 

the physical evidence of which survey consists 

of monuments established upon the ground, and 

the record evidence of which consists of field 

notes and plats duly approved by the authorities constituted by law, are unchangeable after 

the passing of the title by the United States. 

Second. That the original township, section, 

quarter-section, and other monuments as physically evidenced must stand as the true corners 

of the subdivisions which they were intended to 

represent, and will be given controlling preference over the recorded directions and lengths of 

lines. 

Third. That quarter-quarter-section corners 

not established in the process of the original 

survey shall be placed on the line connecting the 

section and quarter-section corners, and midway between them, except on the last half mile 

of section lines closing on the north and west 

boundaries of the township, or on other lines 

between fractional or irregular sections. 

Fourth. That the center lines of a regular 

section are to be straight, running from the 

quarter-section corner on one boundary of the 

section to the corresponding corner on the opposite section line. 

Fifth. That in a fractional section where no 

opposite corresponding quarter-section corner 

has been or can be established, the center line 

of such section must be run from the proper 

quarter-section corner as nearly in a cardinal 

direction to the meander line, reservation, or 
THE GENERAL PLAN 9 

2 

II 

14 

23 

26 

35 

other boundary of such fractional section, as 

due parallelism with section lines will permit. 

Sixth. That lost or obliterated corners of the 

approved surveys must be restored to their original locations whenever this is possible. 

1-21. The basic provisions require that the 

public lands “shall be divided by north and 

south lines run according to the true meridian, 

and by others crossing them at right angles, 

so as to form townships six miles square ;” that 

“the townships shall be subdivided into sections, containing as nearly as may be, six 

hundred and forty acres each;” and that “the 

excess or deficiency shall be specially noted, and 

added to or deducted from the western and 

northern ranges of sections or half-sections in 

such townships, according as the error may 

be in running the lines from east to west, or 

from south to north.” The system of rectangular surveys fits the basic requirements to the 

curved surface of the globe. 

In this rectangular plan the township 

boundaries are intended to be due north and 

south or due east and west. The boundaries 

running north and south are termed “range 

lines.” The boundaries running east and west 

are called “township lines.” 

The range lines are great circles of the earth 

that, if extended, would intersect at the north 

pole. This convergency becomes apparent in the 

measurement of the township lines. The conI 

12 

13 

24 

25 

36 

TOWNSHIP L IN€ 

FIGURE 2.-A regular township. 

vergency is taken up at intervals by the running of standard parallels, on which the measurements are again made full. On the standard 

parallels (first named “correction lines”) there 

are offsets in the range lines and two sets of 

corners, standard corners for the lines to the 

north and closing corners for lines to the south. 

The usual interval between the standard parallels is 24 miles, but there were many exceptions in the older surveys. 

In order to make the sections represent 

“square miles” as nearly as may be, the meridional lines are run from south to north and 

parallel to the east boundary of the township 

for a distance of five miles from the south 

boundary. These are run and monumented as 

true lines. The remainder of the section lines 

are all run by random and true between the 

established section corners. This produces the 

rectangular sections, 25 of which contain 640 

acres each, within allowable limit. The sections 

along the north and west boundaries are subdivided on a plan for certain lottings to absorb 

the convergency and the excess or deficiency in 

the measurements. These sections provide a 

maximum number of aliquot parts (160-, 80-, 

and 40-acre units) or regular subdivisions of a 

section, the remainder being shown as lots 

whose contents are computed according to the 

field measurements. 

ORGANIZATION 

1-22. The public land surveys are conducted 

by cadastral survey branches of the Bureau of 

Land Management’s service center and state 

offices. The authority over field operations is 

limited by instructions issued by the Director 

to the directors of the field offices. The service 

center is located in Denver, Colorado. The state 

offices, with locations, are : 

AlasFea State Office at Anchorage, Alaska. 

Arizona State Office at Phoenix, Arizona. 

California State Office at Sacramento, CaliColorado State Office at Denver, Colorado. 

Idaho State Office at Boise, Idaho. 

Montunu State Office at Billings, Montana. 

(Administers public lands in Montana, 

North Dakota, and South Dakota. 

fornia. 
10 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Nevada State Office at Reno, Nevada. 

New Mexico State Office at Santa Fe, New 

Mexico. (Administers public lands in New 

Mexico and Oklahoma.) 

Oregon State Office at Portland, Oregon. (Administers public lands in Oregon and Washington.) 

Utah State Office at Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Wyoming State Office at Cheyenne, Wyoming. 

(Administers public lands in Wyoming, 

Kansas, and Nebraska.) 

Headquarters for surveys in the remaining 

States are at the Eastern States Office, 

Silver Spring, Maryland. 

THE PUBLIC LAND STATES 

1-23. Thirty States have been created out 

of the public domain. In those where the public 

land surveys have been substantially completed, excepting Oklahoma, the original records have been transferred to the States. In 

most cases duplicate copies are on file in Washington, D.C. The Director of the Bureau of 

Land Management has administrative authority 

in questions relating to the remaining public 

land in those States, including resurvey and 

the extension of surveys to include parcels of 

public land omitted from the official surveys. 

The following list of the States formed from 

the public domain gives the date of admission, 

a citation of the enabling act in the United 

States Statutes at Large, and the present location of the original records of public land surveys. 

Alabama. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States and admitted into the Union 

December 14, 1819 (3 Stat. 608) ; records with 

the Secretary of State at Montgomery. 

Alaska. Purchased from Russia in 1867; admitted into the Union January 3, 1959 (72 Stat. 

339) ; records in the State Office of the Bureau 

of Land Management at Anchorage. 

Arizona. Included in the lands ceded by 

Mexico in 1848 and the Gadsden purchase in 

1853; admitted into the Union February 14, 

1912 (36 Stat. 557; 37 Stat. 1728) ; records in 

the State Office of the Bureau of Land Management at Phoenix. 

Arkansas. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and admitted into the Union June 

15, 1836 (5 Stat. 50) ; records with the Department of State Lands at Little Rock. 

California. Ceded by Mexico in 1848 and admitted into the Union September 9, 1850 (9 

Stat. 452) ; records in the State Office of the 

Bureau of Land Management in Sacramento. 

Colorado. Acquired largely under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, but including additional 

land, title to which was quieted through treaty 

with Spain, in 1819, with other lands annexed 

with Texas in 1845, and lands ceded by Mexico 

in 1848; admitted into the Union August 1, 

1876 (18 Stat. 474; 19 Stat. 665) ; records in 

the State Office of the Bureau of Land Management in Denver. 

Florida. Ceded by Spain in 1819 and admitted into the Union March 3, 1845 (5 Stat. 

742)) ; records with the Board of Trustees of 

the Internal Improvement Trust Fund at Tallahassee. 

Idaho. Acquired with the Oregon Territory, 

title to which was established in 1846, and admitted into the Union July 3, 1890 (26 Stat. 

215) ; records in the State Ofice of the Bureau 

of Land Management in Boise. 

Illinois. Included in the territory of the original 13 States and admitted into the Union December 3, 1818 (3 Stat. 536) ; records in the 

Illinois State Archives, Secretary of State, at 

Springfield. 

Indiana. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States and admitted into the Union 

December 11, 1816 (3 Stat. 399) ; records with 

the Archivist, Indiana State Library, at Indianapolis. 

Iowa. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and admitted into the Union December 28, 1846 (9 Stat. 117) ; records with 

the Secretary of State at Des Moines. 

Kansas. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 (additional lands annexed with 

Texas in 1845) ; admitted into the Union January 29, 1861 (12 Stat. 126) ; records with the 

Auditor of State and Register of State Lands 

at Topeka. 

Louisiana. Included in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 ; boundary extended to include 
THE GENERAL PLAN a1 

additional lands, title to which was quieted 

through treaty with Spain in 1819; admitted 

into the Union April 30, 1812 (2 Stat. 701) ; 

records with the Register, State Land Office, at 

Baton Rouge, 

Michigan. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States and admitted into the Union 

January 26, 1837 (5 Stat. 144) ; records with 

the State Department of Treasury at Lansing. 

Minnesota. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States (additional lands acquired 

under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803); admitted into the Union May 11, 1858 (11 Stat. 

285) records with the Department of Conservation at Saint Paul. 

Mississippi. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States and admitted into the Union 

December 10, 1817 (3 Stat. 472) ; records with 

the State Land Commissioner at Jackson. 

Missouri. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and admitted into the Union 

August 10, 1821 (3 Stat. 645, 3 Stat. Appendix 

11) ; records with the State Land Survey Authority at Rolla. 

Montana. Acquired under the bouisiana Purchase in 1803 and with the Oregon Territory, 

title to which was established in 1846 ; admitted 

into the Union November 8, 1889 (25 Stat. 676, 

26 Stat. 1551); records in the State Office of 

the Bureau of Land Management at Billings. 

Nebraska. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and admitted into the Union 

March 1,1867 (14 Stat. 391, 820) ; records with 

the State Surveyor at Lincoln. 

Nevada. Ceded by Mexico in 1848 and admitted into the Union October 31, 1864 (13 

Stat. 30, 749); records in the State Office of, 

the Bureau of Land Management at Reno. 

New Mexico. Included in the lands annexed 

with Texas in 1845, with lands ceded by Mexico 

in 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 ; admitted into the Union January 6, 1912 (36 Stat. 

557, 37 Stat. 1723) ; records in the State Office 

of the Bureau of Land Management at Sante Fe. 

North Dakota. Included in the territory of 

the original 13 States and with lands acquired 

under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; admitted into the Union November 2, 1889 (25 Stat. 

676; 26 Stat. 1548) ; records with the State 

Water Conservation Commission at Bismarck. 

Oklahoma. Acquired under the Louisiana 

Purchase in 1803 and with lands annexed with 

Texas in 1845; admitted into the Union November 16, 1907 (34 Stat. 267; 35 Stat. 2160) ; 

records in the New Mexico State Office of the 

Bureau of Land Management at Santa Fe, New 

Mexico. 

Ohio. Included in the territory of the original 

13 States and admitted into the Union November 29, 1802 (2 Stat. 173) ; records with the 

Auditor of State at Columbus. 

Oregon. Included in the Oregon Territory, 

title to which was established in 1846 : admitted 

into the Union February 14, 1859 (11 Stat. 

383) ; records in the State Office of the Bureau 

of Land Management at Portland. 

South Dakota. Included in the territory of 

the original 13 States and with lands acquired 

under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; admitted into the Union November 2, 1889 (25 Stat. 

676; 26 Stat. 1549) ; records with the Commissioner of Schools and Public Lands at Pierre. 

The plats of mineral patent surveys of South 

Dakota are filed in the Montana State Office of 

the Bureau of Land Management at Billings, 

Montana, and the necessary mineral surveys are 

directed from that office. 

Utah. Ceded by Mexico in 1848 and admitted 

into the Union January 4, 1896 (28 Stat. lo,", 

29 Stat. 876) ; records in the State Office of the 

Bureau of Land Management at Salt Lake City. 

Washington. Included in the Oregon Territory, title to which was established in 1846; admitted into the Union November 11, 1889 (25 

Stat. 676, 26 Stat. 1552) ; records in the Oregon 

State Office of the Bureau of Land Management 

at Portland, Oregon. 

Wisconsin. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States and admitted into the Union 

May 29, 1848 (9 Stat. 233) ; records with the 

Department of Natural Resources at Madison. 

Wyoming. Included with lands acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, with lands 

annexed with Texas in 1845, with lands included in the Oregon Territory, title to which 

was established in 1846, and with lands ceded 

by Mexico in 1848; admitted into the Union 

July 10, 1890 (26 Stat. 222) ; records in the 

State Office of the Bureau of Land Management 

at Cheyenne. 
CHAPTER I1 

Methods of Survey 

The methods described in this chapter comprise the specifications for determining the 

length and direction of lines. 

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 

Units 

2-1. The law prescribes the chain as the 

unit of linear measure for the survey of the 

public lands. All returns of measurements in 

the rectangular system are made in the true 

horizontal distance in miles, chains, and links. 

(Exceptions are special requirements for measurement in feet in townsite surveys, chapter 

VII, and mineral surveys, chapter X.) 

Units of Linear Measure 

1 chain = 100 links 

= 66 feet 

1 mile = 80 chains 

= 5,280 feet 

1 acre = 10 square chains 

Units of Area 

= 43,560 square feet 

1 square mile = 640 acres 

The chain unit, devised in the seventeenth century by Edmund Gunter, an English astronomer, 

is so designed that 10 square chains are equivalent to one acre. In the English colonial area 

of the United States the boundaries of land 

were usually measured in the chain unit, but 

lengths of lines were frequently expressed in 

poles. One pole is equal to 25 links, and four 

poles equal one chain. The field notes of some 

early rectangular surveys in the southern States 

show the distance in “perches,” equivalent to 

poles. The term now commonly used for the 

same distance is the rod. 

Land grants by the French crown were made 

in arpents. The arpent is a unit of area, but the 

side of a square arpent came to be used for 

linear description. The Spanish crown and the 

Mexican Government granted lands which were 

usually described in linear varas. Both the 

arpent and the vara have slightly different 

values in different States. The conversions most 

often needed are shown in the Standard Field 

Tables. 

Tapes 

2-2. Use of the steel tape is the commonly 

accepted method of measurement. The tapes 

used vary in length from one to eight chains, 

the appropriate length depending upon the topography and the nature of the survey. Graduation is to chains and links, and in some instances to tenths of links. For measurements on 

the slope the vertical angles are determined by 

use of a clinometer or a transit. The measured 

slope distances are then reduced to horizontal 

equivalents by reference to tables or by multiplying the slope distance by the cosine of the 

vertical angle. 

Each tape should be compared with a standard steel tape before being used in the field. 

Stadia 

2-3. The stadia method is a fast way of 

making reconnaissance surveys for such purposes as obtaining topography or searching for 

original corners. Its use is not permitted for 

measurement of lines. Most transits used by 

the Bureau of Land Management have a stadia 

interval with a ratio of 1:132 for use with the 

chain unit, rather than the standard ratio of 

1:lOO. Data for the reduction of stadia meas13 
14 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

urements are found in the Standard Field 

Tables. 

Suhtense Bar 

The subtense bar may be used provided 

that no measurement is over ten chains and 

that the instrument used in connection with it 

is capable of measuring in single seconds. 

2-4. 

Traversing 

2-5. Traverses may be run where the terrain is too precipitous for chaining and the 

intervisible points required for triangulation 

cannot be practicably obtained. Traversing 

should be kept to a minimum. 

Triangulation 

2-6. Triangulation may be used in measuring distances across water or over precipitous 

slopes. The measured base should be laid out so 

as to adopt the best possible geometric proportions of the sides and angles of the triangle. If 

it is necessary to determine the value of an 

angle with a precision of less than the least 

reading of the vernier, the method of repetition 

should be employed. 

A complete record of the measurement of the 

base, the determination of the angles, the location and direction of the sides, and other essential details is entered in the field tablets, 

together with a small diagram to represent the 

triangulation. 

In the longer and more important triangulations all of the stations should be occupied, if 

possible, and the angles should be repeated and 

checked to a satisfactory closure; the latter 

may be kept within 0' 20" by careful use of 

the one-minute transit. 

In line practice the chainmen are frequently 

sent through for taped measurement over extremely difficult terrain, but with the length of 

the interval verified by triangulation. This is 

done to ensure the most exact determination of 

the length of the line while also noting the intervening topographic data. 

Electronic Telemetry 

2-7. The measurement of lines by use of 

electronic telemetry fully meets the requirements for accuracy. Determining factors in its 

use are the terrain, ground cover, and availability of the proper instruments. Some types 

are adapted to the measurement of long distances, others to measurement of intermediate 

distances. Transport and maintenance must be 

considered in determining whether the use of 

telemetry will expedite a particular survey. 

Provision must be made for measuring distances 

to important items of topography. 

The variety of electronic distance-measuring 

devices, the rapid development of combinations 

with optical theodolites, and modifications of 

the instruments make it impracticable to describe the methods of use in this manual. The 

surveyor should consult the manufacturer's 

operating manual for calibration, use, care, and 

adjustments. 

A special kind of triangulation is used when 

it is desired to locate on the ground a point for 

which the geographic position has been determined in advance. Two intervisible triangulation 

stations are occupied simultaneously with optical theodolites and electronic measuring devices. 

A mobile party sets a temporary point at the 

approximate position of the desired point by 

reference to a topographic map or aerial photographs. The position of the temporary point is 

then determined by triangulation or trilateration and the true point is monumented. 

The system is made more adaptable by use 

of the hoversight developed by the United 

States Geological Survey. This instrument is 

fixed in a helicopter. The airborne observer is 

able to identify a point on the ground perpendicularly beneath a flashing target mounted 

outside the helicopter. The position of the flashing target is then determined by triangulation. 

Full utilization of the system requires ready contact with computers by telephone or radio. The 

Airborne Control Survey, as it is called, is carefully planned to coordinate ground crews, helicopter, and computers. Its use has been successful in surveys over extensive areas in Alaska, 

and experiment is being made in resurveys and 

in connection with photogrammetric surveys at 

the present time. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 15 

PHOTOGRAMMETRYl 

2-8. The earliest uses of aerial photography 

by the cadastral surveyor were for terrain studies, locating himself on the ground, and as an 

aid in the search for corners. As methodology 

improved, simple photogrammetric processes 

enabled the surveyor to delineate topographic 

features, determine the meanders of water bodies, compute areas of erroneously omitted lands, 

and lay out townsites as they actually exist. 

Photogrammetric projects involving both distance measurements and the dfrection of lines 

have been completed for both original surveys 

and resurveys of extensive areas of public lands. 

Aerial Camera 

The aerial camera is a high-precision 

instrument designed for making photographs 

on which reliable measurements can be made 

after resolvable errors have been analyzed and 

removed. The camera must be maintained in 

calibration at all times. To insure this the calibration should be checked periodically by a 

competent testing agency such as the BurezJ of 

Standards. The aerial camera used for cadastral surveys should include the following features : 

(1) A distortion-free lens with a high resolving power 

(2) A between-the-lens shutter 

(3) A precision-ground platen 

(4) A method of flattening film at the time 

(5) A system of fiducial marks which appear 

2-9. 

of exposure 

on each photograph and define the lens axis. 

Aerial Photography 

An aerial photograph is not a map 

with a uniform scale throughout, but merely a 

pictorial representation of the terrain. Geometrically speaking, an aerial photograph is a perspective projection of an area as viewed from a 

single point above the ground. Relief displacement, lens characteristics, film and paper dis2-10. 

'A complete discussion of the subject in its broad 

application is contained in the Manual of Photogrammetry, published by the American Society of Photogrammetry. 

tortion, and tilt of the camera preclude its having a uniform scale. 

Topographic maps may be compiled either by 

the use of stereoplotting instruments or by 

making measurements directly upon the photograph. Elements which may affect the accuracy 

are camera calibration, height of the aircraft 

above the terrain being mapped, the density and 

accuracy of ground control, the tip or tilt of the 

camera at the moment of exposure, film 

distortion, and the instruments used in making 

the measurements. 

An approximate scale for a vertical aerial 

photograph is stated by the equation S = - 

where : 

f = the focal length of the camera 

H = the flying height above sea level 

h = the average elevation of the terrain above 

Stereophotogrammetry utilizes a stereoscopic 

plotting instrument (optical-mechanical device) to compile data from aerial photographs. 

These data, usually in the form of a map, vary 

in accuracy according to the design of the 

instrument. Often the instrument embodies a 

higher degree of accuracy than the photography. By use of a first-order plotting instrument a complete solution of the geometry of 

the photogrammetric problem may be obtained. 

All relative displacements of images such as 

those due to perspective, difference of flying 

height, lens distortion, and photographic 

material distortion are resolved. 

Several instruments have been designed for 

aerotriangulation, a method of adjusting consecutive photographs in a strip bridging from 

one set of control points to another. 

Resotution in photography pertains to the 

sharpness of recording images of two or more 

light sources, which are close together, so that 

the images are recognized and distinct. Depending on the characteristics of the lens-film 

combination, the final resolving power may be 

enhanced or degraded. 

Other factors that affect the quality of the 

final photograph are aperture opening, distance 

to the subject, exposure time, atmospheric conditions of haze and brighthess of the sun, conf 

H-h 

sea level 
16 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

trast of the subject, vibration, size of the subject, and the processing of the film after 

exposure. 

Field Control 

2-11. A network of control points of known 

position is used as a reference to fix the detail 

of aerial photographs by photogrammetric 

processes. The density and distribution of field 

control points to be photo-identified are determined primarily by the characteristics of the 

photography, the type of photogrammetric 

equipment and computer programs to be used, 

and the accuracy required. Ground control surveys are usually necessary to identify the existing basic control and to provide additional 

control points. 

The basic control into which the supplemental 

surveys are tied, the supplemental surveys 

themselves, and the photo-identification of 

points must in toto provide the degree of 

accuracy required of the resultant cadastral 

survey. The survey methods used in the control 

survey have to be of equal or higher order accuracy than is specified for the results. The 

classification and standards of accuracy of 

geodetic control surveys are outlined in Bureau 

of Budget (now Office of Management and 

Budget) Circular A-16. The density, spacing, 

accuracy, and manner of marking of photoidentified points must conform to the criteria 

established by the responsible photogrammetrist. 

Datum. A basic network of high-order geodetic control has been established throughout the 

United States. This network has been developed 

by combining a number of separate geodetic 

datums into a single datum known as the North 

American Datum of 1927. All horizontal conto1 stations established for photogrammetric 

projects should use this datum as the base for 

computing values for the control stations. (section 2-82.) 

Vertical control in the United States is referred to an arbitrary level for the entire nation 

which was based on mean sea level as determined by observations made over a period 

of years at tidal stations on the Atlantic, 

Paeific, and Gulf Coasts. Several adjustments 

have been made of the basic network, the most 

recent in 1929. 

Basic vertical control bench marks within 

or adjacent to a photogrammetric project should 

be used to expand the vertical control over the 

project area. When there is no basic vertical 

control near the project area, an arbitrary 

datum may be assumed and expanded to control 

the project. 

State Plane Coordinates. State plane coordinate systems are used extensively for photogrammetric plotting. (section 2-83.) Formuhs 

and tables for computing values for these systems have been prepared by the United States 

Coast and Geodetic Survey (now the National 

Geodetic Survey) for each individual State. The 

computations involve corrections for grid 

lengths, sea level factors, and grid azimuths. 

Horizontal Control. Basic horizontal control 

is that which has been established by the 

National Geodetic Survey to form the National 

Network; this should be the origin for all supplemental control on each photogrammetric 

project. 

The supplemental control should be of sufficient density to permit an efficient control of 

all the photographs at the time of the analytical 

phototriangulation. The density of control will 

vary with the size of the project, but generally 

horizontal control should be located in every six 

to eight models in a bridge with never fewer 

than four control points in a flight strip. 

The supplemental control may be established 

by triangulation, trilateration, or traverse using 

transit and tape or theodolite and electronic distance-measuring instruments. In all applications the control thus established should be 

executed using second-order methods and meet 

second-order accuracy. 

Vertical Control. The basic vertical control 

network is that established by the National 

Geodetic Survey by spirit leveling ; when such 

control is within the project area, it should be 

used to establish supplemental vertical control. 

The supplemental vertical control may be 

established on an assumed datum where no 

basic control network is near the project. 

The supplemental control may be established 

by spirit leveling or trigonometric leveling. 

Both the horizontal and vertical control 
METHODS OF SURVEY 17 

points are normally targeted prior to the aerial 

photography. The targets are centered over the 

respective stations and have a symmetrical 

design easily identified on the photography. 

Care should be taken when selecting the size, 

shape, color, and material to be used for the 

targets. 

In cases where targeted points have been 

destroyed prior to photography it may be necessary to substitute “natural targets” to supplement the control. Such points are selected in 

the field and referenced into the control scheme. 

The identification should be made only while 

viewing the photography stereoscopically and 

at the site of the feature. A photograph showing 

the feature and its relationship with the destroyed station should be furnished the operator 

of the comparator at the time of the analytical 

phototriangulation. 

Mechanical Phototriangulation 

2-12. The mechanical (known also as analogue or instrumental) method of phototriangulation establishes positions and elevations 

by use of an instrument viewing a spatial model. 

Precise connections are made between successive models which in turn are tied to vertical 

and horizontal control. After adjustment, an 

accurately scaled representation of the project 

area can be depicted. This method has been 

used for several successful cadastral survey 

projects. 

Analytical Phototriangulation 

2-13. Analytical phototriangulation is a 

mathematical determination of ground positions of panelled points observed in a strip or 

block of aerial photographs. The positions are 

determined by use of electronic computers and 

are based on coordinate measurements of the 

image positions in each photograph. The method 

considers such factors as camera calibration, 

film distortion, atmospheric refraction, and 

earth curvature during the computations. 

The instruments used to determine photographic coordinates, from which the ground 

positions are established, are the comparator 

(either monocular or stereoscopic), point-marking and transfer devices, and computers. The 

advent of the electronic computer made it 

practicable to use analytical methods in phototriangulation. The basic foundation for analytical photogrammetry had been established by 

Sebastian Finsterwalder about 1900. 

The accuracy of the data obtained by use of 

the analytical process is usually of a higher 

order than that obtained by the mechanical 

methods. The Bureau of Land Management has 

therefore adopted it for use in photogrammetric 

cadastral surveys. 

Photogrammetry in Original Surveys 

and Resurveys 

2-14. Pilot projects employing photogrammetric methods for making original surveys and 

resurveys have led to standardization of 

methods and equipment. As new equipment and 

refinements in methods are developed they will 

be tested and employed as warranted. 

Protraction Diagrams. A diagram representing the plan for the extension of the rectangular system over unsurveyed public lands, 

based upon computed values for the corner positions, is termed a protraction diagram. Such 

diagrams have been prepared for substantially 

all unsurveyed areas of public lands except the 

Aleutian Islands and southeastern Alaska. 

A successful photogrammetric project requires a good plan and coordination between 

the cadastral surveyor and the photogrammetrist. As in any cadastral survey, all pertinent 

data must be reviewed, including maps, aerial 

photographs, geodetic surveys, cadastral surveys, and protraction diagrams. 

Certain basic steps are always required to 

complete a photogrammetric survey : 

Original Survegs 

Corner Positions. The theoretical corner 

points are first plotted upon a map or on existing aerial photographs at the coordinate positions of the protraction diagram or other plan. 

The transfer may be accomplished by scaling 

on the map, or the positions may be located by 

using plotting instruments such as the Kelsh 

plotter. The more accurately these values can be 

plotted, the smaller the moxires will be from the 

panel points when permanent corner monuments are established. 
18 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Control. The plan of geodetic control depends 

on the number of flight lines and the number 

of models in each flight line. It should be based 

on triangulation or traverse stations established 

to second-order accuracy. It is advisable that 

electronic distance-measuring instruments and 

theodolites be used in establishing new stations. 

Final values for such stations should be given 

as state plane coordinates. 

Panels. me theoretical position of each corner, as plotted on maps or existing photographs, 

as well as each original or new control station, 

is marked on the ground by a systematically 

designed panel. Care should be taken to center 

the panel over the monument or survey stake. 

The panels should be of such a design and size 

as to be conspicuous in the subsequent aerial 

photographs. The photography is undertaken 

immediately following the control and paneling 

operation in order to assure the least disturbance to panelled points. If a panel is destroyed 

before the photography can be accomplished, 

the photogrammetrist should select a natural 

object near the destroyed panel to serve as a 

substitute during the remaining operations. 

Aerial Photography. Complete stereoscopic 

coverage of the area to be surveyed is essential. The photography should have a minimum 

of 55% forward lap and 30% side lap between 

flight lines. With a photoscale of 1 :20,000, it is 

possible to perform surveys having a root-meansquare horizontal error of plus or minus one 

foot. 

In certain areas it is advisable to use several 

types of aerial negatives-color, panchromatic, 

and infrared false color-for positive identification of panelled points. Experiments are being 

conducted to determine the best film-filterbackground combination to give maximum 

clarity in delineating panelled points. 

Analytical Bridge. An analytical bridge, a 

form of phototriangulation, establishes coordinate values for the panelled points and also 

natural objects. The photographic coordinates 

are transformed into State plane coordinates, 

which are used in computing corner moves. 

In addition to panelled points, it is necessary 

to obtain positions of houses, windmills, or 

other features that require ties to complete the 

cadastral survey. The cadastral surveyor must 

work closely with the photogrammetrist to 

assure that the necessary ties to such items are 

made. 

Once the corners are monumented at the protracted positions, the cadastral surveyor prepares his plats in the normal manner, prefacing his notes with a statement concerning the 

method of procedure. 

i 

Execution of Resurvegs 

As in the making of original surveys, planning and cooperation between the cadastral surveyor and the photogrammetrist are essential 

to success, 

Corner Positions. From the original survey 

notes and plats the theoretical position of each 

previously established corner is plotted upon 

existing aerial photography. Where suitable 

maps do not exist, a cursory search for the exterior boundaries of the townships to be resurveyed should be made. Any corners found are 

identified upon existing aerial photography and 

the interior corners plotted in accordance with 

the record of the original survey. 

A careful search is made for the corners in 

the positions plotted on the photographs. When 

a corner is recovered, it is rehabilitated or remonumented. In the event that no positive evidence of the corner is recovered, a temporary 

stake is set at the theoretical position. In either 

case a State plane-coordinate value is established to be used in control for further search 

or in computing subsequent corner moves. 

Geodetic control, aerial photography, and 

analytical bridge methods and procedures are 

the same as for original surveys. 

I 

Meanders 

The sinuosities of a shoreline may be produced on a manuscript base by use of a stereoplotting instrument. The plotting scale is 

usually five times that of the photography. 

Angle points are selected along the shore, and 

the coordinate values of both meander corners 

and angle points are determined by scaling. 

Courses and distances of the meanders are computed from the coordinate values. The accuracy 

of the results depends on the accuracy with 

which the meander corners are photo-identified, 
METHODS OF SURVEY 19 

the precision with which the sinuosities of the 

shoreline are drawn, and the correctness of scaling from the manuscript. 

In areas of little relief single photographs 

can be used as the displacement of features is 

at a minimum. Distortion caused by camera tilt 

is small enough to be removed by adjustment. 

Either contact prints projected by a reflecting 

projector and enlarged to convenient scale or enlargements made from the original film may be 

used. 

Whether the stereoplotting instrument or the 

single print is used, it is desirable that the field 

man verify the shoreline and perhaps delineate 

it on the photographs with colored ink. 

Accuracy Checks 

In both the original survey and the 

resurvey it is advisable to establish the coordinate position for a number of corners 

selected at random, being sure that there are 

several check positions in each flight line. It is 

preferable that these check positions fall in the 

overlap area between flight lines, this being 

one of the weak points in a photogrammetric 

bridge. 

The values of the check points should be 

withheld from the original bridge and used as a 

check. If they fall within the allowable tolerance for accuracy, they will have served their 

purpose. If they do not meet the accuracy tolerance, the bridge may be strengthened by using 

them as control. In such a case additional accuracy checks will be required to assure that 

the survey meets the necessary standard. 

Where photogrammetry is used as a means of 

establishing the position of section corners, accuracy is necessarily stated as a radius of error 

rather than a ratio of closure, since any position 

established is independent of monuments preceding or following along a boundary. Errors of 

position are not accumulative, and a stated 

radius of error means that any monument’s 

position may differ from the protracted value 

by the full radius of error and in any direction 

from the protracted point. Since the acceptable 

radius of error is the same for each bridged 

point, the error in bearing and the percentage 

error in distance between two survey monu2-15. 

ments will vary inversely as the length of the 

course. 

Accuracy 

2-16. The accuracy obtainable in photogrammetric surveys depends on the scale and 

type of photography, the instruments used, the 

skill of the compiler, the density of ground control, the amount of relief, and the nature of 

the vegetative cover. These factors relate to 

the data taken from the photographs. If markers are positioned by relationship to nearby 

photo-identifiable objects, the precision of the 

field methods used also affects the final accuracy. If meanders are recorded, the reliability 

of their delineation on the photography is a 

factor in the accuracy of the work. 

It is axiomatic that “the greater the accuracy, the greater the cost.” The scale of the 

photography for each project, therefore, should 

be commensurate with the accuracy required. 

The amount of topographic relief may affect 

the choice of methods. In flat terrain, with 

photography nearly vertical, measurements for 

some purposes may be made on a photographic 

print. As the relief or the tilt increases, rectification and adjustment are necessary. 

If precision is not required, a tube magnifier, 

which can be carried in the pocket, will measure 

0.005 inch. A precision comparator has a least 

measurement of one micromillimeter. At a 

photo scale of 1 :20,000, 0.005 inch represents 

eight feet, while one micromillimeter represents 

0.06 foot. These figures are cited to illustrate 

how methods and instruments can be selected to 

give desired precision in results. 

THE DIRECTION OF LINES 

2-17. The direction of each line of the public land surveys is determined with reference to 

the true meridian as defined by the axis of the 

earth’s rotation. Bearings are stated in terms 

of angular measure referred to the true north 

or south. 

2-18. The Magnetic Needle. The Manual of 

1890 prohibited the use of the magnetic needle 

except in subdividing and meandering, and then 

only in localities free from local attraction. The 
20 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Manual of 1894 required that all classes of lines 

be surveyed with reference to the true meridian 

independent of the magnetic needle. 

A field note record is required of the average 

magnetic declination over the area of each survey. The value is shown on the plat and in the 

field notes. The principal purpose of this record 

is to provide an approximate value for use in 

local surveys and retracements, where a start 

is to be made by the angular value of the 

magnetic north in relation to the true north. 

Methods of Establishing Direction 

azimuth by one of the following methods : 

or other stars 

2-19. Current practice is to determine true 

(1) Direct observations of the sun, Polaris, 

(2) Observations with a solar attachment 

(3) The turning of angles from triangulation stations of the horizontal control network. 

At remote locations, if these methods are 

made impracticable for long periods by thick 

cloud cover, angles may be turned from identifiable lines of an adjacent Bureau of Land 

Management survey. Use may also be made 

of a gyro-theodolite, properly calibrated and 

previously checked on an established meridian. 

Obserpalhw-General Considerations 

2-20. Sequence of Observations. A small 

error in latitude or azimuth has only a slight 

effect in time. When all three are unknown, the 

order of sequence in their determination should 

be (1) time, (2) latitude, and (3) azimuth. 

2-21. Geographic Position. The longitudes 

that are shown upon maps refer to the zero 

meridian of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England. The map values for longitude 

scaled from the topographic maps of the United 

States Geological Survey may be accepted for 

use in making any of the calculations incident 

to the observations for time, latitude, and azimuth that are required with Manual practice. 

Where these maps are not available, it is probable the surveyor will be able to find others that 

will show longitude within the degree of accuracy required. Precision in both latitude and 

longitude may be secured wherever geodetic 

stations have been established. 

The showing of latitude and longitude on the 

plat of the cadastral survey should be extended 

to seconds if ties to a geodetic station warrant 

that refinement. 

2-22. Precision of Observations. The 

methods that are set out in the Manual for a 

well balanced observing program are good for 

results within +6 seconds of time and t15" 

in latitude and azimuth, when estimated vernier 

readings are made to the nearest 30". 

2-23. Astronomy in the Manual. The basic 

astronomy needed for understanding of the 

observations described in the Manual is well 

covered in college courses in applied astronomy. 

The theory relating to the observations and the 

derivation of formulas is riot repeated in the 

Manual. The subjects are treated with a view 

to securing the most direct practical results. The 

methods are not difficult when coupled with 

practice in making the observations. Until the 

steps become familiar it is helpful to record for 

an experienced observer and to assist in making 

the reductions. 

The methods applied principally in observations upon Polaris and the sun are arranged 

to facilitate the work under most conditions encountered in the field. The tables and formulas 

that are published in the Standard Field Tables 

and in the Ephemeris are designed for the convenience of the cadastral surveyor in the field. 

The bright stars in the equatorial belt may 

be observed to secure refinements and to verify 

results secured by observations on the sun and 

Polaris. These stars may be selected for favorable position in declination at any date when 

the sun is either too low or too high for the 

desired observation. The south declination stars 

are needed for certain observations in Florida, 

the higher north declination stars in Alaska. 

The stellar methods are indispensable to a well 

balanced observing program whenever high precision is required. 

2-24. Symbols. 

#: The symbol for inequality, which is here 

used to show a relation that approaches equality. 

v: Observed vertical angle. In altitude observations on the sun the reductions to the sun's 

center both vertically and horizontally, as well 

as instrument errors, are compensated by tak- 
METHODS OF SURVEY 21 

FIGURE 3.-The “pole-zenith-sun” triangle as viewed 

from outside the celestial sphere. 

ing direct and reversed observations on the opposite limbs of the sun. The mean observed 

vertical angle to the sun’s center is designated 

v in the notation. In single observations the vertical reduction to the sun’s center = 16’. A refinement is had by referring to the Ephemeris 

for the value of the sun’s semi-diameter for 

the date of observation. 

h: True vertical angle to the sun’s center, or 

to Polaris or any other star. In altitude observations, h = v - refraction in zenith distance. A 

refinement is had in altitude observations on the 

sun by adding the value of the sun’s parallax 

= W.9 cos v, opposite in effect to refraction, 

which results from the observer’s position above 

the center of the earth. 

5: Zeta: Tme zenith distance of the sun’s 

center, and to any star : equal to 90” - h. 

$: Phi: Latitude of the station of observation. 

A: Lambda: Longitude of the station of observation. 

6: Delta: Declination of the sun, Polaris, or 

my star, to be taken from the Ephemeris for 

the date of observation. 

A: Azimuth angle from the true meridian to 

the sun’s center, or to Polaris or any other star 

when making an azimuth observation. 

2-25. Refraction. Tables of mean refractions both in zenith and polar distance appear 

in the Standard Field Tables, arranged to meet 

the requirements of field use, Another table 

lists coefficients to apply to mean refractions 

in zenith or polar distance for variations in 

atmospheric pressure and temperature. Lacking a barometer to determine atmospheric pressure, the argument “approximate elevation 

above sea level’’ may be substituted. The differences between the true and the tabulated 

refractions are generally small and negligible 

excepting for the combined effect of low vertical angle with high elevation or extreme temperature. The following example shows the 

method to be used in reductions from the tabulated refractions : 

Tabulated refraction = 6’46” or 6’.76 

Elevation above sea level = 10,000 feet, coefficient for 

Temperature at time of observation = 82” F., coefficient 

True refraction = 0.70 X 0.94 x 6’.76 = 4l.44 or 4’26“ 

which is 0.70 

for which is 0.94 

Time 

2-26. Because the earth revolves around the 

sun, a point on the earth’s surface faces the 

sun one less time each year than it does the 

other stars. There are, therefore, two normal 

time rates, solar time and sidereal time. Solar 

time is divided into three distinct classesi-apparent time, local mean time, and standard time. 

2-27. Apparent time is based upon the real 

sun, the 24-hour period of which counts from 

the sun’s meridian passage of one day-apparent noon-to the next meridian passage. 

This rate is irregular. A sun dial shows apparent time. A watch may be set to read nearly 

correct apparent time for the day or approximate apparent time for several days, but it will 

need changing from week to week because of 

the irregular rate. 

2-28,. Mean solar time is based upon a fictitious or imaginary sun, whose solar day is a 

mathematically uniform 24 hours. The ordinary 

watch measures mean time. 

2-29. Local mean time is identical with 

mean solar time on the meridian at the station 

where that time is being employed. It is correct 

on that meridian only. Stations that are 1” 

apart in longitude differ by four minutes in 
22 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

local mean time, one hour for 15” difference in 

longitude. 

2-30. The equation of time is the amount to 

be added to, or subtracted from apparent time 

to convert over into local mean time. The equation of time is changing constantly. Its value 

for apparent noon each day, on the Greenwich 

meridian, is tabulated in the Ephemeris. The 

equation of time reaches a maximum of about 

16 minutes early in November. 

2-31. Standard time is identical with local 

mean time on the central meridian of each time 

belt, as Eastern Standard Time on the 75th 

meridian; Central Standard Time on the 90th 

meridian; Mountain Standard Time on the 

105th meridian; Pacific Standard Time on the 

120th meridian; Yukon Standard Time on the 

135th meridian; Alaska Standard Time on 

the 150th meridian; Bering Standard Time on 

the 165th meridian of longitude. Correction for 

longitude is all that is required for converting 

over into local mean time, additive when east 

of the central meridian, subtractive when west. 

An additional correction of one hour is necessary when “daylight saving” time is in effect. 

2-32. If an observation is to be made of 

Polaris on a different meridian than that of 

the preliminary observation for time, it is important to adjust the local mean time to the new 

station. This adjustment amounts to 23 seconds across one township at Cape Sable, Florida; 60 seconds at Point Barrow, Alaska. It is 30 

seconds across one township in latitude 46”. 

For example, a Polaris observation is to be 

made at a station in latitude 46”; the adjustment in local mean time, for longitude, for the 

time observation that may not be made in that 

same meridian will be at the rate of 5 seconds 

per mile. A watch that reads correct local mean 

time at the point of time observation will be 

Om 5* slow of local mean time in the meridian 

one mile to the east, or the same amount fast 

for the meridian one mile to the west. This adjustment may be allowed for when the time observation is made somewhere on the line of the 

survey and the Polaris observation is made at 

field party headquarters. 

The unit of sidereal time is measured by one 

revolution of the earth on its axis, the 24-hour 

period of which is equivalent to 23 hours 56 

minutes 4.091 seconds in mean solar time. There 

are 366% sidereal 24-hour periods in the solar 

year of 365% days. 

The mathematical equations that are employed in the observations upon the equatorial 

stars, for time and altitudes, and for the azimuths and altitudes of Polaris at various hour 

angles, are based upon the sidereal time rate. 

The same equations are applicable in the 

reduction of observations upon the sun for time, 

the moment of the observation being expressed 

in apparent time. 

Assume that a star and mean sun cross the 

Greenwich meridian at the same instant. The 

star would cross each succeeding meridian 

ahead of the sun by an increasing time interval proportionate to the longitude west of 

Greenwich. These time intervals, called sidereal conversions, are listed for increasing longitudes in both the Ephemeris and the Standard 

Field Tables. Sidereal conversions are applied 

to the mean solar time to obtain sidereal time 

and vice versa. 

Sidereal time is not employed directly in the 

Manual methods. It is avoided through the plan 

of the tabulations that are published in the 

Ephemeris for the upper culmination and 

elongation of Polaris, and for the transit 

(meridian passage) of the equatorial stars, 

which are given in terms of mean solar time, 

Greenwich meridian, for the ordinary civil date, 

a.m. or p.m. The azimuths and altitudes of 

Polaris are tabulated in terms of mean time 

hour angle. 

2-33. In the entry of the record of an observation, the watch time is the reading at that 

moment. The watch may be set to read the approximate local mean time, or it may be set 

to carry the approximate standard time. In 

either case the “watch error” is the difference 

between the actual reading and what would be 

the exact local mean time or standard time as 

intended. The watch error in standard time may 

be determined by comparison with a clock that 

reads the correct standard time controlled electrically, or the comparison may be made with 

the radio time signals. 

There is usually a personal preference as to 

the setting of a watch. Many prefer to set to 

standard time. Others on extensive field work 
METHODS OF SURVEY 23 

find it convenient to change over to local mean 

time, or to carry a substitute watch set to local 

mean time. On solar transit orientation, the 

time circle reads apparent time. If the solar unit 

is being used constantly, as is nearly always 

the case where the line runs through heavy 

forest cover or dense undergrowth, many surveyors like to use a watch set to apparent time. 

The record entry should therefore be explicit 

(1) as to the setting of the watch to approximate standard, local mean, or apparent time; 

(2) the conversion, if from standard to local 

mean time; and (3) the method of ascertaining 

the watch error in terms of local mean time in 

every case when making an hour angle observation on Polaris. Many Polaris observations are 

made during the season, sometimes daily. It is 

for this purpose that the Manual devotes so 

much attention to the practical field observations for time. 

2-34. The element of time enters into all 

azimuth determinations, apparent time for all 

observations upon the sun, local mean time for 

all observations on Polaris and other stars. The 

sun's declination varies with the apparent time 

and the longitude west from Greenwich. The 

declination enters into all observations on the 

sun for azimuth. Thus the apparent time and 

longitude should be known to a degree of accuracy commensurate with the refinement necessary in computing the sun's declination. The 

azimuth of Polaris varies with local mean time 

of observation, which must be known to a 

degree of accuracy consistent with the result 

wanted in the determination of the true meridian. 

2-35. In observations on Polaris at elongation, precision in local mean time is unnecessary, but in hour angle observations upon Polaris it will be noted that at upper or lower 

culmination, in latitude 40' for example, Polaris 

varies 1' in azimuth in about three minutes of 

time. This interval of time slowly increases 

toward elongation, and in the latter position 

more than 30 minutes of time are required for 

a change of 1' in azimuth. 

Examples of Time Conversions 

Standard time into local mean time: 

Watch reading f watch error in standard time 

2-36. 

f correction for longitude. The correction for 

longitude is additive east and subtractive west 

of the standard meridian of the time belt. The 

conversion table, "degrees to time," Standard 

Field Tables, is convenient in this reduction. 

For example, in longitude 77'01'37.5" W. : 

Watch time of observation ~~~~~~..~~~.~.. = 6"26"40' p. m. 

Watch slow of 76th meridian standard time by comparison with a 

standard clock = +1"22s 

Correction for longitude of station 

(77"01'37.6" W. or 6"08"06.6') ~~~~.~~~ = -8"06" 

Local mean time of observation ______ = 6h19"56~ m. 

2-37. Apparent time into local mean time: 

Apparent time of observation -t- the equation of 

time. The equation of time is taken from the 

Ephemeris for the date of observation and corrected for the longitude and time of observation, conveniently interpolated as the interval 

from Greenwich noon to the time of observation. The watch error in local mean time is then 

found by taking the difference between the 

watch reading at the instant of the observation 

and the reduced mean time of observation. For 

example, in longitude 77'01'37.5'' W. : 

Mar. 18, 1970, apparent time of alEquation of time, 

titude observation upon sun .~~~~~~~ ...... = 3h42"11' p. m. 

Greenwich apparent 

noon ....~~~~..~~..~~.~~~~~~~...... +8"12.6' 

Interpolation for longitude of station €ih08" 

W., and time of observation 3"42", p.m., 

8%Om after Greenwich 

noon, or 8.83/24 of 

change (17.64') in 24 

hours ....~~~~-~~~.~~~~ = -6.6' 

Equation of time . .~~~... +8"06.0" +8"06" 

Local mean time of observation~- ~ ~~ = 3"60"17" 

Watch time of observation.. .~~~~~ ... .~.. = 3h67m63m 

Watch - fast of local mean time - 7"36# 

This reduction is made when the apparent 

time has been determined by solar observation 

as in section 2-63. If the correct watch time is 

known, a reverse process is used to convert local 

mean time to apparent time when computing 

the declination of the sun at the time of an observation. 
24 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Polaris 

2-38. Polaris, the North Star, occupies a 

position in the northern heavens about 1” from 

a line defined by the axis of the earth’s rotation. 

Being a star of the second magnitude and near 

the polar axis, it ranks as the most useful circumpolar star. It will be assumed that the surveyor has learned how to identify Polaris in the 

clear night sky by reference to the “pointers” 

in the constellation of the “Great Bear,” popularly called the “Dipper.” Polaris, CY Ursae Minoris, is nearly on a line (or great circle) determined by the pole and the star 6 Cassiopeiae. 

Both stars are located in the same direction 

from .the pole. The same line, or great circle, 

passes near the star 6 Ursae Majoris, another 

star of the “Dipper.” The latter star is located 

on the opposite side of the pole. The relative 

position of the three stars gives an immediate 

indication of the approximate position of Polaris in its diurnal circle at that time. The three 

stars are all of about the same brightness. Instructions will follow regarding the identification of Polaris by instrumental methods during 

the twilight period, before the star is visible to 

the naked eye. The same method may be used for 

verification of a night observation if the neighboring constellations are obscured by clouds. 

An experienced surveyor ca;n readily observe 

Polaris dt sunrise’ or sunset, reading the measurements without artificial illumination, and 

with a very clear atmosphere can make the observation when the sun is as much as 20 or 30 

minutes above the horizon. 

Polaris has a diurnal circle about the earth’s 

polar axis similar to the diurnal circle of other 

stars, though Polaris has the smallest circle of 

any naked-eye star. The daily circuit of Polaris 

is covered in one sidereal day of 24 sidereal 

hours, or an equivalent of 23 hours 56 minutes 

4.09 seconds of mean solar time. In its diurnal 

circle Polaris crosses the meridian twice, once at 

upper culmination, or above the polar axis, 

and once at lower culmination, or below the 

polar axis. The direction of the apparent motion 

of Polaris is suggested by the following diagram : 

The pointings of the arrows on the circle (at 

right) indicate the direction of the apparent 

motion of Polaris in its diurnal path. The pointStar Magnitudes 

%%ti 

2 34 5 

d*‘ 1 

*\ >k--*J KX’ I\ 

/‘ 

I *c 

Star Magnitudes 

%%ti 

2 34 5 

d*‘ 1 

*\ >k--*J KX’ I\ 

/‘ 

I *c 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I , I , I \ 

I ! 

I \ 

I \ 

I \ 

FIGURE 4.-Naked-eye identification of Polaris. 

About noon March 23d. 

About 6 a.m. June 22d. 

About midnight September 22d. 

About 6 p.m. December 22d. 

ings of the arrows on the lines tangent to the 

circle show the direction of travel at the epochs 

of culmination and elongation. If the surveyor 

has any doubt in regard to the quadrant occupied by Polaris in its diurnal circle at the 

u c. 

ME. 

Polar 

Axis 

LC 

FIGURE 6. 

EE. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 25 

time of an observation, he may set the intersection of the telescope cross-wires exactly on the 

star, then, without moving the instrument, note 

the direction of the star’s motion and compare 

with the diagram. 

The motion of Polaris at western elongation 

is vertically downward ; at eastern elongation 

the motion is vertically upward. At western or 

eastern elongation the motion in azimuth is 

zero. 

At the equator, if Polaris could be observed, 

the hour angle of Polaris at elongation would be 

90°0’O” or 6hOm0s sidereal hour angle or 5h59m1.02s mean time hour angle, but as stations of 

observation are occupied in the higher latitudes 

the hour angle of Polaris at elongation decreases 

progressively. The reason for this is that all vertical planes intersect at the zenith, and the point 

of tangency of a vertical plane with the diurnal 

circle of Polaris occurs at points corresponding 

to decreasing hour angles with the higher 

latitudes. The spread of the two vertical planes 

intersecting Polaris at eastern and western 

elongation increases with higher latitudes, giving increasing azimuths at elongation with the 

more northern latitudes. 

2-39. The position of Polaris in its diurnal 

circle at any time may be determined by reference to the mean time interval from upper 

culmination to any observed position west of 

the meridian, or by reference to the mean time 

interval from any observed position east of the 

meridian to the succeeding upper culmination. 

The Greenwich mean time of upper culmination of Polaris is tabulated in the Ephemeris for 

every day in the year, arranged for the ordinary 

civil date, a.m. or p.m. 

Local mean time of upper culmination of Polaris: the Greenwich mean time of upper culmination of Polaris is to be taken from the 

Ephemeris for the date of observation. The 

amount to be subtracted from the Greenwich 

mean time of upper culmination of Polaris to 

obtain the local mean time of upper culmination, in which the argument is the longitude 

west from Greenwich, is obtained from the table 

of sidereal conversions in the Standard Field 

Tables without computation. 

Example of reduction from the Greenwich 

mean time of upper culmination of Polaris to 

Zenith 

Horizon 

FIGURE 6.-The meridian and vertical planes tangent to 

the diurnal circle of Polaris as viewed from inside 

the celestial sphere. 

the local mean time of upper culmination of 

Polaris, longitude 111’15’ W. : 

Aug. 16, 1972, Gr. U. C. of Polaris ... ..._ = 4’2’7.3” a.m. 

Red. to long, 111”16’ W., 193 ’...... ...._.._ = -1.2 

L. M. T. of U. C. of Polaris .. .._ _.....__ = 4’26.1m a.m. 

The local mean time of the meridian passage 

of any other star is reduced in the same way 

from the time for the Greenwich meridian to 

the longitude of the station. It should be 

noted that this conversion is at the rate of 

approximately 10 seconds of time for each 

15” (or one hour) of longitude, subtractive 

to the west. Also, the meridian passage of 

each star comes approximately four minutes earlier each succeeding day in terms of 

local mean time. On one calendar day each year 

a star will have a double meridian passage. 

2-40. The Greenwich mean time of elongation of Polaris, latitude 40°, is tabulated in the 

Ephemeris for every day in the year, arranged 

for the ordinary civil date, a.m. or p.m. This is 

reduced to the local mean time for the position 

of the station, in two steps: first, for longitude ; second, for latitude. 
26 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Local mean time of elongation of Polaris: the 

mean time of elongation of Polaris, Greenwich 

meridian, latitude 40°, is taken from the 

Ephemeris for the date of observation. The 

amount subtracted from the mean time of 

elongation of Polaris, Greenwich meridian, 

latitude 40°, to obtain the mean time of elongation of Polaris, local meridian, latitude 40", in 

which the argument is the longitude west from 

Greenwich, is obtained from the table of sidereal conversions, Standard Field Tables, without computation. The amount to apply to the 

local mean time of elongation of Polaris latitude 

40" to obtain the local mean time of elongation 

of Polaris at the latitude of observation is tabulated in the Ephemeris in connection with the 

table of azimuths of Polaris at elongation. 

Examples of reduction from the Greenwich 

mean time of elongation of Polaris, latitude 

40°, to the local mean time of elongation of 

Polaris, latitude 64'30' N., and longitude 146" 

30' W. : 

Eastern Elongation 

lat. 40" = 8h33.8m p.m. 

Sept. 14, 1972, Gr. E. E. of Polaris, 

Red. to long. 146'30,' W., l"36" _..._.......-..- = -1.6 

Red. to lat. 64"30' N. ............. ~~~..~.~~~~ ........ = +4.3 

L. M. T. of E. E. of Polaris ..........~~...~.... = 8h36.5m p.m. 

Western Elongation, same station 

lat. 40" = 5h25.7m a.m. 

Oct. 31, 1972, Gr. W. E. of Polaris, 

Red. to long. 146'30' W., l"36" ...._......._... = -1.6 

Red. to lat. 64"3(Y N. ______.._............ ~.~~_._.._ = -4.3 

L. M. T. of W. E. of Polaris = Sh19.8" a.m. 

2-41. Hour Angles. The interval between the 

time of a star's meridian passage (or transit) 

and other position in its diurnal circle is 

termed the star's hour angle. This is measured 

in sidereal time, or the equivalent in angular 

measure in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The 

hour angle may count either to the east or to 

the west of the meridian. As the ordinary 

watch is rated in mean solar time, the observation for time, and the reductions, require the 

conversions from the one rate to the other. The 

Ephemeris and the Standard Field Tables both 

include a table of sidereal conversions. The conversion increment is to be subtracted from a 

sidereal interval, or added to a mean time interval, to obtain the equivalent. The conversion is 

required in the reduction of an altitude observation upon a star for time, as the observed 

hour angle is in the sidereal interval. 

Conversion of a mean time interval into a 

sidereal time interval, or vice versa: The 

amount to apply to one time interval to obtain 

the other time interval is found in the table of 

sidereal conversions without computation. 

Example of conversion of a mean time interval into a sidereal time interval: 

Mean time hour angle of Polaris for an 

assumed observation in Alaska 

= 7h32.6m = 7"32"36" 

Conversion into equivalent sidereal 

hour angle ~~~.. = +1 14 

Sidereal hour angle = 7"33"50' 

7h = 105" 

33" = 8'15' 

6OS = 12'30" 

Sidereal hour angle converted to degrees ... 113"27'30" 

The conversion from a mean time interval 

to the equivalent sidereal hour angle is required 

in the analytical reduction of the hour angle 

observation upon Polaris for azimuth or latitude, whenever the reduction is made by the 

equations in place of, or as a check upon, taking 

the values from the tables of azimuths and 

altitudes that are published in the Ephemeris. 

The conversion is not required if the tables are 

employed, as the values are tabulated in mean 

time hour angle. 

2-42. Hour angles of Polaris: a mean time 

hour angle of Polaris west of the meridian 

is the mean time interval from the local 

mean time of the last preceding upper 

culmination to the local mean time of observation of Polaris. A mean time hour angle of 

Polaris east of the meridian is the mean time 

interval from the local mean time of observation to the local mean time of the next succeeding upper culmination of Polaris. 

The above application of the term "hour 

angle" is a departure from conventional usage, 

which is employed in order to simplify the 

steps. One step relating to hour angles for positions east of the meridian is avoided. Polaris 

crosses the meridian at lower culmination at 

an hour angle of 11h58m02s. In the arrangement 

of the various examples, the observations west 
METHODS OF SURVEY 27 

of the meridian have been referred to the last 

preceding upper culmination, those east of the 

meridian have been referred to the next succeeding upper culmination, thus avoiding any 

hour angles exceeding 11h58m028. 

Hour angles of Polaris: verification by the 

star chart: a simple check on the approximate 

value of the hour angle at any moment, any 

date, and of the position west or east of the 

meridian, may be secured by use of the star 

chart in the Ephemeris. First, scale a line for 

the date, then place the overlay scale on the 

chart making the date line agree with the scale 

for the time of observation, a.m. or p.m., lower 

set of figures. In this position, note where Folaris will be found with respect to the meridian 

line of the overlay scale. Finally, read the scale 

for hour angle, upper set of figures, star west or 

star east of the meridian. The reduction values 

should of course be taken from the tabulated 

daily position of Polaris. 

The tables of the azimuths of Polaris at all 

hour angles, that are published in the Ephemeris, are tabulated with the argument in mean 

time hour angle, counting from upper culmination. Therefore, for an observation west of the 

meridian the hour angle is referred to the preceding upper culmination; for one east of the 

meridian the reference is to the next succeeding upper cumination. The hour angle at lower 

culmination is the half (llh58m) of the sidereal day (23"56.1m). mat position is a good 

one for a latitude observation. It should be understood that hour angle observations for azimuth are not referred to the point of lower 

culmination. The equations for the azimuth and 

altitude observations count strictly from upper 

culmination. 

Examples of computing hour angles of Polaris, all for long. 117'15' W.: IhP78m 

West of the meridian, p.m. observation, U.C. in p.m. 

Feb. 23, 1972,) 1.m.t. of observation = Sh20.1" p.m. 

Gr. U.C., same date ... 

Red. for long. (sidereal conversion) ................................ = -1.3 = 3 52.3 p.m. 

= 3'63.6" p.m. 

Hour angle, west = 1'27.8" 

(1) 

West of the meridian, p.m. observation, U.C. in a.m. 

I +I2 cu May 18, 1972, 1.m.t. of observation ..................................... = 2 7'12.4" p.m. 

,d Red. for long. = -1.3 - 10 17.8 a.m. 

F ba G p 

Gr. U.C., same date .................................................. = 10h19.1" a.m. 

Hour angle, west .......................................................................................... = 

........................................................... 

8h54.6" 

(2) 

.n -3 a ;'u =,Q -5 West of the meridian, a.m. observation, U.C. in p.m. 

5+12 , ,6C0 *' Nov. 7, 1972, 1.m.t. of observation ............................................................ = 1 6h31.6m a.m. 

Gr. U.C., Nov. 6 ................................................... = 11'02.1 p.m. 

Red. for long. .......................................................... = -1.3 - 11 00.8 p.m. I 

Hour angle, west ........................................................................................ 7h30.8m 

(3) 
28 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

West of the meridian, a.m. Observation, U.C. in a.m. 

Aug. 15, 1972, 1.m.t. of observation ....... = Sh05.9" a.m. 

Gr. U.C., same date ............................................................ = 4'31.2" a.m. 

Red. for long. .................................................................... = -1.3 = 4 29.9 a.m. 

Hour angle, west = 0'36.0" 

East of the meridian, p.m. observation, U.C. in p.m. 

Gr. U.C., Dec. 22, 1972 = 8"00.8" p.m. 

Red. for long. . ..................... = -1.3 

L.m.t. of U.C., Dec. 22, = 7 59.5 p.m. 

L.m.t. of observation, same date ...................................................................... = 4 36.1 p.m. 

Hour angle, east .......................... 3'24.4" 

East of the meridian, p.m. observation, U.C. in a.m. 

2 +$ % Gr. U.C., Sept. 6, 1972 = 3'06.2" a.m. a = 5 3 -1.3 03.9 a.m. 

Red. for long. .................. 

2 +I2 L.m.t. of U.C., Sept. 6 ................................................................................ = 

Hour angle, east ......................................................................................... = 

3'0%q 

L.m.t. of observation, Sept. 6 . = 6 34.0 p.m. 

8'29.9" 

(6) 

IB A East of the meridian, a.m. observation, U.C. in p.m. 

- Gr. U.C., Mar. 23, 1972 = 1'69.2"' p.m. 

( 167.9 p.m. 

= 6 06.6 a.m. 

3 Red. for long. = -1.3 

................................................................................ au '1 +12 O%* L.m.t. of observation, U.C., Mar. 23 same date . 

Hour angle, east = 7h51.3m 

(7) 

East of the meridian, a.m. observation, U.C. in a.m. 

Gr. U.C., May 22, 1972 .. = 10'03.4"' a.m. 

Red. for long. ..................................................................................... = -1.3 

L.m.t. of U.C., May 22 = 10 02.1 a.m. 

Hour angle, east .... = 5"19.2" 

L.m.t. of observation, same date .................................................................... = 4 42.9 a.m. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 29 

2-43. Mean time hour angle of Polaris at 

elongation: t = the sidereal hour angle in angular measure. This is converted first into the 

sidereal time interval and then into the mean 

time interval, which is the mean time hour 

angle of Polaris at elongation. 

Cos t = cotan S tan 4 

Example of computing the mean time hour 

angle of Polaris at elongation, ~~~il 3, 1970, in 

latitude 48000' N., on which date the declination of polaris is 89007'50.3" N. : 

+ = 48"OO'; 

6 = 89"07'60.3"; 

tan + = i.iio6i 

cotan 6 = 0.01618 

cos t = (0.01618) (1.11061) = 0.01686 

Sidereal hour angle = 89'02'02" 

89" = 6'66" 

2' = P08" 

2" = (negligible) 

2-44. Altitude 

upper culmination 

6h66m08' 

Mean time hour angle at elongation = Sh5Srnl0" 

Reduction to mean time hour angle = -0 68 (sidereal conversion) 

observation of Polaris at 

for latitude: 

4= h+ 6- 90" 

Altitude observation of Polaris at lower culmination for latitude: The mean time hour 

angle of Polaris at lower culmination is 11 hours 

58 minutes 2 seconds : 

+= h+90" - 6 

The settings for the approximate altitude 

of Polaris at upper and lower culminations, 

respectively, are : 

v=++- (goo-6) 

The following program is recommended in 

altitude observations of Polaris at culmination 

for latitude. 

Compute the local mean time and watch time 

of culmination. 

Thoroughly level the transit. 

About four minutes before culmination observe the altitude of Polaris with the telescope 

in direct position. 

Reverse the transit and observe the altitude 

of Polaris. 

Again level the transit. 

Observe the altitude of Polaris with the telescope in the reversed position. 

Turn the transit to the direct position of the 

telescope and again observe the altitude of 

Polaris. 

Take a mean observed altitude to use in the 

reduction. 

Example of altitude observation of Polaris 

at upper culmination for latitude : 

September 6, 1972, in approximate latitude 33"23' N., 

and longitude 107"11'38" W., at approximate temperature 60" F., and approximate altitude above sea level 

3,600 ft., I make an altitude observation of Polaris at 

upper culmination for latitude, making four observations, two each with the telescope in direct and reversed 

positions. 

Summary of results 

Watch correct for 106th meridian 

time by comparison with radio 

signals. 

Mean watch time of observation .......... = 3'16"31" a.m. 

Mean observed vertical angle ................ = 34"16'23" 

Reduced latitude .................................... = 33'23'22" N. 

Field notation 

Setting: 90'00' 

6 # 89'08' 

+ # 33"23' 

90" - S # 0'62' 

v # 34'16' = + + (90" - 6) 

U.C. of Polaris, Gr.m.t., Sept. 6, 1972.. = 3'09.1" a.m. 

Red. to long. 107"11.6' W. (sidereal 

conversion) ...................... = -1.2 

3'07.9" a.m. 

L.m.t. of U.C., Sept. 6, 1972 .................. = 3'07"64' a.m. 

Correction for longitude (2'11'38") .... = +8 47 

Computed watch time of U.C. .............. = 3'16"41" a.m. 

~~ 

Telescope Watch time Vertical angle 

Direct ........................ 3h12m338 34'15'30'' 

Reversed .......................... 3 14 31 34 1730 

Reversed 3 18 30 34 1800 

Direct 3 20 30 34 1430 

Mean ............................ 3'16"31@ 34'16'23" 

Refraction (1'24" x .89 = 1'16") .......... = -1 15 

h = 34"15'08'' 

6 = 89'08'14''; 90" - 6 = -61 46 

+ = 33"23'22" N. = h - (90' - 8) -..-.. = 33'23'22 
30 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Hour Angle Observation of 

Polaris for Latitude 

2-45. The latitude may be determined by an 

altitude observation of Polaris at any hour 

angle. By this method the vertical angles are 

read in pairs, or double pairs, with reversals of 

the position of the telescope, and watch time 

noted at each setting. A watch correction is 

required, which will be applied to the mean (or 

average) of the watch readings to obtain the 

correct local mean time of observation for the 

pair or double pair of settings. The mean time 

hour angle of Polaris at the epoch of observation is then taken out as in observations for azimuth, and the declination of Polaris for the 

date $s ascertained in the Ephemeris. 

With the two values, mean time hour angle 

and declination, the latitude may be computed 

or there may be derived from the table in the 

Ephemeris the vertical angle equivalent for the 

position of Polaris above or below the earth's 

polar axis at the epoch of observation. The latter value is applied to the observed vertical 

angle, corrected for refraction, to secure the 

true elevation of the pole, or the latitude of the 

station. The method may be combined with the 

observation for azimuth, or it may be used independently. 

The vertical angle reduction is tabulated in 

the Ephemeris in a simplified form in which 

the two principal arguments are employed to 

secure a primary adjustment to the elevation of 

the pole, subtractive when Polaris is above the 

pole and additive below. Since the primary adjustments have been computed for a station in 

latitude 45" north, a small supplemental correction must then be taken from the table for 

altitudes other than 45", the arguments being 

mean time hour angle and observed altitude. 

If an analytical reduction is made, it is convenient to begin with an angle a!, computed 

from the equation: 

tan 6 

Tan a =- in which equation the faccos t' 

tor "COB t" becomes negative for hour 

angles exceeding go", whereupon a! will 

exceed 90". Remember that "t" is the 

sidereal hour angle. 

The latitude may then be derived from the 

equation: . Sin a sin h 

sin 6 cos (+-a!) = 

Example of hour angle observation of Polaris 

for latitude, making use of the table given in 

the Ephemeris : 

June 28, 1972, in approximate latitude 41'20' N., and 

longitude 111"37' W., at approximate temperature 

50" F., and elevation above sea level 6,800 ft., I make 

an hour angle observation of Polaris for latitude, making four observations, two each with the telescope in 

direct and reversed positions. 

Summaru of results 

Mean observed vertical angle . 

Mean watch time of observation .......... = 4h46m388 a.m. 

Watch fast of local mean time, by 

= 41"55'00" 

comparison with radio time signal 

corrected for longitude = 26"28" 

Reduced latitude . ._ ............................ = 41 "20'37" N. 

Field notation 

Telescope Vertical anale Watch time 

Direct .............................. 41"53'OOt' 4'44"45" a.m. 

Reversed . 41 54 00 4 45 50 

Reversed ........................ 41 66 00 447 20 

Direct .............................. 41 57 00 4 48 37 

Mean .......................... 41"55'00" 4'46"38* a.m. 

Watch fast of local mean time ................ 

L.m.t. of observation, June 28, 1972 ........ = 4'2Om1O" a.m. 

= 4'20.2" a.m. 

Gr. U.C. of Polaris, 

Red. to long. 

Hour angle of Polaris east of meridian.. = 3h17.3m 

Declination of Polaris .................... 89"08'06" 

-26 28 

same date ................ = 7h38.7m a.m. 

111"37' W. = -1.2 = 7h37.5m a.m. 

Primary adjustment, subtractive, Polaris Mean above the pole time 

hour Declination 

angle 89°08'OO" 89"08'06" 89"08'20" 

3'1 1.5" O"34'35" O"34'31" 0" 34'22" 

3 17.3 ..... 0 33 36 0 3331 0 3322 

3 17.5 ....... 0 33 33 0 3329 0 3320 

Mean observed vertical angle, 

Refraction, 64" X 0.79 = -0 51 

v = 41"55'00" 

h = 41'64'09" 

Primary adjustment to elevation of 

pole. ............................... = -3331 

Supplemental correction .......................... = -1 

Latitude of station .................................... = 41"20'37" N. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 31 

Polaris at Elongation 

2-46. Of the various methods of observation to establish the true meridian, the simplest 

is the observation upon Polaris at eastern or 

western elongation. 

Azimuth of Polaris at elongation : 

cos s Sin A = 

cos 

- qh 

Example of computing the azimuth of Polaris 

at elongation, October 20, 1970, in latitude 

46'20' N., on which date the declination of 

Polaris is 89'07'54" N.: 

cos 6 = 0.015156 

CQS q5 = 0.690462 

sin A = 0.015155 + 0.690462 = 0.021949 

A = Azimuth of Polaris at elongation = 

1 " 15'28''. 

A table of azimuths of Polaris at elongation 

for latitudes from 10" to 70" N. appears in the 

Ephemeris, arguments : declination of Polaris 

and latitude of station. 

Example in the use of the table of azimuths 

of Polaris at elongation, same date and station 

as above, showing the method of interpolation : 

Declination 

Latitude 89"07'60" 89'07'64'' 89'08'00" 

Azimuths elongation 

46'00' ...... 1 ' 15'06" 1"15'00'' 1 ' 14'62'' 

46"20'-- .... .. l"15'28" 

47"O W....... . l"16'3Q" 1 O 16'N" l"16'16" 

By interpolation in the table the required 

azimuth of Polaris at elongation is therefore 

found to be 1'15'28". 

Azimuth of Polaris at Ang Hour Angle 

2-47. While there is no better method for 

the establishment of the true meridian than 

the observation upon Polaris at elongation, for 

most of the year this requires nighttime observations. Moreover, should Polaris be obscured 

by clouds at the time of elongation, the observation must fail. 

The "hour angle" method admits of observaObserving 

station 

FIGURE ".--The meridian and vertical planes tangent to the diurnal circle of Polaris as viewed from outside the 

celestial sphere. 
32 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

tion upon Polaris for azimuth at any time that 

the star is visible; the precise watch error in 

local mean time must be known, but if this has 

been determined, the hour angle method becomes at once the most convenient. The possible 

accuracy of the result compares favorably in 

every way with the refinement obtained in an 

observation at elongation. 

2-48. Azimuth of Polaris at any hour angle: 

t = sidereal hour angle in angular measure ; in 

hour angles exceeding 90" the function "- sin 

4 cos t" becomes positive by virtue of the cosine 

of an angle between 90' and 270' being treated 

as negative in analytical reductions : 

sin t 

Tan A = 

cos 4 tan 6 - sin 4 cos t 

A table of azimuths of Polaris at all hour 

angles, for latitudes from 10' to 65" N., appears in the Ephemeris, arguments : declination of Polaris, mean time hour angle, and 

latitude of station. For other than the latitudes 

given in the table, and for greater accuracy in 

terms of seconds of azimuth, the surveyor will 

be required to solve the above equation. 

Example of computing the azimuth of Polaris, February 21, 1972, at a mean time hour 

angle of 2h37.4m, in latitude 33'20' N., on which 

date the declination of Polaris = 89'08'36'' N. : 

Mean time hour angle ...._._. = 2'37.9" 

= 2h37'24" 2' = 30" 

37" = 9"15' 

Red. to sidereal hour 

26O 50B = 1230'' 

Sidereal hour angle = 2h37450s = 39'27'30" 

angle - 

log cos $ ___...__._ = 9.921940 

log tan S 

log cos $ tan S = 1.747218 

nat cos $tan S = 66.875 

nat sin rp cos t = 0.424( -) 

Algebraic 

log sin rp ...~ ....._ = 9.739976 

= 1.825278 log cos t _......... = 98.887666 

log sin (s cos t = 9.627641 

nat sin rp cos t = 0.424 

log sin t ....~~~~.. = 9.803127 

sum __.._..._... = 65.451 log 55.451 __...... = 1.743910 

log tan A ...._... = 8.059217 

Azimuth of Polaris at above hour angle, A = 01~39'24" 

Example in the use of the table of azimuths, 

of Polaris at all hour angles, same date, hour 

angle, and station as above, showing the method 

of interpolation : 

Azimuth of Polaris Correction 

Mean Mean declination + 89"08'30" subtractive 

time for 

hour Latitude declination 

angle + 89"08'40" 

32" 3320' 34" 

2'29.6" ....- - 37.2' 37.8' 38.1' 0.1' 

37.4 ... .......... 39.4 0.1 

39.6 39.3 39.9 40.2 0.1 

By interpolation in the table the required azimuth of Polaris is therefore found to be 0'39.4' 

- 0.1' = 0'39.3' or O"39'18". 

Polaris at Sunset or Sunrise 

2-49. If the sky is clear Polaris may be most 

conveniently observed by the hour angle method 

at sunset or sunrise without artificial illumination. The preparation for the observation consists in computing in advance the approximate 

settings in azimuth and altitude in order to 

find Polaris. The plan contemplates an approximate reference meridian. With the time of 

sunset or sunrise assumed as the time of observation, the hour angle 't" and azimuth "A" 

are ascertained in order to find the position of 

Polaris in azimuth. The vertical angle will be 

equal to the latitude of the station plus the primary adjustment when Polaris is above the 

pole, or minus when below, taking the value 

from the tabulation given in the Ephemeris. 

The "settings" for finding position are approximations, to bring Polaris reasonably near 

the center of the field of the telescope where the 

star should be found in plain view. The telescope must be focused upon a distant object, 

otherwise, though Polaris may be practically at 

the center of the field, it might be out of focus 

and therefore may not be noticed during daylight. When Polaris has been found the observation may follow the hour angle method, the 

reductions to be based upon the data derived 

in the observation. "he settings should be made 

each time for the several sightings. The daylight hour angle method is particularly desirable because the observation, including all instrumental work, marking of points upon the 

ground, etc., is accomplished without artificial 

illumination, and sunset is usually a covenient 

time to devote to this field duty. 

Example of the computation of the position of 
METHODS OF SURVEY 33 

Polaris at sunset, May 6, 1972, at a station in 

latitude 47'20' N., and longitude 102'40' W. : 

From the Ephemeris the declination of the sun adjusted to approximate sunset is found to be 16"48' N.; 

the equation of time 3", to be subtracted from apparent 

time; upper culmination of Polaris, Greenwich meridian 

llh06.2" a.m.; the declination of Polaris + 89O08'16". 

From the Standard Field Tables, the apparent time of 

sunset is found to be 7"17" p.m. 

May 6,1972: 

Sunset .. = 7h17m p.m., app. t. 

Equation of time .......... = -3 

Anticipated time of 

observation = 7"14" p.m., 1.m.t. 

+ 12 

Gr. U.C. of 

Red. to long. 

Hour angle of Polaris, west 

Latitude of station = 47'20' 

Vertical angle adjustment, 

Polaris ...... = llh06.2" a.m. 

102"40~ _.._._ = -1.1 11 06 a.m., 1.m.t. 

of meridian .... # 8h09m A # 1'03' W. 

Polaris below the pole ........ = -28 v # 46"52" 

Example of the computation of the position 

of Polaris at sunset, November 6, 1972, same 

station : 

Declination of the sun adjusted to approximate sunset 16"14' s.; equation of time 16" to be subtracted from 

apparent time; upper culmination of Polaris, Greenwich meridian 11'02.1" p.m. ; declination of Polaris 

+ 89'08'36''. 

November 6, 1972,: 

__ 

Sunset = 4'46" Pam., app. t. 

Equation of time = -16 

Anticipated time of 

observat.ion .......... i. = 4"3Orn p.m., 1.m.t. 

Gr. U.C. of 

Red. to long. 

Hour angle of Polaris, 

Latitude of station ........ 

Vertical angle adjustment, 

Polaris __.___ = llhO&.lm p.m. 

102'46' = -1.1 11 01 p.m., 1.m.t. 

east of meridian . = 6h31m A # 1'15' E. 

- 

- 

= 47"20/ 

Polaris below the pole ........ = -08 v # 47"12' 

Example of the computation of the position 

of Polaris at sunrise, November 7, 1972, same 

station : 

Declination of the sun adjusted to approximate sunrise 16"25' s.; equation of time 16" to be subtracted 

from apparent time ; upper culmination of Polaris and 

declination of Polaris same as above. 

- 

November 7, 1972: 

Sunrise = 7'15" a.m., app. t. 

Equation of time .................. = 

Anticipated time of 

-16 

~ 

observation = 6'59" a.m., 1.m.t. 

-I- 12 

Upper culmination of 

Polaris, November 6 .. = 11 01 p.m., 1.m.t. 

Hour angle of Polaris, west 

Latitude of station = 47'20' 

Vertical angle adjustment, 

.. of meridian ........... # - 

7"58" A # 1'05' W. 

Polaris below the pole ........ = -26 v # 46"54' 

Stellar Observations, Equatorial Belt 

There are two customary methods of 

star identification, First, the brighter stars 

may be found individually by naked eye during 

starlight, each by means of its position within 

its own constellation and with the aid of a chart 

that shows the outline of that and the neighboring constellations ; second, using the transit, 

any star may be found by reference to vertical 

angle and horizontal angle from the meridian, 

both values related to an anticipated time of 

observation, and to an approximate north and 

south line. The second method is frequently 

more certain, especially if there are clouds that 

obscure some of the stars and is a necessity for 

twilight or daylight observations. 

The charts of the constellations are interesting and useful, but they are not employed as an 

accessory to the Manual methods. 

The location of any one of the selected bright 

stars, in favorable position for observation, 

on any date and at any moment within the 24- 

hqur period, may be found most readily by 

reference to the diagram insert of the Ephemeris; an explanation of its use is given on the 

diagram. The simple steps are these : first interpolate for the date, and place the meridian line 

of the overlay scale on the date line ; this shows 

the field as it will be at the noon of that date. 

Next, move the overlay scale to the left for p.m. 

periods, or to the right for a.m. periods, as 

shown by the lower set of figures, to the anticipated time of an observation. Then read the 

upper set of figures for hour angle for any 

selected star at that anticipated time, to the 

east or to the west of the meridian. 

2-50. 
34 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Having selected the star to be observed and 

the anticipated time of observation, the time of 

the meridian passage of the star for that date 

is then taken from the Ephemeris. The hour 

angle for the position is the time interval between the anticipated time of observation and 

the time of the meridian passage. 

Use the following equation to find the vertical angle of the star at the anticipated moment 

of observation : 

sin h = cos t cos 4 cos 6 + sin 4 sin 6 

(If sin h is negative the star is below the 

horizon.) 

Then use the companion equation to find the 

horizontal angle from the meridian, as follows : 

sin 6 

COS A = -tan C$ tan h 

cos 4 cos h 

The product “sin 4 sin 8” and the fraction 

sin 6 

cos 4 cos h are negative for south declinations. 

The product “cos t cos 4 60s 6” is negative for 

hour angles exceeding 6 hours or 90”. 

If the result for “cos A” is ) the 

north. 

{south. angle counts from the 

The vertical angle setting (“v” for this purpose) for the meridian passage of a star south 

of the zenith is: 

vz90°-~+6 

An approximate north and south line, the approximate latitude, and the approximate watch 

correction to local mean time are used in computing the approximate angular settings for 

“A” and “v”. The objective lens should be set 

carefully to celestial focus. The computed direction will be sufficiently precise to bring the 

selected star into the field of the telescope at 

the anticipated time of observation. An explanation of preparing for an observation is also 

given in the Ephemeris. 

For daylight observations, and referring 

especially to stars of first magnitude or brighter 

that would naturally be selected, the initial or 

approximate values, and the settings for horizontal and vertical angles, should be such as to 

bring the star within the middle-third of the 

field, or roughly within 10’ of the cross-wire 

intersection. 

2-51. A first magnitude star is rated as 1.0 ; 

second magnitude 2.0; etc. Brighter than first 

magnitude is rated, as Capella, 0.2; slightly 

brighter, as Vega, 0.1 ; much brighter, as Canopus, -0.9 ; or still brighter, as Sirius, -1.6 ; on this 

scale a magnitude of 2.1 is rated for Polaris. 

This detail is an important feature of identification. 

As an additional aid in star identification, it 

is helpful to note the positions of the bright 

planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The 

times of their transits, and their approximate 

declinations, are tabulated in the Ephemeris 

for the first and sixteenth day of each month. 

The planets are “wanderers” (very changeable 

in position) so that the interpolations between 

the tabulated dates will be rough, although 

close enough €or identification, and the varying 

positions will become more readily noted on 

continued acquaintance. The proximities of the 

planets to the selected stars, up to about 40 

minutes in time of transit and 10” difference in 

declination, are shown in the tabulations by 

f ootnote-ref erence. 

The planets appear different in the telescope, 

Venus very bright and slightly crescent when 

farthest from the sun, and not so bright, 

but decidedly crescent when near the sun. Mars 

is always a dull red, brightest when its transit 

is near midnight, but scarcely noticeable when 

the transit is within two or three hours of 

noon. Jupiter, when passing the meridian between 9 p.m. and 3 a.m., is very bright with 

some of its several moons always in evidence 

clearly seen on sharp focus. Saturn, similarly, 

though not so bright, has its “rings,” but no 

moons. As in the case of Mars, Jupiter and 

Saturn are scarcely noticeable when their 

meridian passage occurs between 9 a.m. and 

3 p.m., their positions then being so far distant 

from the earth. 

If a star identification is to be made nakedeye from the constellations, then the nearby 

planet or planets should be noted, and accounted 

for by appearance. If the star is identified instrumentally, by settings in horizontal and vertical angle, then the noting of the relation to 

the nearby planet, or planets, is one of the best 

ways in which to become acquainted with the 

latter. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 35 

2-52. The stellar observation is useful any 

time of year, particularly when the sun reaches 

a meridian altitude exceeding 60" or 65". 

There is no difficulty in picking up the meridian passage of a star when the conditions for 

visibility are good. Most of the selected stars 

are brighter than Polaris ; some of them can be 

observed throughout any day that is clear and 

free from haze. 

After the initial preparations have been made 

for a Polaris observation, including the marking of a meridian reference by solar transit 

orientation, or by reference to lines previously 

determined, it is good practice to include the 

meridian passage of a star in the observing 

program. In this manner the watch correction 

for local mean time is obtained just when needed 

and on the most direct plan under the usual field 

conditions. 

The Greenwich mean times of the meridian 

transit of the selected bright stars of the equatorial belt are tabulated in the Ephemeris for 

the 1st and 16th day each month; the reductions to the other days of the month are indicated on each page of the stellar tabulations. 

This data must be converted to the local mean 

time of transit. 

Example of the computation of the finding 

positions of an equatorial star: 

March 10, 1971, on a meridian previously established, 

at a station in latitude 42"15' N., and longitude 121'47' 

W., preparing to observe the star No. 15/26, Q Leonis 

(Regulus), declination + 12"06'24", Mag. 1.3, anticipated time of observation 6h30m p.m., 1.m.t. 

Star's transit, Gr.m.t., March 1 .................. 11'330.4'" p.m. 

Reduction to March 10. ................ -35.4 

Sidereal conversion, long. 121"47' W ......... -1.3 

Star's transit, 1.m.t. .... lO"53.7" p.m. 

Anticipated time of observation, 1.m.t ....... 6 30 p.m. 

Hour angle SE. (t = 65'55') .......... 4h23.7m 

For the purpose of computing the finding 

positions, the mean time hour angle need not 

be converted to a sidereal time hour angle, since 

the actual time of the observation will probably 

vary somewhat from the anticipated time. 

sin h = cos t cos + cos 6 + sin + sin 6 

cost = 0.4081 

cos $ = 0.7402 

cos 6 = 0.9778 

Product = 0.2954 

sin h = 0.2954 + 0.1410 = 0.4364 

h = 25'53' 

sin $ = 0.6724 

sin 6 = 0.2097 

Product = 0.1410 

- 

sin 6 

cos $ cos h cos A = - tan + tan h 

sin 6 = 0.2097 

COS$ = 0.7402 tan + == 0.9083 

cash = 0.8997 tan h = 0.4852 

sin 6 

cos + cos h 0.3149 tan + tan h = 0.4407 

-0.4407 

cos A = -0.1258 (Negative indicates horizontal 

angle counts from south.) 

A = S. 82'46'E. 

Using the finding positions of the star (h = 

25"53', A = S. 82'46' E.), four observations are 

made, two each with the telescope in direct and 

reversed positions. The true values for time 

and azimuth are obtained by a more precise 

reduction of the observations by use of the above 

formulas. Keep in mind that in all stellar observations the true vertical angle (h) is equal to 

the observed vertical angle (v) minus the refraction (r) in zenith distance. There is no correction for parallax. In solving for time, the 

hour angle (t) obtained by use of the formula is 

in terms of the sidereal rate. A subtraction of 10 

seconds per hour (sidereal conversion) will give 

the equivalent mean time hour angle. 

Direct Solar Observations 

2-53. Declination. The declination of the 

sun is corrected in hourly difference to the longitude of the station and to the time of observation. North declinations are treated as positive, 

south declinations as negative. A northerly 

hourly motion is treated as. positive, a southerly 

hourly motion is treated as negative. 

Example of computation of the sun's declination : 

It is desired to compute the value of the sun's declination at a station in longitude 5h08m west of Greenwich; apparent time of observation 3"42" p.m.; Mar. 

18, 19701: 

Declination of the sun at Greenwich apparent noon 

= 1'00'04" S. 

Difference in time from Greenwich apparent noon to 

apparent time of observation: 

For longitude 5h08m 

For time, p.m. = +3"42" 

8.83'~ 8'50'" 

Hourly difference in declination = +59.28" 

Difference in declination from Greenwich apparent 

noon to apparent time of observation: 

8.83 x 59.28" = 523" = 8'43" N. 

True declination of the sun .................... O"51'21" S. 
36 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

2-54. Meridian Observation of the Sun for 

Apparent Noon. With the telescope on the 

meridian elevated to the sun's altitude, the 

watch times of transit of the sun's west and east 

limbs are noted, the mean of which is the watch 

time of apparent noon. If the observation fails 

for either limb the reduction to the sun's center 

is accomplished by adding or subtracting 68 

seconds; a refinement in the amount of this 

interval is had by referring to the Ephemeris 

for the time of the sun's semi-diameter passing 

the meridian for the date of observation. 

The setting for the approximate altitude of 

the sun's center is: 

v#9O0-rp+6 

OBSERVING PROGRAM 

Determine the meridian by the best means at 

hand and compute the vertical angle setting for 

the sun. 

Level the transit, align the instrument on the 

meridian, and elevate the telescope to the altitude of the sun's center. 

Note the watch time of the sun's west limb 

tangent to the vertical wire. 

Note the watch time of the sun's east limb 

tangent to the vertical wire. 

Take the mean of the readings for the watch 

time of apparent noon from which to compute 

the watch error local mean time. 

The refinement in this observation depends 

mostly on the direction of the sighting for 

meridian. A small discrepancy in direction is 

scarcely appreciable for ordinary requirements, 

such as to establish a watch correction in local 

mean time with necessary accuracy for making the Polaris observations for azimuth and 

latitude by the hour angle method. 

Example of meridian observation of the sun 

for apparent noon, and reduction to watch correction local mean time : 

September 9,1971, in latitude 42"32'24" N., and longitude 119'46'30'' W. (7"59"'06'), with the telescope in the 

meridian and elevated to the sun's altitude, I observe 

the sun's transit for time, noting the watch time of 

transit of each limb. 

Setting: 90"OO' 

$I # (-)42"32' 

6 # (+) 5"20' (corrected for longitude) 

v# 52'48' 

4 Watch time of transit, W. limb ..... ~.. = llb54m481 

+ Watch time of transit, E. limb .......... = 11 56 56 

Watch time of apparent noon _........... = 11"55m525 

Apparent noon _____.._ = 12"00m00" 

Eq. of time adjusted to time 

of observation _._. =-2 37 

Local mean time of apparent noon-.-. = 11 57 23 

Watch slow of local mean time ___..... = 1"3lS 

2-55. Meridian Altitude Observation of the 

Sun for Latitude.-Reverse the sign of 6 for 

south declinations : 

+= 90" + 6- h 

The following observing program is recommended : 

Thoroughly level the transit and place the 

telescope in the meridian elevated to the sun's 

approximate altitude at noon. 

Observe the altitude of the sun's lower limb 

with the sun slightly east of the meridian. 

Reverse the transit. 

Observe the altitude of the sun's upper limb 

with the sun slightly west of the meridian. 

Take the mean observed vertical angle for 

the altitude of the sun's center at apparent 

noon. 

The important factor in this observation is 

exactness in vertical angle. The observation 

may be duplicated by vertical angle readings on 

stars within the equatorial belt at meridian 

passage, using the same equation: 

+=90°*6-h 

The resulting values in latitude should agree 

within the limits of the precision of the instrument. The uncertain factor is the value of the 

observed vertical angle. This may be compensated by balancing an observation within the 

equatorial belt by an observation on Folaris at 

upper or lower culmination, or by a latitude 

observation on Polaris by the hour angle 

method. 

Example of meridian altitude observation of 

the sun for latitude : 

September 25,1971, in approximate latitude 48'10' N., 

and longitude 109"lO' W. (7h16m408), temperature 70" 

F., elevation above sea level 2,500 ft., I make an observation of the sun for latitude, observing the altitude 

of the sun's lower limb with the telescope in direct position, reversing the telescope and observing the sun's 

upper limb. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 37 

Settings : 

90"OO' 

$ # (-)48"10' N. 

6 # (-) O"49'S. 

v# 41'01' 

40'45' 

41 O 17' 

Sun's semi-diameter # 16' 

Upper limb (41"Ol' + 16') 

Lower limb (41"Ol' - 16') ................ 

+ Observed alt., lower limb, 

+ Observed alt., upper limb, 

telescope dir. .............................. = 40"46'30~" 

telescope rev. .............................. = 41"18'30" 

Mean observed altitude, v = 41"02'30" 

Refraction .... = -0 69 

Parallax .............................. = +O 06 

h = 41"01'37" 

Declination, Gr. 

Red. to longitude 

app. noon ........ = O"42'01.0" S. 

109"lO~ w., 

7.278 X 58.46" = 7'06.4" S. 

O~"49'06.4" S. 

S = O~"49'06" S. 

$ = 90" - S - h. = 48'09'17'' N. 

Example of meridian observation of the sun 

for time and latitude: 

September 10, 1969, in approximate latitude 41'85' N., 

and longitude 109"68' W., at temperature 50" F., and 

elevation above sea level 6,600 ft., I make a meridian 

observation of the sun for time and latitude, observing 

simultaneously the altitude of the sun's lower limb 

and the transit of the sun's west limb, reversing the 

telescope and observing simultaneously the altitude of 

the sun's upper limb and the transit of the sun's east 

limb. 

Setting: 

90'00' 

$ # (-)41"35' N. 

6 # (+) 4'47' N. 

v# 53'12' 

52 a 56' 

53"28' 

Sun's semi-diameter # 16' 

Lower limb (53'12' - 16') .......... 

Upper limb (53'12' + 16') .......... 

Watch time Observed ver- Telescope Sun transit tical angle 

Direct .......... $- llh66m18s 52"56'30'' 

Reversed--.-. 6 11 58 26 53 29 00 

Mean ... 1lh57"2ZS 53"12'45" 

Refraction (43" x 0.8) .... ............. = -34 

Parallax ................................ = +06 

h = 63"12'16" 

S = 4'47'18'' N.; 90" + 6 ........................ = 94"47'18" 

$ = 90" + S - h .... = 41"36'02:' 

Watch time of apparent noon ............ = 11"57"22" 

Apparent noon .......................... = 12h00m00" 

Equation of time, 

Gr. noon subtractive from 

app. t ...................... = 3"Ol" 

Red. to long. 

109"68'W ............... = 7 

3"08" 

Local mean time of apparent 

noon ........................................ 

Watch fast of local mean time 

-3 08 

llh56m52s = 11 56 62 

.................- - - 30' 

The accuracy of the reduced latitude is directly related to the refinement of the value of 

the observed vertical angle. A better determination of the latitude by this method is possible 

only by making a series of observations on successive days, or the observation may be duplicated by vertical angle readings on stars within 

the equatorial belt at meridian passage, and 

by combining the result with Polaris observations for latitude. 

Altitude Observation of the Sun for Azimuth 

2-56. While observations of Polaris for azimuth are used extensively, there are situations 

where a direct altitude observation on the sun 

will expedite the survey. The bright stars within the equatorial belt may also be substituted 

when the sun is not in favorable position. In general these observations are supplemental to the 

normal running of the lines by solar transit 

orientation in order to improve and verify the 

line work. 

The altitude observation will frequently permit a prompt start on the survey in advance of 

an opportunity for the usual Polaris observation. Also, at stations far removed from field 

headquarters, the solar transit orientation 

should be verified in this manner. Direct observations on the lines as run will help to show 

that the solar unit is performing well or that it 

needs adjustment. 

Some of the stars are always in favorable 

position, both in hour angle and declination. The 

brighter stars may be picked up during the daylight hours if not obscured by haze or clouds. 

The stellar altitude observations are particularly useful when the sun is not in favorable 

position. In the southern States, during the 

summer months, the sun is too high for the 
38 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

noon observation for time and latitude. In the 

northern States, from late October until late 

February, the sun is too low for the best observing for time and azimuth. The bright north 

declination stars are especially helpful for the 

observing in Alaska, the southern declination 

stars for the meridian time-and-latitude observations in Florida. 

The trigonometric elements of the altitude 

observation for time and azimuth are vertical 

angle, latitude, and declination of the sun or 

the star. 

Accuracy in latitude is essential to good observing for azimuth by the altitude method. 

If the latitude has not been well determined 

previously, an azimuth observation on the sun 

southeasterly should be balanced by one southwesterly at about the same vertical angle. Averaging the results will eliminate the effect of an 

unknown discrepancy in latitude. 

The precision with which the azimuth may be 

determined by the altitude observation of the 

sun or a star is dependent on the correctness 

of the vertical angle. The error in azimuth that 

results from a discrepancy in vertical angle increases rapidly when the angular elevation is 

large, when the hour angle is small, or with 

the southerly declinations. Presuming careful 

observing with the instrument in good adjustLatitude, d= 40° 

ment, but with an error in the readings of vertical angles, the error in azimuth is multiplied 

one, two, or three times, depending on the 

sun's position in altitude, hour angle, and 

declination. The effect is shown graphically in 

figure 8. By balancing an observation southeasterly with one southwesterly at about the 

same vertical angle, the error in azimuth will be 

compensated. 

The altitude observation calls for accuracy in 

the instrumental adjustments and for good 

judgment in the selection of a well formed polezenith-sun triangle. Vertical angles from 20" 

to 50" are to be preferred, not less than three 

hours from meridian passage, and north declination. A bright star in north declination is much 

better than the sun when the south declination 

of the sun exceeds 10". 

In order to balance the altitude observation 

for azimuth, to compensate for uncertainties in 

vertical angle, the sun may be observed southeasterly and southwesterly; or the sun in one 

position and a star in the companion position; 

or two north declination stars may be selected, 

especially when the sun is in southerly declination ; etc. ; the purpose being to balance the observation in nearly the same vertical angle, and 

to secure well-shaped celestial-triangles. 

f 

a 

.E I' 

e 

& 

.- z 

N 

L 

0' 

.. 

I00 200 30° 40° 50' 60° 70° 8 0" 

Vertical Angle 

FIGURE 8.-Errors in azimuth caused by one minute error in vertical angle at various angular elevations, computed 

for observations in latitude 40°, for declinations within the equatorial belt. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 39 

The solar transit is equipped with a full vertical circle, a neutral-tint colored glass in the 

dust shutter of the eyepiece, a removable prismatic eyepiece, and a removable reflector for 

illuminating the cross wires. These are essential 

to rapid and accurate altitude observations, and 

for the night observing. The latest model features a solar circle on the reticle of the transit 

telescope ; this gives the horizontal and vertical 

angle sightings to the sun’s center (instead of 

to the limbs). Double lines are provided for 

half of each the vertical and horizontal cross 

wires; this spacing is to improve the stellar 

observation for exact centering, avoiding the 

complete covering of the star by the wire (as 

the latter may obscure the star in the daylight 

observation). See section 2-64. 

There are a number of equations for solving 

the altitude observation for azimuth, in which 

the elements are vertical angle, latitude, and 

declination of the sun or the star. These are 

companion equations to those employed in solving the altitude observation for time, using the 

same elements. Some of the equations are 

adapted to the use of natural trigonometric 

functions and the computing machine; the 

same equations may be employed by logarithmic 

reduction in combination with the natural functions ; some are adapted to strictly logarithmic 

reduction. These equations are given in the 

Standard Field Tables. Occasionally, for a check 

against a possible error, if the results do not 

come out as expected, a second reduction may 

be made, using another equation. 

The same equations me employed for the 

stellar observations as for the altitude observation of the sun. With the stars there is no reduction to center, no correction for parallax, and 

no hourly change in declination. The sun and 

the stars have the same corrections for refraction in zenith distance, the latter subject to 

temperature change and to differences in barometric pressure. 

Under the Manual rules, a series of three 

altitude observations upon the sun, each with 

the telescope in direct and reversed position, are 

required. Each pair of direct and reversed sightings are combined and reduced as one observation. This will give three results for the indicated bearing of the reference mark. The 

separate results will vary somewhat, much the 

same as separate orientations of the solar unit. 

When desired, in order to guard against error, 

or to check a discrepancy, any of the sightings 

may be reduced to the sun’s center and solved 

separately. 

For the stellar altitude observation four 

sightings are required, two each with the telescope in direct and reversed position, to be 

reduced as one observation. The number of the 

observations may be increased if desirable, although it is good practice to limit the number 

of sightings to not over six in any one series. 

Any of them may be reduced separately if desired to check against an error in the reading of 

the angles. As each sighting is “centered” on 

the star, the differences in the rate of travel 

in time, horizontal angle, and vertical angle, 

will be uniform. 

It is emphasized that none of the reduced 

altitude observations for azimuth, in terms of 

the indicated bearing of the reference mark, 

standing alone as one observation, can be regarded as within the attainable limit of accuracy of the one-minute transit until duly verified 

by a completely independent method, such as 

the Polaris observation to check the altitude observation, or the altitude observation southeasterly balanced with one southwesterly. 

An altitude observation of the sun for 

azimuth consists in the simultaneous determination of the true vertical and horizontal angles to 

the sun’s center, the horizontal angle being referred to a fixed point. With the true vertical 

angle to the sun’s center, the declination of the 

sun, and the latitude of the station all known, 

one of the following equations is entered and 

a calculation made of the azimuth of the sun’s 

center at the epoch of observation, as referred 

to the true meridian; the relation between the 

sun’s calculated azimuth and the recorded angle 

to the sun’s center gives the bearing of the reference point. 

Altitude observation of the sun for azimuth, 

first formula-Reverse the signs of ‘(8’’ for 

south declinations : 

2-57. 
40 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

The spherical angles “c’, “+”, and “6” appear 

in this equation combined as in one formula for 

the reduction of an altitude observation of the 

sun for apparent time. 

2-58. Altitude observation of the sun for 

azimuth, second formula-For south declinations the function “sin 8” becomes negative by 

virtue of the sine of a negative angle being 

treated as negative in analytical reductions : If 

the algebraic sign of the result is positive the 

azimuth “A” is referred to the north point, but 

if negative, the azimuth “A” is referred to the 

south point : 

sin 6 

cos 6 cos h COS A= -tan+tanh 

2-59. Altitude observation of the sun for 

azimuth, third f ormula-The following equation is expressed directly in terms of the spherical triangle “pole-zenith-sun :” Reverse the sign 

of T3” for south declinations: 

Pole to zenith = 90°-+=colat. ; 

Pole to sun 

Zenith to sun = 90”-h= coalt. ; 

S=1/2 sum of the three sides: 

= 90”-8= codecl. ; 

sin S sin (S-coded.) 

sin colat. sin coalt. 

OBSERVING PROGRAM, MORNING 

2-60. Thoroughly level the transit. 

With the telescope in direct position observe 

and record the horizontal angle from a fixed 

reference point to the sun’s right limb, and the 

vertical angle to the sun’s upper limb; these 

observations must be simultaneous ; the sun 

will appear as indicated; note the watch time 

at the moment of the observation: + 

Reverse the transit. 

Observe and record the horizontal angle from 

the fixed reference point to the sun’s left limb, 

and the vertical angle to the sun’s lower limb; 

these observations must be simultaneous ; the 

sun will appear as indicated; note the watch 

at the moment of the observation : + 

The mean observed vertical and horizontal 

angles, and the mean watch time are to be 

used in the reduction; this constitutes one observation, which is repeated until a series of 

three direct and reversed sightings are made. 

OBSERVING PROGRAM, AFTERNOON 

2-61. In the afternoon the program is modified only as to the order in which the sun’s limbs 

are observed, which is as follows: 

First observation, telescope direct, observe 

the sun’s right and lower limbs: 4 

Second observation, telescope reversed, observe the sun’s left and upper limbs : 15 

2-62. By the above observing programs the 

horizontal and vertical angles in the direct positions of the telescope will be found of about the 

same numerical values as in the reversed position of the telescope, by reason of the sun 

passing in a direction that will carry it across 

the field of the telescope during the time taken 

in the reversal and second setting. Differential 

refraction is therefore eliminated ; it is desirable that the corresponding angles in the direct 

and reversed positions of the telescope be about 

the same rather than as far apart as would 

result in any other observing plan. 

The most suitable hour for this observation 

is when the sun is moving rapidly in altitude. 

When the sun has been brought into about the 

proper position in the field of the telescope, the 

observer by horizontal tangent motion on the 

plates keeps the vertical wire tangent to the 

sun’s right or left limb while the upper or lower 

limb of the sun by the direction of its motion 

gradually approaches the horizontal wire; at 

the moment of proper tangency of the two limbs 

to the two wires the observation is completed 

by calling “time,” stopping all motion until the 

angles are recorded. It is very helpful for an 

assistant to read the time and to enter all 

records. 

The data for each altitude observation, resolved to the sun’s center, are obtained with 

minimum involvement through the steps that 

have been outlined in the observing plan described above. This is recommended until skill 

in the technique of the observing has been 

acquired. After that has been accomplished, the 

period that is required for the observing may 

be shortened by arranging the recording on the 

plan show below, the six sightings to be reduced 

as one observation. The check against chance 

error in the readings is secured through comparing the means A-B-C that are indicated, 

which should be about the same numerically 
METHODS OF SURVEY 41 

This order, A. M. 

P Tel. 

1 Dir. Upper-right . 

6 Rev. Lower-left ............................ 

This order, P. M. 

I Watch Hor. Ang. Vert. Ane. 

time ~~~ ~ ~ ~ 

Lower-right 

Upper-left 

2 Dir. Upper-right .......................... 

6 RRV. Lower-left ... 

Mean *._ A A A 

Lower-right ... 

Upper-left ...... 

3 Dir. Upper-right 

4 Rev. Lower-left 

Mean . B B B 

Lower-right ............................................ 

Upper-left .... 

Mean C C (3 

Mean of all ................ A-B-C A-B-C A-B-C 

provided the time spacing is nearly uniform 

from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 4 to 5, and 5 to 6. Any large 

discrepancy in the means will indicate a misreading at some point. If the means are slightly 

irregular, the differences from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 

4 to 5, and 5 to 6, which should be proportional, 

may be checked by slide rule method. 

An equivalent observing plan, thought by 

many surveyors to be a simpler tangent-motion 

manipulation, may be substituted if desired, as 

follows : 

A.M. 

Direct: Approximate first setting: 

Follow with vertical tangent motion: 

4 

-P 

d- 

+ 

+ 

dApproximate first setting. 

Follow with horizontal tangent motion. 

P. M. 

Reversed: ,/ 

Direct: Approximate first setting: 

Follow with vertical tangent motion: 

Approximote first setting, 

Follow wlth horizontal tangent motton: 

Reversed: 

2-63. Example of direct altitude observation of the sun for azimuth and time, sun north 

declination : 

The altitude observations are made of the 

sun, each with the telescope in direct and reversed positions, observing opposite limbs of 

the sun. The horizontal angle is read from a flag 

on line to the east, southward to the sun. The 

known position of the instrument station is in 

latitude 41’22’40” N., and longitude 111°46’40” 

W. Observation is begun at 9:15 a.m., 1. m. t., 

with watch set to approximate local mean time. 

The declination of the sun for the mean period 

of the three observations is 17”09’30” N. 

The following reductions are made to obtain 

the true vertical angles of the above observations : 
42 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

~ 

vertical ans,e Horizontal angle. Observation Telescope Sun Watch time flag to sun 

1st set . 

!&I set .......... - 

3d set ........... 

Direct $- 9" 15" 05" 46" 34' 00" 21" OW 00" 

Reversed p 9 15 59 46 10 00 20 29 00 

Mean 9" 15" 32* 46" 2% 00" 20" 44' 30" 

Direct .......................... $- 9" 17" 02" 46" 54' 00" 21" 28' 00" 

.......... 

Reversed .................... p 9 17 36 46 26 00 20 49 00 

Mean . gh 17" 19" 46" 40' 00" 21" 08' 30" 

Direct . $- 9" 18" 41" 47" 12' 00" 21" 52' 00'' 

Reversed .................... p 9 19 2#0 46 45 00 21 16 00 

Mean .. 9" 19" OO* 46" 58' 30" 21" 34' 00" 

By 1st obsn. flag bears ........................ N. 89'59'10'' E. 

By 2nd obsn. flag bears ....................... N. 89 59 23 E. 

By 3rd obsn. flag bears ............ N. 89 59 08 E. 

Mean true bearing of flag ................ N. 89'59'14'' E. 

Watch slow of 1. m. t., 1st obsn. = 25" 

2nd " .......... = 20 

3rd 'I ......... = 25 

Mean watch time slow of 1. m. t. ....... = 23" 

i' I( Ii iI 

I( I( Ii I' 

I 

1st obsn. 2nd obsn. 3rd obsn. 

'u ........................................ 46"22'00" 46" 40'00" 46" 58'30" 

Refraction ....................................................................................... -65" -55" - 54" 

Parallax_ ............................................... ............................... + 06" +06" $06'' 

h 46'21'11'' 46 " 39'11" 46 "57'42" 

The reductions by formula for azimuth and 

time are usually made by use of natural functions and calculators. Logarithms have been employed here as a sometimes useful substitute 

method. 

The following examples of reduction are all 

by the equation: 

COB A= Sin * - tan 4 tan h 

cos 4 cos h 

1st set: 

log cos @ 9.875274 

log cos h 9.838983 

log 9.714257 

log sin S 9.469842 

log 9.714257 

log tan $ 9.944941 

log tan h 0.020520 

log 9.965461 

log 9.755585 

natf .56962 

nat- .92365 

natf .56962 

COS A- .36393 

True bearing of sun S.69"16'20" E. 

Angle, flag to sun +20"44'30" 

S.9O00O'60" E. 

True bearing of flag N.89'59'10" E. 
2d set: 

log cos $ 9.876274 

log cos h 9.836686 

log 9.711860 

3d set: 

log cos $ 9.876274 

log cos h 9.834096 

METHODS OF SURVEY 

log sin S 9.469842 

log 9.711860 

log 9.767982 

nat+ 57277 

log sin 6 9.469842 

48 

log tan $ 9.944941 

log tan h 0.025074 

log 9.970015 

nat- .93328 

nat+ 57277 

Cos A .36061 

True bearing of sun S.68”62’07” E. 

Angle, flag to sun +21”08’30” 

S.90°00’37” E. 

True bearing of flag N.89”69’23” E. 

log tan qj 9.944941 

log tan h 0.029762 

log 9.709369 log 9.709369 

log 9.760473 

nat+ 57607 

log 9.974703 

nat- .94342 

nat+ .67607 

COS A- .36736 

True bearing of sun S.68’26’62” E. 

Angle, flag to sun +21”34‘00” 

S.90”00’62” E. 

True bearing of flag N.89’69’08” E. 

The above observations are reduced for time by the equation: 

sin - tan 4 tan s 

cos dl cos 6 cos t= 

1st obsn. : 

log cos qj = 9.876274 

log cos S = 9.980228 

log sin h = 9.869603 

9.865602 9.856602 

log = 0.004001 

nat (+) = 1.00925 

.27199 

COS t = .73726 

t = 42”30’05” = 2”50m006 .......... = 9”lO”OO” a.m. 

Equation of time .......................... = +5 57 

2d obsn: 

L.m.t. of observation .................... = 9”16”57* a. m. 

Watch time of observation ........ = 9 15 32 a. m. 

Watch slow of 1.m.t. .......... = - 

2€i6 

log sin h = 9.861660 

log cos $ cos S = 9.866602 

log = 0.006168 

nat (+) = 1.01428 

nat tan qj tan 6 (-) = .27199 

cos t = .74229 

t = 42”04’23” = 2”48”W .......... = 9h11m42s a.m. 

Equation of time .......................... = +6 67 

L.m.t. of observation ............... = 9”17“39” a. m. 

Watch time of observation ........ = 9 17 19 a.m. 

logtan$ = 9.944941 

log tan S = 9.489614 

log = 9.434466 

nat(-) = .27199 

Watch slow of 1.m.t. .................... = 2OS 

- ~ 
44 

3d obsn: 

MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

log sin h 

log cos $4 cos 6 

log 

nat (+I 

nat tan + tan 6 (-) 

cos t 

t = 41'3'7'54" = 846"32# _.......__ 

Equation of time ..................._-...-- 

= 9.863866 

= 9.856502 

= 0.008354 

= 1.01942 

= .27199 

= .74743 

= 9"13"28" a. m. 

= +6 67 

L.m.t. of observation .......... ~~ ___..... = 9hlP'25' a. m. 

Watch time of observation __..__._ = 9 19 00 a.m. 

Watch slow of local mean time .... = 25# 

The Solar Circle 

2-64. The design of the reticle of the transit 

telescope to include a circle that is equal to the 

image of the sun's diameter adds a desirable 

improvement to the technique of the altitude 

observation for azimuth. There are two advantages, first, all sightings for vertical angle and 

horizontal angle read to the sun's center; second, the manipulation of the vertical and horizontal tangent-motions to the position of concentric fitting of the circle to the sun's image 

may be accomplished with utmost certainty 

that the values for the vertical and horizontal 

angles are exactly simultaneous. Any single 

sighting may be reduced separately, if desired ; 

or, in the event of a suspected misreading of an 

angle, the differences between the several sightings, in travel time, vertical angle, and horizontal angle, which should be proportional, 

may be quickly checked to make certain 

which reading, if any, shows a discrepancy 

in excess of what should be expected in good 

observing. 

The solar circle has a radius of 15'45"; this 

is spaced for the sun's semidiameter on July 1, 

which is the approximate minimum for the year. 

The design of the reticle provides for stadia 

observations by using both the vertical and 

horizontal rod, on the ratio of 1:132. 

The double cross wires in the left and in the 

lower halves (direct position of the telescope) 

are spaced at 40"; this is to improve the daylight stellar observation. The double lines avoid 

the covering of the star by the cross wire 

(which may easily obscure the star). The centering and the manipulation of the tangent motions is indicated in the following diagrams : 

Direct Reversed 

Follow star with vertical 

tangent motion. 

Both tangent motions required. Center in 

one position, and back up to follow star 

while bringing to center in the second 

position. 

Follow star with horizontal tangent motion Follow star wiih vertical 

tangent motion. 

FIGURE 9.-Tangent motion in daylight stellar observation. 

Example of notation in direct altitude observation of the sun for azimuth, using a 

transit equipped with the solar circle : 
METHODS OF SURVEY 45 

Obaw- Apparent Vertical vation T~WWP~ time angle 

Direct 8h13m25" 39"57'00" 

Direct . 40"02'00" 

Direct 40"07'00" 

4-...--..-... Reversed .. .. 40"20'30" 

Reversed ... 40'25'30" 

6. Reversed ...... 8 16 25 40'32!00'' 

Horizontal 

angle from 

reference 

to sun 

34"38'00" 

34'33'00'' 

34"29'00" 

34"18'00" 

34'14'00" 

34'09'00" 

Mean . 8h14m56s 

Equal Altitude Observations of the Sun 

for Meridian 

2-65. The true meridian may be established 

by the method of equal altitude observations of 

the sun. The observation is not well adapted to 

line work, but it possesses a certain usefulness 

in camp, in that the surveyor may thus determine the true meridian by the sun with mere 

approximations as to time and latitude. 

The fixation of the true meridian by this 

method depends upon the theory that the sun's 

center at equal altitudes occupies symmetrical 

positions in azimuth east and west of the meridian in the morning and in the afternoon except 

for the correction necessary to be applied due 

to the change in the sun's declination in the 

interval between the a.m. and p.m. observations. 

The formula for this correction appears in the 

Standard Field Tables. 

The symmetry of the equal altitude observation is maintained by observing opposite limbs 

in azimuth in the a.m. and p.m. observations, 

in connection with the same limb in vertical 

angle in both observations. 

The Solar Transit 

2-66. Beginning with the Burt solar compass in 1836, a number of instruments have 

been designed to solve mechanically the polezenith-sun celestial triangle by means of an 

attached solar unit. Because such instruments 

can be oriented rapidly without reference to a 

backsight or a new direct observation, they 

are suited to surveying through timber, dense 

undergrowth, and mountainous terrain. The 

modern solar transit is fully equipped for making the necessary stellar and solar observations 

by direct means as well. A standard model of 

the solar transit is shown in Plate No. 1. 

Standard model of the solar transit. 

The solar unit is in fact a second instrument, 

operating in its own right independently. Latitude and declination arcs remain clamped and 

set to their proper values. The polar axis conforms with the line of collimation of the solar 

telescope. The mounting is designed to bring 

the vertical plane of the polar axis into parallel 

with the vertical plane of the transit. 

When oriented, the vertical plane of the polar 

axis is in the plane of the great circle of the 

meridian. When turned in hour angle at the 

moment of an observation, the plane normal to 

the axis of the reflector is in the plane of the 
46 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

great circle that passes through the pole and 

the sun. The sun’s hour angle at that moment is 

the angle measured along the plane of the Equator, intercepted between the plane of the meridian and the plane of the great circle that 

passes through the pole and the sun. This angle 

reads “apparent time” on the hour circle of the 

solar unit. 

The vertical angle inclination of the polar axis 

equals the latitude of the station; this angle is 

set on the latitude arc. The angle on the plane 

of the great circle that passes through the pole 

and the sun, counting between them equals 90” 

minus the sun’s north declination, or 90” plus 

the sun’s south declination, corrected by an 

increment equivalent to the refraction in polar 

distance. The settings for this angle are computed for each day in advance; it is set on the 

declination arc to agree with the apparent time 

of observation. The correct position of the sun’s 

zenith distance measured on the vertical plane 

of the great circle that passes through the sun 

is secured by the careful leveling of the transit. 

After setup and careful leveling, the solar 

transit may be instrumentally oriented by an 

experienced surveyor in less than two minutes. 

The accuracy or acceptable “tolerance” is equal 

to that of any single, unverified, average direct 

altitude observation on the sun. 

In line running, through timber and undergrowth, there may be 20, 30, or more setups 

to the mile, each by solar orientation without 

cutting or opening the line to secure an exact 

backsight. In this practice, the net result for 

the mile is the mean of the whole number of the 

observations, in which many of the smaller differences are compensated, and in which the azimuth of the line between the monuments should 

normally be brought well inside of the tolerance 

of 1‘ 30”. 

What is more, each azimuth determination 

gives the angular value referred to the true 

north at that station. This of course is the only 

method by which a true parallel of latitude can 

be run by instrumental orientation. The determinations of the true parallel by the “tangent” 

or “secant” method require the careful running 

of a “back-and-foresight” line with measured 

offsets. 

Use of the solar unit avoids the cumulative 

error normally encountered in long “back-andforesight” lines and in traverse lines where 

there are many turns. A traverse line may be 

run by occupying each alternate station, cutting 

in half the time required for the instrumental 

work. Heavy winds or insecure ground, windfalls, timber, undergrowth, and obstructions 

that require offset are not in themselves any 

preventative to rapid and accurate solar orientation. 

2-67. The instrumental orientation of the 

solar unit is made possible through five elements 

in the construction, as follows: 

(1) A telescope whose line of collimation is 

the polar axis ; the polar axis corresponds to an 

element of the more elaborate observatory 

“equatorial instrument mounting,” which is 

designed for the telescope to follow a star’s 

travel in diurnal circle. The solar telescope is 

mounted in collar bearings whose bases are attached to a vertical limb; the telescope may be 

revolved or turned 12 hours in hour angle. 

(2) The vertical limb is an arc that is graduated to read in latitude; a vernier mounted on 

the base frame gives the reading in latitude; 

the center of the limb is called the latitude axis, 

and is horizontal. 

(3) A reflector at the objective end of the 

telescope picks up the light rays of the sun; its 

axis is normal to the line of collimation. An 

arm controls the angle of the reflector in the 

plane of the great circle that passes through the 

pole and the sun ; a vernier on the arm gives the 

reading on a graduated declination arc. 

(4) A small graduated circle on the telescope, 

normal to the line of collimation, reads in hour 

angle from 6 a.m., 7, 8, up to 12, and 1, 2, 3, up 

to 6 p.m. ; this reads directly in apparent time. 

(5) The plan of the reticle includes three 

“equatorial wires” that are set parallel to the 

axis of the reflector. One is in the line of collimation, the others parallel, spaced at 15’ 45” to 

conform with the sun’s July 1 diameter (the 

smallest for the year). A fourth cross wire, 

normal to the others, passes through the line of 

collimation, indicating the center of the field 

in time. 

___ 
METHODS OF SURVEY 47 

Not oriented Oriented 

When turning the transit The travel of the sun's 

in horizontal angle, the image is along the path of 

image of the sun cuts the equatorial wires. 

across the equatorial wires. 

Orientation of Sun's Image on Reticle 

The frame of the solar unit is attached to 

one standard of the transit, controlled in position by three foot posts. This is the standard on 

the east when the transit is oriented in the 

meridian. The vertical plane of the polar axis 

may be adjusted to true parallel with the vertical plane of the transit telescope. By first setting the plate reading at zero, when preparing 

to orient, all horizontal angles will count from 

the meridian. 

When oriented, and turned in hour angle to 

agree with the apparent time, the image of the 

sun will travel across the field of the solar telescope along the path of the equatorial wires. If 

the transit is turned away from the meridian to 

the right or to the left, the sun's image will cut 

across the equatorial wires. Thus to bring the 

solar unit into proper orientation, all that is 

needed is to see that the image of the sun is centered anywhere along the length of the equatorial wires. This centering is done with the 

lower tangent motion, the plates clamped at 

zero. 

On the declination arc, an actual arc or segment of 5" is graduated for reading 10" ; this is 

because a movement of 5" in the reflector position makes an angle of 10" between the light 

rays of incidence and those reflected. At zero 

declination the plane of the reflector is at 45" 

to the line of collimation. The declination arc is 

graduated north and south from zero for the 

range of the sun's position during the year. 

One important element of the mounting is 

that the three points of control at the foot posts 

are placed to form a right-angle, one side of 

which is vertical, the other horizontal. In adjustment, the foot post at the 90" angle remains 

fixed. One of the foot posts controls the position of the latitude axis in horizontal. One foot 

post controls the direction of pointing of the 

line of collimation when in horizontal sighting, 

to bring that into parallel with the vertical 

plane of the transit. The foot-post controls are 

secured with capstan or hexagon nuts. 

At one end of the frame that supports the 

collar bearings, there is a mechanism (corresponding to that of a telescope level) for adjusting the polar axis so that it is normal to the 

latitude axis. This is needed when the solar 

telescope is changed in latitude setting. 

2-68. With the transit and solar unit in 

satisfactory adjustment, the simple steps in 

solar orientation at any setup are these: carefully level, with the solar unit on the west; 

reverse the instrument and correct half of any 

discrepancy in the centering of the plate bubbles ; set the plates at zero ; set the latitude and 

declination, or check the previous setting ; turn 

the solar telescope to the reading in approximate apparent time; move the whole instrument in horizontal angle for position near the 

meridian, at this time bringing the sun's image 

into the field of the solar telescope, then tighten 

the lower clamp ; use the lower tangent motion 

for final orientation, in which step the sun's 

image should be centered on the equatorial 

wires. 

The solar transit is equipped for making any 

type of stellar or solar observation that may be 

employed profitably in land surveying practice 

as adapted to the one-minute transit. Tbis calls 

for accuracy to a tolerance of +15" in the direction of lines, where that may be required. This 

accuracy is greater than that called for by the 

precision of distance measurement unless the 

character of the survey is such as to justify 

the greatly increased cost of exactness in measurement. 

The use of the solar unit may be almost continuous as when running the line through timber or tall undergrowth, or it may be more or 

less incidental as when running in an open country. It is important, too, in the open country, 

and on almost any type of survey, to have the 

use of the solar unit in making the start in the 

line running or observing. Even on the work 

that requires the greatest refinement in the important lines, there are many off-line stations to 

be occupied for collateral data, mapping, or tra- 
48 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

versing, where the direction from true north 

should be employed. 

For these reasons, the preparation of each 

day's work requires that the data shall be at 

hand, in the field tablet, for the sun's declination for the day, reading for value in the apparent time of the local meridian, and to which 

has been applied the correct refractions in polar 

distance for that position of the sun and that 

latitude. Additionally, the true latitude and 

the instrumental latitude should be known. 

Proper accuracy in solar orientation becomes 

attainable as soon as the sun is high enough to 

reduce the refraction correction to not over 

4' or 5', and continuing until 10:30 a.m. or a 

little later with care and suitable checks; a corresponding period applies in the afternoon. 

Thus from 10 :30 a.m. to 1 :301 p.m., or for about 

that period, the line running should be by 

back-and-foresight. If the sun becomes obscured, the usual transit methods are employed. 

In stopping for the day, an azimuth mark 

should be set for use the next morning. 

2-69. Computing Hourly Declinations of 

the Sun. 

For use with the solar unit, hourly declinations of the sun for each date may be prepared 

in tabular or graphic form, the graphic form 

being most advantageous. 

Example of a table of hourly declinations 

of the sun, combined with refraction in polar 

distance, for March 14, 1972, at station in 

latitude 33'10' N., longitude 116'45' W. (7h47m) : 

Declination of the sun at Greenwich 

Difference in time from Greenwich 

apparent noon, March 14, 1972.- ......... 2O22'30.8'' S. 

apparent noon to 7 a.m., app. time, 

longitude 116"46' W. 

For longitude ................ = 7'47" 

For time, a.m., 

12' - 7"00m ................ - -5 00 

2.78'= 2'47" 

Hourly difference in 

declination . ..... = 69.21" 

Difference in declination from Greenwich apparent noon to 7 a.m., app. 

time, longitude 116'45' W., 

2.78 x 69.21 = 164.6" ................. = 2'44.6" N. 

Declination of the sun, 7 a.m., app. time = 2'19'46.2'' S. 

Apparent True time declination Refraction 

7 a.m. ............ 

7% ~ 

8 .................... 

9 . 

10 ......... 

11 a.m. 

Noon ............ 

1 p.m. ...... 

2 

3 . 

4: . 

4% __._..-..I... 

6 p.m. 

2'19'46''s. 

2 1917 

2 1847 

2 1748 

2 1649 

2 1649 

2 1460 

2 1351 

2 1262 

2 1163 

2 1063 

2 1024 

2 0964 

2'39" N. 

1 47 

121 

0 67 

0 47 

044 

0 41 

0 44 

0 47 

0 67 

121 

1 47 

2 39 

Declination 

setting 

2'17'07"s. 

2 1730 

2 1726 

2 1661 

2 1602 

2 1606 

2 1409 

2 1307 

2 1206 

2 1066 

2 0932 

2 0837 

2 0716 

Example of a table of hourly declinations of 

the sun, combined with refraction in polar distance, for August 11, 1972, at a station in 

latitude 47'10' N., longitude 111'00' W. (7h24m). 

Declination of the sun at Greenwich 

Difference in time from Greenwich 

apparent noon, August 11, 1972 ...... 

apparent noon to 6 a.m., app. time, 

longitude 111"OO W. 

For longitude .......... = 7'24" 

For time, a.m., 

15"09'38.1" N. 

- 12' - 6'00m .......... - -6 00 

1.40"= lh24m 

Hourly difference in 

declination = -44.73" 

Difference in declination from Greenwich apparent noon to 6 a.m., app. 

time, longitude 111"OO' W., 

1.40 X 44.73 = 62.6" ............... = 1'02.6" S. 

Declination of the sun, 6 a.m., 

apparent time ...................................... = 15"08'35.5" N. 

Apparent True time declination Refractior~ - 

6 a.m. 15'08'36'' N. 3'28" 

6% ................ 16 08 13 2 21 

7 . ...........-....... 16 07 61 146 

8 _ 16 07 06 1 08 

9 L._...._.._..___. 16 06 21 0 6.1 

10 16 06 37 0 41 

11 a.m. _________. 16 04 62 0 38 

Noon 15 04 07 0 36 

1 p.m. 16 03 22 0 38 

2 . 16 02 38 0 41 

3 16 01 63 0 61 

4 ...............-... 15 01 08 108 

6 16 00 23 146 

5% ................ 15 00 01 2 21 

6 p.m. 14 69 39 3 28 

Declination 

setting 

16" 12'03" N. 

16 1034 

16 0936 

16 0814 

16 0712 

16 0618 

16 0630, 

16 0443 

16 0400 

16 0319 

16 0244 

16 0216 

16 0208 

16 0222 

16 0307 
METHODS OF SURVEY 49 

Examples of diagrams showing declinations 

of the sun for given dates, combined with refractions in polar distance, are given in figures 

10 and 11. The horizontal lines represent each 

hour of the day ; the vertical lines represent intervals of one minute in declination. It is converiient to use the right-hand side of the sheet 

to represent north, the left-hand side to represent south. North declinations increase numercially to the right-hand side of the sheet, 

south declinations to the left-hand side. The 

vertical lines are numbered to suit the range of 

declination for the date. 

The advantage of the diagram method is 

found in the avoidance of errors of computation and the ease with which it is checked, together with the fact that in the use of the diagram actual values are obtained at any time 

instead of by a linear interpretation. 

Two points are marked on the diagram to 

agree with the true declination of the sun; the 

first point is marked with the argument of 

declination agreeing with the declination of the 

sun taken from the Ephemeris for Greenwich 

apparent noon, with the argument of time 

agreeing with the apparent time at the longiA.M 4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

Noon 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

P.M. 6 

FIGURE 10.-Diagram of sun's declinations. 

Date, March 20, 1970. 

Station: Latitude 37'30' N. Longitude 112'30' W. (7'30m) 

Declination at Greenwich app. noon 

= O"12'39.3" S. 

Difference in declination for 10" = 592.5" = 9'52.5" N. 

Declination at 2'30" p.m., app. time = 0'02'46.8" S. 

(4h30" a.m., app. time) 

tude of the station, corresponding to Greenwich 

noon ; the second point is marked agreeing with 

the proper declination and time 10 hours later. 

The straight line determined by the two points 

agrees with the sun's true declination for the 

apparent time at the longitude of the station. 

The proper refractions in polar distance are 

then scaled from the straight line to the N. 

for each tabulated refraction, a. m. and p. m., 

taken from table 23, Standard Field Tables, 

appropriate to the latitude of the station, and 

declination of the sun. The latter points are 

then connected to form a smooth curve representing the declinations of the sun, corrected 

for refraction in polar distance, for use with 

the solar unit. The scale of the refractions must 

equal the scale of the intervals of 1' in declination ; the refractions are laid off along or parallel to the horizontal lines, and not normal to the 

line of true declination. At any time throughout 

the day the proper declination for use with the 

solar unit is obtained by reference to the curve 

at the point corresponding to the time of observation. To obtain any true value of the sun's 

declination for use in the reduction of altitude 

observations reference may be made to the 

0 

v)o P- W tn U r0 N --$ N r0 0 ~3 W P- f AM 4 

5 

6 

7 

6 

9 

10 

II 

Noon 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

PM 6 

FIGURE 11.-Diagram of sun's declinations. 

Date, September 23, 1971. 

Station: Latitude 47'30' N. Longitude 94"30' W. (6'1P) 

Declination at Greenwich app. noon 

Difference in declination for 10" = 584.1" = 

Declination at 3h42m p.m., app. time 

(5'42" a.m., app. time) = O"04'44.0" N. 

9'44.1" S. 

= Oo05'O0.1" S. 
50 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

straight line of true declination at the point corresponding to the time of observation. 

Apparent Time from the Solar Unit 

2-70. The solar unit of the solar transit has 

a graduated hour circle mounted normal to the 

polar axis. The readings are indicated at intervals of 10 minutes from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., apparent time; the readings may be estimated 

to about 21 or 2 minutes. This accuracy is 

sufficient for taking out the sun's declinations, 

which are calculated in terms of apparent time. 

It can be an approximate check upon the altitude and meridian observations on the sun for 

apparent time. 

By applying the equation of time to the 

reading of the hour circle, the watch may be 

set to approximate local mean time, with the 

tolerance indicated above. This will be accurate 

enough for the finding positions for the stellar 

observations. It is also sufficiently accurate for 

the observations on Polaris for azimuth at 

elongation or latitude at culmination. 

An exact method for time determination 

should be followed for the watch correction in 

local mean time necessary for hour angle observations on Polaris. 

Checks of the Solar Unit 

2-71. The following checks of the solar unit 

are all that are ordinarily required at the beginning of a survey : 

(1) The reading of the latitudinal vernier 

with the solar telescope in true horizontal position. 

(2) The reading of the latitude arc at noon 

with the solar telescope oriented on the meridian and the correct declination setting. This is 

the "instrumental latitude." 

(3) The reading of the declination vernier 

when set in true zero declination, 15" north 

declination, and 15" south declination. 

(4) The check for parallelism when the solar 

telescope is set and clamped in the latitude of 

the station. 

(5) The checks for orientation when compared with a true meridian. 

The solar unit should be checked on a true 

meridian at least weekly in normal use and 

whenever it has been subject to unusually hard 

bumps or jars. 

2-72. Reference should be made to the 

maker's bulletin or a surveying textbook for 

care and adjustment of the transit. The adjustments of the solar unit are described in appendix I. 

Errors in Azimuth, Due to Small Errors 

in Declination or Latitude 

2-73. It may frequently happen with a solar 

transit, especially at the beginning of a survey 

or with an instrument insufficiently tested, that 

the first meridional trials are made with slight 

errors in the settings of the latitude and declimation arcs, resulting in small errors in azimuth. 

This may be particularly true prior to a determination of the instrumental latitude. The discrepancies in azimuth due to such errors have 

been tabulated in the Standard Field Tables, 

which may be applied to results of single observations with considerable certainty. The corrections are not applicable to a series of observations as in ordinary line work owing to the 

changing values (for hours from noon) of the 

correction coefficients. The explanation with 

the table gives a key to the direction of the azimuth errors on account of small incorrect 

values in setting the latitude and declination 

arcs. 

For example, at gh40rn a.m., app. t., at a station in latitude assumed to be 46" 20' N., a test 

was made with a solar transit whereby the trial 

indication was found to be S. 0" 05' W., or 0" 05' 

west of the true meridian. Subsequent determinations of the true latitude of the station 

and of the correctness of the vernier of the 

declination arc showed that the actual latitude 

of the station was 46" 21'.5 N., and that the 

vernier of the declination arc had an index error 

which gave readings 0" 00'.5 S. of the calculated declination (i.e. reading 15" 19'.5 N. for a 

calculated declination of 15" 20' N.) Thus in the 

test the latitude arc was set 1'.5 S. of the correct latitude of the station, and the declination arc was actually set 0'.5 N. of the value 

that would have been set had the index error 

been known. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 51 

By reference to the Standard Field Tables : 

Hours from noon 

3hOm Latitude 

260m 2h20m 

46" 00' 2.83 2.66 2.00 

46 21.6 2.62 ...... Declination coefficient. 

60 00 3.11 2.81 2.20 

46 00 2.46 2.10 1.41 

46 21.5 2.16 Latitude coefficient. 

50 00 2.69 2.31 1.66 

The corrections are then applied as follows: 

Indication of solar in test .......... = S. 0" 0V.O W. 

Correction for declination .......... = 01 .3 E. = (2.62 x 0.6) 

Correction for latitude = 0 03 .2 E. = (2.16 X 1.6) 

0 

Corrected indication of solar ............... = S. 0" 00'5 W. 

The above ,corrections will often serve to explain the apparent errors of the solar transit, 

but are not intended for use in line work, and 

cannot be accepted in lieu of subsequent tests 

based on correct values. 

THE GEODESY OF LARGE-SCALE 

CADASTRAL SURVEYS 

Transfer of Azimuth, Station Error, 

and Curvature 

2-74. When carrying forward the direction 

of lines through intermediate transit stations 

by the method of fore-and-back sights and deflection angles, two corrections become important where the purpose is to maintain accuracy. First, each station setup involves uncertainty in the maintenance of the direction of a 

line, or in the value of the angle that may be 

turned, called "station error." Second, if the 

line is other than a meridian, its direction will 

have an increment of curvature; this is applied 

in order to convert from the forward azimuth 

to the back azimuth of that same line at the 

next station. 

As solar transit orientation is designed to 

give the meridian at each station, thereby avoiding cumulative errors of conventional transit 

methods, the corrections for station error and 

curvature do not enter into the ordinary solar 

transit directions. However, for the purpose of 

a comparison of the solar transit direction of 

the chord of a long line, half the value of the 

convergency of the meridians of the two end 

stations is applied. 

For example, a parallel of latitude as run by 

solar transit methods is a true latitudinal curve, 

i. e.-a small circle of the earth, everywhere 

due east or west. The transit line or chord between any two distant points of the parallel is 

a great circle, whose mean azimuth, or bearing 

at midpoint, is due east and west. At one end 

of the chord the forward azimuth is always 

northeasterly (or northwesterly) ; at the opposite end, the back azimuth will be northwesterly (or northeasterly). At the end stations of the chord, the difference between the 

forward (or back) azimuth and due east or 

west, will be equal to half the value of the curvature counting from the two end stations. At 

the end stations of the chord, the difference 

between the forward azimuth and the back 

azimuth +180° will be the full value of the 

convergency of the meridians of the two end 

stations. 

By basic law, and the Manual requirements, 

the directions of all lines are stated in terms of 

angular measure referred to the true north (or 

south) at the point of record. Therefore, after 

carrying a transit line forward a considerable 

distance through a number of intermediate stations, it is necessary to solve the problem of 

the change from the starting direction to that 

at the last station. The back azimuth at the last 

station +180° should equal the starting direction, plus or minus the algebraic sum of the 

deflection angles, plus or minus the value of the 
52 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

convergency of the meridians from the two end 

stations. The discrepancy will be the accumulated error in the transit operations. 

To determine this discrepancy, the first step 

is to make dependable azimuth observations at 

the two end stations ; then compare the values, 

allowing for the convergency of the meridians 

of the end stations. The difference that remains 

is the cumulative error. The latter value, in 

terms of seconds, may be divided by the number of the intermediate stations; the quotient 

is the cumulative error per station, or just 

"station error." The latter should be distributed 

according to the number of the intermediate 

stations. 

The total curvature, or correction for convergency is an element of the departure between 

the end stations, and of the mean latitude. It is 

tabulated in the Standard Field Tables, for the 

value in angular measure for a departure of six 

miles, or 480 chains, for each degree of latitude. 

It is often convenient to convert the curvature 

to a value for a departure of 100 chains, for 

proportional reduction to other distances. The 

whole convergency should be distributed in 

proportion to the departure of each course. 

A transit line running easterly will curve to 

the right in bearing angle, thus increasing a 

northeasterly bearing, or decreasing a southeasterly bearing. A transit line running westerly will curve to the left in bearing angle, thus 

increasing a northwesterly bearing, or decreasing a southwesterly bearing. 

When computing latitudes and departures, 

and transferring a geographic position by 

means of a long connecting line, the mean aximuth should be employed for the direction of 

the line, i.e.-the mean between the forward 

azimuth and the back azimuth +180". That 

azimuth or bearing angle will be the direction 

of the chord of the great circle that passes 

through the ends of the connecting line. 

Where the transfer of azimuth is by triangulation, a check is secured by the closure of 

each triangle, and the reductions of the lengths 

of the lines. 

The angles employed for the calculations of 

the lengths of lines will be the differences in the 

directions between the two forward azimuths 

at each station. 

The sum of the three angles should close to 

180" within the allowable tolerance. 

The mean course of any side (actually the 

mean bearing of the chord) will be the mean 

between the forward and the back azimuth 

t180" of that line. 

The correction for curvature of the longest 

line in easting or westing in any triangle should 

equal the sum of the corrections for curvature 

of the other two sides. 

As a check on the lengths of lines, the latitude 

of the longest line in any triangle should equal 

the sum of the latitudes of the other two sides. 

The distances in departure must be reduced 

first to the mean position in latitude of each side. 

A check is secured by reducing each departure 

to a common position in latitude. In this reduction, the amount to be added to or subtracted 

from each departure is equal to the amount of 

the distance along the meridian between the 

two latitudinal lines at the transfer, multiplied 

by the tangent of the angle of convergency. 

After reducing to a common latitude, the 

departure of the longest line in easting or westing in any triangle should equal the sum of the 

departures of the other two. 

r---- 

I 

I 

LAT 34°09!59870" 

30" LONG 9E050'30 797" 50" 

1 

I 

I 

I 

54"5920" I 

I 

I 40°22'20" 

84*38'oO" I 

I 

I 

I 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

I lso~oo'oo" I 

FIGURE 12.-Curvature of lines of a large triangle. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 53 

The one-minute transit, carefully handled, is 

capable of holding the station error to under 

10” per station, or even to about half that 

amount if the nature of the survey requires a 

very high degree of accuracy, and there is 

justification for the consequent needed increase 

in care. 

Where the survey is made with the oneminute transit, it is inappropriate to represent 

the computed result of an observation closer 

than 30“’, 15”, or lo”, according to the strength 

of the observation. 

A tolerance of lo-” in the direction of a line 

calls for a measurement that is good to within 

1 :20,000 ; 15”, to within 1 :13,333 ; 30”, to within 1:6,667; 1‘ 00”‘, to within 1:3,333; 1‘ 30” 

(the Manual tolerance for solar transit orientation) to within 1:2,300. This comparison will 

emphasize the point that in land-surveying 

practice, and particularly in the subdivision of 

large areas as in the rectangular survey of the 

public lands, more stress should be placed on 

accuracy of distance measurement if those 

values are to be as good as the values required 

in the direction of lines. 

The True Parallel of Latitude 

2-75. The base lines and standard parallels 

of the rectangular system are established on 

the true parallel of latitude; the random latitudinal township boundary lines are also projected on the same curve; this curve is defined 

by a plane at right angles to the earth’s polar 

axis cutting the earth’s surface on a small 

circle. At every point on the true parallel the 

curve bears due east and west, the direction of 

the line being at right angles to the meridian at 

every point along the line. Two points at a 

distance of 20 chains apart on the same parallel 

of latitude may be said to define the direction 

of the curve at either point, without appreciable error, but the projection of a line so defined in either direction, easterly or westerly, 

would describe a great circle of the earth 

gradually departing southerly from the true 

parallel. The great circle tangent to the parallel 

at any origin or reference point along the 

parallel is known as the “tangent to the parallel,” and it is coincident with the true latitude 

curve only at the point of origin. The rate of 

the change of the azimuth of the tangent is a 

function of the latitude on the earth’s surface. 

The azimuth of the tangent varies directly as 

the distance from the origin, and the offset 

distance from the tangent to the parallel varies 

as the square of the distance from the point 

of tangency. A great circle connecting two 

distant points on the same latitude curve has 

the same angle with the meridian at both points 

and the azimuth of such a line at the two 

points of intersection is a function of one-half 

the distance between the points. 

There are three general methods of establishing a true parallel of latitude which may be 

employed independently to arrive at the same 

result: (1) the solar method, (2) the tangent 

method, and, (3) the secant method. 

Solar Method 

The solar instruments are capable of 

following the true parallel of latitude without 

substantial offsets. If such an instrument, in 

good adjustment, is employed, the true meridian may be determined by observation with 

the solar unit at each transit point. A turn of 

90” in either direction then defines the true 

parallel, and if sights are taken not longer 

than 20 to 40 chains distant, the line so established does not appreciably differ from the 

theoretical parallel of latitude. The locus of 

the resulting line is a succession of points each 

one at right angles to the true meridian at the 

previous station. There are periods each day, 

however, when solar observations are not practicable or the sun may be obscured. Moreover, 

the instrument available might not have a solar 

attachment or one in proper adjustment. In 

these circumstances reference must be made 

to a transit line from which to establish the true 

latitude curve by one of the alternative methods 

given below. 

2-76. 

Tangent Method 

2-77. The tangent method for determination of the true latitude curve consists in establishing the true meridian at the point of beginning, from which a horizontal deflection angle 

of 90” is turned to the east or west, as may be 

required ; the projection of the line thus deter- 
54 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

mined is called the tangent. The tangent is 

projected six miles in a straight line, and as 

the measurements are completed for each corner point, proper offsets are measured north 

from the tangent to the parallel, upon which 

line the corners are established. 

Azimuths of the tangent to the parallel, referred to the true south, are given in the Standard Field Tables. They are tabulated for any 

degree of latitude from 25" to 70" N., for the 

end of each mile from 1 to 6 miles. At the 

point of beginning the tangent bears east or 

west, but as the projection of the tangent is 

continued the deviation to the south increases 

in accordance with rules already stated. 

The Standard Field Tables show the various 

offsets from the tangent north to the parallel, 

tabulated for any degree of latitude from 25" 

to 70" N., for each half mile from 1/2 to 6 miles. 

Figure 13 illustrates the establishment of a 

standard parallel in latitude 45'34.5' N., by the 

tangent method. 

Objection to the use of the tangent method 

in a timbered country is found owing to the 

requirement that all blazing is to be made on 

the true surveyed lines. Also, all measurements 

to items of topography entered in the field 

notes are to be referred to the true established 

lines. These objections to the tangent method, 

on account of the increasing distance from the 

tangent to the parallel, are largely removed in 

the secant method. 

Secant Method 

2-78. The designated secant is a great circle 

which cuts any true parallel of latitude at the 

first and fifth mile corners, and is tangent to an 

imaginary latitude curve at the third mile 

point. From the point of beginning to the third 

mile corner the secant has a northeasterly or 

northwesterly bearing ; at the third mile corner the secant bears east or west; and from the 

third to the sixth mile corners the secant has 

a southeasterly or southwesterly bearing, respectively, depending upon the direction of pro1 

Icp 2 

Offset (in chains) = - sin b, where 

1 is taken from the table in section 2-79 for the latitude of the beginning point 

Itp 

m+ = distance from the beginning point in chains 

b = forward bearing at the beginning point 

FIGURE 13.-A tangent to the parallel. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 55 

32 ~asr 35 

N89*59l$ 33 240 

I20 160 200 280 320 360 

34 S89°591’E 

I4 14 00 440 480 

!from tM secont 

True Porallel 

0 40 80 

Chorns distant 

N 8P573’E N 80°58 2@ s 89058 2‘r S 89O573‘r 

Azimuths of EAST the secant 

FIGURE 14.-A secant of the parallel. 

jection, east or west. From the point of beginning to the first mile corner and from the fifth 

to the sixth mile corners the secant lies south 

of the true parallel, and from the first to the 

fifth mile corners the secant lies north of the 

true parallel. It will thus be seen that the secant 

method is a mere modification of the tangent 

method, so arranged that the minimum off sets 

can be made from the projected transit line to 

the established true parallel of latitude. 

The secant method of determination of the 

true latitude curve consists in establishing 

the true meridian at a point south of the beginning corner a measured distance taken from 

the table, from which meridian the proper horizontal deflection angle, as taken from the table, 

is turned to the northeast or northwest to define the secant. The secant is projected 6 miles 

in a straight line, and as the measurements are 

completed for each corner point, proper offsets are measured, north or south, from the 

secant to the parallel, upon which parallel the 

corners are established. 

The Standard Field Tables give the bearing 

angles or azimuths of the secant, referred to 

the true N. point for the first 3 miles, and the 

same symmetrical bearing angles or azimuths 

referred to the true S. point for the last 3 miles, 

tabulated for any degree of latitude from 25” 

to 70” N., for the end of each mile from 0 to 6 

miles. 

The Standard Field Tables show the various 

offsets from the secant to the parallel, tabulated 

for any degree of latitude from 25” to 70” N., 

for each half mile from 0 to 6 miles. 

Figure 14 illustrates the establishment of a 

standard parallel in latitude 45’34.5’ N. by the 

secant method. 

The secant method is recommended for its 

simplicity of execution and proximity to the 

true latitude curve, as all measurements and 

cutting by this method are substantially on the 

true parallel. 

Convergency of Meridians 

2-79. The linear amount of the convergency 

of two meridians is a function of their distance 

apart, of the length of the meridian between two 

reference parallels, of the latitude, and of the 

spheroidal form of the earth’s surface. 

The following equation is convenient for the 

analytical computation of the linear amount of 

the convergency on the parallel, of two meridians any distance apart, and any length. The 

correction for convergency in any closed figure 

is proportional to the area, and may be computed from an equivalent rectangular area: 

“mx” : Measurement along the parallel. rrm*9, . Measurement along the meridian. tca99 : Equatorial radius of the earth=3963.3 

miles. 

Factor of eccentricity, log ed.915 rcet, : 

2515. 

“dmx”: Linear amount of the convergency on 

the parallel, of two meridians distance apart “mx” and length “m+” 

along the meridian : “dmx” “mx” 

“m+” and “a” to be expressed in the 

same linear unit : 

Example of computation of the convergency 

of two meridians 24 miles long and 24 miles 

apart in a mean latitude of 43’20’: 
56 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS ~ 

nat 1 - 1.0000000 

log e = 8.915 2515 

= 8.915 2515 

'I sin 43" 20' = 9.836 477 

= 9.836 477 

Ii 'I 

I' " 'I 'I 

" e' sinZ+ = 7.503 457 

nat I' I' - 0.0031875 

" (1 - e'sina+) = 0.9968125 

1% '( I' " = 9.998 614 

" dl - e' sin'@ = 9.999 307 

'' tan 43" 20' = 9.974 720 

" 24 = 1.380 211 

= 1.380 211 

'( 80' = 1.903 090 

'I product = 4.637 539 

" 3963.3 = 3.598 057 

" dm, = 1.039 482 

- 

~ 

~ 

I1 I' 

nat '' 10.9517 chs. 

The above equation may be written dm, = 

1 a cot 4 

mh m+, where Rp = . The 

R I' 111 - e2 sin2 9 

computed linear convergence will be in the same 

unit as mx and m+. Values of __ for latitudes 25" to 75" are listed in the table below. 

1 

R I' 

Lat. 1/Ru 

25" .000001470 

26 .000001537 

27 .000001606 

28 .000001676 

29 .000001747 

30 .000001819 

31 .000001893 

32 .000001969 

33 .000002046 

34 .000002125 

35 .000002206 

36 .000002289 

37 .000002374 

38 .000002461 

39 .000002551 

40 .000002643 

41 .000002738 

Lat. 1/Rn Lat. 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

.000002836 

.000002937 

.000003041 

.000003149 

.000003260 

.000003376 

.000003496 

.000003621 

.000003751 

.000003887 

.000004028 

.000004176 

.000004331 

.000004494 

.000004665 

.000004845 

.000005035 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

.000005236 

.000005449 

.000005675 

.000005916 

.000006173 

.000006449 

.000006745 

.000007064 

.000007409 

.000007784 

.000008192 

.000008640 

.000009132 

.000009677 

.000010284 

.000010965 

.000011734 

Using the same values as in the previous 

example : 

dm = .000002971 x 1920 x 1920 = 10.952 

chains. 

The convergency, measured on the parallel, 

of two meridians 24 miles apart and 24 miles 

long, in a mean latitude of 43"20', is therefore 

found to 10.95 chains. The convergency of the 

east and west boundaries of a regular township 

in the same latitude would be equal to onesixteenth of the convergency of the east and 

west boundaries of the quadrangle as computed 

above, or 68.44 links, which agrees with the 

value taken from the Standard Field Tables. 

2-80. The Standard Field Tables list the 

linear amounts of the convergency of meridians, 

six miles long and six miles apart, for each degree of latitude from 25" to 70" N., together 

with the angle of convergency of the same 

meridians. These amounts of linear convergency 

are at once the proper corrections to apply to the 

north boundary of a regular township in the 

computation of the closing error around a township, or other computation by which a theoretical length of a north or south boundary of a 

township is compared with the length of the opposite boundary ; the tabulated linear amounts 

of convergency are equal to double the amounts 

of the offsets from a tangent to the parallel at 

six miles for the same latitudes. Simple interpolation may be made for any intermediate 

latitude, and the amount of the convergency for 

a fractional township or other figure may be 

taken in proportion to the tabulated convergency as the fractional area is to 36 square 

miles. 

The tabulated angle of convergency represents at once the deviation in azimuth of the 

tangent from the parallel at six miles; and %, 

?43, 1/2, 2h, and % of the tabulated angles of 

convergency represent at once the amounts of 

the correction in the bearing of meridional section lines to compensate for convergency within 

a township. 

In the same table are given the differences of 

longitude for six miles in both angular and time 

measure, also the differences of latitude for one 

or six miles, in angular measure, in the various 

tabulated latitudes. 

In the plan of subdivision of townships the 

meridional section lines are established parallel to the east boundary or other governing 

line. This necessitates a slight correction on 

account of the angular convergency of meridians. Meridional section lines west of the governing line are deflected to the left of the bearing of the governing line the amount shown in 

, 

2This factor is introduced here for the purpose of conversion from the unit 

expressed in miles to the unit expressed in chains. 
METHODS OF SURVEY 57 

the Standard Field Tables, which is entered 

under two arguments: (1) latitude, and (2) 

distance from the governing line. Meridional 

section lines east of a governing boundary are 

given the same amount of correction for bearing but the deflection is made to the right. 

Lengths of Arcs of the 

Earth’s Surface 

2-81. All computations involving a difference of latitude for a given measurement along 

a meridian or the converse calculation, or other 

computations involving a difference of longitude for a given measurement along a parallel 

or a similar converse calculation, are readily 

accomplished by use of the values given in the 

Standard Field Tables. The table gives the 

lengths in miles and decimal part of a mile of 

one degree of longitude measured on the parallel, and the lengths in miles of one degree of 

latitude measured on the meridian, for any 

latitude from 25” to 70” N. 

The tabulated values may be reduced to miles 

and chains, or to chains or feet, as convenient. 

In taking out lengths of degrees of longitude 

measured on the parallel the value should be 

taken out for the mean position in latitude of 

that portion of the meridian whose length is 

to be computed. 

Geographic Positions 

2-82. The term “geographic position” is 

used interchangeably with “geodetic position,” 

and refers to a position on the spheroid representing the earth. ‘The spheroid in general use 

in North America is Clarke’s Spheroid of 1866. 

It is defined by the dimension of its equatorial 

axis and the ratio to this length of the amount 

it exceeds the polar axis. The spheroid closely 

approximates the shape the earth would have 

if the ocean surface were continuous. Any position is defined by its latitude and longitude 

measured from the intersection of a meridian 

through Greenwich and the equator. It will be 

seen that linear measurements made between 

geodetic positions must be reduced to sea level 

to check the theoretical distance. In the ordinary cadastral survey this refinement will generally not be necessary. 

In the township plats of the rectangular system it is the practice to give the geographic 

position of the southeast corner as determined 

from the best available source. The surveyor 

should tie his work to horizontal control stations of the National Geodetic Survey and the 

United States Geological Survey whenever practicable. 

Geodetic control has assumed increased importance to the cadastral surveyor with the use 

of protractions to define parcels of unsurveyed 

land. 

Connections from land lines to geodetic control may be made by intersection from transit 

stations while the survey is in progress or by 

a transit traverse to the control station. 

The Standard Field Tables include a tabulation of “M and P factors” for use in converting 

distances in chains to differences in latitude 

and longitude. “M” refers to distances along 

the meridian and (‘P” along the parallel. Distances in chains multiplied by the M or P factor for the appropriate latitude give the differences in latitude or longitude in seconds. 

Differences in latitude are computed first. If 

the distance is large, the latitude of the unknown position is estimated, and the M factor is 

taken from the table for the mean latitude. In 

using the P factor, an interpolation to seconds 

of latitude is made for each segment of the line, 

as this factor changes rapidly. 

Plane Coordinates 

2-83. The local surveyor is often concerned 

with feet, rather than chains. Townsite surveys, 

highway surveys, and surveys for other engineering projects are made in feet. It is convenient for purposes of a permanent record of 

positions on such work, and as a check on the 

closures obtained, to make use of the State coordinate systems. 

The State coordinate systems are rectangular grids designed to fit the curved shape of the 

earth to a plane surface with as little distortion 

as possible. By choosing a limited area and a 

conformal projection, this is accomplished. The 

State systems are based on either the Transverse Mercator or the Lambert projection. Use 

of such a system depends on the availability of 

a sufficient number of geodetic control monu- 
58 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

ments to permit the determination of the grid 

position of points in the survey by plane surveying. 

The scale error varies from zero up to about 

one part in 10,000. The grid azimuth is a true 

azimuth only along the central meridian of the 

zone. Any point can be reestablished once its 

coordinates have been determined. 

The State coordinate systems are used in the 

definition of some mineral leasing blocks on the 

outer continental shelf. Other applications are 

in photogrammetric and electronic surveys. 
CHAPTER I11 

The System of Rectangular Surveys 

3-1. The extension of the rectangular system of public land surveys over the public 

domain in the United States has been in progress since 1785. Although few of. the original 

surveys now being made cover extensive areas, 

all facets of the rectangular system occasionally 

come into use. For this reason, and to make 

clear the procedures which have been followed 

in surveying public lands, a complete discussion of the system is included in this manual. 

It will be seen that the underlying principle is 

to provide a simple and certain form of land 

identification and legal description of the public 

lands. 

GENERAL SCHEME 

3-2. The law provides that (1) the public 

lands of the United States shall be divided by 

lines intersecting true north and south lines at 

right angles so as to form townships six miles 

square; (2) the townships shall be marked with 

progressive numbers from the beginning ; (3) 

the townships shall be subdivided into 36 sections, each one mile square and containing 640 

acres as nearly as may be; and (4) the sections 

shall be numbered, respectively, beginning with 

the number 1 in the northeast section, and 

proceeding west and east alternately through 

the township with progressive numbers to and 

including 36 (R.S. 2395; 43 U.S.C. 751). 

3-3. In accordance with the foregoing legal 

requirements, the public lands are surveyed 

under the method called the system of rectangular surveys, which embraces the following 

procedure : 

(1) The establishment of independent initial 

points, each to serve as an origin for surveys 

to be extended in separated localities. 

(2) The survey of principal meridians and 

base lines, originating at the initial points. 

(3) The establishment of guide meridians 

initiated at base lines, and of standard parallels 

initiated at principal meridians, at intervals 

short enough to maintain a workable adherence 

to the legal definition of the primary unit, the 

township six miles square. 

(4) The survey of township exteriors within 

the framework so established. Townships are 

numbered to the north or south commencing 

with number 1 at the base line, and with range 

numbers to the east or west beginning with 

number 1 at the principal meridian. 

(5) The subdivision of the townships into 

36 sections by running parallel lines through 

the township from south to north and from east 

to west at distances of one mile. The sections 

are numbered commencing with number 1 in 

the northeast section of the township, proceeding thence west to section 6, thence south to 

section 7, thence east to section 12, and so on, 

alternately, to number 36 in the southeast section. 

3-4. By law, (1) the corners marked in public land surveys shall be established as the 

proper corners of sections, or of the subdivisions 

of the sections, which they were intended to 

designate, and (2) the boundary lines actually 

run and marked shall be and remain the proper 

boundary lines of the sections or subdivisions 

for which they were intended, and the lengths 

of these lines as returned shall be held as the 

true length thereof (R.S. 2396 ; 43 U.S.C. 752). 

The original corners must stand as the true 

corners they were intended to represent, even 

though not exactly where professional care 

might have placed them in the first instance. 

Missing corners must be reestablished in the 

59 
60 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

identical positions they originally occupied. 

When the positions cannot be determined by 

existing monuments or other verifying evidence, 

resort must be had to the field notes of the 

original survey. The law provides that the 

lengths of the lines, as returned in the field 

notes, shall be held as the true lengths, and the 

distances between identified corner positions 

given in the field notes constitute proper data 

from which to determine the position of a lost 

corner; hence the rule that lost corners are 

restored at distances proportionate to the origginal measurements between identified positions. (chapter V, Restoration of Lost Corners.) 

3-5. In the sections that follow, the first 

.explanations are with respect to ideal procedure 

in the rectangular plan. The plan must be modified in various ways in order to begin new work 

where the initial and closing lines already established by prior survey do not qualify under the 

current specifications for rectangularity and 

closure but cannot now be changed because of 

the passing of titles based on them. The purpose is to avoid the incorporation of the discrepancies of the older lines in the running of 

new original surveys. 

INITIAL POINTS 

3-6. During the period since the organization of the system of rectangular surveys, numbered and locally named principal meridians 

and base lines have been established as listed 

in the accompanying table. These bases and 

meridians are shown on the large wall map of 

the United States published by the Bureau of 

Land Management, on a special map entitled 

“Principal Meridians and Base Lines Governing the United States Public Land Surveys” 

published by the Bureau, and on the various 

State maps and topographic maps published by 

the United States Geological Survey. 

Meridians and Base Lines of the United States Rectangular Surveys 

Governing surveys (wholly Initial Points 

Meridian Adopted or in part) in States of Latitude Longitude 

Black Hills . 1878 

Boise ........................................ 1867 

Chickasaw . 1833 

Choctaw 1821 

Cimarron . 1881 

Copper River ........... 1905 

Fairbanks 1910 

Fifth Principal ...................... 1815 

First Principal ........... 1819 

Fourth Principal .... 1816 

do . 1831 

Gila and Salt River ....... 1866 

Humboldt ................................ 1863 

Huntsville .............................. 1807 

Indian 1870 

Kateel River a ........................ 1966 

Louisiana ............... 1807 

Michigan 1816 

Mount Diablo ................... 1861 

Navajo .... 1869 

New Mexico Principal ........ 1866 

Principal 1867 

Salt Lake 1866 

San Bernardino .......... 1862 

Second Principal .... .....&....... 1806 

Seward 1911 

Sixth Principal ........... 1866 

South Dakota 

Idaho . 

Mississippi .................................................. 

.. do .............................................................. 

Oklahoma ... 

Alaska ........................................................ 

.... do ..................................................... 

Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, 

North Dakota, and South Dakota ...... 

Ohio and Indiana ...................................... 

Illinois 

Minnesota and Wisconsin ........................ 

Arizona ..... 

California ....................... 

Alabama and Mississippi ........................ 

Oklahoma .................................................... 

Alaska . 

Louisiana . 

Michigan and Ohio .................................... 

California and Nevada ............................ 

Arizona .... 

Colorado and New Mexico ........................ 

Montana . 

Utah ............................... _ ........................... 

California 

Illinois and Indiana .................................. 

Alaska 

Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, South 

.... 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

Dakota, and Wyoming .......................... 

43 

43 

35 

31 

36 

61 

64 

34 

40 

40 

42 

33 

40 

34 

34 

65 

31 

42 

37 

35 

34 

45 

40 

34 

38 

60 

40 

, 

59 

22 

01 

52 

30 

49 

51 

38 

59 

00 

30 

22 

25 

59 

29 

26 

00 

25 

52 

44 

16 

47 

46 

07 

28 

07 

00 

rr 

44 

21 

58 

32 

05 

04 

50.048 

45 

22 

50 

27 

38 

02 

27 

32 

16.374 

31 

28 

54 

56 

36 

13 

11 

13 

14 

37 

07 

0 , n 

104 03 16 

116 23 36 

89 14 47 

90 14 41 

103 00 07 

146 18 37 

147 38 25.949 

91 03 07 

84 48 11 

90 27 11 

90 25 37 

112 18 19 

124 07 10 

86 34 16 

97 14 49 

92 24 56 

84 21 53 

121 64 47 

108 31 59 

106 63 12 

111 39 33 

111 53 27 

116 56 48 

86 27 21 

149 21 26 

168 45 31.014 

97 22 08 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 61 

Meridians and Base Lines of the United States Rectangular Surveys-Continued 

Governing Surveys (wholly Initial Points 

Meridian Adopted or in part) in States of Latitude Longitude 

St. Helena 1819 

Tallahassee 1824 

Uintah 1875 

Umiat a 1956 

Ute _____.___._.___._-___I_____________ 1880 

Washington . 1803 

Willamette ........... 1851 

Wind River ............................ 1876 

St. Stephens .. 1805 

Third Principal .......... 1805 

.. Louisiana 

Alabama and Mississippi ............ 

Florida and Alabama ................................ 

Illinois . Utah ............................................................ 

Alaska ..................... 

Colorado 

Mississippi .................................................. 

Wyoming 

.. 

... 

Oregon and Washington ....................... 

30 59 

30 59 

30 26 

38 28 

40 26 

69 23 

39 06 

30 69 

45 31 

43 00 

56 91 09 

51.463 88 01 

03 84 16 

-27 89 08 

59 109 66 

29,654 152 00 

23 108 31 

56 91 09 

11 122 44 

41 108 48 

36 

21.076 

38 

64 

06 

04.561 

69 

36 

34 

49 

1 U.S.C. & G.S. station “Initial, 1941” is located S. 66” 44’ E., 2.86 feet distant from the initial point of the Fairbanks Meridian. The 

geodetic station (latitude 64” 51’ 60.037” N., longitude 147’ 58’ 26.883” W.) was inadvertently used as the origin from which to compute positions on the Fairbanks Meridian protraction diagrams. ‘The Kateel River initial point is identical with U.S.C. & G.S. station, “Jay, 1963”; 3 The Umiat initial point is identical with U.S.C. & G.S. station “Umiat, 1963”. positions are as published by the United States Coast 

and Geodetic Survey. 

3-7. The rectangular system was initiated disposal. In its early stages the system was 

in the State of Ohio in 1785 from a point on the somewhat experimental, and Ohio may well 

west boundary of Pennsylvania, on the north be referred to as the proving ground for the 

shore of the Ohio River, in longitude 80” 32’ 

20”. The State boundary served as the first refference meridian. A number of other reference meridians and bases were employed in 

Ohio to govern particular areas for purposes of 

present rectangular system of surveys. The 

rectangular surveys that have no initial point 

as an origin of township identification are 

listed in the following table. 

Public Land Surveys Having No Initial Point as an Origin for Both Township and Range Numbers 

Survey (and year commenced) Townships numbered Ranges numbered 

Ohio River Survey 1786 

U.S. Military Survey __._._ 1797 

West of the Great ............ 1798 

Ohio River Base .............. 1799 

Scioto River Base ............ 1799 

Muskingum River ............ 1800 

Between the Miamis, ...... 1802 

(Ohio) 

(Ohio) 

Miami (Ohio) 

(Indiana) 

(Ohio) 

Survey (Ohio) 

north of Symmes 

Purchase (Ohio) 

Reserve (Ohio) 

Twelve-Mile-Square ........ 1805 

North from Ohio River .......................... 

North from south boundary of .......... 

North from Great Miami River __ .-- 

military grant. 

North from Ohio River .................. 

North from Scioto River ...................... 

1 and 2 ..... .. 

East from Great Miami River ............ 

1, 2, 3, and 4 .......................................... 

West from west boundary of PennsylWest from west boundary of the Seven 

East from Ohio-Indiana boundary 

From Ohio-Indiana boundary and its 

West from west boundary of Pennsyl10 

vania 

Ranges 

projection south 

vania 

North from Ohio River (continuing 

numbers from Symmes Purchase) 

None 

PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN section and section corners are established 

alternately at intervals of 40 chains, and regu3-8. A principal meridian is intended to con- lar township corners at intervals of 480 chains. 

form to the true meridian, extending north or Corners designated as meander corners are 

south, or in both directions, from the initial established at the intersection of the line with 

point as conditions require. Regular quarter- meanderable bodies of water. 
62 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I I 

3-9. In the survey of the principal meridian 

and other standard lines (base lines, standard 

parallels, and guide meridians), two independent sets of measurements are made, but only 

the mean of the two measurements is shown in 

the final field notes. Double measurement may 

be omitted if subdivisional closings are provided 

in the same assignment with the standard line, 

in which case the closings furnish a verification 

of the length. 

Should the difference between the two sets of 

measurements of a standard line exceed 7 links 

per 80 chains, the line is remeasured to reduce 

the difference. Should independent tests of the 

alinement of a standard line indicate that the 

line has deflected more than 3 minutes from the 

true cardinal course, the line must be rerun. 

These are the maximum discrepancies allowable in new surveys. 

I I I I 

BASE LINE 

3-10. The base line is extended east and 

west from the initial point on a true parallel of 

latitude. Standard quarter-section and section 

corners are established alternately at intervals 

of 40 chains and standard township corners at 

intervals of 480 chains. Meander corners are 

established where the line intersects meanderable bodies of water. 

3-11. The manner of making the measurement of the base line and the accuracy of alinement and measurement are the same as required in the survey of the principal meridian. 

The determination of the alinement of the true 

latitude curve may be made by the solar method, 

the tangent method, or the secant method as 

conditions require. The detailed process is described in the field notes. 

STANDARD PARALLELS 

3-12. Standard parallels, which are also 

called correction lines, are extended east and 

west from the principal meridian, at intervals 

of 24 miles north and south of the base line, 

in the manner prescribed for the survey of the 

base line. 

3-13. Where standard parallels previously 

have been placed at intervals of 30 or 36 miles, 

and present conditions require additional standard lines, an intermediate correction line is 

established to which a local name may be given, 

such as “Fifth Auxiliary Standard Parallel 

North,” or “Cedar Creek Correction Line,” run, 

in all respects, like a regular standard parallel. 

GUIDE MERIDIANS 

3-14. Guide meridians are extended north 

from the base line, or standard parallels, at intervals of 24 miles east and west from the principal meridian, in the manner prescribed for 

running the principal meridian. The guide 

meridians are terminated at the points of their 

intersections with the standard parallels. The 

guide meridian is projected on the true meridian, and the fractional measurement is placed 

in the last half mile. At the true point of intersection of the guide meridian with the standard parallel a closing township corner is established. The parallel is retraced between the first 

standard corners east and west of the point for 

the closing corner, in order to determine the 

FIGURE 15.-Survey of quadrangles, each embracing 16 

townships bounded by standard lines, showing the 

coordinate system of numbering townships. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 63 

exact alinement of the line closed upon. The 

distance is measured and recorded to the nearest 

corner on the standard parallel. 

3-15. When existing conditions require that 

guide meridians be run south from the base or 

correction lines, they are initiated at the theoretical point for the closing corner of the guide 

meridian, calculated on the basis of the survey 

of the line from south to north initiated at the 

proper standard township corner. At the 

theoretical point of intersection a closing township corner is established. 

3-16. Where guide meridians have been 

placed at intervals exceeding the distance of 

24 miles, and new governing lines are required, 

a new guide meridian is established, and a local 

name is assigned, such as “Twelfth Auxiliary 

Guide Meridian West,” or “Grass Valley Guide 

Meridian.” Auxiliary guide meridians are surveyed in all respects like regular guide meridians. 

TOWNSHIP EXTERIORS 

Regular Order 

3-17. The south and east boundaries of a 

township are normally the governing lines of 

the subdivisional surveys. Defective conditions 

in previously established exteriors cannot be 

eliminated where subdivisional lines have been 

initiated from or closed upon an old boundary, 

but the errors of former surveys are not incorporated into the new. Where the previously 

established south and east boundaries cannot 

on that account be used to govern the subdivision of the adjoining township, other controlling lines known as the sectional correction line 

and the sectional guide meridian are employed 

as expedient. 

Meridional Boundaries 

3-18. Whenever practicable the township 

exteriors are surveyed successively through a 

quadrangle in ranges of townships, beginning 

with the townships on the south. The meridional township boundaries have precedence 

in the order of survey and are run from south 

to north on true meridians. Quarter-section and 

section corners are established alternately at 

FIGURE 16.-Regular order of completing exteriors 

where south boundary (standard parallel) and east 

boundary previously surveyed. 

intervals of 40 chains, and meander corners are 

established at intersections of the line with 

meanderable bodies of water. A temporary 

township corner is set at a distance of 480 

chains, pending determination of its final position. The temporary point is then replaced by 

West on rondom, correct fo frue fine 

trI-r-1-7 -t-i-r-i-T-r-I- 

--tt 

- t 6- 

-LJ 

- 1-1 - - 1-1 

- 1-7 

--ti 

- 1-1- 

-T4 -?-I8 

---I 

-+ 1 

- 1-19 

-1 -I 

I I I 

I I I 

I I I 

1- --I-- - r - 

FIGURD 17.--Regular order of completing exteriors 

where south, east, and west boundaries previously 

surveyed. 
64 MAWUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I 

I 

I1 I I I I 

-+31-4 I ,I I I 

-4 I 1 1 I I 

I I I k;jo--l I I I I I $0 I 

I I I I I I3 -~31-4 

1; I I I I I I I 

STANDARD PARALLR 

FIGURE 18.-Regular order of completing exteriors 

where south boundary (standard parallel) and west 

boundary previously surveyed. 

a permanent corner in proper latitudinal position. 

3-19. A meridional exterior is terminated at 

the point of intersection with a standard parallel. The excess or deficiency in measurement is 

placed in the north half mile. A closing corner 

is established at the point of intersection. The 

I 

I t' t I I I I I 

FA I I I I I I I 

L7-- 

I I 

I bl I .be I 

I&\4' I 

I -9:- - - I 

1 

I r-1 I (0 I I I I I 

r ??-I I I I I 

'I1 

FIGURE 19.-Regular order of completing exteriors 

where south boundary previously surveyed. 

I I 

I I 

--I-- J

I 

I 

I 

I 

I -A---, 

I I 

--!--A 

I I 

FIGURE 20.-Regular order of completing exteriors 

where north, south, and west boundaries previously 

surveyed. 

parallel is retraced between the nearest standard corners to east and west to find the exact 

alinement, and the distance to the nearest corner is measured and recorded. 

3-20. In order to complete the exteriors of 

a township it often remains to establish a meridional boundary between previously established 

FIGURE 21.---Regular order of completing exteriors 

where north boundary (standard parallel), south 

boundary, and west boundary previously surveyed. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 65 

township corners. Such boundaries are run from 

south to north on random lines, with temporary 

corners set at intervals of 40 chains, If defective conditions are not met with, the random 

is corrected to a true line. By this procedure, the 

excess or deficiency of measurement is placed 

in the north half mile, and double sets of corners are avoided where unnecessary. 

Latitudinal Boundaries 

3-21. The latitudinal township boundary is 

run first as a random line, setting temporary 

corners, on a cardinal course from the old toward the new meridional boundary, and is corrected back on a true line if conditions are 

ideal. Where both meridional boundaries are 

new lines or where both have been established 

previously, the random latitudinal boundary is 

run from east to west. In either case, if defective conditions are not met with, the random is 

corrected back on a true line. Regular quartersection corners and section corners are established at intervals of 40 chains, alternately, 

counting from the east, and meander corners 

are set where the true line intersects meanderable bodies of water. The fractional measurement is placed in the last half mile. 

3-22. The bearing of the true line is calculated from the falling of the random. The falling is the distance, on the normal, by which a 

line falls to the right or left of an objective 

corner. The temporary points on any random 

line are replaced by permanent corners on the 

true line. The true line is blazed through timber, and distances to important items of topography are adjusted to correct true line measurement. 

Field Notes of Township Exteriors 

3-23. The field notes contain a complete 

record of the manner in which township exteriors have been run and established. The direction of the projection of the random latitudinal 

curve, the amount of falling, and the calculated 

return course or true line are recorded in the 

field tablets but not in the final notes. The final 

field notes will contain a prefacing statement 

that random lines are omitted. The details of 

offsets, triangulations, and observations may be 

shown where a special purpose is served. 

Irregular Order and Partial Surveys 

3-24. It is often necessary to depart from 

the ideal procedure. The possible combinations 

are too numerous to state in detail, but where 

an irregular order appears necessary, the departure from the ideal order is specifically outlined in the special instructions. The departure 

is always based on the principle of accomplishing 

the same relation of one township boundary to 

another as would result from regular establishment under ideal conditions. Some examples 

are illustrated in figures 22 through 27. 

Where it is impracticable to establish 

the boundaries in full, it may be necessary to 

run section lines as offsets to township exteriors. Such lines are run either on cardinal 

courses or parallel to the governing township 

boundaries, and even may be established when 

subdividing, as existing conditions require. 

3-25. 

I 

I 

I I I I 

I I I 

I I I I 

I 

1J-L-- L---l--,L -- - --A Colc. Eusf on frue line. /heorefica/ distance 

FIGURE 22.-Exception to regular order of completing 

exteriors; only west boundary previously surveyed. 

Allowable Deviation in Bearing 

3-26. It is desirable that the alinement of a 

new latitudinal boundary (which becomes the 

governing south boundary of the township to 

the north) shall not depart more than 14' from 
66 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I I I 

I I I I I I 

FIGURE 23.-Exception to regular order of completing 

exteriors ; only north and west boundaries previously 

surveyed. 

the true cardinal course. Therefore, the random 

line, run upon the cardinal course, is made the 

true line where the falling would otherwise 

require a correction exceeding 14' of arc. Where 

the random latitudinal boundary closes on a 

S TA NDA RD PARALLEL 1,1t41#111~~1 

I Icotc ' 1- ;$ I L L; I 1. L 4 L .! I ; I I L 1. L 1. L -b Lr 6- I- 5 - 1-4- I-3 -_I- 2--1. - 1-3 

r,! I I I I I I I I I I 

rI-(-$-L-I--I -t.--I-$-L-l----( 

Ll I I I I I I '2 . t7-1 I I I I 1% 

ki I I I 

I I la LI--I-J-__--- L--1---_--- c l-i I I I I I I 1'; 

Lt3I -4 I I I I I% 

I-1 I 1 

LA I 

I I I I 

- Ll-J- - - I --L- -A- - -L ,-1 COlC West on true line, theoreficol distonce 

*Exteriors inifiofed of o theoreticalpoint for o 

closing corner 

FIGURE 24.-Exception to regular order of completing 

exteriors ; only north boundary (standard parallel) 

previously surveyed. 

FIGURE 25.-Exception to regular order of completing 

exteriors ; only north and east boundaries previously 

surveyed. 

new meridional exterior, the temporary township corner is adjusted to the latitude of the 

opposite township corner. But where both meridional boundaries have been previously surveyed, a closing township corner is established 

I 

I 

I 

I 

.I- - - 

I 

I 

r-- 

I 

I 

FIGURE 26.-Exception to regular order of completing 

exteriors ; south and east boundaries previously surveyed, but part of township unsurveyable. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 67 

-- Eosf on random correcf lo frue line . 3-28. The 14' limit for exteriors applies 

-Cr Lr Lt-Lr LI-l-r t "t IT ~t '-t leh only to the establishment of new boundaries. 

A previously established boundary, every part -41 I I 1 I I I I I I I 13: 

_I-[_ - - L - - J - - _I_ - - L - - 4-10" ;? of which is within 21' of cardinal, is not con- 

-~7- J I I I I 125 sidered defective in alinement. Even in the --I I I 

-9 I I I 1 1 I :: case of new exteriors, where the surveyor who - - -I_ - - 1- - $\ 4 - - -,- - -42. establishes the line also subdivides the township I I P9 I I 10% of which it is the governing boundary, the 

margin of 14' may be exceeded to a limited 

-+18--1 

_l_l- _I - - _I_ - '0 I, - -1- - -1- - 422 

extent if the existing conditions favor keeping 

within the 21' limit in the subdivisional survey. 13 f0 

The purpose of the 14' limit is merely to facil- -1 I I I _,-I_ - - - - - ---Q 

I itate the establishment of all subdivisional 

-1 I I I lines within the prescribed definite limit of 21' -l-l-+- 

-3 I I I 18 

r r r r r 7 r rrir1 r r r rrr ri-r+g 

-C 6 -r-5 -7 - 4-7--3 -t- 2 --t- I- - 04 

I I I I 

-1-1- 

-1 I CQ 

,\Ed I I I$ $ d I 

I 5' I Porolfef to S bdy 

-1 I 

-1 I I 

.- t 19 - 1 DE I 

I I --I I 

- I-30 -1 

from cardinal. 

-t31-7 -4 I I I 

,I I I 1 I Completion of 

Partially Surveyed Exteriors 

FIGURE 27.-Exception to regular order of completing 

exteriors; south and west boundaries previously established, but part of township unsurveyable. 

at the point of intersection of the random latitudinal line with the meridional boundary, or 

its projection to the north or south as the case 

may be. 

3-27. A random meridional boundary is 

made the true line if the falling plus the correction for parallelism of the meridional subdivisional lines would result in calculated bearings (in the northernmost miles of the latter 

lines) in excess of 14' from cardinal. Tne bearing of a governing east boundary must therefore fall within certain extremes suited to the 

latitude of the township. 

Applying corrections for convergency within 

a township, taken from table 2, Standard Field 

Tables : 

3-29. Where the end portions of a township exterior have been previously surveyed 

and fixed in position by use, the fractional unsurveyed middle part is completed by random 

and true line without offset regardless of the 

deviation from cardinal direction. The fractional measurements are placed as a general 

rule in the north or west half miles, as the 

case may be, thereby permitting the subdivisional lines to be extended as usual from south 

to north or from east to west. 

Where a fractional part of an exterior 

remains unsurveyed at either end of the line, 

a trial random line is projected in a cardinal 

direction from the previously established terminal corner toward the objective township corner. The random is corrected to a true line 

where the calculated bearing of any subdivisional line governed by the exterior comes 

within 14' from cardinal direction. If this condition cannot be met, or if no objective township 

3-30. 

Latitude 25' N. 

1st Mi. Mer. Subdv. ...................................... N. O"14' E. 

Corr. for Conv. _........~~~........................-...-... +OO Corr. for Conv. ............................................ -02 

E. bdy. may be .............................................. N. O"14'E. 

5th Mi. Mer. Subdv. .........~._........~~~~_..-........ N. O"14' W. 

E. bdy. may be ....-....... ~~~ ......_......__... ~~ ..-........ N. O"12' W. - - 

- - 

Latitude 70 ' N. 

1st Mi. Mer. Subdv. N. O"14' E. 5th Mi. Mer. Subdv. .................................... N. 0'14' W. 

Corr. for Conv. ............................................ +02 Corr. for Conv. ............................................ -10 

E. bdy. may be .~~~~~.......~~~~~................~~.......... N. O"16' E. __ ___ 

- E. bdy. may be ..... ~~~ .... ~ ...... ~.~~~ ........-...-- ~~~~~~.. N. - 

0'04' W. 
68 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I 12 I I I 

--+--+--+--+--+-- 

I7 I I I I I 

I I I I 13 I' I I I I 

I 18 I 

I 

Latitude 25ON. 

I- I I I 

I I 12 

I I 

1 I I I 

I 13 I I I I I 1 I 1 I 

Latitude 70°N. 

FIGURE 28.-Illustrating the adjustment in the direction of the meridional lines of a subdivisional survey on account 

of convergency of meridians, also the 14' limit of the rectangular "safety zone." 

corner has been previously established, the Retracements and Resurveys 

partially surveyed exterior is completed on a 

cardinal course. In either case the fractional 

measurement is generally placed in the north or 

west half mile. 

Before Subdividing 

3-31. If there is reason to question the accuracy of previously surveyed township exteriors or the condition of the corner monuments, 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 69 

Frac. meas. on West. 

I 

frat. meas. on West. 

Wesf on random, correcf fo frue 

-I CI 

J 

I 

I 

- 

line - 

Frac. 

if 

- 

regular. 

Meas. 

- - 

on 

- 

West. 

- ---- I 

1 

STANDARD PA RA L L EL 

FIGURE 29.-Representative cases of incomplete township exteriors showing methods for completion. 

the special instructions should call for the surveyor to reestablish missing corners, mnOnUment dilapidated corner monuments, determine 

the direction and length of all lines, furnish 

data needed for the computation of areas of 

fractional lots, and recommend any improvements indicated for the plan of subdivision. 

field notes and shown upon the plat of the survey unless the retracement results are in substantial agreement with the record of the original surveys. In the latter case, a statement 

to the effect is made in the field notes, and the 

original record governs the data placed on the 

3-32. All resurvey data are embodied in the plat. 
70 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Rectangular Limits 

3-33. Before discussing the subdivision 

of townships it is necessary to consider the requirements of law relative to rectangular surveys, wherein the square mile, or section, is 

the unit of subdivision. The normal township 

includes 36 sections, only 25 of which are returned as containing 640 acres each. Sections 

against the north and west boundaries, except 

section 6, contain regular aliquot parts totaling 

480 acres with four additional fractional lots in 

each section. Section 6 contains regular aliquot parts totaling 360 acres with seven additional fractional lots. 

It has been necessary to establish a 

definite relationship between rectangularity as 

contemplated by law and the unit of subdivision resulting from a survey on the earth’s surface. The ideal section is allowed to give way to 

one that is termed “regular.” The amounts by 

which a section, or its aliquot parts, may vary 

from the ideal section and still be considered 

regular are referred to as the rectangular 

limits : 

(1) For alinement, the section’s boundaries 

must not exceed 21’ from cardinal in any part, 

nor may the opposite (regular) boundaries of a 

section vary more than 21’. 

(2) For measurement, the distance between 

regular corners is to be normal according to 

the plan of survey, with certain allowable adjustments not to exceed 25 links in 40 chains. 

Township exteriors, or portions of exteriors, 

are considered defective when they do not 

qualify within the above limits. It is also necessary, in order to subdivide a township regularly, 

to set a third limit, as follows : 

(3) For position, the corresponding section 

corners upon the opposite boundaries of the 

township are to be so located that they may be 

connected by true lines which will not deviate 

more than 21’ from cardinal. 

The rectangular limits should not be confused 

with the allowable error of closure discussed 

under sections 3-46 and 3-124. 

3-35. A previously established exterior is 

not defective if the above limits are satisfied. If 

the rectangular limits have already been exceeded, or the danger point is likely to be 

reached at an early stage in the subdivisional 

3-34. 

survey, the necessary corrective steps are taken 

before subdividing. 

Defective Exteriors 

3-36. Township boundaries already established may be defective in alinement, measurement, or position. A defective boundary not 

previously closed upon and from which subdivisional lines have not been initiated is obliterated after being superseded by survey of a 

new boundary and connection of the old with 

the new monuments. If it is known that a 

mineral survey, homestead entry survey, small 

holding claim, right of way, reservoir, or other 

survey has been connected with a corner of an 

exterior subject to rectification, the fact is 

stated in the special instruction. In such a case 

the marks “A M” (signifying “amended monument”) are added to the original corner monument, and the old corner is connected by course 

and distance to the new. A record of the connection is placed in the field notes together with a 

full description of the monument and its accessories. Where a special purpose is served, the 

position of the old monument is shown on the 

plat of the survey. 

3-37. If a boundary is defective in measurement or position and is not subject to rectification, the location of the original corners 

cannot be changed, but the marks on the monuments and the marks upon (or position of) the 

accessories are appropriately altered to stand 

only for the sections of the previously established surveys. New corners to control the surveys of the adjoining township are established 

on the old line at regular distances of 40 and 

80 chains. Where new corners are placed on 

an oblique exterior, whose bearing departs more 

than 1” from cardinal, they are so located for 

measurement that the cardinal equivalents are 

40 and 80 chains. 

3-38. Where subdivisional lines have been 

initiated from or closed upon one side of only a 

portion of a township boundary, the remaining 

portion may be superseded if it is found to be 

defective. 

3-39. The position of the new exteriors, or 

of corners set on defective township boundaries 

in the new survey, must be established by an 

actual rerunning of the lines. Data acquired in 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 71 

surveying subdivisional lines closing upon a 

defective exterior is not acceptable in lieu of retracement or resurvey. 

3-40. The south boundary of a township is 

regularly the governing latitudinal boundary 

unless defective in alinement. If the boundary is 

defective in measurement, and not subject to 

rectification, the original corners are changed 

to refer only to the sections of the township to 

the south. New corners of two sections and 

quarter-section corners of sections of the township to the north are established at regular intervals of 40 chains, counting from the east, 

and the excess or deficiency in measurement is 

placed in the west half mile. If the south boundary is defective in alinement, a sectional correction line is required. 

The east boundary of a township is 

regularly the governing meridional boundary 

unless defective in alinement. If the boundary is 

defective in measurement, and not subject to 

rectification, the original corners are changed to 

refer only to the sections of the township to the 

east. New corners of two sections and quartersection corners of the sections of the township 

to the west are established at regular intervals of 40 chains, counting from the south. If 

the east boundary is defective in alinement, a 

sectional guide meridian is required. 

3-42. New east and south boundaries of a 

township become the closing meridional and 

latitudinal boundaries of the townships to the 

east and south respectively. Where doubt exists 

as to how unsurveyed lines may close, the 

corners are established only for the sections of 

the townships of which the new lines are the 

governing boundaries. The corners of the sections upon the opposite side are established as 

closing corners at the time of subdivision of 

the adjoining townships if the original corners 

are found to be defective in position. If regular 

connections can be made at that time, the marks 

on the original monuments are altered to signify 

corners of maximum control. 

3-43. Where the previously established 

north or west boundaries are defective in measurement or position and subdivisional surveys 

have been initiated from them, the original 

corners are changed to refer only to sections to 

the north or west, respectively. Closing section 

3-41. 

corners are established when subdividing. New 

quarter-section corners are placed on the old 

line at the mean distances between closing section corners, or at 40 chains from one direction, 

depending upon the plan of subdivision of the 

section. Where the previously established north 

or west boundaries are defective in alinement, 

but not in measurement or position, no changes 

are required. The section lines of the township 

which is being subdivided are connected regularly to the the original corners. Fractional 

measurements are placed in the north and west 

half miles. 

3-44. Figures 30 through 37 illustrate the 

guiding principles involved in establishing new 

governing boundaries where the previously surveyed exteriors are defective. Each diagram illustrates a simple condition affecting one boundary only, and the examples are taken only from 

the regular order of procedure. Figure 38 shows 

a series of conditions which might occur in the 

field. Combinations of defective conditions are 

best analyzed by breaking them down into the 

several simple defective conditions. The same 

holds true in the establishment of township 

exteriors under an irregular order of procedure. 

Where extraordinary conditions are encountered which cannot be solved in this manner, 

the surveyor should report the facts to the 

proper administrative office, which will issue 

appropriate instructions. 

3-45. The rules for completion and rectification of township exteriors are intended to 

secure the most direct return to normal procedure. The preliminary retracements and resurveys may show that some modification will obtain better results. Approval of the modified 

plan should be obtained from the proper administrative office. Each case should be treated on 

its own merits. 

Tables of Latitude and Departure 

and Closing Errors 

3-46. Upon the completion of the survey of 

one or more township exteriors closing the figure 

of either a full or fractional township, a table 

of latitudes and departures will be prepared 

with allowance for convergency of meridians. 

The maximum tolerable error of closure is 

1/1280 of the perimeter in either latitude or 
72 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

f Wesf lo infersecfion -C -rrr r r r r rrrrr rrr r rrr rr r c ; T A t L + + .C-l-,-I- 4- I + -1 4 _1 I + L + I 

& t 31- + - 32 -+- 33 - t-34-+- 35 - 

1-7 4 T+r+T-t ~+TA~-ITJ-~ Ai- ,tlll,l,l,~l 

I I I , , , , , , , S. bdy. defecfive in ofinemenf 

FIGURE 30.-Rectification of fixed south boundary defective in alinement. 

departure. If the limit is exceeded, additional 

retracements or other corrective steps may be 

necessary to perfect the survey. The table of 

latitudes and departures and closing errors, including every part of any closed figure embracI 

I 

I 

I I 

I 

I 

t3l- -I I I 

I I L1 I I I 

I11 I,, I, ~ 

S bdy. deikiive in meosuremenf. 

I I I , 6 1' ,I In I 

Doubfe set of corners. 

FIGURE 31.-Rectification of fixed south boundary defective in measurement. 

FIGURE 32.-Rectification of fixed east boundary defective in alinement. 

ing township exteriors, should be returned with 

the field tablets and computation sheets. 

SUBDIVISION OF TOWNSHIPS 

Regular Boundaries 

3-47. The boundaries of a township are 

within satisfactory governing limits for control 

of the subdivisional survey when the lines may 

be theoretically projected from the boundaries 

without closely approaching the rectangular 

limits. The danger zone has already been placed 

at theoretical bearings exceeding 14' from 

cardinal, and the corresponding zone in respect 

to lengths of lines may be placed at theoretical 

adjustments exceeding 33 links per mile. 

Meridional Section Lines 

3-48. These lines have precedence in the order of survey. They are initiated at the section 

corners on the south boundary of the township and are run north parallel to the governing east boundary. Meridional lines are numbered counting from the east and are surveyed 

successively in the same order. If the east 

boundary is within limits, but has been found by 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 73 

I 1 I I I 

I I I I 

FIGURE 33.-Rectification of fixed east boundary defective in measurement. 

FIGURE 36.-Rectification of west boundary defective in 

measurement where both south and west boundaries 

fixed in position. 

retracement to be imperfect in alinement, the 

meridional section lines are run parallel to the 

mean course. Regular quarter-section and section corners are established alternately at intervals of 40 and 80 chains as far as the northernmost interior section corner. 

3-49. A meridional section line is not continued north beyond a section corner until after 

J-c7-7 I I I I 1 

FIGURE 34.-Rectification of south boundary defective 

in alinement where both south and west boundaries 

fixed in position. in position. 

FIGURE 36.-Rectification of east boundary defective in 

measurement where east and south boundaries fixed 
74 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I 

I 

I 

I I I I 

I I I I 

I ! I I 

l,~,l,l,i 

IS bdy Aefecl/ve [I!? measurehen: Oouh set of Jorners I 

FIGURE 37.-Rectification of south boundary defective 

in measurement where south, north, and west boundaries fixed in position. 

the connecting latitudinal sectional line has 

been surveyed. In the case of the fifth meridional section line, both latitudinal section lines 

connecting east and west are surveyed before 

continuing with the meridional line beyond a 

section corner. The successive meridional lines 

are surveyed as convenient, but none should be 

carried beyond uncompleted sections to the 

east. 

3-50. The last mile of a meridional line is 

continued as a random line, without blazing 

through timber, each successive random line 

being parallel to the true east boundary of the 

section to which it belongs. A temporary quarter-section corner is set at 40 chains, the distance is measured to the point of intersection 

of the random line with the north boundary of 

the township, and the falling of the random line 

east or west of the objective section corner is 

noted. The random is then corrected to a true 

line by blazing through timber and permanently 

establishing the quarter-section corner on the 

true line at a distance 40 chains from the south, 

placing the fractional measurement in the north 

half mile. 

3-51. Where the north boundary of the 

township is a base line or standard parallel, the 

last miles of the meridional section lines are 

continued as true lines parallel to the east 

boundary of the township. Permanent quartersection corners are established at 40 chains 

from the south, and closing corners are established at the points of intersection with the 

north boundary. The distance is measured to 

the nearest standard corner in each case. New 

quarter-section corners for the sections of the 

township being subdivided are established at 

mean distances between closing corners, or at 

40 chains from one direction, depending on the 

plan of the subdivision of the section. 

Latitudinal Section Lines 

3-52. The latitudinal section lines, except 

in the west range of sections, are normally run 

on random lines from west to east, parallel to 

the south boundaries of the respective sections. 

Temporary quarter-section corners are set at 40 

chains. The distances are measured to the points 

of intersection of the random lines with the 

north and south lines passing through the objective section corners ; bearings of true lines are 

calculated on the basis of the fallings. Each random line is corrected to a true line by blazing and 

marking between the section corners, including 

the permanent establishment of quarter-section 

corners at the midpoints on the true lines. 

In the west range of sections the random 

latitudinal section lines are run from east to 

west, parallel to the south boundaries of the 

respective sections. On the true lines the permanent quarter-section corners are established 

at 40 chains from the east, placing the fractional measurements in the west half miles. 

Survey Record 

The field notes describing the survey 

of subdivisional lines are compiled in ranges of 

sections beginning with the easternmost, and 

the west two ranges are compiled by alternating 

with the adjoining east and west sections 

(figure 39). The field notes contain a complete 

record of the manner in which the subdivisional 

lines are run and established. The direction of 

projection of random lines, the amount of the 

falling left or right of the objective corner, and 

the calculated return course or true line are recorded in the field tablets but not in the final 

3-53. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 75 

FIGURE 38.-Various defective boundaries, showing methods for completing exteriors. 

notes. A prefacing statement in the final field 

notes will explain that random line field notes 

are omitted. The details of offsets, triangulations, and observations may be shown where 

a special purpose is served. 

Accumulated Error 

3-54. Error in the alinement of the meridional section lines is taken up in part in the 

measurement of the latitudinal lines, which 

must be within 50 links of 80 chains in length, 

except in the west range of sections where the 

convergency of the meridional lines is provided 

for. The accumulated error in alinement for the 

five miles of true meridional line is taken up in 

the sixth mile, which is run random and true. 

Here the true line must be within 21’ of cardinal. The slight, ordinary errors in the measure- 
76 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

FIGURE 39.-Sequence of numbers on section lines shows 

normal order of subdivision. 

ment of the meridional lines are taken up by 

the adjustment of the bearings of the latitudinal 

section lines, which must be within 21’ of 

cardinal. The accumulated error in measurement in running north is placed in the last fractional half mile. Here the meridional distance 

is checked by a calculated closing around the 

last section, and the latitudinal error must not 

exceed 25 links in order to come within the 

limits of closure. The limit of rectangularity 

will be exceeded if the accumulated error is 

greater than 334’ in alinement or 8y3 links per 

mile in measurement. Cumulative error must be 

guarded against and avoided, and the prescribed 

order of survey furnishes continuous checks 

upon the accuracy of all lines. 

Modifications 

3-55. Where the objective section corner 

is in sight, a random subdivisional line may be 

run for distance only and the bearing recorded, 

but the usual rules for running random lines 

and true lines are observed in every other respect. The random latitudinal section lines, 

except in the west range of sections, are normally run from west to east, thus always closing upon a previously established section corner. Under the exigencies of field work, in order 

to economize the time of his party, the surveyor 

may project the random from east to west to a 

temporary section corner set at 80 chains, but 

the true point for the section corner is determined as usual at the 80-chain point on the 

meridional section line. The connection of the 

random latitudinal line and the permanent 

marking of the true line are completed as regularly provided. 

Irregular Boundaries 

3-56. Where either of the governing boundaries of a township is disqualified as a controlling line upon which to initiate a subdivisional 

survey, the necessary retracements and resurveys or alterations are made before subdividing as previously explained under the 

subject of township exteriors. Every possible 

provision for a correct subdivisional survey is 

thereby assured except as either the south or 

the east boundary is defective in alinement and 

not subject to rectification. 

3-57. The specific plan described below may 

be modified where conditions justify a change. 

The basic requirements are (1) adherence to the 

normal rectangular plan where practicable, (2) 

a normal location and an area of 640 acres each 

for granted lands that are identified by the 

survey (the school sections), (3) the maximum 

number of regular sections of 640 acres each, 

or aliquot parts of sections, (4) avoidance of 

two sets of corners when one set is ample for 

subdivisional requirements, and (5) simplicity 

of survey, most readily understood by the 

public. 

Sectional Guide Meridian 

3-58. If the east boundary of the township 

is defective in alinement, and cannot be rectified, the corners on the north boundary will not 

be properly related to those on the south boundary, even though the measurement of the north 

boundary is not defective. The north boundary 

is then said to be defective in position (figure 

40). The first meridional line is projected as a 

sectional guide meridian due north to an intersection with the north boundary, where a 

closing section corner is established and the 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 77 

distance measured to the nearest regular corner. 

The intermediate quarter-section and section 

corners are established alternately at regular 

intervals of 40 chains, counting from the south 

unless the south boundary of the township is 

itself defective in alinement. 

3-59. Where, as shown in figure 41, the 

north boundary is not defective in position (nor 

within the danger zone) with reference to the 

corners on the south boundary (errors in the 

alinement of the east boundary being compensable), the first meridional section line is projected 5 miles as a true line on a bearing calculated to intersect the objective section corner on the north boundary. The last mile is 

run as a random line on the same course, and 

corrected to a true line after the falling has 

been measured. The remaining meridional section lines are run parallel to the one first established, in the usual manner, to closing section 

corners on the last mile or random and true as 

the case may be. 

3-60. The fractional measurements of the 

latitudinal section lines in the first range of 

sections are placed in the east half mile. Elsewhere, unless the south boundary is defective 

in alinement, the latitudinal section lines are 

run in the usual manner. 

I--I I I I I I i '-4 1 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

-L-- 

-+-- 

-1 - - 

FIGURE 40.-Projection of first meridional section line as 

guide meridian where defective alinement of east 

boundary leaves north boundary defective in position. 

FIGURE 41.-Projection of first meridional section line as 

governing section line where defective east boundary 

does not leave north boundary defective in position. 

Sectional Correction Line 

3-61. If the south boundary of the township 

is defective in alinement, and cannot be rectified, so that the west boundary is defective in 

position, a sectional correction line is established (figure 42). This line is surveyed on a 

true latitudinal curve initiated at the first regular section corner on the east boundary and 

projected to an intersection with the west 

boundary of the township, where a closing corner is established and the distance measured to 

the nearest regular corner. The intermediate 

quarter-section and section corners are marked 

as temporary points at regular intervals of 40 

chains, alternately, counting from the east. 

3-62. Where, as shown in figure 43, the west 

boundary is not defective in position (nor within 

the danger zone) with reference to the section 

corners on the east boundary (errors in alinement of the south boundary being compensable), the first latitudinal section line is projected 5 miles on a bearing calculated to intersect the objective section corner on the west 

boundary. Temporary quarter-section corners 

and section corners are marked at regular intervals of 40 chains alternately, counting from 

the east. 

3-63. The section corners on the sectional 
78 ; MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I- + - + - L -+ - L --+ -I - + - I-+ -I41 I I I I I 

t7-4 I I I I 

414 I I I I I I 

R t19--1 I I I 1 

f3i- f - 32- t-33- 4 -34 - A- 35- 4 - 36- 

1 ir~rtT+rrlTTtrtrtTITtT I ,I I, I, I, Ill Ill 1131 111 

S bdy defective in olinement 

FIGURE 42.-Projection of first latitudinal section line as 

sectional correction line where defective alinement of 

south boundary leaves west boundary defective in 

position. 

correction line are established at the points of 

intersection of the meridional section lines 

alined in the normal manner. Thereafter, the 

quarter-section corners on the sectional correction lines are established at the usual midpoints except in the east and west ranges of 

sections. The quarter-section corner between 

FIGURE 43.-Projection of first latitudinal section line 

as governing section line where defective south boundary does not leave west boundary defective in position. 

sections 25 and 36 is established at 40 chains 

from the west if the east boundary is defective in alinement. Otherwise it is fixed at the 

usual midpoint position. The quarter-section 

corner between sections 30 and 31 is placed at 

40 chains from the east. If the sectional correction line has not been terminated at a closing section corner on the west boundary, the 

line between sections 30 and 31 is run random 

and true in the normal manner. The quartersection corners on the meridional section lines 

in the south tier of sections are established 

at 40 chains south from the corners on the sectional correction line. The remaining subdivisional lines are continued from the sectional 

correction line in the usual manner. 

Partial Irregularitg 

3-64. Where the south part of the east 

boundary, or the east part of the south boundary, is regular, and the balance is defective in 

alinement and not subject to rectification, the 

subdivisional survey is made regular as far as 

possible. The initial point for the sectional 

guide meridian, or for the sectional correction 

line, is determined by existing conditions. The 

first meridional section line is continued as a 

sectional guide meridian if the north part of the 

east boundary is defective in alinement and the 

I, I, N bdy. I., defective in I position. I I,, 

I 'I,III1 II'II'I 1'8 

+ +-L L-cl tLfllltL +-I+IC++-( -+6-&-5-+-4-+-3-+-2-+- 1-1 

,I. 

-t 31 T +-32- t -33 -+ -34- -35- +-36 t 't ++rt TtTt t+T +r+r+i-Cr++ 

I ,/It '."I'I'.'I',. 

s. bdy, defective in alinemenf. 

FIGURE 44.-Projection of both sectional guide meridian 

and sectional correction line where combination of 

defective conditions exists. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 

FIGURE 46.-Projection of both sectional guide meridian 

and sectional correction line in case of partial irregularity. 

north boundary is therefore defective in position. 

3-65. If the north boundary is not defective 

in position (nor within the danger zone), the 

first meridional section line is continued on a 

course calculated to intersect the objective section corner on the north boundary of the township. The same principle is observed if the west 

part of the south boundary is defective in alinement, and the west boundary is not defective 

in position (nor within the danger zone). If 

the west boundary is defective in position, the 

sectional correction line is established on the 

true latitudinal curve. 

Summary 

3-66. The object of the plan is to secure the 

maximum number of normal sections. The sections adjoining the east boundary are regular 

if they conform with the usual rectangular 

limits. Where that is the case, the quartersection corners on the latitudinal section lines 

are placed at the normal midpoint position. The 

sections adjoining the south boundary of the 

township are not regular unless the meridional 

lines are established at 80 chains in length, and 

the sections are otherwise in conformity with 

the usual rectangular limits. Exceptions will 

be noted under 

division”. 

79 

the subject of “fractional subSurveg Record 

3-67. The field notes of subdivisional surveys including a sectional guide meridian, a 

sectional correction line, or other governing 

section line, are compiled in the same regular 

order previously described, but appropriate 

explanatory remarks are added to show the 

method and order of procedure. 

Closing Section Lines 

3-68. Several types of closing lines have 

been discussed earlier. Guide meridians are 

closed against standard parallels as a device to 

avoid the extreme effect of convergency on the 

breadth of sections (section 3-14). Township 

and section lines are closed on standard parallels as a part of the same plan (sections 3-19 

and 3-51). Both township and section lines may 

be made closing lines to maintain rectangularity (sections 3-26 and 3-34). A different type 

of closing line occurs where the lines of the 

rectangular system of survey cross or close on 

the boundaries of reservations or grants, State 

boundaries, or the lines of various kinds of 

claims. 

3-69. Closing corners are normally established at intersections with a surveyed reservation, grant, or State boundary. The bearing 

and the distance to the nearest corner or angle 

point of the irregular boundary should always 

be noted. It is usually necessary to retrace the 

boundary to the nearest corner in each direction to insure placement of the closing corner 

at the exact intersection. 

3-70. Quarter-section corners are established between closing corners for sections closing on a reservation or grant boundary. Since 

the Bureau of Land Management has no general 

authority to survey or resurvey State boundaries, quarter-section corners should not be 

established between closing corners on State 

boundaries. Although the closing corners themselves are established, State names should not 

be marked on the monuments (sections 4-25 

and 5-19). 
80 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

3-71. A closing corner monument is not set 

at intersection with the line of a surveyed 

mineral claim, forest homestead claim, small 

holding claim, or the like, unless required to 

provide an interval of monumentation of onehalf mile or less. In some instances, crossing 

closing corners may be needed for operational 

or litigation purposes, in which event they 

should be provided for in the special instructions. 

Where a line of the rectangular survey 

crosses a surveyed claim, the bearing of the 

intersected claim line and the distance to the 

nearest corner are determined and noted. In 

the case of a claim located entirely within a 

section, a connection is made from a corner of 

the claim to a regular corner of the section. If 

the connection is made by traverse, it is reduced 

to the equivalent direct course and distance for 

inclusion in the field notes and plat. 

Since the accuracy of lotting in the section 

depends on a correct location of the claim, it 

may be desirable to retrace one or all of the 

claim lines. If a multiplicity of claims exists, 

their treatment should be covered in the special 

instructions. 

If a survey is concluded upon an irregular Boundary at variance with the lines of 

legal subdivision, or if the survey is continued 

on a blank line to acquire a definite location 

upon the opposite irregular boundary, but 

without monumenting the rectangular survey 

between the irregular boundaries, a closing 

corner is always required at the point of intersection of the regular with the irregular line. 

On the other hand, if the survey is continued 

across the reservation or grant for the purpose 

of establishing a full complement of corners 

for the control of the subdivision of a section 

so invaded, a closing corner may not be required. 

3-73. Closing corners are intended to be 

established where a closing line intersects a 

boundary already fixed in position. While the 

closing corner thereafter controls the direction 

of the closing line, a failure to place it at the 

true point of intersection does not alter the 

position of the line closed upon but may cause 

interested parties to rely on the faulty position. The line closed upon should always be 

3-72. 

retraced between the first corners to the right 

and left. Determination of the point of intersection by calculation is not permissible. 

SUBDIVISION OF SECTIONS 

3-74. Revised Statutes, secs. 2396, 2397 (43 

U.S.C. 752 and 753), contain the fundamental 

provisions for the subdivision of sections into 

quarter sections and quarter-quarter sections. 

The sections are not subdivided in the field by 

Bureau of Land Management cadastral surveyors unless provision is made in the special instructions, but certain subdivision-of-section 

lines are always protracted upon the official plat. 

3-75. Under the rectangular system the 

unit of survey is the township of 36 sections. 

The unit of subdivision is the section of 640 

acres. Under the general land laws, broadly, 

the unit of administration is the quarterquarter section of 40 acres. The function of the 

cadastral surveyor of the Bureau of Land 

Management has been fulfilled when he has executed and monumented his survey properly 

and returned an official record in the form of 

detailed field notes and a plat. The plats are 

constructed in harmony with the field notes 

returned by the surveyor. The lands are identified on the ground by fixed monuments established in the survey. A United States patent 

conveys the title to an area defined by those 

fixed monuments and related by description 

and outline to the official plat. 

3-76. The local surveyor is employed as an 

expert to identify lands which have passed into 

private ownership. This may be a simple or a 

most complex problem, depending largely upon 

the condition of the original monuments as 

affected principally by the lapse of time since 

the execution of the original survey. The work 

usually includes the subdivision of the section 

into the fractional parts shown upon the approved plat. In this capacity the local surveyor 

is performing a function contemplated by law. 

He cannot properly serve his client or the public unless he is familiar with the legal requirements concerning the subdivision of sections. 

In the event that. the original monuments have 

become lost, the surveyor needs to be familiar 

with the scheme of the original survey, the 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURWYS 81 

record of the particular survey involved, and 

the principles upon which the courts have based 

rulings with regard to corner restorations. 

The Bureau of Land Management assumes 

no control or direction over the acts of local and 

county surveyors in the matters of subdivision 

of sections and reestablishment of lost corners 

of original surveys where the lands have passed 

into private ownership, nor will it issue instructions in such cases. It follows the general rule 

that disputes arising from uncertain or erroneous location of corners originally established by the United States are to be settled 

by the proper local authorities or by amicable adjustment. The Bureau desires that the 

rules controlling the acts of its own cadastral 

surveying service be considered by all other 

surveyors as merely advisory and explanatory 

of the principles which should prevail in performing such duties. 

Subdivision by Protraction 

3-77. Upon the plat of all regular sections 

the boundaries of the quarter sections are 

shown by broken straight lines connecting the 

opposite quarter-section corners. The sections 

bordering the north or west boundary of a 

normal township, excepting section 6, are further subdivided by protraction into parts containing two regular half-quarter sections and 

four lots. Section 6 has lots protracted against 

both the north and west boundaries, and so 

contains two regular half-quarter sections, one 

quarter-quarter section, and seven lots. The 

position of the protracted lines and the regular 

order of lot numbering are shown in figure 46. 

The lots are numbered in a regular series progressively from east to west or from north to 

south in each section. The lots in section 6 are 

numbered commencing with No. 1 in the northeast, thence progressively to No. 4 in the northwest, and south to No. 7 in the southwest fractional quarter-quarter section. 

3-78. The regular quarter-quarter sections 

are aliquot parts of quarter sections based upon 

midpoint protraction. These lines are not indicated upon the official plat. 

3-79. Sections which are invaded by meanderable bodies of water, or by approved claims 

at variance with the regular legal subdivisions, 

are subdivided by protraction into regular and 

fractional parts as may be necessary to form 

a suitable basis for the administration of the 

public lands remaining undisposed of, and to 

describe the latter separately from the segregated areas. 

The meander line of a body of water 

and the boundary lines of private claims are 

platted in accordance with the lines run or 

connections made in the field. The sections invaded are subdivided as nearly as possible in 

conformity with the uniform plan. The subdivision-of-section lines are terminated at the 

meander line or claim boundary, but the position of the subdivision-of-section lines is controlled precisely as though the section had been 

completed regularly. In the case of a section 

whose boundary lines are in part within the 

limits of a meanderable body of water, or within 

the boundaries of a private claim, the fractional 

section lines are completed in theory, and the 

protracted position of the subdivision-of-section 

lines is controlled by the theoretical points so 

determined. 

3-81. Fractional sections are subdivided so 

as to contain as many aliquot parts as possible, 

but a departure from this practice is made 

where it would result in poorly shaped fractional lots. In the case of fractional lots along 

the north and west boundaries of a township, 

and in other similar cases where a lot has a full 

normal width of 20 chains in one direction, it 

is generally advisable to avoid areas of less than 

10 or more than 50 acres. In the instance of 

fractional lines along a meander line or other 

irregular broken boundary, where the width 

of the lot in both directions may be considerably 

less than 20 chains, resulting in tracts of more 

compact form, it is generally better to avoid an 

area of less than five or more than 45 acres. 

Extreme lengths or narrow widths should be 

avoided. The longer direction should extend 

back from a meander line or claim boundary 

rather than along it. It is inconsistent that a 

fractional lot lie partly in two sections, and it 

is generally better, when consistent with other 

rules, to avoid fractional lots extending from 

one into another fractional quarter section. 

3-82. To visualize a uniform system for 

numbering lots of fractional sections, imagine 

3-80. 
82 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Showing normal subdivision of sections. 

, 

I I -- -+ - - -$--,I--- 

I 

I 5 

36.00 

I 

I 

I 36.16 

I 

40 I 

Sec.‘ 6 

-t- 626.151 

I 

I 

-- 

17.88 20.00 20.00 20.00 

+- -- +---$--- 

%I 17 96 

Showing areas. Showing co I c u I a ted distances. 

FIGURE 46.-Examples of subdivision by protraction. 
SYSTEM OF REGTANGULAR SURVEYS 83 

I 

I 

I -+- 

I 

I 

-4 

I --I 

Meanderable River. Meonderoble Lake. 

cI I iv I 

I 

11 

I 

-4 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I’ I I 

Mineral Claims. E. bdy. defective in alinement. 

S. bdy. defective in olinement. E.8 S. bdrs. defective in alinement. 

FIGURE 47.--Examples of subdivision of fractional sections. 
84 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Fruc I 2000 ' a00 I 20 00 I I I 

I I I 

I I 

O4 15 16 

Fr0c-t 2ooo 2000 

0 a312111 

8 

_-- - + - - - t - - 

a I 

I I 

I 

8 

0 I I 

I I I 

$918171 

---- f - - - t - - 

a I I I a 10 I II I 12 I 

I I I Ei 

Fruc I 2000 I 2000 I 20 00 

the section divided by parallel latitudinal lines 

into tiers, numbered from north to south. Then, 

beginning with the eastern lot of the north tier, 

call it No. 1, and continue the numbering west 

through the tier, then east in the second, west 

in the third, east in the fourth tier, until all 

fractional lots have been numbered. These directions are maintained even though some of the 

tiers contain no fractional lots. A lot extending 

north and south through two, or part of two 

tiers, is numbered in the tier containing its 

greater area. This method of numbering applies to any part of a section. A section that 

has been partly surveyed at different times 

should have no duplication of lot numbers. 

5-83. When the length or width of a township exceeds 480 chains to such an extent as to 

require two or more tiers of lots adjoining the 

north or west boundary, the usual past practice 

has been to lot all of the area beyond the regular 

legal subdivisions as shown in figure 48(a) and 

49(a). Henceforth, in order to avoid possible 

confusion of descriptions, the lotting should be 

extended throughout the fractional half of the 

section as shown in figures 48(b) and 49(b). 

This will also apply to the platting of resurveyed sections insofar as public land is involved. 

In modern practice, sections in excess of 120 

chains are avoided by the creation of half-township or half-range numbers. This cannot be done 

where the elongated sections are situated in the 

interior of a township as the result of partially 

completed but grossly irregular former subdivisions. Lotting will then be extended as 

necessary. 

3-84. If it has been necessary to establish 

a sectional guide meridian or a sectional correction line, fractional lots may result along 

the east or south boundary of the township. The 

sections bordering the defective boundaries 

are subdivided on the same plan as sections bordering the north and west boundaries of a normal township. 

Subdivision by Survey 

The rules for subdivision of sections 

by survey are based on the laws governing the 

survey of the public lands. Some cases arise, 

however, which are not covered by these rules 

and require the advice of the Bureau of Land 

3-85. 

' Mid-point 

FIGURE 48 (a) .-Elongated section-subdivision by protraction. 

Management. The letter of inquiry should contain a description of the particular tract or corner, with reference to township, range, and section of the public surveys, together with a diagram showing conditions found. 

FIGURE 49 (a) .-Elongated section-subdivision by protraction. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 85 

20.00 20.00 >I 

t I 

- --I---- - t 

I 01 

12 II a 

$1 

tM- Sec. + I 

FIGURE 48 (b) .-Extension of lotting in elongated section. 

Order of Procedure in Survey 

Since the corners established in the 

original survey are controlling, it is essential 

that these corners be found, or properly restored, before the actual field work involving 

the subdivision of section is undertaken. The 

section boundaries should be retraced to develop 

3-86. 

I Frac I 2000 I 2000 I 2000 I 

I I . 

FIGURE 49(b) .-Extension of lotting in elongated section. 

the actual bearings and lengths of the lines between the corners. 

The order of procedure is: First, identify or 

reestablish the corners on the section boundaries, including determination of the points for 

the necessary one-sixteenth section corners. 

Next, fix the boundaries of the quarter sections; and then form the quarter-quarter sections or small tracts by equitable and proportionate division. The following methods should 

be employed: 

Subdivision of Sections 

Into Quarter Sections 

3-87. To subdivide a section into quarter 

sections, run straight lines from the established 

quarter-section corners to the opposite quartersection corners. The point of intersection of 

the lines thus run will be the corner common 

to the several quarter sections, or the legal center of the section. 

Upon the lines closing on the north and west 

boundaries of a regular township the quartersection corners were established originally at 

40 chains to the north or west of the last interior section corners. The excess or deficiency 

in measurement was thrown into the half mile 

next to township or range line, as the case may 

be. If such quarter-section corners are lost 

they should be reestablished by proportionate 

measurement based upon the original record. 

Where there are double sets of section corners on township and range lines, the quartersection corners for the sections south of the 

township line and east of the range line usually 

were not established in the original surveys. 

In subdividing such sections new quarter-section corners are required, so placed as to suit 

the calculations of the areas that adjoin the 

township boundary, as indicated upon the official plat, adopting proportional measurements 

where the new measurements of the north or 

west boundaries of the section differ from the 

record distances. 

Subdivisions of Fractional Sections 

3-88. The law provides that where opposite 

corresponding quarter-section corners have not 

been or cannot be fixed, the subdivision-of-sec- 
86 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

tion lines shall be ascertained by running from 

the established corners north, south, east, or 

west, as the case may be, to the water course, 

reservation line, or other boundary of such 

fractional section, as represented upon the official plat. 

In this the law presumes that the section lines 

are due north and south, or east and west lines, 

but usually this is not the case. Hence, in order 

to carry out the spirit of the law, it will be 

necessary in running the center lines through 

fractional sections to adopt mean courses where 

the section lines are not on due cardinal, or to 

run parallel to the east, south, west, or north 

boundary of the section, as conditions may require, where there is no opposite section line. 

Subdivision of Quarter Sections 

3-89. Preliminary to the subdivision of 

quarter sections, the quarter-quarter- or sixteenth-section corners will be established at 

points midway between the section and quartersection corners, and between the quarter-section corners and the center of the section, except on the last half mile of the lines closing on 

township boundaries, where they should be 

placed at 20 chains, proportionate measurement, counting from the regular quarter-section 

corner. 

The quarter-quarter- or sixteenth-section 

corners having been established as directed 

above, the center lines of the quarter section 

will be run straight between opposite corresponding quarter-quarter- or sixteenth-section 

corners on the quarter-section boundaries. The 

intersection of the lines thus run will determine 

the legal center of a quarter section. 

Subdivision of Fractional 

Quarter Sections 

3-90. The subdivisional lines of fractional 

quarter sections will be run from properly 

established quarter-quarter- or sixteenth-section corners, with courses governed by the conditions represented upon the official plat, to the 

lake, water-course, reservation, or other irregular boundary which renders such sections fractional. 

3-91. Reasonable discrepancies between 

former and new measurements may generally 

be expected when retracing the section boundaries. The shortage or surplus is distributed by 

proportion in establishing a sixteenth-section 

corner. For example: The length of the line 

from the quarter-section corner on the west 

boundary of section 2 to the north line of the 

township, by the official survey was reported 

as 43.40 chains, and by the county surveyor’s 

measurement was found to be 42.90 chains. 

The distance which the sixteenth-section corner should be located north of the quarter-section corner would be determined by proportion as follows: As 43.40 chains, the official 

measurement of the whole distance, is to 42.90 

chains, the county surveyor’s measurement of 

the same distance, so is 20 chains, original 

measurement, to 19.77 chains by the county 

surveyor’s measurement. By proportionate 

measurement in this case the sixteenth-section 

corner should be set at 19.77 chains north of 

the quarter-section corner, instead of 20 chains 

north of said corner, as represented on the 

official plat. In this manner the discrepancies 

between original and new measurements are 

equitably distributed. 

Summarg 

3-92. By way of recapitulation it is emphasized that when entrymen have acquired 

title to certain legal subdivisions they have become the owners of the identical ground area 

represented by the same subdivisions upon the 

official plat. It is a matter of expert or technical 

procedure to mark out the legal subdivisions 

called for in a patent, and entrymen are advised that a competent surveyor should be 

employed. The surveyor must identify the section boundaries and locate the legal center of 

the section in order to determine the boundaries of a quarter section. Then, if the boundaries of quarter-quarter sections, or fractional 

lots, are to be determined on the ground, the 

boundaries of the quarter section must be 

measured, and the sixteenth-section corners 

fixed in accordance with the proportional distances represented upon the approved plat. 

Finally, the legal center of the quarter section 

may be duly located. Thus will be produced in 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 

/8 15 I 20.00 1 40.00 

a I I 

I I 

4 

;' I a 

8' 9 

61 a -- - - 

I vl 

$2 I I 0 

hl I I 

87 

a I I 

s6 I I 

1 dl 

a v1 

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I 

I I 97 

I 

I a' a hl 

2 _--- 0 

hl 

20.98 , 20.00 1 40.00 

Off i ci o I mea su rem e n t s . 

20.08 1 20.08 I 20.06 I 20.06 

1 /8.24 I 20.09 1 20./2 I 20.12 1 

? 

I d 

I 

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I I 

20.09 20.09 I 

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I d 

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t- -- t---- 

I I 

20.09 20.09 I 

/8 32 20 03 20 14 

1 20.76 ' /9.96 I 19.97 t /9.97 

2/. 02 20.01 

Remeasurements. 

FIGURE i50.-Examples of subdivision by survey showing relation of official measurements and calculated distances to 

remeasurements, and indicating proportional distribution of differences. 
88 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

h 

UNSURVEYED B 

the field the figure represented upon the plat, 

every part of the former in true proportion to 

the latter, where the elements of absolute distance and area have given way to corresponding proportional units as defined by fixed monuments established in the original survey. 

80 : 

:: 

SURVEY OF PARTS OF SECTIONS 

N 89O56'W 60 00 

Secb 

B 

3-93. In rare cases portions of the section 

boundaries are impassable or so insecure that 

acceptable monumentation is impracticable, and 

yet a need exists for survey of the accessible 

area. Since rules covering every set of conditions 

cannot be given, the methods ordinarily are 

carried in the special instructions. Figures 51 

and 52 show rectangular boundaries of parts 

of regular sections. A random subdivision-ofsection line is run closing the area to be surveyed, each course parallel to the governing 

boundary, with lengths in multiples of 20 

chains. The closing error is then distributed 

as provided in section 5-43 and monuments 

established. Figures 53 and 54 show rectangular 

boundaries of parts of closing sections. Fractional lottings are indicated. In figure 53 the 

whole closing error in latitude is placed as 

normally in the north tier of lots. In figure 54 

the whole closing error in departure is placed 

as normally in the west range of lots. In all 

cases the interior sixteenth-section corners and 

L 20.00 

N 89O56'W 

FIGURE 52.-Rectangular boundaries of parts of a regular section. 

the center quarter-section corner are monumented at turning points of the lines actually 

run. 

3-94. The field notes show only the true 

line courses and distances, the usual topography, 

the description of monuments, and a description of the difficulties which warranted an 

elimination of parts of the section or sections, 

3-95. To subdivide a partly surveyed section, the remaining subdivision-of-section lines 

within the surveyed area would be determined 

by running straight lines between the nearest 

established control for the sectional center lines. 

N 89O48'W 

4000 1 

00 I60 

FIGURE 51.-Rectangular boundaries of parts of a regular section. 

I 20.00 J N.89°50'U! 

FIGURE 53.-Rectangular boundaries of parts of a section adjoining the north boundary. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 89 

I2 I I I 80 41 a 

UNSUR VE YED 

FIGURE 64.-Rectangular boundaries of parts of a section adjoining the west boundary. 

The position for the center quarter-section corner is at the intersection of the center lines, 

unless previously marked. The remaining interior sixteenth-section corners on the sectional 

center lines are at midpoints between the exterior quarter-section corners and the center 

quarter-section corner, except within the sections normally fractional. The center lines of 

the quarter sections would be completed on a 

similar plan. In all sections normally fractional 

the excess or deficiency would be placed in its 

normal position. 

3-96. Although the running of traverse 

lines on the margin of impassable areas has 

been largely discontinued, such a survey is 

sometimes called for where rectangular boundaries cannot otherwise be completed within the 

section. The method should be authorized in 

the special instructions only when supported 

by ample justification. In such surveys the 

angle points of the traverse line are given serial 

numbers in each fractional section, and the 

points are monumented. The subdivision-ofsection lines are protracted only, unless a 

definition upon the ground is justified. 

FRACTIONAL TOWNSHIPS 

3-97. The regular procedures described for 

subdividing full townships cannot always be 

adopted. A township invaded by a large meanderable body of water, impassable objects, or a 

State, reservation, or grant boundary may lack 

a full linear south or east boundary. If it has 

been found advisable to run section lines as 

offsets to the township exteriors, the fractional section lines south and east of these controlling lines are projected opposite to the usual 

directions. The fractional measurements and 

the resulting fractional lots are placed against 

the irregular boundary. If only the north or 

west part of a fractional township is involved, 

no departure from the regular order of subdivision is necessary, since fractional measurements on the exterior and subdivisional lines, 

and the resulting fractional lots, will be placed 

to the north and west against the irregular 

boundary. 

3-98. Where no part of the south boundary 

of a township can be regularly established, the 

subdivision may proceed from north to south 

and from east to west, throwing fractional 

measurements and areas against the west 

boundary and the meanderable stream or other 

boundary limiting the township on the south. 

If the east boundary is without regular section 

corners and the north boundary has been run 

eastwardly as a true line, with section corners 

at regular intervals of 80 chains, the subdivision 

of the township may be made from west to 

east. In that case the fractional measurements 

and areas are thrown against the irregular east 

boundary. On the other hand, if the north 

boundary of section 6 is fractional, a sectional 

guide meridian, initiated at the easternmost 

regular section corner on the north boundary, 

is projected to the south to take the place of a 

governing east boundary. The subdivisional 

survey is then projected from north to south 

and from east to west, with fractional measurements and resulting fractional lots on the east, 

south and west boundaries of the township. 

Figures 55 through 58 illustrate the principles 

which control the subdivision of partial townships. 

3-99. In the case of fractional townships 

the sections bear the same numbers they would 

have had if the townships were complete. That 

is, the section numbers are those relating to the 

governing boundaries. 
90 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

FIGURE 66 (a) .-Use of auxiliary base. 

EXTENSION AND COMPLETION 

SURVEYS 

3-100. Surveys coming before the Bureau 

of Land Management sometimes involve the 

continuation of the subdivisional survey of 

townships previously subdivided in part only. 

These surveys include the completion of partially surveyed sections or of sections containing outlying areas protracted as surveyed. If 

defective conditions are encountered in the 

previously established surveys, the problems 

concerning the procedure to be adopted multiply 

rapidly and require the greatest skill on the 

FIGURD 65(b).-Use of auxiliary base. 

--I I Auxiliary base 

FIGURE 56(c).-Use of auxiliary base. 

part of the surveyor. In the construction of new 

township plats the former practice of platting 

outlying areas of sections protracted as surveyed has been abandoned as unsatisfactory 

and inconsistent with the surveying laws. 

3-101. Most original surveys that are now 

to be extended were executed many years ago 

when the remaining areas were considered 

wastelands. Due to the ravages of time and the 

inferior monumentation of the early surveys, 

obliteration may be so far advanced that resurveys are needed to identify and remonument the limiting boundaries of the area to be 

surveyed. The surveyor often must retrace 

FIGURE 56.-Regular subdivision of fractional township. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 91 

80.00 

10- 

L 

I 

18 17 16 15 

FIGURE 57.-Subdivision from north to south, and from 

west to east. 

additional lines that are not the boundaries of 

sections containing the new areas to be surveyed. The theoretical position of a lost corner 

on such lines may be at variance with an unofficial corner established by local survey and 

recognized by the owners of the private lands 

affected. Controversy is avoided if reestablishments are confined to corners that control the 

position of the section boundaries or the subdivision-of-section lines of the public lands to 

be surveyed. Identified original corners adopted 

as control in reestablishing corners of the public 

land sections are rehabilitated but not remonumented in such cases. Corner restorations are 

made in accordance with the provisions of chapter V. 

3-102. The field notes of necessary resurveys should include an explanation of their 

purpose and extent, including all needed historical references to the related prior surveys. 

The detail is written in the usual field note 

Frac. 

i-18- 

PISt30- 

31 32 

FIGURE 58.-Subdivision from north to south, and from 

east to west. 

record form, following the introductory statement. 

The plat, in addition to the usual data, may 

carry a marginal memorandum or diagram that 

clearly defines what lines of the prior survey 

have been retraced as a basis for extending the 

new lines. If no changes are made in the former 

lottings and areas in the resurveyed portions, 

it is stated that the lottings and area remain 

as shown on the plat or plats approved-(date 

or dates). 

Completion of Partially Surveyed Sections 

3-103. In extending fragmentary surveys, 

first consideration is given to the completion 

of partially surveyed sections. If outlying portions of sections have been returned as surveyed 

on the previous plat, it is usually necessary to 

complete the survey of each section in such a 

way as to protect acquired rights. The procedure adopted must fix the remaining quartersection corners in a position which will control 

the center lines as necessary to retain the form 

of the original areas within reasonable limits. 

3-104. The new quarter-section corners are 

regarded as reasonably fixed when (1) the 

alinement does not exceed 21’ from a cardinal 

course and (2) the measurement does not exceed 25 links from 40 chains, or in proportion 

when the opposite portion of the section boundary was returned as more or less than 40 chains. 

This concession as to limits is made in the 

interests of simplicity where the rectangularity 

of both old and new surveys can thus be maintained. 

3-105. The position of the quarter-section 

corner on a new opposite boundary is controlled 

from only one direction if the old opposite distance was made to count from one direction 

only. If the old opposite distance was made to 

count from two directions, the position of the 

new quarter-section corner is controlled from 

the two directions. The lengths of the two portions of the new line are made proportional to 

the two parts of the old opposite boundary. 

3-106. Given an original survey which is 

within rectangular limits, the survey of a fractional section is completed on the same plan 

begun in the original survey. When irregularity 

is developed, the simplest method of sur- 
92 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

vey that will correct irregularities and provide an early resumption of regularity in 

in the new subdivisional lines is adopted. The 

general rule is that each completed section will 

have four regular boundaries without off sets, 

with four governing section corners and four 

controlling quarter-section corners in such position as to maintain the integrity of the fractional areas shown upon the original plat. 

3-107. Modification of the general rule is 

necessary where completing each of two sections in the above manner would cause an overlap or hiatus. In such a case each section is 

completed theoretically without regard to the 

other, and the position of each center line is 

fixed. The most reasonable position for a common boundary between the two sections is then 

determined, and the new quarter-section corners are established at points which maintain 

the center lines in their positions. If the theoretical position for each quarter-section corner 

falls within 25 links of a common point, with 

allowance for variance in length of the center 

line, one corner may be established which will 

secure maximum regularity in both sections. 

3-108. The possible combinations of uncompleted sections are too numerous to discuss fully 

here. Directions will be given in the special 

instructions for the cases involved in an assignment, and the surveyor should seek advice from 

the proper administrative office when irregularities develop. A diagram showing the exact 

field conditions should always accompany his 

report. 

3-109. A private survey made for the purpose of marking on the ground a theoretical 

line, platted but not run by the Government, 

where executed within allowable departure from 

cardinal course, and relied upon by owner under 

title passed by the United States in the placing 

of improvements upon the patented land, will 

not be disturbed, but it will be adopted by the 

Government as a boundary for closure of the 

survey of the adjoining public land. Algoma 

Lumber Co. v. Kruger, 50 L.D. 402 (1923). 

3-110. The best test of the fitness of a proposed method for the completion of partially 

surveyed sections is to plat the subdivisional 

lines by protraction. Thereupon the regular 

rules for subdivision of sections should be applicable. The position of the new quarter-section 

corners, established to control the subdivision 

of the section in question, must be such as to 

permit the center lines to the opposite original 

quarter-section corners to be connected in harmony with conditions shown on the original 

plat, disregarding the effect upon the subdivision of the newly surveyed land. Likewise, the 

lines connecting the sixteenth-section corners 

on the opposite boundaries of a quarter section 

must conform to the conditions represented on 

the original plat. When the subdivision-of-section lines are platted, the section is satisfactory 

if the integrity of the original areas is in no 

way violated. 

3-111. The following guidelines should be 

followed in platting : 

(1) The new areas should be complementary 

to the original areas by the extension of the 

subdivision-of -section lines as already protracted upon the original plat, except as poorly 

shaped lots, or lots of too great or too little 

area, would result in violation of the regular 

rules for subdivision of sections. 

(2) In the interest of regularity and simplicity of platting, the same meridional limit may 

be permitted as is ordinarily allowed in latitudinal section lines. A section may be considered regular if its boundaries do not depart 

more than 21’ from a cardinal course in alinement and no more than 25 links from 40 chains 

in measurement between the section and quarter-section corners. Such regular sections may 

be subdivided into regular quarter sections and 

quarter-quarter sections as far as possible. A 

section having three regular boundary lines 

may be subdivided in accordance with the usual 

rules for subdividing sections along the north 

and west boundaries of a normal township. A 

section having two adjacent regular boundary 

lines may be subdivided by the same manner in 

which section 6 of a normal township is treated. 

All other sections should be treated as irregular, 

with subdivision-of-section lines protracted to 

mid-points on the boundaries of the quarter 

sections, except as a calculated proportional 

position for a sixteenth-section corner is made 

necessary by the showing of the original plat. 

(3) All new fractional lots are numbered 

beginning with the next higher number in the 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 93 

series shown on the previously approved plat, 

and proceeding in the usual order. The new 

series may begin with No. 1 if the fractional 

parts of the original area are not designated 

by lot number. 

Completion of Township Subdivision 

3-112. Only after the partially surveyed 

sections have been completed should the surveyor proceed with the subdivision of the remaining portions of the township. If no irregularities are found in the previously established 

lines the new survey may proceed normally. If 

defective conditions are encountered, the irregularities are not extended into unsurveyed 

sections any farther than necessary to incorporate the resulting fractional measurements into 

suitable fractional lots adjoining the former 

surveys. Preference should be given to extending all surveys from south to north and from 

east to west. If a better control is available by 

reversing the procedure in one or both directions, resulting in a simpler survey by minimizing the number of extra corners as well as fractional lots, reversal of the procedure is warranted. 

3-113. In the event that the previously surveyed subdivision lines are defective, the new 

section lines may serve the function of a sectional guide meridian or a sectional correction line as required. The corners from which 

the new surveys are initiated are established 

as corners of four sections, or of two sections 

as appropriate. Where new section lines cannot 

be connected regularly with the previously 

established section corners by random and true 

line not exceeding 21’ from cardinal, a closing 

section corner is established at intersection 

with the line of the old survey. The fractional 

measurements of the closing section lines are 

placed adjacent to the old surveys. The original 

lines forming the boundary of the lands to be 

surveyed are retraced, as already provided and 

the marks upon the original corners are appropriately modified as necessary. New quartersection corners marked to control the subdivision of the new sections are established on the 

original lines at midpoints between the closing 

section corners, or at 40 chains from one direction, according to the manner in which a new 

section is subdivided. 

3-114. There are often two or more ways in 

which a fractional subdivision may be completed, 

but careful study of a sketch plat representing 

existing conditions will generally reveal the 

superiority of one method over another. 

MEANDERING 

3-115. The traverse of the margin of a 

permanent natural body of water is termed a 

meander line. All navigable bodies of water and 

other important rivers and lakes are segregated 

from the public lands at mean high-water elevation. In original surveys, meander lines are run 

for the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of 

land remaining after segregation of the water 

area. 

The running of meander lines has always 

been authorized in the survey of public lands 

fronting on large streams and other bodies of 

water. But the mere fact that an irregular or 

sinuous line must be run, as in the case of a 

reservation boundary, does not entitle it to be 

called a meander line except where it closely 

follows the bank of a stream or lake. The legal 

riparian rights connected with meander lines do 

not apply in the case of other irregular lines, as 

the latter are strict boundaries. 

Low-water mark is the point to which a river 

or other body of water recedes, under ordinary 

conditions, at its lowest stage. High-water mark 

is the line which the water impresses on the 

soil by covering it for sufficient periods to deprive it of vegetation. The shore is the space 

between the margin of the water at its lowest 

stage and the banks at high-water mark. Ahbama v. Georgia, 64 U. S. 505 (1859). 

Numerous decisions in the United States 

Supreme Court assert the principle that meander lines are not boundaries defining the area 

of ownership of lands adjacent to the water. 

The general rule is that meander lines are run 

not as boundaries, but to define the sinuosities 

of the banks of the stream or other body of 

water, and as a means of ascertaining the quantity of land embraced in the survey; the stream, 

or other body of water, and not the meander 

line as actually run on the ground, is the bound- 
94 MANUAL OF SURVEYING 3NSTRUCTIONS 

I 21 I 

- 

4131211 

-L-+-II 

- -Sec. I-- - I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

- -Set. 12- - - I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

- - Sec. 13- - - 

I 

I 

c_r_c I 

I 

I 

- - sec. 24 - - 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I - I 

I 

I 

I 

- -Sec. 36-- 

I 

I 

1 

I 

I 

I - sec. 25- - 

FIGURE SS.-Example showing completion of partially surveyed sections and completion of subdivisional lines of a 

township with necessary lottings. 

ary. When by action of water the bed of the 

body of water changes, high-water mark 

changes, and the ownership of adjoining land 

progresses with it. Lane v. United States, 274 

Fed. 290 (1921). 

Meander lines will not be established at the 

segregation line between upland and swamp 

or overflowed land, but at the ordinary highwater mark of the actual margin of the river or 

lake on which such swamp or overflowed lands 

border. 

3-116. Practically all inland bodies of water pass through an annual cycle of changes, between the extremes of which will be found 

mean high water. In regions of broken topography, especially where bodies of water are 

bounded by sharply sloping lands, the horizontal distance between the margins of the various 

water elevations is comparatively slight, and 

the surveyor does not experience much difficulty 

in determining the horizontal position of mean 

high-water level with approximate accuracy. 

Where the meanderable bodies of water are 

bordered by relatively flat lands, the horizontal 

distance between the successive levels is relatively great. The most reliable indication of 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 95 

c-c- c-ck -- 61 I 15 

!I I1 

--I I- -- 31 I 14 

- 4 Sec. /8 1- - - Previously Subdivided 

51 I 15 

-4 I I--- 

4; 3 ;'. ; 1. __ '!; 3 ;!?- + 1 -. 56 a56 40 40 I 4', 40 40 I 40 4'0 ,", I1 I 

--I I 

21 I 40 :b I 48 '20 4'0 bb At 20 -tSec /9------ -IS~C'ZO-L----JS~C'~/ + - -- 

31 I I I I 13 

-.I I I I c-- 41 I I I I 14 

- ut -t - i- --- + -+-t 

I I I >- 

II I I I II 

--I I I I c--- 21 I I I 12 

31 I I I 13 

-t-+-r-.-.-T-+-T r-+-t-- 

-4Sec 30----.---Sec. 29------Sec'28-1-- -- 

4151617 1121314 415161 7 I,, 

I 

Q;Sjz+L .;r;z;L 56785678 

.O I40 40 I 40 40 I 40 40 40 

I 

I 

I 

I1 I 

-+Sec./4-- - I' --Sec./3--- 

--I I 

21 I 

31 I I 

-t I I 

I 41 I 

I, I 

II I I 

I 

I --I I 

- tSec 23 - - - - - -Sec. 24- - - 

31 ' -+-L21 I I 

I 

.-L-- 1- - 4151617 112{314 

I, 1 

FIGURE BO.-Example showing completion of subdivisional lines of a township where outlying parts of sections returned earlier have been cancelled. 

mean high-water elevation is the evidence made 

by the water's action at its various stages, 

which are generally well marked in the soil. In 

timbered localities a very certain indication of 

the locus of the various important water levels 

is found in the belting of the native forest 

species. 

Mean high-water elevation is found at the 

margin of the area occupied by the water for the 

greater portion of each average year. At this 

level a definite escarpment in the soil is generally traceable, at the top of which is the true 

position for the meander line. A pronounced 

escarpment, the result of the action of storm 

and flood waters is often found above the principal water level, and separated from the latter 

by the storm or flood beach. Another, less evident, escarpment is often found at the average 

low-water level, especially of lakes, the lower 

escarpment being separated from the principal 

escarpment by the normal beach or shore. While 

these questions properly belong to the realm of 

geology, they should not be overlooked in the 

survey of a meander line. 

Where native forest trees are found in abundance bordering bodies of water, those trees 
96 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

showing evidence of having grown under favorable site conditions will be found belted along 

contour lines. Certain mixed varieties common 

to a particular region are found only on the 

lands seldom if ever overflowed. Another group 

are found on the lands which are inundated only 

a small portion of the growing season each 

year, and indicate the area which should be 

included in the classification of the uplands. 

Other varieties of native forest trees are found 

only within the zone of swamp and overflowed 

lands. All timber growth normally ceases at the 

margin of permanent water. 

3-117. A meander corner is established at 

every point where a standard, township, or section line intersects the bank of a navigable 

stream or other meanderable body of water. No 

monument should be placed in a position exposed to the beating of waves and the action 

of ice in severe weather. In such cases a witness corner should be established on the line at 

a secure point near the true point for the meander corner. The distance across a body of water 

is ascertained by triangulation or direct measurement, and the full particulars are given in 

the field tablets. 

3-118. Inasmuch as it is not practicable in 

public-land surveys to meander in such a way 

as to follow and reproduce all the minute windings of the high-water line, the United States 

Supreme Court has given the principles governing the use and purpose of meandering shores 

in its decision in a noted case as follows: 

Meander lines are run in surveying fractional portions of the public lands bordering on navigable rivers, 

not as boundaries of the tract, but for the purpose of 

defining the sinuosities of the banks of the stream, and 

as the means of ascertaining the quantity of land in 

the fraction subject to sale, which is to be paid for by 

the purchaser. In preparing the official plat from the 

field notes, the meander line is represented as the border 

line of the stream, and shows to a demonstration that 

the watercourse, and not the meander line as actually 

run on the land, is the boundary. Railroad Co. v. 

Schurmeier, 74 U.S. 272 (1868). 

3-119. The surveyor commences at one of 

the meander corners, follows the bank or shore 

line, and determines the length and true bearing of each course, from the beginning to the 

next meander corner. All meander courses refer 

to the true meridian and are determined with 

precision. “Transit angles” showing only the 

amount of the deviation from the preceding 

course are not acceptable in field notes of meanders. Where it is impossible to survey the meander line along mean high-water mark, the notes 

should state the distance therefrom and the 

obstacles which justify the deviation. A table 

of latitudes and departures of the meander 

courses should be computed before leaving the 

vicinity, and if misclosure is found, indicating 

error in measurement or in reading courses, the 

lines should be rerun. 

The following items will be noted along the 

meander line: (1) all streams flowing into a 

river, lake, or meanderable bayou, with the 

width at their mouths; (2) the position, size, 

and depth of springs, and whether the water is 

pure or mineral ; (3) the heads and mouths of all 

bayous; (4) all rapids and bars, with intersections to the upper and lower ends ; (5) the elevation of the banks of lakes and streams, the 

height of falls and cascades, and the length and 

fall of rapids; and (6) artificial structures in 

both land and water areas. 

The field notes of meanders show the corners 

from which the meanders commenced and upon 

which they closed, and exhibit the meanders of 

each fractional section separately. Following, 

and composing a part of the notes, should be 

given a description of the adjoining land, soil 

and timber, and the estimated depth of inundation to which the bottom land is subject. 

Rivers 

3-120. Facing downstream, the bank on the 

left hand is termed the left bank and that on 

the right hand the right bank. These terms will 

be universally used to distinguish the two banks 

of a river or stream. 

Navigable rivers and bayous, as well as all 

rivers not navigable, the right-angle width of 

which is 3 chains and upwards, are meandered 

on both banks, at the ordinary mean high-water 

mark, by taking the general courses and distances of their sinuosities. Rivers not classed as 

navigable are not meandered above the point 

where the average right-angle width is less 

than 3 chains, except when duly authorized. 

Shallow streams and intermittent streams 

without well defined channel or banks are not 

meandered, even when more than 3 chains wide. 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 97 

Tidewater streams are meandered at ordinary 

mean high tide as far as navigable, even when 

less than 3 chains wide. Tidewater inlets and 

bayous are recorded, and are meandered if more 

than 3 chains in width, but when nonnavigable 

are not meandered when less than 3 chains wide. 

Lakes 

3-121. All lakes of the area of 50 acres and 

upwards, are meandered. 

In the case of lakes which are located entirely within the boundaries of a section, a 

quarter-section line, if one crosses the lake, is 

run from one of the quarter-section corners, on 

a theoretical course to connect with the opposite 

quarter-section corner, to the margin of the 

lake, and the distance is measured. At the point 

thus determined a “special meander corner” is 

established. 

Where one or both of the opposite quartersection corners cannot be established, and in 

all cases where the distance across a lake exceeds 40 chains or the physical crossing is difficult, a temporary special meander corner is 

established at the computed intersection with 

the center line of the section when surveying 

the meander line. The temporary point is later 

corrected to the true center line position for 

monumentation, at midpoint in departure (or 

latitude), or at proportionate distance in a fractional section. 

If a meanderable lake is found to be located 

entirely within a quarter section, an “auxiliary 

meander corner” is established at some suitable 

point on its margin, and a connecting line is 

run from the monument to a regular corner on 

the section boundary. A connecting traverse 

line is recorded, if run, but it is also reduced 

to the equivalent direct connecting course and 

distance, all of which is stated in the field notes. 

Only the course and length of the direct connecting line are shown on the plat of the survey. 

The meander line of a lake lying within a section is initiated at the established special or 

auxiliary meander corner, as the case may be, 

and continued around the margin of the normal 

lake at its mean high-water level, to a closing 

at the point of beginning. All proceedings are 

fully entered in the field notes. 

Artificial lakes and reservoirs are not segregated from the public lands, unless specially 

provided in the instructions, but the true position and extent of such bodies of water are 

determined in the field and shown on the plat. 

Other exceptions to the general rule are 

shallow or poorly defined “lakes” which are 

actually pools that collect because of permafrost 

and lack of drainage or which are ephemeral 

desert playas formed seasonally or in wet years. 

These “lakes” should not be meandered even 

when larger than 50 acres. 

Islands 

Every island above the mean highwater elevation of any meanderable body of 

water, except islands formed in navigable bodies of water after the date of the admission of 

a State into the Union, is located by triangulation or direct measurement or other suitable 

process, and is meandered and shown upon 

the official plat. 

Even though the United States has parted 

with its title to the adjoining mainland, an 

island in a meandered body of water, navigable 

or nonnavigable, in continuous existence since 

the date of the admission of the State into the 

Union, and omitted from the original survey, 

remains public land of the United States. As 

such the island is subject to survey. This is 

because such islands were not a part of the bed 

of the stream at the date of Statehood, and 

therefore their title remained in the United 

States, subject to survey and disposal when 

identified. The riparian right that attaches to 

the lottings along the meander line of the mainland pertains only to the bed of the stream, and 

to such islands as may form within the bed subsequent to the disposal of the title. The proof 

of the time of the formation of islands is often 

difficult. It is the practice to make a careful 

examination of the history of an island in relation to the question of its legal ownership. 

Islands that have been given well-known 

proper names are so identified, both in the field 

notes and on the plat. Sometimes there are a 

number of islands in the same section without 

proper names. Some may have been surveyed, 

others omitted. Of the latter, some may rightfully belong to the State, some to a riparian 

3-122. 
98 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

proprietor, so that any system of numbering 

may be uncertain, and if used may still be confused with a lot number, if and when surveyed. 

For these reasons their identification may be 

uncertain unless the following rule is applied : 

Where there are several unnamed islands 

within the same section, these will be referred 

to in the field notes (when surveyed) according to the lot number (Island designated as 

lot No. -) that is assigned on the plat, excepting that islands which are crossed by section 

line boundaries, or by a center line of the section, are readily identified by location. 

Any township boundary or section line which 

will intersect an island is extended as nearly 

in accordance with the plan of regular surveys 

as conditions permit, and the usual township, 

section, quarter-section, and meander corners 

are established on the island. If an island falls 

in two sections only, the line between the sections should be established in its proper theoretical position based upon suitable sights and 

calculations. If an island falls entirely in one 

section, and is large enough to be subdivided 

(over 50 acres in area), a suitable sight or 

calculation is made to locate on the margin of 

the island an intersection with the theoretical 

position of any suitable subdivision-of-section 

line. At the point thus determined a “special 

meander corner” is established. In the case of 

an island falling entirely in one section and too 

small to be subdivided, an ‘auxiliary meander 

corner” is established at any suitable point on 

its margin, which is connected with any regular 

corner on the mainland. The direct course and 

length of the connecting line is given in the 

field notes and shown on the plat. 

The meander line of an island is surveyed in 

harmony with principles and rules heretofore 

stated. All township and section lines crossing 

the island are shown on the plat. If the island is 

large enough to be subdivided, the subdivision 

is accomplished by the protraction of suitable 

subdivision-of-section lines in their correct 

theoretical position. 

Under special circumstances where administration or disposal requires no subdivision, an 

island is given a tract number within a township. In such cases, the section lines need not 

be extended to the island. 

Agricultural upland within the limits of 

swamp and overflowed lands should be so classified and shown upon the plat accordingly, but 

such land is not meandered as an island. 

Use of Photogrammetry 

3-123. Where conditions are favorable, 

meander lines may be surveyed by the process 

of photogrammetry after the meander corners 

have been established in the regular manner. 

The field notes will state what lines were so 

determined and the date and identification of 

the photography. 

LIMITS OF CLOSURE 

3-124. The “error of closure” of a survey 

is defined in general terms as the ratio of the 

length of the line representing the equivalent 

of the errors in latitude and departure to the 

length of the perimeter of the figure constituting the survey. However, with due regard for 

the controlling coordinate governing lines of a 

rectangular survey, accuracy in latitude is not 

permitted to offset gross error in departure, 

or vice versa. A double test is therefore applied 

to United States rectangular surveys in place 

of the one expressed in general terms. 

The “limit of closure” set for the public land 

surveys may now be expressed by the fraction 

1/905, provided that the limit of closure in 

neither latitude nor departure exceeds 1/1280. 

Where a survey qualifies under the latter limit, 

the former is bound to be satisfied. An accumulative error of 6% links per mile of perimeter, 

in either latitude or departure, will not be exceeded in an acceptable survey. 

The latitudes and departures of a normal section shall each close within 25 lipks, of a normal 

range or tier of sections within 88 links, and 

of a normal township within 150 links. The 

boundaries of each fractional section including 

irregular claim lines or meanders, or the meanders of an island or lake in the interior of a 

section, should close within a limit to be determined by the fraction 1/1280 for latitude or 

departure considered separately. The same rule 

applies to all broken or irregular boundaries. 

All closings will be computed in the field. 
SYSTEM OF RBXANGULAR SURVEYS 99 

Stricter limits of closure will be specified in 

the special instructions for classes of surveys 

where higher precision is indicated by the values 

involved. 

MARKING LINES BETWEEN 

CORNERS 

3-125. The survey is marked upon the 

ground in the following ways : 

(a) The regular corners of the public-land 

surveys are marked by fixed official monuments as described in chapter IV. 

(b) The relation to natural topographic features is recorded in detail in the field notes. 

(chapter VIII) . (c) The locus of the lines is marked upon 

forest trees by blazing and by hack marks. 

Figures 61 and 62. However, in conformity with 

the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 

the operational need for the marking of lines 

should be weighed against possible esthetic 

damage. If special precautions are to be taken 

in this regard, they should be set out in the 

special instructions. Also, in the case of resurveys in areas of mixed public and private lands, 

it may be necessary to restrict the blazing to 

trees on public land. The surveyor on the ground 

should apply good judgment in particular cases 

not covered by his instructions. Where it has 

been determined that lines will be marked, the 

methods discussed here are intended to fix the 

lines permanently with the minimum environmental effect. 

A blaze is a smoothed surface cut upon a 

tree trunk at about breast height. The bark 

FIGURE 61.-Hack marks on a line tree. 

FIGURE 62.-A line blaze. 

and a small amount of the live wood tissue are 

removed with an axe or other cutting tool, 

leaving a flat surface which forever brands the 

tree. The size of the blaze depends somewhat 

upon the size of the tree, but should not be 

made larger than the surface of an axe blade. 

A blaze five or six inches in height and from 

two to four inches in width is usually ample. 

A hack is a horizontal notch cut well into the 

wood, also made at about breast height. Two 

hacks are cut to distinguish them from other, 

accidental marks. A vertical section of the 

finished hack marks resembles a double-V extending across a tree from two to six inches 

depending upon the diameter of the tree. 

The blaze and hack mark are equally permanent, but so different in character that one 

mark should never be mistaken for the other. 

The difference becomes important when the line 

is retraced in later years. 

Trees intersected by the line have two hacks 

or notches cut on each of the sides facing the 

line, without any other marks whatever. These 

are called sight trees or line trees. A sufficient 

number of other trees standing within 50 links 

of the line, on either side of it, are blazed on two 

sides quartering toward the line, in order to 

render the line conspicuous and readily to be 

traced in either direction. The blazes are made 

opposite each other coinciding in direction with 

the line where the trees stand very near it and 

approaching nearer each other toward the line 

the farther the line passes from the blazed trees. 

Figure 63. 

The lines should be so well marked as to be 

readily followed and the blazes plain enough to 

leave recognizable scars as long as the trees 

stand. This can be accomplished by blazing just 
100 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

FIGURE 63.-Marking a line through timber. 

through the bark into the live wood tissue. The 

blazes should be narrow so that they will heal 

before decay begins, and special care should 

be taken not to loosen the cambium layer 

around the blaze, since this will prevent overgrowth. Where trees have branches growing 

to the ground, the blazes may be omitted unless 

it is necessary to remove the branches to permit 

sighting. 

Lines are also marked by cutting away 

enough of the undergrowth to facilitate correct sighting of instruments. Where lines cross 

deep wooded valleys, by sighting over the tops, 

the usual blazing of trees in the low ground 

when accessible will be performed. The undergrowth will be especially well cut along all lines 

within distances of 5 chains of corner monuments and within 2 chains of arteries of travel, 

but the cutting of the undergrowth may be 

omitted in deep untraveled ravines unless necessary for accurate sighting or measurement. 

Line trees and blazing are marked only with 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 101 

reference to the established true line. Where 

lines are run by the “random and true” line 

method, the marking of line trees and the blazing is accomplished by returning over the line 

after all corrections or adjustments to the final 

line are definitely known. A sufficient number 

of temporary stakes should be set along a random line to render it generally unnecessary to 

rerun the true line instrumentally merely for 

the purpose of blazing the line through timber. 

This can usually be accomplished by properly 

estimating the distance from the temporary 

stakes, but intersections with line trees will be 

made with precision, and distances thereto accurately measured. 

SUMMARY OF OBJECTS 

TO BE NOTED, AND SKETCHES 

3-126. The field notes and plat of a survey 

furnish not only a technical record of the procedure, but also a report upon the character of 

the land, soil and timber traversed by the survey, and the topographical features along line, 

with accurate connections showing the relation 

of the rectangular surveys to other surveys, to 

na+ural objects, and to improvements. A triple 

purpose is thus served : (1) the technical procedure is made a matter of official record; (2) 

general information relating to a region is 

gathered ; and, (3) the “calls” of the field notes 

and the representations of the plat in respect 

to objects along the surveyed lines furnish 

important evidence by which the locus of the 

survey becomes practically unchangeable as 

contemplated by law. 

The specimen field notes and plats are intended to standardize the form of record. Special matters relating to these subjects are discussed in chapters VIII and IX. The technical 

and topographical features which are to be carefully observed and recorded in the field during 

the progress of the public-land surveys are : 

(1) The course and length of every line run, 

all-necessary oflsets therefrom, the reason for 

making them, and the method employed. 

(2) The kind and diameter of bearing trees, 

the course and distance from their respective 

corners, and the markings; all bearing objects 

and marks thereon, if any; and the position of 

witness corners relative to the true corners. 

(3) The kind of material of which corner 

monuments are constructed, their dimensions 

and markings, depth set in the ground, and their 

accessories. 

(4) Trees on line. The name, diameter and 

distance on line to trees which it intersects, 

and their markings. 

(5) Intersections by line of land objects. The 

distance at which the line intersects the boundary lines of a reservation, townsite, or private 

claim, noting the exact bearing of such boundary lines, and the distance to the nearest boundary corner ; the center line of a railroad, canal, 

ditch, electric transmission line, or other rightof-way across public lands, noting the width of 

the right-of-way and the bearing of the center 

line; the change from one character of land to 

another, with the approximate bearing of the 

demarcation, and the estimated height in feet 

of the ascents and descents over the principal 

slopes traversed, with the slope direction ; the 

distance to and the direction of the principal 

ridges, spurs, divides, rimrock, precipitous cliffs, 

etc.; the distance to where the line enters or 

leaves heavy or scattering timber, with the approximate bearing of the margin of heavy timber, and the distance to where the line enters 

or leaves dense undergrowth. 

The amount of ascent or descent is only required in rough country where it will be of 

significant value to later surveyors. Where it is 

omitted the slope on which a corner is situated 

must be shown. The same requirement applies 

where the slope is given as general or broken 

and the slope at the corner differs from the general slope. 

(6) Intersections by line of water objects. 

Unmeandered rivers, creeks and smaller watercoumes which the line crosses; the distance 

measured on the true line to the center in the 

case of smaller streams, and to both banks in 

the case of larger streams, the course down 

stream at points of intersection, and their 

widths on line, if only the center is noted. Intermittent watercourses, such as ravines, gulches, 

arroyos, draws, dry-drains, etc. 

(7) The land’s surface; whether level, rolling, broken, hilly or mountainous. 

(8) The soil ; whether rocky, stony, gravelly, 

sandy, loam, clay, etc. 
102 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

(9) Timber; the several kinds of timber and 

undergrowth, in the order in which they predominate. Items (7), (8), and (9) are summarized at the end of each mile in field notes of 

original survey. See sample notes. 

(10) Bottom lands to be described as upland 

or swamp and overflowed, as contradistinguished under the law, noting the extent and 

approximate position of the latter and depth of 

overflow at seasonal periods. Sections 7-95 to 

7-99. 

(11) Springs of water, whether fresh, saline, 

or mineral, with the course of the stream flowing 

therefrom. The location of streams, springs, or 

water-holes, which because of their environment may be of value in connection with the 

utilization of public grazing lands, and which 

may be designated as public watering places, 

will be specially noted. 

(12) Lakes and ponds, describing their 

banks, tributaries and outlet, and whether the 

water is pure or stagnant, deep or shallow. 

(13) Improvements ; towns and villages ; post 

offices ; occupancy ; houses or cabins, fields, or 

other improvements ; mineral claims ; millsites. United States location monuments and 

all other official monuments not belonging 

to the system of rectangular surveys to be 

located by bearing and distance or by intersecting bearings from givsn points. 

(14) Coal banks or beds, ore bodies, with 

description as to quality and extent; mining 

surface improvements and underground workings; and salt licks. Reliable information that 

can be obtained respecting these objects, 

whether on the line or not, should appear in the 

general description. 

(15) Roads and trails, with their directions, 

whence and whither. 

(16) Rapids, cataracts, cascades, or falls of 

water, in their approximate position and estimated height of fall in feet. 

(17) Stone quarries and ledges of rocks, with 

the kind of stone they afford. 

(18) Natural curiosities, petrifactions, fossils, organic remains, etc. ; also all archaeological remains, such as cliff dwellings, mounds, 

fortifications, or objects of like nature. 

(19) The magnetic declination.-To be included in the transcribed field notes, in the general description (item 20), including the observed local attraction within the area of the 

survey. The average value over the area surveyed will be shown on the plat. 

(20) General Description.-The above information is summarized by townships in a general description which concludes the field notes 

of every survey. The general description embraces more comprehensive details of the 

characteristics of the region than is feasible to 

cover as an intimate part of the technical 

record of the survey, as follows :- 

Land.-A general outline of the drainage and 

topographical features of the township and approximate range of elevation above sea level. 

Soil.-The prevailing and characteristic soil 

types. (See special reference to soil classification, chapter VII). 

Timber.-The predominant forest species, 

age, size, condition, etc. 

Evidence of mineral.-Known bodies of 

mineral, and lands whose formation suggests 

mineral-bearing characteristics, especially with 

reference to lands of volcanic or igneous origin, 

are listed by appropriate legal subdivision, with 

brief description of the mineral indications. If 

there is no apparent indication of mineral deposits, a report to that effect is embodied in 

the general description. 

Watering places.-The areas embracing all 

streams, springs, or water holes as may be of 

special value as public watering places, in connection with the utilization of public grazing 

lands, are listed by appropriate legal subdivision, 

with brief description of the nature of such 

water supply. 

Settlement.-The extent of the settlement at 

the time of the survey. 

Industry.-The industrial possibilities of the 

township, especially as to the adaptability of 

the region to agricultural pursuits, stock raising, lumbering, mining, or other profitable enterprise. 

Sketch Plat 

3-127. In addition to the field notes the surveyor is required to prepare an outline diagram 

showing the course and length of established 

lines with connections, and a topographical 

sketch embracing the features usually shown 
SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR SURVEYS 103 

upon the official township plat. These maps are 

made to scale, drawn in pencil only, if desired, 

and are kept up with the progress of the field 

work. If the area of the survey is covered by 

accurate maps or recent aerial photographs, 

the topographic detail may be omitted from the 

sketch except in the immediate vicinity of the 

lines; otherwise, the interiors of the sections 

should be completed. The topographical features 

are sketched while in view, and the position 

of the details to be shown on the completed plat 

are located with an accuracy commensurate 

with their relative importance. The design of 

the specimen township plat should be followed 

closely in preparing the sketch plat. It is generally desirable to use separate sheets for the 

line diagram and the topography. These maps 

form the basis of the official plat, the ultimate 

purpose of which is a complete graphic representation of the public lands surveyed. 

The subjects of the field sketches; accuracy 

of detail in special cases; use of aerial photographs ; map features within the interior of sections ; etc., are enlarged in chapter IX. 
CHAPTER IV 

Monumentation 

4-1. This chapter describes the procedure 

for monumenting a public land survey. The 

monumentation is intended to establish a permanent marking of the lines and to fix the corner positions so that the location of the surveyed lands may always be definitely known. 

LEGAL SIGNIFICANCE OF 

THE MONUMENT 

4-2. The law provides that the original 

corners established during the process of the 

survey shall forever remain fixed in position, 

even disregarding technical errors which may 

have passed undetected before acceptance of the 

survey. 

The courts attach major importance to evidence relating to the original position of the 

corner, such evidence being given far greater 

weight than the record relating to bearings and 

lengths of lines. The corner monument is direct 

evidence of the position of the corner. 

Section 57 of the Criminal Code of 1909, as 

slightly modified in 18 U.S.C. 1858, provides a 

penalty for the unauthorized alteration or removal of any Government survey monument or 

marked trees : 

Whoever willfully destroys, defaces, changes, 

or removes to another place any section corner, quarter-section corner, or meander post, 

on any Government line of survey, or willfully cuts down any witness tree or any tree 

blazed to mark the line of a Government survey, or willfully defaces, changes or removes 

any monument or bench mark of any Government survey, shall be fined not more than 

$250 or imprisoned not more than six months, 

or both. 

The legal importance of the corner makes 

mandatory the workmanlike construction of 

lasting monuments skillfully related to natural 

objects or improvements so that the greatest 

practicable permanence is secured. 

4-3. If it is necessary to alter the condition 

of a previously established monument, the utmost regard should be shown for the evidence 

of the original location. The monument should 

be carefully reconstructed by such additional 

means as may be appropriate, without destroying the evidence which served to identify that 

position. A complete record will be kept of the 

description of the old monument as identified, 

and all alterations and additions will be specifically noted as such. 

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 

4-4. Prescribed monuments are used to 

mark the position of the quarter-section, section, township, and meander corners ; such sixteenth-section corners as the special instructions or exigencies of the survey of fractional 

sections require ; and all angle points and points 

at intervals of 40 and 80 chains along an irregular boundary. Additionally, when stipulated in the special instructions, monumentation 

is established as needed down to the corners of 

21/-acre aliquot parts as required in the subdivision of sections into units smaller than the 

regular quarter-quarter section. 

When it is necessary or desirable to establish special purpose monuments the regulation 

post is the first choice under usual conditions. 

4-5. The position of a corner monument is 

evidenced by the best accessories available; if 

the corner point itself cannot be marked in the 

usual manner, an appropriate witness corner or 

106 
106 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

reference monument is established. A witness 

meander corner is established upon secure 

ground wherever the true position falls at a 

point where the monument would be liable to 

destruction. 

4-6. The field notes relating to the establishment of a monument are introduced at the logical place where the true position for the corner 

is indicated. 

The description of the monument will embrace : (1) the signifiance of its position ; (2) its 

type and dimensions, including those of any special monumentation; (3) the depth set in the 

ground, with mention of any additional support; (4) the markings upon the monument; 

and (5) the nature of the accessories, including character, size, position, and markings. 

4-7. The Bureau of Land Management has 

adopted a regulation post for monumenting the 

public surveys, which is used generally unless 

exceptional circumstances warrant the use of 

other material. Substitutions are permitted only 

when authorized in the special instructions. In 

such cases a statement should be given in the 

field notes explaining why regulation posts were 

not employed. 

The regulation post is made from alloyed iron 

pipe, zinc-coated, 21/2 inches outside diameter, 

which is cut into lengths of 30 inches. One end 

of the pipe is split for several inches, and the 

two halves are spread to form flanges. A brass 

cap is securely fastened to the top. Brass tablets 

are supplied for placing in rock outcrop and for 

imbedding in concrete monuments. The tablet 

is 3% inches in diameter and has a stem 3v2 

inches long. The top bears the same official inscription as that of the cap of the iron post. 

4-8. General departures from the use of the 

regulation monument may be authorized where 

there is need for more durable monumentation in important areas, where conditions at 

the time of survey make it impracticable to procure a sufficient number of regulation monuments within the available time limit, or where 

difficulties of transportation to the point of use 

make it more practicable to adopt an approved 

substitute. Trials of experimental monuments 

are authorized from time to time where this 

can be done without risk of losing corner point 

locations. Limited departures because of site 

conditions may be made as approved by the officer in administrative charge. 

Native stone may be substituted for the iron 

post, provided it has been authorized, is durable 

against prolonged weathering, has a volume of 

at least 1,000 cubic inches, and dimensions suitable for permanent monumentation and appropriate markings. Stone will not be used as a 

corner monument where its position falls among 

large quantities of loose surface stone or slide 

rock. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MONUMENTS 

4-9. The caps of the iron posts are marked 

with steel dies at the time when used. The posts 

are set in the ground about three-fourths of 

their length, and earth and stone, if the latter is 

at hand, are tamped into the excavation to give 

the post a solid anchorage. 

4-10. A stone monument is marked with a 

steel chisel or punch with such letters, figures, 

grooves, or notches as may be required, and is 

firmly set in the ground about three-fourths of 

its length. 

4-11. Both iron posts and stone monuments 

will always be set a depth of three-fourths their 

length unless it is impossible to complete the 

excavation, in which case the monument will 

be planted as deep as conditions will permit, and 

the necessary support will be secured by a stone 

mound. 

In loose, wind-blown soil, the monument is 

much more stable if surrounded with stone, the 

mound being built with a wide base, and up to 

the height of the post. This will be even more 

secure if clay soil can be procured for filling 

the voids. The location may be of enough importance to justify the construction of a concrete base surrounding the iron post to prevent 

the blowing of the soil. 

Underpinning or other special means for supporting the iron post may be required when 

constructing a stable monument in marshland. 

Encasement of the post in concrete to prevent 

corrosion may be necessary in the case of alka- 

-. 
MONUMENTATION 107 

line soils, salts, salt-water marshes, organicacid water in swamp areas, or similar situations. 

4-12. Where the corner point falls upon surface rock, preventing excavation, a cross (X) 

is cut at the exact corner point, and, if feasible, 

the monument is erected in the same position, 

supported by a large mound of stone with broad 

base, so well constructed that it will possess 

thorough stability. 

The tablet is used for marking corners which 

fall upon rock outcrop on slopes where a stable 

mound would be impracticable. A drill hole is 

made to receive the stem, and a recess is made 

for the top so that the tablet may be securely 

cemented in place and sealed against moisture. 

To be permanent the cementing must be done 

with clean first-class materials, carefully proportioned. The tablet is marked in the same 

manner as the iron-post monument. 

On slopes too steep to allow construction of a 

FIGURE 64.-A mound of stone. Base should be not less 

than 3 ft. diameter. 

stable mound, but covered with a thin layer of 

soil which would hide the tablet if it were set 

directly in the bedrock, a short length of zinccoated iron pipe of 1-inch outside diameter is 

forced into the drill hole. The stem of the tablet 

is then wedged securely into the top of the pipe 

in a position above the layer of soil. 

Where the corner point falls at the 

position occupied by a tree, the tree is marked 

as the corner monument, even if fully matured. 

The full quota of accessories should be secured, 

including reference monuments. 

A tree too small to receive the usual marks 

without injury is marked with an “X” only at 

breast height on the south side. The X should 

be scribed in the bark on smooth-barked trees. 

On rough-barked trees the X should be made 

by two axe cuts reaching just into the live 

wood tissue. It is advantageous to clear out 

nearby trees of similar size in order that the 

marked tree will not be smothered by faster 

growing uninjured trees. 

Monuments marking corners that fall 

in cultivated fields or meadows are so constructed as to interfere with farming operations 

as little as possible and conform to the wishes of 

the owner insofar as practicable. 

Generally an iron post, brass tablet in a concrete block, a marked stone, or some suitable 

article may be buried at the corner point and 

witnessed by a substantial guard post. Bearing objects or bearing trees within a reasonable 

distance are employed, and accurate bearings to 

one or more available distant objects are recorded. 

4-13. 

4-14. 

SPECIAL-PURPOSE MONUMENTS 

Witness Corners 

4-15. A witness corner is a monumented 

point usually on a line of the survey and near 

a corner. It is established only in situations 

where it is impracticable to occupy the site of 

a corner. 

When the true point for a corner falls at an 

inaccessible place, such as within an unmeandered stream, lake, or pond, or in a marsh, or 

upon a precipitous slope or cliff where the corner cannot be occupied, a witness corner is 
108 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

established at some suitable point where the 

monument may be permanently constructed, 

but preferably on a line of survey. 

Usually only one witness corner is established, and it should be located upon one of the 

lines leading to a corner if a secure place within 

a distance of 10 chains is available. If there is 

no place to be found on a surveyed line within 

that distance, a witness corner may be located 

in any direction within a distance of 5 chains. 

The field notes show the relation of the witness corner to the true point for the corner. The 

direct connecting course and distance from the 

true point to the witness corner are shown on 

the plat. If there are many witness corners, 

and in cases of difficult plat lettering, where it 

may interfere with the other showings of the 

plat, the data relating to the direction and distance may be indicated by marginal memorandum or tabulation. 

Reference Monuments 

4-16. A reference monument is an accessory and is employed in situations where the 

site of a corner is such that a regular permanent 

monument cannot be established or where the 

monument would be liable to destruction, and 

bearing trees or a nearby bearing object are 

not available. 

Where the true point for a corner falls within 

an unimproved roadway in such a place as to 

interfere with travel, an iron post, a tablet in a 

concrete block, or a marked (X) stone or some 

suitable article will be buried in the ground at 

the true corner point. At least two reference 

monuments are established at suitable places 

outside of the roadway, if bearing trees or a 

nearby bearing object are not available. Allowance should be made for grading, cuts, fills, or 

other road improvement when placing the refference monuments. 

The surface of gravel, macadam, or bituminous-topped roads should not be dug into without the approval of the proper authority. If 

permission is granted, a deposit may be made 

at the true corner point. In the case of a hard 

surface, a tablet, copper bolt, large nail, or 

cross (X) may be placed at the true point. In 

any event the corner point can be occupied and 

may be marked temporarily by paint or scratching. Two reference monuments, established following the practice for highway surveys to 

the extent that is feasible, ordinarily suffice in 

public survey practice, but four may be employed if desirable. When two monuments are 

used, they are usually placed equidistant and in 

opposite directions ; an acceptable alternative is 

placement of the monuments so that the lines 

connecting them with the corner point are approximately perpendicular to each other. Four 

monuments are placed in opposite directions in 

the four quadrants. 

Reference monuments are described with 

other accessories to the corner in the field notes 

but are not shown on the plat. 

Witness Points 

4-17. A witness point is a monumented station on a line of the survey that is used to perpetuate an important location more or less remote from and without special relation to any 

regular corner. 

The station may be near a road or stream 

crossing, valuable improvements, the border of 

a large cultivated field or meadow, an important 

unmeandered stream or lake, or the border of 

a reservoir; at the summit of an impartant 

slope, ridge, or mountain; or at end stations 

of a long triangulation, offset, or traverse that 

passes over the point for a normal corner, 

where one or both stations are beyond the limiting distance of 10 chains prescribed for setting 

witness corners. 

The establishment of a witness point is described in the field notes but not usually shown 

on the plat. 

Location Monuments 

4-18. A location monument is most frequently used as a reference for one or more 

mineral surveys, and its use is described in detail in sections 10-32 through 10-34. It may also 

be used in any situation where no corner of an 

existing survey is available to provide a satisfactory connection for an isolated special survey. The monument is generally established in 

a conspicuous position with good visibility from 

every direction. A corner of the special survey 
MONUMENTATION 109 

may be designated as a location monument if it 

meets this qualification. 

Control Points 

4-19. A control point serves a purpose similar to that of a location monument in connection 

with photogrammetric surveys, electronic surveys, or surveys established by use of airborne 

control. It may be connected directly to a corner 

or may be related through coordinates. 

SYSTEM OF MARKING 

Making the Marks 

4-20. Monuments are marked in accordance 

with a system that furnishes a ready identification of the position of the monument which 

bears the marks. Capital letters and Arabic 

figures are used to mark iron posts and tree 

monuments. The letters and figures relate to 

the township, range, and section to which the 

corner belongs. On stone corner monuments 

marks termed notches and grooves are used to 

convey the information. The notches and 

grooves relate, in the case of an exterior corner, to the number of miles from the monument to the adjoining township corners. In the 

case of a subdivisional corner, they relate to the 

normal number of miles from the monument to 

the east and south boundaries of the township. 

4-21. The marks should be carefully arranged, neat, distinct, and durable. An assortment of steel dies, stone chisels and punches, and 

timber scribes, in good condition for use, should 

always be available. 

4-22. An index of the ordinary markings 

common to all classes of monuments and corner accessories is given below. 

Marks To indicateA M .................. Amended monument 

A M C ............. Auxiliary meander corner 

A P ................... Angle point 

B O.... Bearing object 

B T Bearing tree 

C C Closing corner 

E ......... East 

E C. Electronic control 

L M .................. Location monument 

M ............ Mile 

M C .................. Meander corner 

Center 

N ....................... North 

NE .................... Northeast 

NW ................... Northwest 

R Range 

R M. ................. Reference monument 

S ........................ Section 

S South 

S C .... Standard corner 

SE ..................... Southeast 

S M C....... ....... Special meander corner 

SW ................... Southwest 

T ....................... Township 

TR----.. .............. Tract 

W ...................... West 

W c .................. Witness corner 

W P . Witness point 

1/4-..- ......... Quarter section 

1/16 .......... Sixteenth section 

...................... 

MARKS ON CORNER MONUMENTS 

Marks on Iron Post Monuments 

and Brass Tablets 

4-23. The markings on the brass cap of the 

regular corner monument are always made to be 

read from the south side of the monument. The 

year number of the date when established is 

placed on the south. If the marks or accessories 

are changed or added to in the course of a resurvey, the new year number is marked above or 

below the original number without destroying 

the former marks. 

4-24. Standard township corners are 

marked “S C” and the township on the north 

half, and the ranges and sections in the proper 

quadrants : 

sc 

T 25 N 

R17 E R 18E 

S36 I S31 

1971 

4-25. Closing township corners are marked 

“C C” on the half from which the closing line 

approaches the monument, with the township 

(or range) on the same half, and the ranges (or 

townships) and sections in the proper quadrants; also (as far as known at the time) the 

township, range, and section, or the initials or 

abbreviation of the reservation, grant, or private claim upon which the township exterior 

closes. The name of a State is not placed on the 
110 

T25N 

S 35 

MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I317 E 

S36 

monument of a closing corner even though the 

monument is intended to be placed on the State 

boundary. See section 5-19, State Boundary 

Monuments. 

T25 N R 17 E T 24 N 

S 36 IR 17E 

T 24N 

S 36 

l6 I 023 N 

T 24N 

cc 

I+. cc 

I971 I97 I 

T20 N 

I R 120W 

K I RI-CC 

)TI9 N 

1971 

4-26. Comers common to four townships 

are marked with the townships on the north 

and south halves, the ranges on the east and 

west halves, and the sections in the four 

quadrants : 

T 23 N 

R 17E R18E -tjb S 36 S 31 

T 22 N 

I971 

4-27. Corners common to two townships 

only are marked with the township (or range) 

common to both on the proper half, and the 

ranges (or townships) and sections in the 

proper quadrants; also (as far as known at the 

time) the township, range, and section upon 

the opposite half: 

T3N T 14s 

R7W 

TISSR 7WSI 

1971 

4-28. Corners referring to one township 

only are marked with the township, range, and 

section in the particular quadrant which is 

concerned; also (as far as known at the time) 

the township, range, and section upon the opposite part : 

T20N R5W 

T’S3l 

SI 

1971 

T 23 N 

T 22NR 19 W 

SI 

1971 

T34N R43 E 

SI 

1971 

4-29. Standard section corners are marked 

“S C” and the township and range on the north 

half, and the sections in the proper quadrants : 

1971 

4-30. Closing section corners are marked 

“C C” and the township and range on the half 

from which the closing line approaches the 

monument, and the sections in the proper quadrants; also (as far as known at the time) the 

township, range, and section, or the initials or 

abbreviation of the reservation, grant, or private claim, upon which the section line closes, 

with the exception that in the case of an interior 

closing section corner, the township and range 

numbers are not repeated : 

I971 
MONUMENTATION 

T 84 N 

R 73W 

S I6 

T25N R 17 E 

s 35 

s 20 

T 24N s21s‘ R17 E 

cc 

1971 

S I6 

TR 48 

S26 S25 

T12N I R5W 

cc 

1971 

TI4 N 

s 10 

S 15 

R 16 E 

cc 

1971 

4-31. Comers common to four sections are 

marked : (a) On an exterior, with the township 

(or range) common to the adjoining townships, 

the ranges (on: townships) upon the opposite 

sides of exterior, and the sections; and (b) a 

subdivisional corner, with the township, range, 

and sections : 

T 25 N T26N R17E 

T 25 N 

1971 

1971 

T25N R17E 

332- 

1971 

4-32. Section corners common to two sections only are marked with the township and 

range on the half facing the sections to which 

the corner belongs, and the sections in the 

proper quadrants; also (as far as known at 

the time) the township, range, and section upon 

the opposite half, except that in the case of an 

interior corner, the township and range numbers are not repeated : 

T14SITl4S 

5IRl8 E 

R 17 EIS 7 

1971 

111 

T27N R17W 

S31 I S32 ~~ 

T26N R17W 

S6 

I9 71 

S 14 

1971 

S 28 

T 57 N 

R 63W 

s 34 

1971 

4-34. Standard quarter-section corners are 

marked with “S C”, the township, range, “s”, 

and the section, all on the north half: 

sc 

T21 N R17W 

‘/4 S 36 

I971 

4-35. Quarter-section corners of maximum 

control are marked (a) on a meridional exterior, with the township and “v4” on the north, 
112 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

R 17W 

S 13 

and the ranges and sections on the east and west 

halves; (b) on a latitudinal exterior, “x” on 

the west, the range on the north, and the townships and sections on the north and south 

halves; (c) on a meridional subdivisional line, 

with the township and range on the north, “%” 

on the north, and the sections on the east and 

west halves; and, (d) on a latitudinal subdivisional line, with the township and range on 

the north, “%” on the west, and the sections 

on the north and south halves : 

R 16 W 

S 18 

T21 T22 N R 17W 

R 18 W 94 s 4 R 17 W 

94 s 7 

S 36 

SI 

‘/4 - 

T 21 N 

1941 

T21N R17W T21N R17W 

‘/4 

S 14 I S 13 

s 21 

S 28 

94 - 

T25N R17W T25N R17W 

94 S 28 

1971 

Ill4 S 16 

1971 

4-37. Meander corners are marked “M C” 

on the half toward the meanderable body of 

water, and the additional marks (a) on a standard parallel or other line controlling surveys 

to one side only, with the township, range, and 

section toward the surveyed land; (b) on an exterior, with the township (or range) common 

to the adjoining townships, the ranges (or 

townships) upon the opposite sides of the exterior, and the sections; and, (c) on a subdivisional line, with the township, range and sections : 

/,::: 

R 17 EIR 18 E / s 33 

MC 

T 24 N 

I971 

T24N T 23 N 

S 13 S 18 Rl7WsIC 

T 22 N 

1971 1971 

\T22N 1971 

1971 

q 

I971 R17E 

1971 

s/M

T25 S 26 7 

R17E/ 

1971 
MONUMENTATION 

S 

LW 

113 

E i” 

FIGURE 66.-Marks on monuments at interior quarter-section corner and all sixteenth-section corners. 

4-38. Interior quarter-section corner and all 

sixteenth-section corners, when required by the 

special instructions are marked in accordance 

with the schemashown in figure 65. 

4-39. Corners of minor subdivisions. Where 

a quarter-quarter section is subdivided into 

quarter-quarter-quarter sections ( 1/64 or 10- 

acre units), or aliquot parts as small as 1/266 

(2.6 acres), the monuments on the boundaries 

of the quarter-quarter section, and those needed 

for the perimeter lines within the quarterquarter section, are marked on the plan indicated in figure 66. 

The diagram shows the marking for the 

monuments at corners of 2.5-acre units within 

one regular quarter-quarter section. If those 

units, or any one of them, are quartered, only 

the fraction 1/1024 is used for marking whatever monuments may be required of that order, 

including also the year number. 

Markings on monuments at the corners of 

1/64 and 1/266 of a section, when subdivided 

as aliquot parts, for example on the boundaries 

of and within the SEX SEX sec. 36 are shown 

in figure 66. 

4-40. Sixteenth-section corners of minimum 

control are marked with a key letter (N, E, S, 

or W) to indicate the position of the monument, 

and “1/16” and the section, all on the half 

toward the particular section which is concerned : 

I S 1/16 

S 36 

1971 

E 1/16 

s 22 

1971 

4-41. Corners of Elongated Sections. Additional monuments are required on section 

boundaries where the length of the closing line 

exceeds 85 chains. These are placed at inter- 
114 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I 0 5361531 

SE- SE ______ _ ___ _ C-E-SE-SE 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

91024 

I 

! 

1971 1971 

FIGURE 66.-Marks on monuments at corners of minor subdivisions. If 1/1024 section corners are established, only 

'W1024" and the date are marked on the brass cap. 

vals of 40 chains counting from the regular 

quarter-section corner. The plan for the special marking is based upon the distance each 

monument is established from the regular governing boundary, generally the south or east. 

In cases where special circumstances call for 

the establishment of corners within the section, 

the monuments are also marked with reference 

to the subdivision-of-section lines upon which 

they are placed. The markings are illustrated 

by figures 67 and 68. Special attention should 

be given to whether the markings of monuments 

on the section boundaries are to show maximum 

or minimum control. 

4-42. Special meander corners are marked 

in accordance with the following scheme : 

Key letters (N, E, S, W, or C) are used in 

pairs to indicate the position of the stlbdivisionof-sectiola line. 
MONUMENTATION 115 

r--- -1 - ___ - - - r2u18_W- - -- - - -- 

wh SI ; SI E$ SI I 

T 25N R18W I971 I 

I 1971 I I 

I 3 I 

I I I I 

I 

I 

I 

1971 

I I I 4 2 I 

I I 1 I I 

I I I I I 

I 5 I 6 I 7 I 8 I 

I 9 I 10 I I1 I 12 I 

I I I I I 

I I I ,I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

LI 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I - -2 

FIGURE 67.-Marks on monuments at corners of an elongated section. 

The marks "S M C'? are placed on the half 

toward the meanderable body of water, and the 

section on the opposite half: 

SMC S MC E 

= I"" 

W 

1971 

I971 

SMC 

I971 

C 

1971 
116 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I 

I 7 I 8 I 5 I 6 I 

I I I 

I I I 

I 

I 

T23S 

I I I I I 

I I 12 I II I 10 9 I 

I I I I I 

I971 1971 1971 I971 

FIGURE 68.-Marks on monuments at corners of an elongated section. 

4-43. Auxiliary meander corners are 

marked “A M C” and the township, range, and 

section : 

AMC 

T64N R37W 

S 29 

1971 

When two or more auxiliary meander corners are required for islands in the same section, they should be identified by lot or tract 

number, not by serial number. 

4-44. Closing subdivision-of-section corners are marked in accordance with the following scheme : 

Key letters (N, E, S, W, or C) are used in 

pairs to indicate the position of the subdivision-of-section line. 

The marks “C C” and the section are placed 

on the half from which the closing line approaches the monument. 

(The marks “B I R” indicate “Blackfeet Indian Reservation.”) 

PL PL PL/CC 

1971 1971 

PL P L/CC P LlCC 

C 

I 

W BIR 

1971 1971 

BI R 
MONUMENTATION 117 

4-45. Markings for miscellaneous angle 

points on irregular boundaries : 

T 27 N 

S I3 <:: 

R 17W 

i 1971 

AP 

T 12s R90W 

1971 

T16NR7E 

s 

TR 37 

I971 

1971 

4-46. Markings 

along boundaries : 

139 M 

N MEX 

TEXAS 

197 I 

’YfL 

3M 

1971 

1971 

Marks on Stone 

4-47. Where 

For “angle point No. 4” on 

the boundary of the “Blackfeet 

Indian Reservation,” falling on 

surveyed land. 

For ‘(angle point” on the 

south beundary of section 33, 

superseding an old standard 

corner on a defective line, not 

subject to rectification. 

For “angle point No. 2” on 

the boundary of a private claim 

(“Tract No. 37”) falling on 

surveyed land. 

For “angle point No. 12’’ on 

a reestablished non-riparian 

meander line ; the marks “AP” 

and the serial number are 

placed on the half toward the 

land erroneously omitted from 

the original survey. 

for intermediate corners 

For “139th mile corner” on the 

boundary line between the States 

of “New Mexico and Texas.” 

For “3d mile corner” on the 

boundary of the “Blackfeet Indian 

Reservation,” falling on unsurveyed 

land. 

For “13th mile corner” on the 

boundary of the “Blackfeet Indian 

Reservation,” falling on surveyed 

land. 

Monuments 

a stone monument is established, the letters, figures, and grooves are cut 

on the exposed faces or sides of the stone, but 

not on its top or end; the notches are cut upon 

the exposed vertical edges. Grooves are employed where the faces of a stone are oriented to 

the cardinal; notches where the vertical edges 

are turned to the cardinal. Letters and figures 

are made 1 to lv2 inches high. Grooves and 

notches are of comparable size but are always 

horizontal to the face or edge on which they are 

made. All marks should be plainly and permanently chiseled into the stone. 

4-48. Standard township corners (oriented 

with the faces to the cardinal) are marked “S 

C” on the north face, with the township on the 

same face, and the ranges on the adjoining 

faces : 

S C 25 N on N., 

18 E on E., and 

17 E on W. face. 

4-49. Closing township corners (oriented 

with the faces to the cardinal are marked “C C” 

and with six (or fewer) grooves on the face 

from which the closing line approaches the 

monument-the grooves to indicate the normal 

number of miles (or fractional parts) from the 

monument to the adjoining township cornerwith the township (or range) on the same face, 

and the ranges (or townships) on the adjoining 

faces ; also the initial or abbreviation of the reservation, grant, or private claim, on the face 

toward such irregular tract as may be closed 

upon : 

20 N on N., 

C C 120 W and 5 grooves (on line between 

sections 5 and 32) on E., 19 N on 

S., and 

B I R on W. face. 

Corners common to four townships 

(oriented with the edges to the cardinal) are 

marked with the townships on the northeast 

and southwest faces, and the ranges on the 

southeast and northwest faces : 

4-50. 

23 N on NE., 

18 E on SE., 

22 N on SW., and 

17 E on NW. face. 

4-51. Corners cmmon to two townships 

only (oriented with the faces to the cardinal) 

are marked with the township (or range) common to both on the face toward the townships, 

and the range (or townships) on the adjoining faces : 

3 N on N., 

2 N on S., and 

7 W on W. face. 

4-52. Corners referring to one township 

onlv (oriented with the edges to the cardinal) 
118 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

are marked with the township and range on the 

face toward the particular township : 

23 N 7 W on NW. face. 

4-53. Standard section corners (oriented 

with the faces to the cardinal) are marked “S 

C” on the north face, and with from one to five 

grooves on the east and west faces, the grooves 

(to indicate, respectively, the number of miles 

from the monument to the adjoining (regular) 

township corner : 

S C on N., 

1 groove on E., and 

5 grooves on W. face (standard corner of 

sections 35 and 36) 

4-54. Closing section corners (oriented with 

the faces to the cardinal) are marked “C C” 

and with from one to six grooves on the face 

from which the closing line approaches the 

monument, and from one to five grooves on each 

of the adjoining faces-the grooves to indicate 

the number of miles (or fractional parts) from 

the monument to each of the three (regular) 

township boundary lines in the same directions, 

respectively-also the initials or abbreviation 

of the reservation, grant, or private claim, on 

the face toward such irregular tract as may be 

closed upon: 

2 grooves on E., 

4 grooves on W. face (on line between sections 2 and 3 closing 

on a standard parallel). 

4-55. Corners common to four sections 

(oriented with the edges to cardinal) are 

marked (a) on an exterior, with from one to 

five notches each on two opposite edges, north 

and south on a meridional line, and east and 

west on a latitudinal line, each to indicate, 

respectively, the number of miles from the 

monument to the adjoining (regular) township 

corner; and (b) a subdivisional corner, with 

from one to five notches on the east and south 

edges, each to indicate, respectively, the number of miles from the monument to the (regular) east and south township boundary lines. 

The subdivisional section corners of a fractional township are marked with reference to 

the theoretical position of normal east and south 

boundaries, whether surveyed or not : 

C C and 6 grooves on S., and 

2 notches on N. and 4 notches on S. edge 

(for corner of sections 7, 12, 13 and 18 

on a range line). 

2 notches on E. and 4 notches on W. edge 

(for corner of section 2, 3, 34 and 35 an 

a township line). 

2 notches on E. and 4 notches on S. edge 

(for corner of sections 10,11, 14 and 15, 

of a subdivisional survey). 

Section corners common to two sections only (oriented with the edges to the cardinal) are marked with the sections on the faces 

toward the particular sections to which the 

corner belongs : 

4-56. 

S 13 on SW., and 

S 12 on NW. face (for corner of sections 12 

and 13 on the east boundary of a township). 

S 11 on NE., and 

S 10 on NW. face (for corner of sections 

10 and 11 of a subdivisional survey running north from monument). 

4-57. Section corners referring to one section only (oriented with the edges to the 

cardinal) are marked with the section on the 

face toward the particular section which is 

concerned : 

S 17 on NW. face (for southeast corner of 

4-58. Standard quarter-section corners 

(oriented with the faces to the cardinal) are 

marked “S C%” on the north face. 

4-59. Quarter-section corners of maximum 

control (oriented with the faces to the cardinal) 

are marked (a) on a meridional line, “l/g” on 

the west face; and (b) on a latitudinal line, ‘%” 

on the north face. 

4-60. Quarter-section corners of minimum 

control (oriented with the faces to the cardinal) 

are marked “%” and the section, all on the face 

toward the particular section which is concerned : 

% S on S. face (for quarter-section corner 

on the north boundary of section 4). 

4-61. Meander corners (oriented with the 

faces to the cardinal) are marked “M C” on the 

face toward the meanderable body of water, 

and with from one to six grooves on each of 

the other faces, each to indicate the number of 

miles (or fractional parts) from the monument 

section 17). 
MONUMENTATION 119 

to the (regular) township boundary line in the 

same direction, respectively : 

M C on N., 

6 grooves on E., 

4 grooves on S., and 

6 grooves on W. face (for meander corner 

J of fractional sections 13 and 18, on the 

south side of a meanderable body of 

water). 

462. Special and auxiliary meander corners (oriented with the faces to the cardinal) 

are marked “S M C” or “A M C”, as the case 

may be, on the face toward the meanderable 

body of water, and the section on the opposite 

face : 

S M C on N., and 

S 19 on S. face (for special meander corner 

on a meridional subdivision-of-section 

line in section 19, on the south side of a 

meanderable body of water). 

S 20 on E., and 

A M C on W. face (for auxiliary meander 

corner in section 20, on the east side of 

a meanderable body of water). 

Marks on Tree Monuments 

4-63. Where the true point for a corner is 

found to fall in the position occupied by a sound 

living tree, the tree is made the monument. A 

tree is removed if it is too small to be marked. 

4-64. Where a tree is to be made a monument, the species of the tree and its diameter at 

breast height are noted. The appropriate marks 

are made upon the trunk of the tree immediately 

above the root crown. A series of marks to be 

made upon a particular side of a tree are scribed 

in a vertical line reading downward. 

If the corner point differs significantly from 

the center of the tree, the field notes will so 

state. Consideration will be given to using reference monuments to indicate the corner point 

exactly. 

4-65. In the case of certain trees, including 

the aspen, beech and locust (smooth and thinbarked), the marks may be made preferably by 

scribing lightly into the bark without blazing; 

the marks thus made will remain as long as 

the tree is sound. On the rough-barked trees, 

the marks should be scribed into a smooth, narrow, vertical blaze, specially prepared by removing just enough of the outer growth to 

expose a flat surface of the live wood tissue 

immediately underneath the bark. The marks 

thus made will remain as long as the tree is 

sound, but the blaze and marks will be covered 

by a gradual overgrowth, showing an outward 

scar for many years. In regions subject to heavy 

snowfall it is desirable to make a small additional blaze at a height of 6 or 8 feet above the 

ground, which will serve to attract attention 

to the tree during the winter season. The ends 

of the blaze should be smoothed off gradually 

without making a sharp cut into the live wood 

tissue. The lower end of the blaze upon which 

the marks are placed should be about 6 inches 

above the root crown, and its length should be 

just sufficient to take the marks. 

Trees should always be marked in a way that 

will cause the least possible injury and enable 

rapid overgrowth. Placing the marks at the 

bottom ensures that they will remain on the 

stump if the tree is cut down. 

4-66. The above caution applies equally to 

the marking of bearing trees, and the surveyor 

should not remove the overgrowth on a tree 

monument or bearing tree unless it is absolutely 

necessary to do so in order to identify the 

tree. The marks on old bearing trees should not 

be disturbed or added to. New trees may be 

marked, which will be recorded in the field notes. 

In the case of trees which have been blazed 

before marking, the number of rings contained in the overgrowth (or its equivalent on 

the adjoining sections of the tree) furnish count 

of the number of years (one annual ring for 

each growing season) from the date of original 

marking to the date when uncovered. Uncovering an old blaze leaves it subject to decay, and 

the surveyor should adopt additional means to 

evidence the position of the corner. 

4-67. Standard township corners are 

marked “SC” and the township on the north 

side, and the ranges and sections on the east 

and west sides : 

SC T25N on N., 

R18E S31 on E., and 

R17E S36 on W. side. 

4-68. Closing township corners are marked 

“CC” and the township (or range) on the side 

from which the closing line approaches the 
120 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

monument, and the ranges (or townships) and 

sections on the adjoining sides; also the initials 

or abbreviation of the reservation, grant, or 

private claim, on the side toward any irregular 

tract which may be closed upon : 

, 

R18E S6 on E., 

CC T24N on S., and 

R17E S1 on W. side. 

4-69. Corners common to four townships 

are marked with the township and section on 

the northeast and southwest sides, and the 

range and section on the southeast and northwest sides : 

T23N S31 on NE., 

R18E S6 on SE., 

T22N S1 on SW., and 

R17E S36 on NW. side. 

4-70. Corners common to two townships 

only are marked with the township, range, and 

section on the sides toward the particular townships : 

T2N R7W S1 on SW., and 

T3N R7W S36 on NW. side. 

4-71. Corners referring to one township 

only are marked with the township, range, and 

section on the side toward the particular township which is concerned : 

T23N R7W S36 on NW. side. 

4-72. Standard section corners are marked 

“SC” and the township and range on the north 

side, and the sections on the east and west sides : 

SC T25N R17E on N., 

S36 on E., and 

S35 on W. side. 

4-73. Closing section corners are marked 

“CC” and the township and range on the side 

from which the closing line approaches the 

monument, and the sections on the adjoining 

sides; also the initials or abbreviation of the 

reservation, grant, or private claim on the side 

toward any irregular tract which may be closed 

upon : 

S1 on E., 

CC T24N R17E on S., and 

S2 on W. side. 

4-74. Corners common to four sections are 

marked (a) on an exterior, with the township 

(or townships), ranges (or range) and sections; and (b) a subdivisional corner, with the 

township, range and section : 

(a) T25N S7 on NE., 

RUE S18 onSE., 

R17E S13 on SW., and 

S12 on NW. side. 

(a) T26N S36 on NE., 

R17E S1 on SE., 

T25N S2 on SW., and 

S35 on NW. side. 

(b) T25N ,324 on NE., 

R17E S25 on SE., 

S26 on SW., and 

S23 on NW. side. 

4-75. Section cvrners common to two sections only are marked with the township and 

section, and the range and section, on the sides 

toward the particular sections to which the 

corner belongs : 

T14S S11 on NE., and 

R20W S10 on NW. side. 

4-76. Section corners referring to one section only are marked with the township, range 

and section on the side toward the particular 

section which is concerned : 

T27N R16W S17 on NW. side. 

4-77. Standard quurter-section corners are 

marked “SC$&” and the section, all on the north 

side : 

SCl/, S36 on N. side. 

4-78. Quurter-section corners of maximum 

control are marked (a) on a meridional line, 

“%” and the section on the west side, and the 

section on the east side; and (b) on a latitudinal 

line, “%” and the section on the north side, and 

the section on the south side: 

(a) S18 and E., and 

S13 on W. side. 

(b) % S21 on N., and 

S28 on S. side. 

4-79. Quarter-section corners of minimum 

control are marked “%” and the section, all on 

the side toward the particular section which is 

concerned : 

% S7 on E. side (for quarter-section corner on the west boundary of section 7). 

4-80. Meander corners are marked “MC” 

on the side toward the meanderable body of 

water, and the additional marks (a) on a standard parallel or other line controlling surveys to 

one side only, with the township, range and section on the side toward the surveyed land ; (b) 
MONUMENTATION 121 

on an exterior, with the township (or range) 

common to the adjoining townships on the side 

opposite the meanderable body of water, and 

the ranges (or townships) and the sections on 

the adjoining sides; and, (c) on a subdivisional 

line, with the township and range on the side 

opposite the meanderable body of water, and 

line in section 14, on the west side of a 

meanderable body of water). 

AMC on N., and 

S9 on S. side (for auxiliary meander corner 

in section 9, on the south side of a meanderable body of water). 

the sections on the adjoining sides: 

(a) MC on E., and MARKS ON SPECIAL-PURPOSE 

MONUMENTS T25N R17E S33 on NW. side (for 

meander corner on a standard parallel, on the west side 

of a meanderable body of water). 

(b) . T24N on N., 

R18E S18 on E., 

MC on S., and 

R17E S13 on W. side (for 

meander corner on a range 

line, on the north side of a 

meanderable body of water). 

(b) T23N S35 on N., 

MC on E., 

T22N S2 on S., and 

R17W on W. side (for meander corner on a township 

line, on the west side of a 

meanderable body of water). 

(c) S23 on N., 

T25N R17E on E., 

S26 on S., and 

MC on W. side (for meander 

corner on a latitudinal section line, on the east side of a 

meanderable body of water). 

(c) MC on N., 

S9 on E., 

T4N R7W on S., and 

S8 on W. side (for meander 

corner on a meridional section line, on the south side 

of a meanderable body of 

water), 

4-81. Special and auxiliarg mecnder corners 

are marked “SMC” or “AMC”, as the case may 

be, on the side toward the meanderable body of 

water, and the section on the oppnsite side : 

SMC on E., and 

S14 on W. side (for special meander corner 

on a latitudinal subdivision-of-section 

4-82. At a witness corner the marks on an 

iron post monument are arranged as on a regular corner monument with the addition of the 

letters “W C” on the north and an arrow pointing to the true point for the corner. A stone is 

marked with the letters “W C” only, on the 

south face if the true line field notes are to read 

running north, or on the east face if the notes 

are to read running west. On a tree, two hacks 

are made on the north and south sides on a 

meridional line or two hacks on the east and 

west sides on a latitudinal line. The marks are 

the same as on a line tree, which serves the 

same purpose. 

A reference monument normally is marked 

the same as a bearing tree located in a similar 

position with the addition of an arrow pointing 

to the corner point, and the date, and substituting the letters “R M” for “B T”. Where reference monuments are established at corners of 

minimum control, including corners on standard 

lines, the monument established in the section 

to which the corner does not refer is marked 

only with the letters “R M”, an arrow pointing 

to the corner point, and the date. If there is sufficient space on the brass cap or tablet, the distance to the true corner may be stamped beside 

the arrow. 

At a witness point the brass cap is marked 

“W P” at the top, the date at the bottom, and 

“S” with the section number on each of the 

halves appropriate for the line of survey. Monuments at witness points situated on subdivisionof-section lines or at other unusual places are 

marked as provided for in the special instructions. A stone is marked “W P” only on the 

face as in marking a witness corner monument. 

A tree intersected by the true line is marked as 

a line tree, which has the same function as a 

witness point. 
122 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

The markings on a location monument are 

described in section 10-33. 

Control point monuments established by electronic methods are marked “E C”, with a serial 

number, the year date, and the group number or 

survey number in the course of which they are 

established. 

CORNER ACCESSORIES 

4-83. The purpose of an accessory is to evidence khe position of the corner monument. A 

connection is made from the corner monument 

to fixed natural or artificial objects in its immediate vicinity, whereby the corner may be relocated from the accessory. Thus, if the monument is destroyed or removed, its position may 

be identified by any remaining evidence of the 

accessories. One or more kinds of accessory are 

employed at each corner established in the 

public-land surveys (except for corners of minor 

subdivisions and where specifically not required 

by the Manual, or omitted by the special 

instructions). 

Accessories consist of (1) bearing trees or 

other natural objects such as notable cliffs and 

boulders, permanent improvements, reference 

monuments; (2) mounds of stone; or (3) pits 

and memorials. Aside from availability, selection is based on their order of permanence. 

4-84. The surveyor cannot perform any 

more important service than that of establishing permanent and accurate evidence of the 

location of the corners in his survey. Where the 

accessories cannot be employed, other means 

should be adopted that will best serve the 

purpose. 

Bearing Trees and Bearing Objects 

4-85. Bearing trees are selected for marking when available, ordinarily within a distance 

of 3 chains of the corner; a greater distance if 

important. One tree is marked in each section 

unless a tree in one or more positions may not 

be available. A full description of each bearing 

tree is given in the field notes. This includes 

the species of each tree, its diameter at breast 

height, the exact direction from the monument, 

the horizontal distance counting to the center of 

the tree at its root crown; and, the exact marks 

scribed for the identification of the corner. 

Almost any nearby natural object that can be 

readily identified should be recorded by description, course, and distance. Such objects may not 

be of a character that can be marked, excepting 

in the case of a rock cliff or boulder. These are 

supplemental to the marking of bearing trees, or 

to fill out a quota where trees are not available 

in some sections. The description of the cliff or 

boulder should provide ready identification, including the marking of a cross (X) plainly 

and deeply chiseled at the exact point to which 

the direction and distance are recorded. 

Another desirable accessory, especially where 

the usual types are not available, nor suitable 

on account of the site conditions, such as at a 

corner that falls in cultivated land, is to record 

accurate bearings to two or more prominent 

landmarks. 

4-86. The marks upon a bearing tree are 

made upon the side facing the monument, 

scribed in the manner already outlined for 

marking tree corner monuments. The marks 

embrace the information suggested in the 

schedule hereinafter given, with such letters 

and figures as may be appropriate for a particular corner, and will include the letters “BT”. 

A tree will always be marked to agree with the 

section in which it stands, and will be marked 

in a vertical line reading downward, ending in 

the letters “BT” at the lower end of the blaze 

approximately 6 inches above the root crown. 

4-87. There is a great difference in the 

longevity of trees, and in their rate of decay; 

trees should therefore be selected, if possible, 

with a view to the length of their probable life, 

‘their soundness, favorable site conditions and 

size. Sound trees, not matured, of the most 

hardy species, favorably located, are preferred 

for marking. Trees 5 inches or less in diameter 

should not be selected for marking if larger 

trees are available, and it is generally better to 

avoid marking fully matured trees, especially 

those showing signs of decay. Trees 4 inches 

in diameter, or less, if no better trees are available, are marked with the letter “BT” only at 

the base, and an “X” at breast height, facing 

the monument. The species, size and exact position of the bearing trees are of vital importance, 

J 
MONUMENTATION 123 

Marking a bearing tree. 

as this data will generally serve to identify a 

bearing tree without uncovering the marks, 

or even to identify two or more stumps after all 

evidence of the marks has disappeared. 

4-88. Generally only one tree is marked in 

each section at a particular corner, but in certain instances two trees are required in a section. In such cases it is better to select trees of 

different species or of widely different size, 

direction or distance. If the trees are of the same 

species, in order that confusion may be avoided 

in the future identification of a remaining tree 

where the companion tree has disappeared, one 

is marked with an “X” only (and “BT” at the 

base). 

A cross (X) and the letters “BO” are 

chiseled into a bearing object, if it is a rock cliff 

or boulder; the record should enable another 

surveyor to determine just where the marks will 

be found. The rock bearing object is the most 

permanent of all accessories ; it is used wherever 

practicable, and within a distance of 5 chains. 

4-89. 

4-90. A connection to any permanent artificial object or improvement may be included in 

this general class of corner accessories. The 

field notes should be explicit in describing such 

objects, and should indicate the exact point to 

which a connection is made, as “southwest corner of foundation of Smith’s house,” “center of 

Smith’s well,” “pipe of Smith’s windmill,” etc. 

No marks will be made upon private property 

without the consent of the owner. 

Memorials 

4-91. Where there is no tree or other bearing object, as above described, and where a 

mound of stone or pits are impracticable, a suitable memorial is deposited alongside the monument. A memorial may consist of any durable 

article which will serve to identify the location 

in case the monument is destroyed. Such articles 

as glassware, stoneware, a marked (X) stone, 

a charred stake, a quart of charcoal, or pieces 
124 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

of metal constitute a suitable memorial. A 

full description of such articles is embodied in 

the field notes wherever they are employed as a 

memorial. When replacing an old monument 

with a new one, such as substituting an iron 

post for an old marked stone, the old marker is 

preserved as a memorial. 

Mound of Stone 

4-92. Where native stone is available and 

the surface of the ground is favorable, a mound 

of stone is employed as an accessory to a corner 

monument, or to surround it, even though a full 

quota of trees or other bearing objects can be 

utilized. A mound of stone erected as a corner 

accessory should be built as stable as possible, 

should consist of not fewer than five stones, and 

should be not less than 2 feet base and 19” 

feet high. Where the ground is suitable, the 

stone mound is improved by first digging a 

circular trench, 4 to 6 inches deep, for an outer 

ring, then placing the base of the larger stones 

in the trench. In stony ground the size of the 

mound is sufficiently increased to make it conspicuous. The position of the accessory mound is 

shown in the schedule following. The nearest 

point on its base should be about 6 inches distant from the monument. The field notes show 

the size and position of the mound. 

4-93. Where it is necessary to support a 

monument in a stone mound, and if bearing 

trees or other objects are not available, a 

marked (X) stone or other memorial is deposited alongside the monument. 

A stone mound accessory, in addition to the 

mound surrounding a monument, is built 

wherever this will aid materially in making the 

location conspicuous. 

Pits 

4-94. Where the full quota of trees or other 

bearing objects are unavailable for marking, the 

position of the monument is, under favorable 

conditions, evidenced by pits. No pits should 

be dug in a roadway, or where the ground is 

overflowed for any considerable period, or upon 

steep slopes, or where the earth will wash, or 

in loose or light soil, or where there is no native 

sod, or where suitable stone for a mound is at 

hand. 

A firm soil covered with a healthy native sod 

is most favorable for a permanent pit. Under 

such conditions the pits will gradually fill with a 

material slightly different from the original 

soil, and a new species of vegetation will generally take the place of the native grass ; these 

characteristics, under favorable conditions, 

make it possible to identify the original location of the pits after the lapse of many years. 

4-95. All pits should be dug 18 inches 

square and 12 inches deep, with the nearest side 

3 feet distant from the corner monument, 

oriented with a square side (and not a corner) 

towards the monument, arranged as shown in 

the schedule following. The earth removed is 

scattered in such a way that it will not again 

fill the pits. A description of the pits is embodied 

in the field notes, and should include a statement of their size and position. 

Accessories to 

Special-Purpose Monuments 

4-96. The accessories to special-purpose 

monuments are selected and marked as follows : 

Witness Corners : Formerly the accessories 

for witness corners were the same as though 

the monument had been established at its true 

point, but the marks upon the bearing trees or 

other objects were preceded by the letter “WC”, 

and the section number was made to agree with 

the section in which the tree or object actually 

stood. The rule now is that bearing objects, if 

available, are treated as for a regular corner. 

Bearing trees, with direction and distance from 

the monument, are marked with an “X” at 

breast height, on the side facing the monument, 

and the letters “BT” at the base. Mounds of 

stone are treated as though the monument were 

located at‘the true corner. 

Reference Monument : All bearing objects 

and bearing trees, including marks, refer to 

the position of the regular corner, as that location will be occupied as an instrument station. 

Witness Point : No requirements are set up as 

to the accessories for a witness point other 

than to mark a bearing tree or a bearing object, 

if available, at important locations or to record 
MONUMENTATION 126 

bearings to more distant natural objects or improvements. 

ARRANGEMENT AND MARKING OF 

CORNER ACCESSORIES 

4-97. Standard township corners. 

Two bearing trees, one in each section north 

of the standard parallel, each marked “SC” and 

the township, range and section; as 

Mound of stone, north of corner. 

Three pits, one each on line north, east and 

4-98. Closing township corners. 

Two bearing trees, one in each section to the 

right and left of the closing line, each marked 

“CC” and the township, range and section; as 

Standard section corners. 

T25N R18E S31 SC BT. 

west. 

Closing section corners. 

T24N R18E S6 CC BT. 

Mound of stone, on the closing line. 

Three pits, one on the closing line and one 

each to the right and left on the line closed upon. 

4-99. Corners common to four townships. 

Four bearing trees, one in each section, each 

marked with the township, range and section ; 

as 

T22N R17E S1 BT. 

Mound of stone, south of corner. 

Four pits, one each on line north, east, south 

and west. 

4-100. Corners common to two townships 

only. 

Two bearing trees, one in each section cornering at the monument, each marked with the 

township, range and section ; as 

T2N R7W S1 BT. 

Mound of stone, on the line between the 

two townships cornering at the monument. 

Three pits, one each on the three lines connecting at the monument. 

4-101. Corners referring to one township 

only. 

Two bearing trees, both in the township cornering at the monument, each marked with the 

township, range and section ; as 

T23N R19W S36 BT. 

Mound of stone, in the township cornering 

at the monument, at 45” from cardinal direction 

at the monument. 

Two pits, one each on the two lines connecting at the monument. 

4-102. 

Four bearing trees, one in each section, each 

marked with the township, range and section; 

as 

Corners common to four sections. 

T26N R17E S35 BT. 

Mound of stone, west of corner. 

Four pits, one in each section northeast, 

southeast, southwest and northwest. 

4-103. Section corners common to two sections only. 

Two bearing trees, one in each section cornering at the monument, each marked with the 

township, range and section ; as 

T14S R17E 512 BT. 

Mound of stone, on the line between the two 

sections cornering at the monument. 

Two pits, one in each section at 45” from 

cardinal direction at the monument. 

4-104. Section corners referring to one- section only. 

Two bearing trees, both in the section cornering at the monument, each marked with the 

township, range and section ; as 

T27N R16W S17 BT. 

Mound of stone, in the section cornering at 

the monument, at 45” from cardinal direction 

at the monument. 

Two pits, one 3 feet and one 6 feet distant, 

both in the section cornering at the monument, 

at 45” from cardinal direction at the monument. 

4-105. Standard quarter-section corners. 

Two bearing trees, both north of the standard 

parallel, each marked “x” and “SC” and the 

section; as 

x S36 SC BT. 

Mound of stone, north of corner. 

Two pits, one each on line east and west. 

4-106. Quarter-section corners of maximum 

Two bearing trees, one in each section, each 

control. 

marked “x” and the section ; as 

l/a S16 BT. 

Mound of stone: (a) on a meridional line, 

west of corner; and, (b) on a latitudinal line, 

north of corner. 
126 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Two pits, one in each direction of the line 

passing through the monument. 

4-107. Quarter-section corners of minimum 

control. 

Two bearing trees, both in the particular section which is concerned, each marked “l/g” and 

the section: as 

% S7 BT. 

Mound of stone, in the particular section 

which is concerned, in a cardinal direction from 

the monument. 

Two pits, one in each direction on the line 

passing through the monument. 

4-108. Meander corners. 

Two bearing trees : (a) on a standard parallel or other line controlling surveys to one side 

only, both in the particular section which is 

concerned: and (b) on all other lines, one in 

each section to the right and left of the line; 

all marked “MC” and with the township, range 

and section; as 

T25N R14E S32 MC BT. 

Mound of stone, on the surveyed line on the 

opposite side of the monument from the meanderable body of water. 

Two pits, one 3 feet and one 6 feet distant, on 

the surveyed line on the opposite side of the 

monument from the meanderable body of water. 

sixteenth-section corners, when required by the 

written special instructions. 

Two bearing trees, marked (with letters and 

figures ending in “BT”) as shown in figure 69. 

Mound of stone, in a cardinal direction from 

the monument, as shown (with symbol A) 

figure 69. 

Two pits, in a cardinal direction from the 

monument, as shown (with symbol 0 ) in 

figure 69. 

4-110. Sixteenth-section corners of minimum control. 

Two bearing trees, both in the particular section which is concerned, each marked with a 

key letter (N, E, S or W) to indicate the position of the monument, and “1/16” and the section ; as N 1/16 S18 BT. 

4-109. The interior quarter-section and all 1 
MONUMENTATION 127 

Mound of stone, in the particular section 

which is concerned, in a cardinal direction from 

the monument. 

Two pits, one in each direction on the section 

line passing through the monument. 

4-111. Special and auxiliary meander corners. 

Two bearing trees, each marked “SMC” or 

“AMC”, as the case may be, and the section ; as 

S14 SMC BT or 

S14 AMC BT. 

Mound of stone, on the opposite side of the 

monument from the meanderable body of water. 

Two pits, one 3 feet and one 6 feet distant, 

on the opposite side of the monument from the 

meanderable body of water. 

4-112. Closing subdivision-of-section corners. 

Two bearing trees, both in the particular section which is concerned, each marked “CC” and 

the section ; as 

S9 CC BT. 

Mound of stone, on the closing line. 

Three pits, one on the closing line and one 

each to the right and left on the line closed 

upon. 

4-113. Miscellaneous angle points along irregular boundaries. 

(a) Two bearing trees, where the monuments are less than 1 mile apart, one on each 

side of the boundary; and (b) four bearing 

trees, where the monuments are 1 mile or more 

apart, two on each side of the boundary; each 

marked “AP” and a serial or section number, or 

both, also the initials or abbreviation of the 

State, reservation, grant, private claim or public land, as appropriate ; as 

AP2 TR37 BT, and 

AP S14 BT (for “angle point No. 2” on the 

boundary of a private claim “Tract No. 

37” falling on surveyed land). 

Mound of stone, on the medial line between 

the boundary lines intersecting at the monument, and in the direction toward the reservation, grant or private claim. 

The placing of a stone mound on a State 

boundary is on the line, north from the monument if the field notes of the survey or retracement are written to read running north ; to the 

east, if running east, etc. In the boundary surveys, where stone is available, it is good practice to build a substantial stone and earth mound 

surrounding and to the top of the monument; 

this will usually be conspicuous without an additional stone mound. 

Two pits, one in each direction on the lines 

intersecting at the monument. 

4-114. Intermediate corners along irregukr 

boundaries. 

(a) Two bearing trees, where the monuments 

are less than 1 mile apart, one on each side of 

the boundary; and (b) four bearing trees, 

where the monuments are 1 mile or more apart, 

two on each side of the boundary ; each marked 

with the number of the mile or half-mile corner 

and the letter “M” to (indicate “mile corner”), 

and the initials or abbreviation of the State, 

reservation, grant, private claim or public land, 

as appropriate ; as 

47 M COLO BT, and 

47 M OKLA BT (for “47th mile” corner 

on the boundary line between the States 

of “Colorado” and “Oklahoma”). 

Mound of stone, on a line at right angles to 

the boundary, and in direction toward the reservation, grant, or private claim. 

Two pits, one in each direction on the boundary. 
CHAPTER V 

Restoration of 

Lost or Obliterated Corners 

5-1. The rules for identifying an approved 

official survey differ from those under which the 

survey was originally made. The purpose is not 

to “correct” the original survey by determining 

where a new or exact running of the line would 

locate a particular corner, but rather to determine where the corner was established in the 

beginning. The methods described here follow 

leading judicial opinions and approved surveying practice. 

5-2. Congress has empowered the Secretary 

of the Interior, or such officer as he may designate, to perform all executive duties appertaining to the survey of public lands. Where public 

lands are involved, the final authority to 

approve or disapprove the procedure for the 

restoration of a lost or obliterated corner rests 

with the Secretary, acting through the Director, 

Bureau of Land Management. If privately 

owned lands are involved, consideration is given 

to any protest made by an interested person 

concerning the work of a surveyor employed by 

the Bureau of Land Management. However, the 

Director cannot assume jurisdiction over or 

responsibility for the acts or results of surveys 

made by county, local, or private surveyors, or 

by surveyors or engineers who may be employed 

by other branches of the Federal Government. 

5-3. A boundary dispute between private 

landowners may be brought before the local 

court of competent jurisdiction. The Director, 

Bureau of Land Management, will not be bound 

by a court decision if the United States is not a 

party to a suit affecting public lands when evidence of the official survey was disregarded or 

there was some other departure from good surveying practice. 

IDENTIFICATION OF 

EXISTENT CORNERS 

5-4. The terms “corner” and “monument” 

are not interchangeable. A “corner” is a point 

determined by the surveying process. A “monument” is the object or the physical structure 

which marks the corner point. 

The “corners” of the public land surveys are 

those points that determine the boundaries of 

the various subdivisions represented on the 

official plat-the township corner, the section 

corner, the quarter-section corner, the subdivision corner, or the meander corner. me “mile 

corner” of a State, reservation, or grant boundary does not mark a point of a subdivision ; it is 

a station along the line, however, and long usage has given acceptance to the term. An “angle 

point” of a boundary marks a change in the 

bearing, and in that sense it is a corner of the 

survey. 

“ Monuments” of the public land surveys have 

included the deposit of some durable memorial, 

a marked wooden stake or post, a marked stone, 

an iron post having an inscribed cap, a marked 

tablet set in solid rock or in a concrete block, a 

marked tree, a rock in place marked with a 

cross (X) at the exact corner point, and other 

special types of markers, some of which are 

more substantial; any of these is termed a 

“monument.” The several classes of accessories, 

such as bearing trees, bearing objects, reference monuments, mounds of stone, and pits dug 

in the sod or soil are aids in identifying the 

corner position. In their broader significance 

the accessories are a part of the corner monument. 

129 
130 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

5-5. An existent corner is one whose position can be identified by verifying the evidence 

of the monument or its accessories, by reference to the description in the field notes, or 

located by an acceptable supplemental survey 

record, some physical evidence, or testimony. 

Even though its physical evidence may have 

entirely disappeared, a corner will not be regarded (11s lost if its position can be recovered 

through the testimony of one or more witnesses 

who have a dependable knowledge of the ohginal location. 

5-6. The recovery of previously established 

corners is simplified by projecting retracements 

from known points. The final search for a monument should cover the zone surrounding one, 

two, three, or four points determined by connection with known corners. These corners will 

ultimately control the relocation in case the corner being searched for is declared lost. 

The search for the original monument should 

include a simultaneous search for its accessories. The evidence can be expected to range from 

that which is least conclusive to that which is 

unquestionable ; the need for corroborative evidence is therefore in direct proportion to the 

uncertainty of any feature in doubt or dispute. 

The evidence should agree with the record in 

the field notes of the original survey subject to 

natural changes. Mounds of stone may have 

become imbedded, pits may have filled until 

only a faint outline remains, blazes on bearing 

trees may have decayed or become overgrown. 

5-7. After due allowance has been made for 

natural changes, there may still be material disagreement between the particular evidence in 

question and the record calls. The following 

considerations will prove useful in determining 

which features to eliminate as doubtful: 

(1) The character and dimensions of the 

monument in evidence should not be widely different from the record. 

(2) The markings in evidence should not be 

inconsistent with the record. 

(3) The nature of the accessories in evidence, 

including size, position and markings, should 

not be greatly at variance with the record. 

Allowance for ordinary discrepancies should 

be made in considering the evidence of a monument and its accessories. No set rules can be 

laid down as to what is sufficient evidence. Much 

must be left to the skill, fidelity, and good judgment of the surveyor, bearing in mind the relation of one monument to another and the relation of all to the recorded natural objects and 

items of topography. 

5-8. No decision should be made in regard 

to the restoration of a corner until every means 

has been exercised that might aid in identifying its true original position. The retracements 

will indicate the probable position and will show 

what discrepancies are to be expected. Any supplemental survey record or testimony should 

then be considered in the light of the facts thus 

developed. 

5-9. An, obliterated corner is one at whose 

point there are no remaining traces of the monument or its accessories, but whose location has 

been perpetuated, or the point for which may 

be recovered beyond reasonable doubt by the 

acts and testimony of the interested landowners, 

competent surveyors, other qualified local authorities, or witnesses, or by some acceptable 

record evidence. 

A position that depends upon the use of collateral evidence can be accepted only as duly 

supported, generally through proper relation 

to known corners, and agreement with the field 

notes regarding distances to natural objects, 

stream crossings, line trees, and off-line tree 

blazes, etc., or Unquestionable test.imony. 

5-10. A corner is not considered as lost if 

its position can be recovered satisfactorily by 

means of the testimony and acts of witnesses 

having positive knowledge of the precise location of the original monument. The expert testimony of surveyors who may have identified 

the original monument prior to its destruction and recorded new accessories or connections is by far the most reliable, though 

landowners are often able to furnish valuable 

testimony. The greatest care is necessary in 

order to establish the bona fide character of 

the record intervening after the destruction of 

an original monument. Full inquiry may bring 

to light various records relating to the original 

corners and memoranda of private markings, 

and the surveyor should make use of all such 

sources of information. The matter of boundary disputes should be carefully looked into 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 131 

insofar as adverse claimants may base their 

contentions upon evidence of the original survey. If such disputes have resulted in a boundary suit, the record testimony and the court’s 

decision should be carefully examined for information which may shed light upon the position of an original monument. 

The testimony of individuals may relate to the original monument or the accessories, prior to their destruction, or to any other 

marks fixing the locus of the original survey. 

Weight will be given such testimony according to its completeness, its agreement with the 

original field notes, and the steps taken to preserve the original marks. Such evidence must 

be tested by relating it to known original corners and other calls of the original field notes, 

particularly to line trees, blazed lines, and items 

of topography. 

There is no clearly defined rule for the acceptance or non-acceptance of the testimony of individuals. It may be based upon unaided memory 

over a long period or upon definite notes and private marks. The witness may have come by his 

knowledge casually, or he may have had a specific reason for remembering. Corroborative evidence becomes necessary in direct proportion 

to the uncertainty of the statements advanced. 

The surveyor should bear in mind that conflicting statements and contrary views of interested 

parties are fruitful of boundary dispukes. 

The surveyor will show in the field notes, or 

in the report of a field examination, the weight 

given testimony in determining the true point 

for an original corner. (Section 8-18.) The 

following points will serve as a guide: 

(1) The witness (or record evidence) should 

be duly qualified : The knowledge or information 

should be firsthand, not hearsay; it should be 

complete; it should not be merely personal 

opinion. 

(2) The testimony (or record statement) 

should be such as can stand an appropriate test 

of its bona fide character. 

(3) The testimony (or the record) must be 

sufficiently accurate, within a reasonable limit, 

for what is required in normal surveying practice. 

5-12. Any marks made either before or subsequent to the official survey, or at the time of 

5-11. 

the survey but not under the direction of the 

chief of field party, are not to be regarded as evidence of that survey excepting as an appropriate 

relation is fully authenticated by field notes or 

qualified testimony. Reference should be made 

in the field notes, however, if the marks are of 

a permanent nature. If such marks or monuments are rejected, the reason should be shown 

by the new record. 

5-13. One additional caution, addressed 

especially to the surveyor employed by the 

Bureau of Land Management, is to bear in mind 

that his professional work is technical in character, not legal or judicial. The surveyor is not 

a referee as to the justice or injustice of a situation, nor is he qualified to act judicially upon 

the equities or inequities that may appear to 

be involved. 

5-14. The above conditions and procedures 

are brought out in the leading court opinions in 

cases available in law libraries. Reference books 

on the legal elements of surveying and boundaries also cite court opinions and deal with these 

subjects. The treatment by the authorities of 

the question of testimony and physical evidence, 

as to acceptability, demonstrates the importance 

of the principles mentioned : due qualification, 

bona fide character, accuracy. 

5-15. A line tree or a definite connection to 

readily identified natural objects or improvements may fix a point of the original survey. 

The mean position of a blazed line, when identified as the original line, may help to fix a meridional line for departure, or a latitudinal line 

for latitude. Such blazed lines must be carefully 

checked, because corrections may have been 

made before final acceptance of the old survey 

or more than one line may have been blazed. 

The proper use of topographic calls of 

the original field notes may assist in recovering the locus of the original survey. Such evidence may merely disprove other questionable 

features, or it may be a valuable guide to the 

immediate vicinity of a line or corner, At best, 

it may fix the position of a line or corner beyond 

reasonable doubt. 

Allowance should be made for ordinary discrepancies in the calls relating to items of 

topography. Such evidence should be considered 

more particularly in the aggregate; when it is 

5-16. 
132 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

found to be corroborative, an average may be 

secured to control the final adjustment. This 

will be governed largely by the evidences nearest the particular corner in question, giving 

the greatest weight to those features that 

agree most closely with the record, and to such 

items as afford definite connection. 

A careful analysis should be made by the surveyor before using topographic calls to fix an 

original corner point. Indiscriminate use will 

lead to problems and disputes where two or 

more interpretations are possible. Close attention should be given to the manner in which the 

original survey was made. Instructions for 

chaining in the earlier manuals indicate that 

memory was an important factor in recording 

distances to items of topography. Early field 

notes often appear to have shown distances 

only to the nearest chain or even a wider approximation. 

In comparing distances returned in the original field notes with those returned in the resurveys, gross differences appear in a significant 

number of instances. In some cases the original 

surveyor apparently surveyed a line in one 

direction, but then reversed the direction in his 

record without making corresponding changes 

in distances to items of topography. These facts 

have sometimes caused distrust and virtual 

avoidance of the use of topography in corner 

restoration where proper application might be 

extremely helpful. Misapplication usually may 

be avoided by applying the following tests: 

(1) The determination should result in a 

definite locus within a small area. 

(2) The evidence should not be susceptible 

of more than one reasonable interpretation. 

(3) The corner locus should not be contradicted by evidence of a higher class or by other 

topographic notes. 

The determination of the original corner point 

from even fragmentary evidence of the original accessories, generally substantiated by the 

original topographic calls, is much stronger 

than determination from topographic calls 

alone. In questionable cases it is better practice, 

in the absence of other collateral evidence, to 

turn to the suitable means of proportionate 

measurement. 

5-17. Witness Corners 

Ordinarily a witness corner established in 

the original survey will fix the true point for 

the corner at record bearing and distance. 

Where the witness corner was placed on a line 

of the survey, if no complications arise, it will 

be used as control from that direction in determining the proportionate position of the true 

point. Thus the record bearing and distance 

would be modified, and the witness corner 

would become an angle point. Unfortunately, 

the factual statements of the original field notes 

are not always clear. The record may indicate 

that the witness corner was established on a 

random line, or there may be an apparent error 

of calculation for distance along the true line. 

The monument may not have been marked 

“WC” plainly or at all. In these instances, or 

where there is extensive obliteration, each corner must be treated individually. The important 

consideration is to locate the true corner point 

in its original position. 

Since the true point for the corner will 

usually be of major importance, the surveyor 

will proceed directly to its determination by the 

applicable methods if the witness corner is 

lost. If it is then impracticable to monument 

the true point, a new witness corner will be 

established and marked as directed in the sections of chapter IV devoted to corner monuments and accessories. 

5-18. Line Trees 

Under the law, a definitely identified line tree 

is a monument of the original survey. It properly is used as a control point in the reestablishment of lost corners by the appropriate 

method of proportionate measurement. In this 

case it is treated just as is a recovered corner, 

and it becomes an angle point of the line. 

A problem arises where, as in some older 

surveys, line trees were improperly established 

on a random line (and so recorded in the field 

notes) rather than on the true line. Each case 

must be considered on its merits, but such line 

trees are generally of most value as guides in 

locating the original corners. It may occasionally 

be necessary to treat them as control points 

where there has been extensive obliteration of 

the corners themselves. The making of proportionate offsets from line trees on the random 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 133 

line to determine angle points of the true line 

lends the trees more influence than is warranted. In adopting such a scheme the surveyor 

would be assuming that if the original surveyor 

had followed the survey of the random line with 

a survey of the true line he would have created 

angles at the same points as on the random line. 

The fact is that there might well have been 

angles in the true line, but they would be 

wherever the line struck trees on the true linenot at the same distances at all. The most probable location of the true line would be on a 

straight line between the corners, if these corners are recovered, as reported in the record 

subsequent to the field notes of the random line. 

5-19. State Boundary Monuments 

The Bureau of Land Management has no general authority to survey or resurvey State 

boundaries. The original survey of certain State 

boundaries was executed under the former 

General Land Office when specificially authorized by act of Congress. The resurvey of a 

State boundary may be made under direction 

of the Supreme Court or may be authorized by 

the States involved with the consent of Congress. In connection with the survey or resurvey of public lands it is proper to retrace as 

much of the State boundary as may be needed 

for a suitable closing. Closing corners are not 

marked as defining the State boundary. Identified original State boundary corners may 

properly be remonumented, but lost corners 

should not be restored unless this is specifically 

sanctioned by appropriate authority. 

THE RESTORATION OF 

LOST CORNBRS 

5-20. A lost corner is a point of a survey 

whose position cannot be determined, beyond 

reasonable doubt, either from traces of the original marks or from acceptable evidence or 

testimony that bears upon the original position, and whose location can. be restored only 

by reference to one or more interdependent 

corners. 

5-21. The rules for the restoration of lost 

corners should not be applied until all original 

and collateral evidence has been developed. 

When these means have been exhausted, the 

surveyor will turn to proportionate measurement, which harmonizes surveying practice 

with legal and equitable considerations. This 

plan of relocating a lost corner is always employed unless outweighed by conclusive evidence of the original survey. 

5-22. The preliminary retracements show 

the discrepancies of courses and distances between the original record and the findings of 

the retracement. The retracement is based upon 

the courses and distances of the original survey 

record, initiated and closed upon known original corners. Temporary stakes for future use 

in the relocation of all lost corners are set when 

making the retracements. 

Existing original corners may not be 

disturbed. Consequently, discrepancies between 

the new measurements and the measurements 

shown in the record have no effect beyond the 

identified corners. The differences are distributed proportionally within the several intervals along the line between the corners. 

The retracements will show various degrees 

of accuracy in the lengths of lines, where in 

every case it was intended to secure true horizontal distances. Until after 1900 most of the 

lines were measured with the Gunter’s link 

chain. Such a chain was difficult to keep at 

standard length, and inaccuracies often arose 

in measuring steep slopes by this method. 

All discrepancies in measurement should be 

carefully verified with the object of placing each 

difference where it properly belongs. Whenever 

it is possible to do so, the manifest errors in 

measurement are removed from the general 

average difference and placed where the blunder 

was made. The accumulated surplus or deficiency that then remains is the quantity that is 

to be uniformly distributed by the methods of 

proportionate measurement. 

5-24. A proportionate measurement is one 

that gives equal relative weight to all parts of 

the line. The excess or deficiency between two 

existent corners is so distributed that the 

amount given to each interval bears the same 

proportion to the whole difference as the record 

length of the interval bears to the whole record 

distance. After the proportionate difference is 

added to or subtracted from the record length 

of each interval, the sum of the several parts 

5-23. 
134 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

will equal the new measurement of the whole 

distance. 

The type of proportionate measurement to 

be used in the restorative process will depend 

on the method which was followed in the original survey. Standard parallels will be given 

precedence over other township exteriors, and 

ordinarily the latter will be given precedence 

over subdivisional lines; section corners will 

be relocated before the position of lost quartersection corners can be determined. 

Primary Methods 

Double Proportionate Measurement 

5-25. T h e t e r m “double proportionate measurement” is applied to a new measurement made 

between four known corners, two each on irtc 

tersecting meridional and latitudinal lines, for 

the purpose of relating the intersection to both. 

In effect, by double proportionate measurement the record directions are disregarded, 

excepting only where there is some acceptable 

supplemental survey record, some physical evidence, or testimony that may be brought into 

the control. Corners to the north and south control any intermediate latitudinal position. Corners to the east and west control the position 

in longitude. One identified original corner is 

balanced by the control of a corresponding original corner on the opposite side of a particular 

missing corner which is to be restored. Each 

identified corner is given a controlling weight 

inversely proportional to its distance from the 

lost corner. Lengths of proportioned lines are 

comparable only when reduced to their cardinal 

equivalents. The method may be referred to as 

a “four-way” proportion. The method of double 

proportionate measurement is generally applicable to the restoration of lost corners of four 

townships and of lost interior corners of four 

sections. 

5-26. In order to restore a lost corner of 

four townships, a retracement will first be made 

between the nearest known corners on the 

meridional line, north and south of the missing 

corner, and upon that line a temporary stake 

will be placed at the proper proportionate distance; this will determine the lalitude of the lost 

comer. 

Next, the nearest corners on the latitudinal 

line will be connected, and a second point will 

be marked for the proportionate measurement 

east and west; this point will determine the 

position of the lost corner in departure (or 

longitude). 

Then, through the first temporary stake run 

a line east or west, and through the second temporary stake a line north or south, as relative 

situations may determine; the intersection of 

these two lines will fix the position for the restored corner. 

Figure 70 illustrates the plan of double proportionate measurement. Points A, B, G, and 

D represent four original corners which will 

control the restoration of the lost corner X. 

On the large scale diagram the point E represents the proportional measurement between 

A and B, and, similarly, the point F represents 

the proportional measurement between C and 

D. The point X satisfies the first control for latitude and the second control for departure. 

5-27. A lost township corner cannot safely 

be restored, nor the boundaries ascertained, 

without first considering the field notes of the 

four intersecting lines. It js desirable also to 

examine the four township plats. In most cases 

there is a fractional distance in the half-mile to 

the east of the township corner, and frequently 

in the half-mile to the south. The lines to the 

north and to the west are usually regular, with 

quarter-section and section corners at normal 

intervals of 40.00 and 80.00 chains, but there 

may be closing-section corners on any or all of 

the boundaries so that it is important to verify 

all distances by reference to the field notes. 

5-28. Lost interior corners of four sections, 

where all the lines therefrom have been run, will 

also be reestablished by double proportionate 

measurement. The control for such restoration 

will not extend beyond the township boundary. 

If the controlling corner on the boundary is lost, 

that corner must be reestablished beforehand. 

5-29. Where the line has not been established in one direction from the missing township or section corner, the record distance will 

be used to the nearest identified corner in the 

opposite direction. 

Thus, in figure 70, if the latitudinal line in 

the direction of the point D has not been estab- 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 135 

Lost township corner in vicinity of X 

A 

I 

I 

XI A,B,C,D-Control corners 

E-Proportionate point for X in latitude between A and B 

F-Proportionate point for X in departure between C and D 

from E, North or South from F. 

Correct position of X is at intersection of lines extended East or West 

Restored corner showing true direction of township lines 

FIGURE 'IO.-Double proportionate measurement. 

lished, the position of point F in departure 

would have been determined by reference to 

the record distance from the point C ; the point 

X would then be fixed by cardinal offsets from 

the points E and F as already explained. 

Where the intersecting lines have been established in only two of the directions, the record 

distances to the nearest identified corners on 

these two lines will control the position of the 

temporary points; then from the latter the 

cardinal offsets will be made to fix the corner 

point. 

An index correction for average error in 

measurement, if applicable, should be made in 

applying these two rules (see section 5-45). 

What is intended by record distance is the measure established in the original survey. Experience and good judgment are required in applying the rules. If the original survey was 

carelessly executed, no definite standard can be 

set up as representing that survey. On the other 

hand, the work may have been reasonably uniform within its own limits, yet inaccurate with 

respect to exact base standards. It is the consistent excess or deficiency of the original work 

that is intended here, if that can be determined 

within practical limits. Otherwise the only rule 

that can be applied is that a record of 80.00 
136 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

1 I 

chains in distance means just that by exact 

standards, true horizontal measurement. 

I 

I I 

Single Proportionate Measurement 

5-30. T h e t e r m “single proportionate measurement” is applied to a new measurement made 

on a line to determine one or more positions on 

that line. 

By single proportionate measurement the 

position of two identified corners controls the 

direction of that line. The method is sometimes 

referred to as a “two-way” proportion, such 

as a north-and-south proportion or an east-andwest proportion. Examples are a quarter-section 

corner on the line between two section corners, 

all corners on standard parallels, and all corners 

occupying intermediate positions on a township 

boundary line. 

5-31. In order to restore a lost corner on a 

line by single proportionate measurement, a retracement is made connecting the nearest identified corners on the line. These corners control the position of the lost corner. Control 

corners are usually corners established in the 

original survey of the line. The lost corner is 

then reestablished at proportionate distance on 

the true line connecting the recovered corners. 

Proper adjustment is made on an east and west 

line to secure the latitudinal curve. Any number of intermediate lost corners may be located 

on the same plan. 

5-32. Restorations of lost corners of standard parallel are controlled by the regular standard corners. These include the standard 

township, section, quarter-section, and sixteenth-section corners, and meander corners, 

and also closing corners which were originally 

established by measurement along the standard 

line as points from which to start a survey. 

Lost standard corners will be restored to their 

original positions on a base line, standard para& 

lel, or correction line, by single proportionate 

measurement on the true line connecting the 

nearest identified standard corners on opposite 

sides of the missing corner or corners, as the 

case may be. 

5-33. Corners on base lines are regarded 

the same as those on standard parallels. In the 

older practice the term “correction line” was 

used for what has later been called the standard 

8 50 

parallel. The corners first set in the running of 

a correction line are treated as original standard corners. Those that were set afterwards at 

the intersection of a meridional line are regarded as closing corners. 

5-34. All lost section and quarter-section 

corners o n t h e township boundary lines will be 

restored by single proportionate measurement 

between the nearest identified corners on opposite sides of the missing corner, north and 

south on a meridional line, or east and west on 

a latitudinal line. 

”wo sets of corners have been established on many township lines and on some section lines. Each set applies only to sections on 

its respective side of the line. Which corners 

control in the restoration of a lost corner will 

depend on how the line was surveyed. Three 

common cases are discussed : 

(1) Where both sets of corners have been 

established by measurement along the line in 

a single survey, each corner controls equally for 

both measurement and alignment. 

5-35. 

850; 8 50 8 50; 8 50 

I I 

650 ;.;. 587 er 614 C;. 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 137 

I I 

directions and the intermediate portion was 

completed later by random and true line, leaving a fractional distance. Such irregularity follows some material departure from the basic 

rules for the establishment of original surveys. 

A modified form of single proportionate measurement is used in restoring lost corners on such 

boundaries. This is also applicable to a section 

line or a township line which has been shown to 

be irregular by a previous retracement. Figure 

71. 

In order to restore one or more lost corners 

or angle points on such irregular exteriors, a retracement between the nearest known corners 

is made on the record courses and distances to 

I in 

I 26 

27 

FIGURE 71.-Irregular exterior resulting from the piecemeal survey of a township line. 
138 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

ascertain the direction and length of the closing distance. A temporary stake is set for each 

missing corner or angle point. The closing distance is then reduced to its equivalent latitude 

and departure. 

On a meridional line the latitude of the closing 

distance is distributed among the courses in 

proportion to the latitude of each course. The 

departure of the closing distance is distributed 

among the courses in proportion to the length 

of each course. That is, after the excess or deficiency of latitude is distributed, each temporary stake is moved east or west an amount 

proportional to the total distance from the starting point. 

On a latitudinal line the temporary stakes 

should be placed to suit the usual adjustments 

for the curvature. The departure of the closing 

distance is distributed among the courses in 

proportion to the departure of each course. Then 

each temporary stake is moved north or south 

an amount proportional to the total distance 

from the starting point. 

Angle points and intermediate corners will 

be treated alike. 

5-37. Another exception to the usual application of single proportionate measurement 

is occasionally important. There may be persuasive proof of a deflection in the alinement of 

the exterior, though the record shows the line 

to be straight. For example, measurements east 

and west across a range line, or north and south 

across a latitudinal township line, counting from 

a straight-line exterior adjustment, may show 

distances to the nearest identified subdivisional 

corners to be substantially long in one direction 

and correspondingly short in the opposite direction. This condition, when supported by collateral evidence, would warrant an exception to the 

straight-line or two-way adjustment because 

the evidence outweighs the record. The rules for 

a four-way or double proportionate measurement would then apply here, provided there is 

conclusive proof. 

5-38. All lost quarter-section corners on the 

section boundaries within the township will be 

restored bg single proportionate measurement 

between the adjoining section corners, after 

the section corners have been identified or relocated. 

In those cases where connections from the 

lost quarter-section corner to other regular 

monuments of the line nearer than the section 

corners have been previously noted, these will 

ordinarily assume control in the restoration. 

Such monuments may include another quartersection corner, minor subdivision corners, a 

meander corner, an angle point, or a line tree, 

any of which may have been established when 

the line was previously surveyed or resurveyed. 

(See also under section 5-41, Closing Corners.) 

5-39. “Half-Mile Posts,1’ Alabama and 

Florida 

In the early practice in parts of Alabama and 

Florida, so-called “half-mile posts” were established at distances of 40 chains from the starting section corner. The term was applied where 

the line might be more or less than an exact 80 

chains in record length, and where by later 

methods the latitudinal lines have been run as 

“random and true.” The practice contemplated 

that in some cases these subdivisional lines be 

run in cardinal directions to an intersection, 

where the next section corner would be placed, 

and either or both lines might be more or less 

than 80 chains in length. In some cases the 

section corners were placed across the township at intervals of 80 chains on one of the 

cardinal lines, and the other lines were run on 

random only. On the first plan the “half-mile 

post” would not be at midpoint unless the line 

turned out to be 80 chains in length. On the 

second plan the “half-mile post” on the lines 

first run would be in true position for the quarter-section corner, but on the lines last run they 

would usually not be on true line, nor at midpoint. 

In both cases field notes were written showing a true line direction and midpoint distance 

for a quarter-section corner. This was done to 

meet the objection that the “half-mile post” 

did not satisfy the requirements of law, but the 

true line was not actually run on the ground, 

nor was a monument constructed at midpoint. 

In these cases only the true line field notes need 

be regarded if the evidence of the “half-mile 

post” has disappeared; but where the latter 

can be identified the point must be given proper 

weight for control. Each set of field notes requires its individual consideration, as the prac- 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 139 

tices were not uniform even in the same surveying district. 

The applicable rules for the restoration of the 

true line midpoint positions for the quartersection corners in the above practices are derived from the Act of February ll, 1805 (R.S. 

2396), which requires that “the corners of half 

and quarter sections, not marked on the surveys, shall be placed as nearly as possible 

equidistant from two corners which stand on 

the same line.” 

The rules may be stated specifically as follows : 

(1) In case the “half-mile post” and quartersection corner are recorded as being at a common point, the identified “half-mile post” will 

be restored as the quarter-section corner. 

(2) If there is evidence of the position of 

the section corners in both directions, and if 

the record leaves doubt as to the establishment 

of the “half-mile post” on the true line, the 

quarter-section corner will be monumented at 

midpoint on the true line, disregarding the 

record of the “half-mile post.” 

(39 In the absence of evidence at one or both 

section corners and where the record leaves 

dozcbt regarding the running and marking of 

the true line, the “half-mile post” will be employed on a north,and south line for the control 

of the latitude of the quarter-section corner, or 

on an east and west line for control of its position in departure, using the record correction 

for distance. The alinement of the section 

boundary and the position of the quarter-section 

corner on the true line will be adjusted to the 

location of the two section corners after the 

double proportionate measurements have been 

completed. 

(49 Where the field notes show proper location for alinement and record correction for 

distance, the “half-mile post” will be employed 

for the full control of the position of the quarter-section corner, and for the restoration of 

the lost section corners. The position of the 

quarter-section corner in latitude on a north 

and south line, or in departure on an east and 

west line, will be ascertained by making use of 

the record correction for distance from the 

“half-mile post.” The alinement from the position of the “half-mile post” to the point for the 

quarter-section corner will be determined by 

the position of the section corner to the south, 

if the record correction for distance is to be 

made to the north; the section corner to the 

north will be used if the record correction for 

distance is to be measured to the south; and 

similarly on east and west lines. 

(5) The evidence of the “half-mile post” will 

not be destroyed. 

5-40. Meander Corners 

Lost meander corners, orisinally established 

on a line projected across the meanderable body 

of water usually will be relocated by single proportionate measurement. However, the facts 

must be considered with regard to the specific 

problem in hand. 

Under favorable conditions a lost meander 

corner may be restored by treating the shore 

line as an identified natural feature. In the 

event of extensive obliteration of the original 

corners within the locality this position may be 

preferable to one obtained by proportionate 

measurement carried from a considerable distance. 

In extreme cases restoration by adjustment 

of the record meander courses to the bank or 

shore line may be indispensable to the reconstruction of the section boundaries. Granting 

extensive obliteration, where there has been obvious stability to the bank or shore line, or 

absence of appreciable changes by erosion or 

accretion, the record meander courses and 

distances may be conformed to the salients and 

angles of the physical bank or shore line. If 

found satisfactory, that restoration may be regarded as the most suitable position for the 

meander corner. This may give a location in 

both latitude and departure, in latitude only, or 

in departure only. 

Occasionally, it can be demonstrated that the 

meander corners on opposite banks of a wide 

river were actually established as terminal 

meander corners even though the record indicates the line was projected across the river. 

If the evidence outweighs the record, a lost 

meander corner in such a case will be relocated 

by single point control. (See section 5-45, Original Control.) 
140 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

5-41. Closing Corners. 

A lost closing corner will be reestablished on 

the true line that was closed upon, and at the 

proper proportional interval between the nearest regular corners to the right and left. 

In order to reestablish a lost closing corner 

on a standard parallel or other controlling 

boundary, the line that was closed upon will 

be retraced, beginning at the corner from which 

the connecting measurement was originally 

made. A temporary stake will be set at the 

record connecting distance, and the total distance and falling will be noted at the next regular corner on the line on the opposite side of the 

missing closing corner. The temporary stake 

will then be adjusted as in single proportionate 

measurement. 

A recovered closing corner not actually located on the line that was closed upon will 

determine the direction of the closing line, but 

not its legal terminus. The correct position is 

at the true point of intersection of the two 

lines. 

The new monument in those cases where it 

is required will always be placed at the true 

point of intersection. An off-line monument in 

such cases will be marked AM (for amended 

monument) and will be connected by course 

and distance. The field notes of the closing line 

will include a full description of the old monument as recovered and a clear statement that 

the new monument is set at the true point of 

intersection. 

When an original closing corner is recovered 

off the line closed upon and the new monument 

is established at the true point of intersection, 

the original position will control in the proportionate restoration of lost corners dependent 

upon the closing corner. In a like manner the 

positioning of sixteenth-section corner (5) or lot 

corner (s) on the closing line, between the quarter-section corner and the closing corner, will 

be based on the measurement to the original 

closing corner. 

A closing corner ordinarily is not used as 

control corner in restoring a lost corner of the 

line closed upon. However, where a previous, 

obviously careful retracement has explicitly 

shown the relative positions of all the corners 

on the line, including the closing corners, the 

latter may exercise control to the same limited 

extent as corners of a junior survey. Section 

5-35 (3). 

Closing corners in some cases have been 

established where a line of the survey crosses 

previously surveyed claim lines. (See section 

3-71, Closing Section Lines.) A crossing closing 

corner established to mark the intersection of a 

junior line crossing an existing senior line, if 

it is not at the true intersection, establishes only 

the direction of and a point on the junior line. 

In effect, such a crossing closing corner has the 

same standing as an angle point on the junior 

survey; it has no effect on the senior line. 

A closing corner set to mark the intersection 

of a resurvey of a junior crossing line with a 

senior line has no standing if it does not, in fact, 

mark the true intersection. The true point remains the actual intersection of straight lines 

connecting the two pairs of controlling corners. 

Otherwise, the monument can serve only as a 

control point for the reestablishment of lost 

control corners on the junior line. 

A different problem must be faced where the 

record tie from a closing corner to a corner of 

the line closed upon is fictitious, grossly in error, or in some way irreconcilable. If the closing 

corner in such a case is recovered, it will normally control the direction gf the closing line 

regardless of its disagreement with the record. 

If there is no evidence whatever of the closing 

corner, and ample proof that the closing was 

not made as called for in the field notes, the 

closing corner should not be restored without 

verifying the nearest authentic closing on either 

side. The restoration will then be made by the 

method most nearly in harmony with the official 

plat. No general rule can be advanced. The 

procedure to be adopted should have official 

sanction prior to remonumentation of the lines. 

5-42. The foregoing are the general rules for 

the restoration of lost or obliterated corners. 

The special cases that are hereinafter cited with 

respect to broken boundary lines and limited 

control do not have wide application and do not 

have similar importance excepting under those 

conditions, and as explained in the succeeding 

text. 

The preceding instructions will be applicable 

in the large majority of cases. If there seems to 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 141 

be some difficulty or inconsistent result, a careful check should be made of the record data. The 

special instructions for the original survey, the 

plat representation, or some call of the field 

notes may clarify the problem upon further 

study. This research assumes a large importance in the more difficult problems of the recovery of an old line or boundary. 

It is not intended to disturb satisfactory local 

conditions with respect to roads and fences. The 

surveyor has no authority to change a property 

right that has been acquired legally, nor can he 

accept the location of roads and fences as evidence prima facie of the original survey. Something is needed in support of these locations. 

This will come from whatever intervening record there may be, the testimony of individuals 

who may be acquainted with the facts, and the 

coupling of these things to the original survey. 

Other factors to be considered are the rules 

of the State law and the State court decisions, 

as distinguished from the rules laid down by 

the Bureau of Land Management (the latter 

applicable to the public land surveys in all 

cases). Under State law in matters of agreement between owners, acquiescence, or adverse 

possession, property boundaries may be defined 

by roads, fences, or survey marks, disregarding 

exact conformation with the original section 

lines. These may limit the rights as between 

adjoining owners. 

In many cases due care has been exercised 

to place the property fences on the lines of legal 

subdivision, and it has been the general practice in the Prairie States to locate the public 

roads on the section lines. These are matters of 

particular interest to the adjoining owners, and 

it is a reasonable presumption that care and 

good faith would be exercised with regard to 

the evidence of the original survey in existence 

at the time. Obviously, the burden of proof to 

the contrary must be borne by the party claiming differently. In many cases there are subsurface marks in roadways, such as deposits of 

a marked stone or other durable material, that 

are important evidence of the exact position of 

a corner if the proof can be verified. 

A property corner should exercise a regular 

control upon the retracement only when it was 

placed with due regard to the location of the 

original survey, or agreement is so close as to 

constitute the best available evidence. 

Secondary Methods 

Broken Boundaries 

5-43. Angle Points of Nonriparian Meander Lines. In some cases it is necessary to restore (or possibly to locate for the first time) 

the angle points, within a section, of the record 

meander courses for a stream, lake, or tidewater, 

which may be required under the special rules 

which are applicable to nonriparian meander 

lines. 

In these cases the positions of the meander 

corners on the section boundaries are determined first. The record meander courses and 

distances are then run and temporary angle 

points are marked. The residual error is 

shown by the direction and length of the line 

from the end of the last course to the objective 

meander corner. The residual is distributed on 

the same plan as in balancing a survey for the 

computation of the areas of the lottings as 

represented on the plat. 

The general rule is that the adjustment to be 

to the {latitude departure } of any course is to 

jatitude }of the closing error the { departure 

as the length of the course’is to total length of all 

the courses. Each adjustment is applied in a direction to reduce the closure. If the northings 

are to be increased, then the southings will be 

decreased. A line due east would then be given a 

correction to the north (in effect to the left) ; a 

line due west, also to the north (in effect to the 

right). Each incremental correction is determined and applied in proportion to the length of 

the line. 

The field adjustments for the positions of the 

several angle points are accomplished simply by 

moving each temporary point on the bearing 

of the closing error an amount that is its proportion of that line, counting from the beginning. The particular distance to be measured at 

any point is to the whole length of the closing 

error as the distance of that point from the 

starting corner is to the sum of the lengths of 

all the courses. Figure 72. 
142 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Closing error, 

of refrocemeni \, 

FIGURE 72.-Adjusting angle points on a nonriparian 

meander line. 

The same principle is followed to plot lottings 

of dependently resurveyed sections in their true 

relative positions when the record meander line 

and the true shoreline differ greatly because of 

distortion. 

5-44. Grant Boundaries. In many of the 

States there are irregular grant and reservation boundaries that were established prior to 

the public-land subdivisional surveys, In these 

cases the township and section lines are regarded as the closing lines. The grant boundary field notes may call for natural objects, but 

these are often supplemented by metes-andbound descriptions. The natural calls are ordinarily given precedence, next the existent 

angle points of the metes-and-bounds survey. 

The missing angle points are then restored by 

uniformly orienting the record courses to left or 

right and adjusting the lengths of the lines on a 

constant ratio. Both angular and linear corrections are made in the direction needed to reduce 

the falling of the trial lines laid down according 

to the record. 

The retracement of the grant boundary is 

begun at an identified corner. Calls for natural 

objects are satisfied and the existent angle 

points are recovered. Then, between the identified or acceptable points, the position of missing angle points is determined by these steps : 

(1) Reduce the record courses and distances 

to the total differences in latitude and departure. Compute the direction and length of a line 

connecting the identified points. 

(2) Determine the ac8wZ differences in 

latitude and departure between the same identified points by retracement. Compute the directi~n and length of the connecting line based on 

these figures. 

(3) The angular difference of direction between the connection lines computed in (1) 

and (2) gives the amount and direction of the 

adjustment to apply to the record bearing of 

each intermediate course. 

(4) The ratio of the length of the line computed in (2) to that computed in (1) gives the 

coefficient to apply to the record length of each 

intermediate course. 

After the adjustments are completed, additional search for evidence of the record markers should be made. The adjusted locations for 

the angle points are in the most probable original position, and a better check of collateral 

evidence is possible. If no further evidence is 

recovered, the adjusted points are then monumented. 

In figure 73, A and B are identified points of 

the original boundary. It is desired to restore 

intermediate points T, S, R, J, I, H, and G, which 

have been temporarily marked at Tt, St, Rt, Jt, 

It, Ht, and Gt in conformance with the original 

record starting from point A. The record position of point B in relation to point A is designated Bt. The adjustment has been made in 

the four steps already described. 

The same procedure may be followed whenever it is desired to retain the form of the traverse being adjusted, since the interior angles 

are unchanged and the increase or decrease in 

lengths of lines is constant. The adjustment may 

be likened to a photographic enlargement or reduction. Mechanically, this process requires that 

the record distances of the traverse legs between identified points be reduced or increased 

simultaneously with the rotation of the record 
LOST OR OBLITERATED CORNERS 143 

Orientation of Record Courses lo Merrdron 1°/3~0" to right 

Adjustmenf of Record Meosuremenfs to Stondord Rotio: I 09634 

NYO'I ,303'6 

FIGURE 73.-Adjusting a grant boundary. 

bearings 

cide. 

5-45. 

Where 

until the two identified points coinOriginal Control 

a line has been terminated with measment in one direction only, a lost corner will be 

restored by record bearing and distance, counting from the nearest regular corner, the latter 

having been duly identified VT restored. 

Examples will be found where lines have been 

discontinued at the intersection with large 

meanderable bodies of water, or at the border 

of what was classed as impassable ground. 

An index correction for average error in the 

original measurement should be used, if appropriate, as discussed in section 5-29. Additionally, in cases where a retracement has been 

made of many miles of the original lines, between identified original corners, and there has 

been developed a definite angle from cardinal 

that characterizes the original survey, it is 

proper to make allowance for the average difa 

f erence. 

Special Cases 

5-46. Experience, thoroughness, and good 

j udgmer,t are indispensable for the successful 

retracernent and recovery of any survey when 

it reaches a stage of extensive obliteration. It 

is an axiom among experienced cadastral surveyors that the true location of the original 

lines and corners can be restored, if the original 

survey was made faithfully, and was supported 

by a reasonably good field-note record. That is 

the condition for which the basic principles have 

been outlined, and for which the rules have 

been laid down. The rules cannot be elaborated 

to reconstruct a grossly erroneous survey or a 

survey having fictitious field notes. 

The records of official resurveys cover 

many special cases. The records in Washington 

include the special cases from all public-land 

States. These plats, field notes, reports of field 

examinations, office opinions, Departmental decisions, opinions from the Attorney General of 

the United States, and frequently court opinions and decrees are drawn upon when needed 

to assist the surveyor in situations that are new 

to his own experience. When the surveyor encounters unusual situations, or finds it difficult 

to apply the normal rules for the restoration of 

lost corners, he should report the facts to the 

proper administrative office. If it is determined 

that additional retracements are necessary, 

these may be provided for by supplemental 

instructions. 

5-47. 
CHAPTER VI 

Resurveys 

THE NATURE OF RESURVEYS 

6-1. A resurvey is a reconstruction of land 

boundaries and subdivisions accomplished by 

rerunning and re-marking the lines represented 

in the field-note record or on the plat of a previous official survey. The field-note record of 

the resurvey includes a description of the technical manner in which the resurvey was made, 

full reference to recovered evidence of the previous survey or surveys, and a complete description of the work performed and monuments 

established. The resurvey, like an original survey, is subject to approval of the directing authority. 

6-2. Government resurveys involve considerations of a different character from those 

relating to original surveys. The object is twofold: First, the adequate protection of existing rights acquired under the original survey 

in the matter of location on the earth’s surface, 

and second, the proper marking of the boundaries of the remaining public lands. 

Although the discussion in this chapter pertains especially to the resurvey of an 

entire township, the same principles apply in 

the smaller projects necessary for proper management of the public lands. These smaller parcels must be considered in context with the 

township, which is the unit of resurvey because 

it was the unit of the original survey. 

6-4. A dependent resurvey is a retracement 

and reestablishment of the lines of the original 

survey in their true original positions according to the best available evidence of the positions of the original corners. The section lines 

and lines of legal subdivision of the dependent 

resurvey in themselves represent the best possible identification of the true legal boundaries 

6-3. 

of lands patented on the basis of the plat of the 

original survey. In legal contemplation and in 

fact, the lands contained in a certain section of 

the original survey and the lands contained in 

the corresponding section of the dependent resurvey are identical. 

An independent resurvey is an establishment of new section lines, and often new 

township lines, independent of and without reference to the corners of the original survey. 

In an independent resurvey it is necessary to 

preserve the boundaries of those lands patented 

by legal subdivisions of the sections of the original survey which are not identical with the 

corresponding legal subdivisions of the sections of the independent resurvey. This is done 

by surveying out by metes and bounds and designating as tracts the lands entered or patented 

on the basis of the original survey. These tracts 

represent the position and form of the lands 

alienated on the basis of the original survey, 

located on the ground according to the best 

available evidence of their true original positions. 

6-6. As in the case of original surveys, the 

records of resurveys must form an enduring 

basis upon which depends the security of the 

title to all lands acquired thereunder. The surveyor must therefore exercise the greatest care 

in his field work and in preparing the record 

so that the resurvey will relieve existing difficulties as far as possible without introducing new 

complications. 

A retracement is a survey that is made 

to ascertain the direction and length of lines 

and to identify the monuments and other marks 

of an established prior survey. Retracements 

may be made for any of several reasons. In the 

simplest case it is often necessary to retrace 

6-5. 

6-7. 

145 
146 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

several miles of line leading from a lost corner 

which is to be reestablished to an existent 

corner which will be used as a control. If no intervening corners are reestablished, details of 

the retracement are not usually shown in the 

record, but a direct connection between the two 

corners is reported as a tie. On the other hand, 

the retracement may be an extensive one made 

to afford new evidence of the character and 

condition of the previous survey. Recovered 

corners are rehabilitated, but a retracement 

does not include the restoration of lost corners 

or the reblazing of lines through the timber. The 

retracement may sometimes be’ complete in 

itself, but usually it is made as an early part 

of a resurvey. 

In the case of Cragin v. Powell, 128 

U.S. 691 (1888), the Supreme Court of the 

United States cited with favor the following 

quotation from a letter of the Commissioner of 

the General Land Office to the surveyor general 

of Louisiana : 

The making of resurveys or corrective surveys of 

townships once proclaimed for sale is always at the 

hazard of interfering with private rights, and thereby 

introducing new complications. A resurvey, properly 

considered, is but a retracing, with a view to determine and establish lines and boundaries of an original survey, . . . but the principle of retracing has 

been frequently departed from, where a resurvey (so 

called) has been made and new lines and boundaries 

have often been introduced, mischievously conflicting 

with the old, and thereby affecting the areas of tracts 

which the United States had previously sold and 

otherwise disposed of. 

6-8. 

JURISDICTION 

6-9. Resurveys have been made since the 

early days of the public land surveys. Initially 

they were made as corrective surveys under 

the general surveying appropriations when 

gross errors were found. Resurveys of particular public lands in certain States were later authorized by special acts of Congress. General 

legislation providing for resurveys was enacted 

when it became apparent that many older surveys were so obliterated or distorted that the 

lines could not be identified with certainty. 

The Act of March 3, 1909, (35 Stat. 845), as 

amended June 25, 1910, (36 Stat. 885; 43 

U.S.C. 772) authorized the Secretary of the Interior to make such resurveys as, after full investigation, he may deem essential to properly 

mark the boundaries of the remaining public 

lands. 

The Act of September 21,1918, (40 Stat. 965 ; 

43 U.S.C. 773), provided authority for resurvey 

of townships in which disposals exceed 50 percent of the total area. Such resurveys may be 

undertaken upon application of the owners of 

at least three-fourths of the privately owned 

land in the township, or upon application of a 

court of competent jurisdiction, and upon a deposit of the proportionate estimated cost of the 

resurvey. 

The Act of July 14, 1960, (43 U.S.C. 1364), 

authorized the Secretary of the Interior to accept contributions for cadastral surveys performed on federally controlled or intermingled 

lands. 

Conservation and intensive use of the public 

domain have made necessary the retracement 

and re-marking of lines of the older surveys in 

order to identify the boundaries between public 

and private lands. Limited resurveys for this 

purpose are carried out under the annual appropriations for the management of public lands 

and resources. . 

As delegated by the Secretary of the 

Interior, the authority for engaging in a general resurvey, where public lands are involved, 

can issue only through the Director, Bureau of 

Land Management. Other Federal agencies 

vested with the administration of the lands may 

request resurveys by addressing the Director 

through the usual official channels. Justification 

for such action must be shown. 

The Bureau of Land Management has exclusive jurisdiction over all matters pertaining to 

surveys and resurveys affecting the public 

lands. As between owners of lands, the title to 

which has passed from United States, final determination in the matter of fixing the position 

of disputed land boundaries rests with the local 

courts of competent jurisdiction. The rules of 

procedure laid down in the Manual of Surveying Instructions for the re-marking of lines of 

previous surveys are intended to be in harmony 

with the leading court decisions in suits involving boundary disputes. The rules should be 

so applied that the courts may, with security, 

6-10. 
RESURVEYS 147 

accept the boundaries thus determined insofar 

as they represent the true location of a particular piece of land intended to be conveyed by 

a patent. The official resurveys are undertaken 

only when duly authorized, and the field work 

assigned to a cadastral surveyor, who in that 

manner is acting under the authority of the Secretary of the Interior through the Bureau of 

Land Management and under the immediate 

direction of subordinate supervising officers. 

LIMIT OF AUlWORITY 

OF SURVEYOR 

6-11. There are certain questions of a purely 

judicial nature involved in resurveys of every 

description where the decision is to be reserved 

to the Director of the Bureau of Land Management, particularly those relating to compliance 

with the general laws in respect to the entry 

of the public lands. Thus it comes within the 

realm of the surveying process to identify and 

mark out on the ground the various legal subdivisions of the public domain, but it is a judicial question beyond the function of the surveyor to determine whether or not specified 

lands have been duly earned under a certain 

entry. In the resurvey process the surveyor will 

determine whether or not lands embraced within a claim as occupied have been correctly related in position to the original survey. Where 

the demonstration of this question may be one 

involving more or less uncertainty, as is often 

the case, the surveyor will examine and weigh 

the evidence relating strictly to the surveying 

problem involved. He will interpret the evidence 

with respect to its effect upon the manner in 

which the resurvey shall be executed to protect 

valid rights acquired under the original survey. The surveyor has no authority to enter 

into an agreement concerning the exchange of 

one subdivision for another or to bind the 

Bureau of Land Management in this particular. 

BONA FIDE RIGHTS 

OF CLAIMANTS 

6-12. In order to carry out the provisions 

of the laws relating to resurveys, the surveyor 

must understand the meaning of the term “bona 

fide rights” and under what circumstances it 

will be held that such rights have been impaired by a resurvey. The Act of March 3, 1909, 

(35 Stat. 845), as amended June 25, 1910, 

(36 Stat. 884; 43 U.S.C. 772) reads in part as 

follows : 

That no such resurvey or retracement shall be so executed as to impair the bona fide rights or claims of 

any claimant, entryman, or owner of lands affected 

by such resurvey or retracement. 

The rights of claimants are to be similarly 

protected under the provisions of the Act of 

September 21, 1918, (40 Stat. 965; 43 U.S.C. 

773). 

6-13. Bona fide rights are those acquired in 

good faith under the law. A resurvey can affect 

bona fide rights only in the matter of position 

or location on the earth’s surface. The surveyor 

will be concerned only with the question of 

whether the lands covered by such rights have 

been actually located in good faith. Other questions of good faith (such as priority of occupation, possession, continuous residence, 

value of improvements and cultivation) do not 

affect the problem of resurvey except as they 

help to define the position of the original survey. 

6-14. The baqic principles of protecting 

bona fide rights are the same in either the 

dependent or the independent resurvey. Each is 

intended to show the original position of entered or patented lands included in the original 

description. The dependent resurvey shows 

them as legal subdivisions, the independent resurvey as segregated tracts. Each is an official 

demonstration by the Bureau of Land Management according to the best available evidence 

of the former survey. There is no legal authority 

for substituting the methods of an independent 

resurvey in disregard of identified evidence of 

the original survey. 

6-15. The position of a tract of land, described by legal subdivisions, is absolutely fixed 

by the original corners and other evidences of 

the original survey and not by occupation or 

improvements, or by the lines of a resurvey 

which do not follow the original. A conveyance 

of land must describe the parcel to be conveyed 

so that it may be specifically and exactly identified, and for that purpose the law directs that a 

survey be made. Under fundamental law the 
148 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

corners of the original survey are unchangeable. 

Even if the original survey was poorly executed, 

it still controls the boundaries of land patented 

under it. 

The surveyor should neither rigidly apply the 

rules for restoration of lost corners without regard to effect on location of improvements nor 

accept the position of improvements without 

question regardless of their relation or irrelation to existing evidence of the original survey. 

Between these extremes will be found the basis 

for determining whether improved lands have 

been located in good faith or not. No definite 

set of rules can be laid down in advance. The 

solution to the problem must be found on the 

ground by the surveyor. It is his responsibility 

to resolve the question of good faith as to 

location. 

6-16. It may be held generally that the entryman has located his lands in good faith if 

such care was used in determining his boundaries as might be expected by the exercise of ordinary intelligence under existing conditions. 

The relationship of the lands to the nearest corners existing at the time the lands were located 

is often defined by his fencing, culture, or other 

improvements. Lack of good faith is not necessarily chargeable if the entryman has not located himself according to a rigid application 

of the rules laid down for the restoration of 

lost corners where (1) complicated conditions 

involve a double set of corners, both of which 

may be regarded as authentic; (2) there are no 

existing corners in one or more directions for 

an excessive distance; (3) existing marks are 

improperly related to an extraordinary degree ; 

or (4) all evidences of the original survey which 

have been adopted by the entryman as a basis 

for his location have been lost before the resurvey is undertaken. 

In cases involving extensive obliteration at the date of entry, the entryman or his 

successors in interest should understand that 

the boundaries of the claim will probably 

be subject to adjustment in the event of a resurvey. A general control applied to the boundaries of groups of claims must be favored 

as far as possible in the interest of equal fairness to all and of simplicity of resurvey. A claim 

cannot generally be regarded as having been 

6-17. 

located in good faith if no attempts have been 

made to relate it in some manner to the original 

survey. 

6-18. Cases will arise where lands have 

been occupied in good faith, but whose boundaries as occupied disagree with the position of 

the legal subdivision called for in the description. Obviously the rule of good faith as to location cannot apply; relief must be sought 

through the process of amended entry under 

R. S. 2372, as amended (43 U.S.C. 697), to cover 

the legal subdivisions actually earned, rather 

than through an alteration of the position of 

established lines. This is a process of adjudication rather than one of resurvey. A case of this 

character should be regarded as erroneous 

location in precisely the same manner as if the 

question of resurvey were not involved. \ 

GENERAL FIELD METHODS 

6-19. In most areas that require resurveys 

the survey of record can be reconstructed by the 

methods of the dependent resurvey. The principal resurvey problem is one of obliteration with 

comparative absence of large discrepancies. The 

special instructions provide for a retracement 

and dependent resurvey, and these may be carried on at the same time if no complications 

develop. Even where the record survey proves 

to be badly distorted, the extent of private 

ownership may dictate that the resurvey will 

be of the dependent type. Many areas have 

a checkerboard pattern of ownership as the 

result of railroad or military road grants, and 

this same condition is approximated where extensive disposals have been made. Since an 

independent resurvey cannot affect boundaries 

of lands already alienated, it serves little purpose where every section line is the boundary 

of private land. 

6-20. Occasionally, after a dependent resurvey has been commenced, complications develop which make the methods inapplicable. 

Provision should always be made in the special instructions calling for the surveyor to 

report such facts to the supervising office. The 

report should embody the same information as 

that required in the report of a preliminary 

examination hereinafter outlined. 
RESURVEYS 149 

6-21. Providing a large enough area of public land remains to warrant it, the methods of 

the independent resurvey are employed if there 

are intolerable discrepancies in the original survey. This occurs where the early survey was 

not faithfully executed with the result that 

some lines usually have not been established, 

have no actual existence, and cannot be reconstructed to conform to a fictitious record. 

Action should be taken to suspend the plat of 

record as a basis of disposals and leases before 

an independent resurvey is commenced. 

When it is probable that an independent resurvey will be necessary, the special instructions provide that a preliminary field examination be made. No new monuments are constructed during the examination. Interested 

parties are to be informed that the examination is being made strictly for the purpose of 

developing information. They will be given to 

understand that, while new lines may be run 

later to identify the remaining public lands, 

the resurvey will be planned to protect all valid 

existing rights. 

6-22. The report of a field examination consists of a diagram to scale, a narrative, and the 

field notes of the retracements made. The diagram shows the correlation of existent original 

corners, corners established by Iocal surveyors, 

and any monuments of unknown origin. Line 

fences, line roads, and the boundaries of claims 

are also shown. The narrative includes a description of the recovered evidence and statements 

by witnesses regarding obliterated corners. The 

extent of obliteration and the degree of faithfulness of the original survey is discussed when 

this is pertinent. Disposals made by the Federal 

Government are listed and, if practicable, are 

shown on the diagram as well. Mention is made 

of improvements affected by the resurvey, 

the basis of claim locations, conflicts between 

claims, and any hiatus that may be anticipated. 

The field notes of the retracement form an important part of the report, since they show how 

correctly the natural features were represented 

in the original record. Finally, the surveyor 

recommends the procedure which he believes 

will best meet the existing conditions. 

The report of the field examination is reviewed in the supervising office. Special instructions (or supplemental special instructions) are 

written to show the detail of the proposed resurvey. If the independent method is selected, 

an important consideration is the fixing of the 

out-boundaries of the township or townships 

within the planned resurvey. These limiting 

boundaries must be lines which can be restored 

in such a manner as to protect existing rights 

in the adjoining outside lands. An exception is 

where such a large area is to be independently 

resurveyed that it cannot all be included in one 

assignment. Occasionally, one portion of a township can be dependently resurveyed, while an 

independent resurvey is necessary in the remaining portion. In such a case the subdivisional 

lines separating the two types of resurvey must 

be dependently resurveyed. 

6-23. Even when the procedures have been 

based on a preliminary examination, unforeseen difficulties may crop up in the progress of 

the resurvey by reason of the greater detail of 

the work. The new factors may make the special instructions inapplicable. If this occurs the 

surveyor should suspend further monumentation, make any additional examination required, 

then report the situation to the supervising 

office. 

6-24. During the course of a resurvey the 

surveyor should advise a11 interested parties, as 

occasion and opportunity allow, that the resurvey is not official or binding upon the United 

States until it has been duly accepted by the 

Director, Bureau of Land Management, as 

provided by law. No alteration in the position of 

improvements or claim boundaries should be 

made in advance of the official acceptance of the 

resurvey. 

THE DEPENDENT RESURVEY 

6-25. The dependent resurvey is designed to 

restore the original conditions of the official 

survey according to the record. It is based, first, 

upon identified original corners and other acceptable points of control, and, second, upon the 

restoration of lost corners by proportionate 

measurement in harmony with the record of the 

original survey. Some flexibility is allowable in 

applying the rules of proportionate measure- 
160 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

ment in order to protect the bona fide rights of 

claimants. 

6-26. The dependent resurvey is begun by 

making a retracement of the township exteriors 

and subdivisional lines of the established prior 

survey within the assigned work. Concurrently, 

a study is made of the records of any known 

supplemental surveys, and testimony is obtained 

from witnesses concerning obliterated corners. 

The retracement leads at once to identification 

of known and plainer evidence of the original survey. A trial calculation is made of 

the proportionate positions of the missing corners, followed by a second and more exhaustive 

search for the more obscure evidence of the original survey. If additional evidence is found, a 

new trial calculation is made. Corners still not 

recovered are marked only as temporary points 

which may be influenced by acceptable locations. 

These steps give the basic control for the resurvey. The surveyor then weighs the less certain collateral evidence against the proportionate positions so obtained. 

6-27. A comparison of the temporary points 

with the corners and boundaries of alienated 

lands often helps in determining how the original survey was made, how the claims were 

located, or both. In analyzing the problem of a 

particular corner’s location, it is often helpful 

to determine where the theoretical corner point 

would fall if a three-point control were used. In 

extreme cases the collateral evidence may be 

weighed against the position obtained by use 

of two-point control, particularly when supported by well-identified natural features. It 

may then prove that the original corner, which 

would otherwise be lost, has been perpetuated 

by an acceptably located claim. 

Ordinarily the one-point control is inconsistent with the general plan of a dependent 

resurvey. The courts have sometimes turned to 

this as the only apparent solution of a bad 

situation, and unfortunately this has been the 

method applied in many local surveys, thus 

minimizing the work to be done, and the cost. 

Almost without exception the method is given 

the support that “it follows the record.” This 

overlooks the fact that the record is equally 

applicable when reversing the direction of the 

control from other good corners, monuments, 

or marks. The use of one-point control is only 

applicable where the prior survey was discontinued at a recorded distance or where it can be 

shown conclusively that the line was never 

established. If the line was discontinued by 

record, the field notes may be followed explicitly. If it was discontinued by evident unfaithfulness in execution, its use would be limited 

to the making of a tract segregation where the 

claimant has given confidence to the so-called 

field notes. 

6-28. Once it is accepted, a local point of 

control has all the authority and significance of 

an identified original corner. The influence of 

such points is combined with that of the previously identified original corners in making 

final adjustments of the temporary points. The 

surveyor must therefore use extreme caution in 

adopting local points of control. These may 

range from authentic perpetuations of original 

corners down to marks which were never intended to be more than approximations. When a 

local reestablishment of a lost corner has been 

made by proper methods without gross error 

and has been officially recorded, it will ordinarily be acceptable. Monuments of unknown 

origin must be judged on their own merits, but 

they should never be rejected out of hand without careful study. The age and the degree to 

which a local corner has been relied on by all 

affected landowners may lead to its adoption 

as the best remaining evidence of the position 

of the original corner. The surveyor must consider all these factors. However, he cannot 

abandon the record of the original survey in 

favor of an indiscriminate adoption of points 

not reconcilable with it. 

The field-note record of the resurvey should 

clearly set forth the reasons for the acceptance 

of a local point where it is not identified by actual marks of the original survey. Recognized 

and acceptable local marks will be preserved 

and described. Where they are monuments of a 

durable nature, they are fully described in the 

field notes and a full complement of the required accessories recorded, but without disturbing or re-marking the existing monument. 

New monuments are established if required for 

permanence, in addition to, but without destroying the evidence of the local marks. 
RESURVEYS 161 

6-29. The surveyor should make certain 

while still in the field that he has noted complete 

descriptions of all identified or accepted corners 

for entry in the official record of the resurvey 

so that the record will embrace : 

(1) A complete description of the remaining 

evidence of the original monument ; 

(2) A complete description of the original 

accessories as identified ; 

(3) A concise statement relating to the recovery of a corner based upon identified line 

trees, blazed lines, items of topography, or 

other calls of the field notes of the original survey, in the absence of evidence of the monument 

or its accessories ; 

(4) A statement relating to the relocation 

of an obliterated monument; or a statement of 

the determining features leading to the acceptance of a recognized local corner ; 

(5) A complete description of the new monument; and 

(6) A complete description of the new accessories. 

6-30. The running and measurement of the 

true lines of the dependent resurvey, the marking of lines between corners, the notation of 

objects to be recorded, and the monumentation 

of the survey must conform to the requirements 

for original surveys. The technical record of 

the resurvey shows the relationship between 

the original survey and the reestablished lines. 

6-31. In the course of marking the true 

lines it is often desirable to establish sixteenthsection corners or minor subdivision corners 

which control the position of intermingled 

public land within a section. Later subdivision 

of the section would then not require a new 

resurvey of the section lines for that purpose. 

6-32. The limit of closure already prescribed will be observed. Special stress will be 

given to the need for greater accuracy in the 

measurements, which largely govern the restoration of lost corners. (section 3-124). 

THE INDEPENDENT RESURVEY 

6-33. An independent resurvey is designed 

to supersede the prior official survey only insofar as the remaining public lands are concerned. 

The subdivisions previously entered or patented 

are in no way affected as to location. All such 

claims must be identified on the ground, then 

protected in one of two ways. Whenever possible, the sections in which claims are located 

are reconstructed from evidence of the record 

survey just as in a dependent resurvey. Where 

irrelated control prevents the reconstruction 

of the sections that would adequately protect 

them, the alienated lands are segregated as 

tracts. A particular tract is identical with the 

lands of a specific description based on the plat 

of the prior official survey. The tract segregation merely shows where the lands of this description are located with respect to the new 

section lines of the independent resurvey. In 

order to avoid confusion with section numbers 

the tracts are designated beginning with number 37. The plan of the independent resurvey 

must be such that no lines, monuments, or plat 

representations duplicate the description of any 

previous section where disposals have been 

made. 

The statutory authority to review the 

effect of an independent resurvey upon the 

boundaries of privately owned land rests in the 

courts. A decision of the court is binding in fixing a boundary between private lands. It would 

be contested in fixing a boundary between public 

and patented lands only if monuments of the official survey have not been considered, the court 

having no authority to set aside the official 

survey. 

6-35. The independent resurvey is accomplished in three distinct steps: 

(1) The reestablishment of the outboundaries of the area to be resurveyed, following the 

methods of a dependent resurvey. 

(2) The segregation of lands embraced in 

any valid claim based on the former approved 

plat. 

(3) The survey of new exterior, subdivisional, and meander lines by a new regular plan. 

6-34. 

Reestablishment of Outboundaries 

6-36. The limiting boundaries of the lands 

which are to be independently resurveyed must 

agree with the previously established and identified exterior or subdivisional lines of the approved original surveys. In order to qualify as a 

suitable limiting boundary, a line of the ac- 
162 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

cepted established surveys must be conclusively 

identified in one position to the exclusion of all 

others. The lands on one side are to be resubdivided upon a new plan. On the opposite side 

the original subdivisions are to be strictly 

maintained, and none of the original conditions 

are to be disturbed. Where an outboundary has 

been reestablished by dependent resurvey, the 

subdivisions of a tract originally described as 

along or on opposite sides of the outboundary 

must agree with the line reestablished. 

6-37. Although the outboundaries of the 

independent resurvey generally follow established township exteriors, section lines may 

qualify as suitable limiting boundaries in special cases. Particular attention should be given 

to this subject when the field examination is 

made, with a view to maintaining the original 

survey as far as it is consistent. 

6-38. In some cases a proper limiting boundary cannot be secured without including a greater number of townships than it is practicable to 

resurvey in one assignment. One or more tracts 

requiring segregation may then extend across 

an independently resurveyed outboundary into a 

township not grouped for resurvey. Any such 

tract will be fully segregated whether or not 

the tract was originally described as in the 

township to be resurveyed. The necessary oficia1 steps will be taken to suspend disposal of 

lands in the adjoining township pending investigations with a view to the resurvey of that 

township. 

Where the lines of the independent resurvey 

are not to be initiated or closed upon the restored original corners of the outboundaries, 

the new monuments will be marked only with 

reference to the township, range, and section to 

which they will thenceforth relate. New regular corners controlling the lines of the independent resurvey will be established as provided in 

chapter I11 under Defective Exteriors. During 

the preliminary stages of the resurvey there 

will often be doubt as to whether an old corner 

will retain its former control or not. The marking of the new monument and its accessories 

will be deferred until the future significance of 

the point is determined. Where an old point is 

not to be the corner of a subdivision, but is to 

be perpetuated merely to control future alinement, it will be monumented as an angle point. 

Metes-and-Bounds Survey of 

Private Claims 

6-39. The special instructions should designate the sections containing alienated lands 

which will be dependently resurveyed. Where 

there is acceptable evidence of the original survey, the identification of the areas that have 

been disposed of must be the same as would 

ordinarily be derived by the regular subdivision 

of the section. The tracts which are to be segregated by metes-and-bounds survey are those 

areas that cannot be so identified, nor conformed satisfactorily, those where amendment 

of description appears not to be an available 

remedy, and those where the disposals are 

found to be in conflict by overlap. Every corner 

of these tracts is marked by angle-point monumentation, and a tie is made from each tract 

to a corner of the resurvey. 

6-40. An abstract of pertinent records and 

a status diagram should be furnished to the 

surveyor showing lands whose boundaries cannot legally be disturbed. These include 

patented lands, valid entries, school sections, 

land grants, disposals, reservations, or selections of lands whose position and description are 

based upon the original survey and plat. The 

resurvey will not be complete until each claim 

described has received full protection in the matter of location. Each must be protected either 

by individual metes-and-bounds survey or by 

the assignment of subdivisions of the resurvey 

whose boundaries coincide or approximately 

agree with the tract boundaries. In addition it 

is often desirable to furnish to the surveyor the 

status of all claims in the adjacent sections of 

adjoining townships ungrouped for resurvey 

which might affect the resurvey procedure. 

The survey of private claims need not 

be completed before beginning the projection of 

the new lines of the independent resurvey. It 

is logical, however, to consider the subject of 

the tract segregations in advance of the question of the establishment of new lines. The surveyor may find it expedient to carry both 

branches of the survey along together. 

6-41. 
RESURVEYS 153 

6-42. The jurisdiction of the Bureau of 

Land Management, the limit of the authority of 

the surveyor, and the bona fide rights of claimants, where entered or patented lands are involved, remain absolutely the same whether the 

resurvey is to be made upon the dependent or 

independent plan. Thus, where the independent 

type of resurvey has been adopted as more feasible, identified corners of the original survey in 

the immediate vicinity of lands to be segregated are employed for the control of the location of such lands. The question of the good 

faith of the entryman is fully considered, as 

previously outlined in this chapter. Where the 

evidence of the original survey is so obliterated 

that lack of good faith in location cannot be 

charged against an entryman, the available 

collateral evidence is to be regarded as the best 

indication of the original position of the claim. 

It is employed as far as consistent for the 

control of the section boundaries within which 

such claim is located. 

6-43. Where the surveyor cannot definitely 

locate a claim by identification of the original 

survey, he should ask the claimant to point out 

his boundaries. The boundaries of the private 

claim, so determined, are fixed as between private and public lands, subject to official acceptance of the resurvey. The surveyor should explain that an acceptably located claim must 

have a form agreeing with the original entry, 

approximately regular boundaries, an area not 

widely inconsistent with that shown on the plat, 

and a location as nearly correct as may be expected from the existing evidence of the original 

survey. 

6-44. Dispute may arise over adjustment of 

the line between adjoining patented tracts, each 

acceptably located. If it cannot be reconciled 

by the surveying process, the tracts are surveyed in conflict and so shown on the resurvey 

plat. 

6-45. The surveyor cannot change materially the configuration of a tract as shown by 

its original description in order to indemnify 

the owner against deficiencies in area, to eliminate conflicts between entries, or for any 

other purpose. If improvements have been 

located in good faith, the tract survey should 

be so executed, or the conformation to the 

lines of the resurvey so indicated, as to cover 

these improvements and at the same time maintain substantially the form of the entry as originally described. No departure from this rule 

is allowed. 

6-46. The amendment of entries is a matter for adjudication by the Bureau of Land 

Management after the resurvey has been accepted and the plats filed in the land office. 

An attempt should be made to consult an absentee owner so that he may point 

out the lands subject to a metes-and-bounds survey. If the owner cannot be found and there is 

no indication of the boundaries of a claim, the 

surveyor should locate it from the nearest original point of control or from a point of a 

neighboring claim, or assign to the entered or 

patented lands the appropriate subdivisions of 

the resurvey. The controlling factors are individual and neighborhood improvements (such 

as buildings, wells, springs of water, cultivated 

lands, public roads, fences, corners of recognized private surveys, etc.) which indicate 

the evident intention of the entryman or patentee as to the position of his land. 

6-48. Each nonconformable valid claim in a 

township is given a serial tract number, commencing with No. 37 in the smallest numbered 

and entered section of the original plat, progressing through the township in the order in 

which lot and sections are numbered. A tract 

number is used but once in a township, and if 

any tract lies partly in two or more townships 

subject to resurvey the number applied to the 

tract in the first township resurveyed is not 

used for other tracts in the adjoining township. 

The following rules will be observed 

in executing the metes-and-bounds survey of 

designated tracts : 

(1) Each acceptably located claim which is 

at variance with the lines of the resurvey is 

surveyed and monumented at each angle point. 

(2) Where the limiting boundary of the independent resurvey has been reestablished in its 

original position by dependent resurvey, the 

portion of a claim lying outside the boundary is 

not surveyed by metes and bounds. It is located 

in an area where the original conditions cannot 

be disturbed. The portion of the claim lying 

6-47. 

6-49. 
154 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

within the area of the independent resurvey has 

at least one identifiable original boundary. It 

should be defined by segregation or conformation to the lines of the resurvey in a position 

which is properly related to the identified or restored corners on the limiting boundary. 

(3) Where the boundaries of a claim are unacceptably located as pointed out by the claimant, the claim is surveyed and monumented 

in a suitable relation to the original survey. 

If the claimant protests the location, the 

surveyor should request that the protest 

be made in writing. The written protest will 

be submitted with the returns of the resurvey. Accurate ties should be made to the 

corners of the claim as unacceptably located. 

The surveyor should make a complete report of 

the facts with reference to the question of location. Further protection to the entryman may 

be sought by an amendment of entry. 

(4) Where the metes-and-bounds segregation of a claim (or its conformation to the lines 

of the resurvey) does not cover the lands occupied, improved, or claimed, the claimant may 

express a desire to amend his entry. The fact 

should be stated in the field notes. A separate 

full report is made by the surveyor describing 

the subdivisions actually occupied and those 

sought under the amended entry which are not 

within the tract as surveyed. (See current 

regulations relating to the amendment of entries.) 

(5) Where the regular quarter-quarter sections within a claim fall in approximately the 

same position as the regular quarter-quarter 

sections of the resurvey, the entryman or 

patentee may desire to conform his claim to the 

resurvey. If no apparent objection is found by 

the surveyor, the facts should be stated in the 

field notes and the claim so indicated upon the 

resurvey plat. Under this circumstance the 

metes-and-bounds survey of the tract is omitted. However, where a tract includes a fractional 

lot as originally described or where any part of 

a tract falls upon a fractional lot of the resurvey, the tract must be segregated as a whole 

by metes-and-bounds survey, even though some 

or all of the lines of the tract may coincide with 

certain subdivisional lines of the resurvey. 

No claim should be conformed to the lines 

of an independent resurvey under an involved 

amended description which includes numerous 

subdivisions smaller than the regular quarterquarter section, excepting as completely surveyed and monumented. 

(6) Conflicting tracts, each acceptably located, are surveyed and monumented and the 

conflict shown upon the resurvey plat. Each 

intersection of conflicting boundaries is determined upon the ground and recorded in the 

field notes, which also show the number of 

acres in conflict with each other tract. 

(7) The angle points of a tract are designated 

by serial numbers beginning with No. 1 at the 

northeast corner, and proceeding around the 

claim, running westerly from the initial corner. 

An angle point may be common to one, two, 

three, or four tracts. The monument is marked 

as in the following examples: 

T26 N R 17E 

1971 1971 

T 26N R17E 

S 14 

TR 37 I 

1971 

(8) No accessories are required with the 

monuments at the angle points of the metesand-bounds survey. 

(9) At least one angle point of each tract is 

connected with a regular corner of the resurvey. Where claim lines are intersected by lines 

of the resurvey, a connection is made to the nearest claim corner and recorded in the field notes 

of the section line. This is considered a satisfactory connection to all adjoining claims 10- 

cated within the interior of either section. 

Where an extensive system of tract segregations 

has been surveyed, the interior tracts of the 

block do not require connections. The establishment of closing corners on the regular line 

when entering or leaving public land will con- 
RESURVEYS 155 

form to the practice described in Closing Section Lines, sections 3-68 through 3-73. 

(10) All recovered monuments of the original survey not otherwise reported upon are 

connected by course and distance with a corner 

of the resurvey. The connection and a description of the traces of the original corner as identified are recorded in the field notes of the resurvey. The old monument is destroyed unless 

the point may be needed to control the position 

of a claim. (See also Defective Exteriors, section 3-36). 

The Projection of New Lines 

6-50. A plan for projecting new section 

lines can best be made after study of a layout 

showing (1) lines of the former survey which 

are to be restored and (2) the necessary tract 

segregations. If the report of the field examination is explicit, the plan may be incorporated 

in the special instructions. If the report does 

not fully identify the position of alienated lands, 

the plan must be delayed until these lands have 

been segregated. 

6-51. The resubdivision of vacant public 

lands in a township by independent resurvey is 

an application of fragmentary subdivision as 

discussed in chapter 111. However, an independent resurvey may involve the resubdivision of 

a group of many townships where the conditions are comparatively regular except for the 

tract segregations. First attention is given to 

completing the township exteriors which are 

to be independently resurveyed. These are 

completed as in the establishment of original surveys. The new section lines are surveyed and marked as in regular or fragmentary subdivision, whichever may be the 

case. New meander lines are run as required. 

The new exterior and subdivisional lines are 

usually extended across small blocks of tract 

segregation surveys, and connections are 

made as described under Metes-and-Bounds 

Survey of Private Claims, section 6-39. Where 

the new lines are so extended across tracts, the 

corners are fully monumented regardless of the 

fact that some points fall within the tract segregation surveys. They are required in order to 

determine the subdivision of the public lands. 

6-52. After the plan of running new section 

boundaries has been determined, the creation 

of needed new lottings is considered. This must 

precede the marking of the corner monuments, 

which may be affected by the manner in which 

the lots are laid out and numbered. 

Where any aliquot part (vacant) of a newly 

created section would normally have a description that duplicates the corresponding part 

(alienated) of an original section bearing the 

same section number, such part or parts of the 

new section are given appropriate lot numbers. 

The new lot numbers begin with the next number above the highest numbered lot of that section of the prior survey. Also, where there are 

new normal lottings in the sections along the 

north and west boundaries of the township, if 

those sections are not restorations of the corresponding sections of the prior survey (and 

same township and range), the lottings are 

given numbers beginning with the next higher 

number above those that were previously employed. 

6-53. Some new sections may be elongated 

in order to absorb the discrepancy in the positions of the section-line boundaries as between 

the old and the new survey. This it taken care of 

in the lottings of the new sections. Such departure from normal procedure is made necessary 

by the discrepancies of the prior survey, where 

the location of the alienated lands cannot be 

changed. 

6-54. Where a section of the resurvey is invaded by tract segregations, the lotting of the 

public lands is carried out in accordance with 

the usual plan of lotting within fractional sections. The numbering of the fractional lots begins with the number next higher than the highest number employed in the section of the original survey which bears the same township, 

range, and section number. This plan avoids any 

possible confusion which might arise from a 

duplication in the use of the same lot numbers. 

The plan of the independent resurvey 

should be carefully studied for the proper placing of all needed quarter-section corners, for 

either one or two sections, so to provide for the 

position of the center lines of all sections, restored or new. Where two positions are found to 

come within less than half the closing limit pre6-55. 
166 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

scribed for a section, the point first derived as 

the appropriate position of the quarter-section 

corner of the restored section boundary is used 

for control in both sections. This rule is in the 

interest of simplicity of survey and monumentation. 

6-56. The general requirements of chapters 

11, 111, and IV must be fully observed in every 

respect throughout the execution of the independent resurvey. 

It is important that the surveyor make a careful study, during the period of the field work, of 

the construction of the resurvey plats, to make 

certain that every possible condition has been 

given consideration and that all necessary data 

have been obtained. 
CHAPTER VII 

Special Surveys and Instructions 

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 

7-1. The detailed specifications for each 

survey are set out by the officer in administrative charge of the work in a written statement 

entitled “Special Instructions.” The special instructions are an essential part of the permanent record of the survey, both as historical 

information and because they show that the 

survey was properly authorized. The immediate 

purpose is to outline the extent of the field 

work and the method and order of procedure. 

Coupled with the Manual, the special instructions contain the technical direction and information necessary for executing the survey. 

Emphasis is given to any procedure unusual 

in application, but no lengthy discussion is required of procedures that are adequately covered 

in the Manual. The special instructions are 

written in the third person. 

7-2. Shown below is the arrangement of 

subject matter in the special instructions. 

Italicized portions denote standard phraseology. 

Group No. -, (State) 

(1) Title ; Special Instructions 

(Nature of survey, and location by town- 

(2) Preliminary statement: 

In the execution of the surveys included under Group No. -, (State), the chief of field 

party is authorized and directed to make the 

described examination, retracements, reestablishment of points of control, surveys, and resurveys set out in these instructions. He will 

be guided by the Manual of Surveying Instructions, the provisions of the following special 

instructions, and such supplemental instrucship, range, and meridian) 

tions as may be issued during the progress of 

the work. 

(3) Authority 

Cite departmental or bureau instructions or 

authorization, the request of another Federal 

agency having administrative jurisdiction over 

the lands whose survey is being requested, or 

any special act of Congress relating to the survey. 

(4) Appropriation 

The costs of the field and office work incurred in the execution of the survey, within approved official regulation, are payable from the 

appropriation: Give the title of the applicable 

appropriation, fund, or deposit, and cite the act 

of Congress under which a deposit has been 

received. 

(5) Limit and Character of Work 

Describe the lines to be surveyed by township, range, and meridian, with designation by 

section where only parts of townships are 

authorized. If the work involves other than 

original surveys, indicate the character of the 

fragmentary survey, the type of resurvey, or 

the nature of the field examination. Legal or 

technical questions related to the work may be 

pointed out here or in the part of the instructions dealing with methods, whichever is most 

appropriate. Similarly treated would be known 

facts concerning private rights that may be affected and directions for protecting those 

rights. 

(6) History of Earlier Surveys 

Each new survey, retracement, or resurvey 

is predicated on the surveys accepted previously. The pertinent existing surveys are reviewed in the special instructions with an explanation of known or presumed complications, 

157 
158 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

(7) Method and Order of Procedure 

If the projected work is an extension of original surveys, it taken up in the following 

order in the instructions: 

(a) Standard parallels and guide meridians 

(b) Township exteriors 

(c) Subdivisions, including meander lines 

(d) Subdivision of sections if included 

The instructions for each township should 

be completed separately. If complications are 

anticipated, the surveyor should be informed 

what to expect and what methods to apply. References to Manual rules are made by chapter 

and section numbers, but the surveyor is expected to understand regular practices and to be 

familiar with the Manual as a reference guide 

in unusual cases. The burden of this should 

not be transferred to the special instructions. 

If the work involves other than original surveys, detailed specifications are stated for required examinations, fragmentary surveys, 

resurveys, topographic surveys, or special 

monumentation. There follows in this chapter 

a discussion of how the usual types of special 

surveys are treated. 

Where precautions need to be taken for the 

preservation of esthetic values in the environment, such as the elimination of blazing on the 

lines or the limitation of vehicular use, the special instructions should so state. Additionally, 

the surveyor should be directed to exercise care 

in situations not covered by the instructions. 

(8) Diagrams and Supplemental Data 

In the case of original surveys a diagram 

constructed on a scale of 80 chains to an inch 

or larger should be furnished as a part of the 

instructions. The assigned work is usually 

shown by dashed lines and the adjoining previous surveys by solid lines. The diagram should 

indicate the directions and lengths of lines of 

the established surveys within two miles of the 

new assignment. Outlying areas protracted as 

though surveyed on the previous plats should 

always be shown. 

A notation should be made in the instructions that copies of the plats and field notes of 

previous surveys pertinent to the assigned work 

will be furnished at the time of field assignment. 

Known claims, improvements, or monuments 

of other official surveys should be noted in the 

instructions. 

When pertinent to the survey, the special 

instructions are supplemented by a status report, usually in the form of a diagram, showing disposals and withdrawals in the area to 

be surveyed or resurveyed. Streams upon which 

withdrawals for power sites or other purposes 

have been or may be made, and streams, ridges, 

or divides which constitute the boundaries of 

reserves, should be specified. 

There should be supplied with the special 

instructions a list of available topographic 

maps, aerial photographs, and other data showing important map features. Any required additional mapping to be done in the field should 

be indicated. 

(9) Field Notes, Plats, and Reports 

The special instructions should include directions for the preparation of the field notes and 

point out the parts of the returns that will require special attention in the field. If a preliminary report or diagram is to be submitted during 

the progress of the field work, the instructions 

should so state. Special lottings or other unusual matters that are to be considered when the 

final returns are prepared should be specified. 

Direction will be given to return for official 

use the special instructions and other papers 

that belong with the official record, data added 

in the field, and field computation sheets. 

(10) Modification of Instructims 

The special instructions should direct the 

chief of field party to report promptly conditions that call for additional or modified instructions together with a recommended procedure. 

7-3. The special instructions are ordinarily 

prepared and signed by the technical officer in 

direct administrative charge of the particular 

surveying program. Approval of the instructions is by the office head in administrative 

charge of the area where the survey is made, or 

as delegated by current regulations. The date 

of the instructions and date of approval are always shown. 

SPECIAL SURVEYS 

7-4. Special surveys are surveys that involve unusual applications of or departures 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 159 

from the rectangular system. They often carry 

out the provisions of a special legislative act. 

A particular category of special surveys has to 

do with various types of wQter boundaries. In 

some cases the special instructions merely 

expand the methods outlined in chapter 111. 

In the more complicated special surveys the 

methods must be carefully detailed. 

The following discussion of the several types 

of special surveys illustrates what is to be emphasized in the special instructions for each. 

Tracts and Lots 

7-5. Special surveys may involve areas of 

land that are not aliquot parts of sections but 

are designated as lots or tracts. In common 

usage the term “tract” is applied to an expanse 

of land of no particular size, often irregular in 

form. In modern public land surveys the term is 

used specifically to mean a parcel of land that 

lies in more than one section or that cannot be 

identified in whole as a part of a particular 

section. It is properly described by tract number 

and township. Tracts within a township are 

numbered beginning with 37 or the next highest unused numerical designation to avoid confusion with section numbers. 

7-6. Unless tracts have been segregated in 

the course of an independent resurvey, in which 

case they are treated as described under that 

subject, an irregular parcel lying entirely within 

a surveyed section should be designated as a 

lot of that section. “Small tracts,” when not aliquot parts of sections, are designated as lots 

wherever they can be identified as parts of a 

section. The description is by lot, section, and 

township. 

7-7, Except in independent resurveys, or if 

the proper name is “Tract ,” an area of 

non-public land should be designated as a parcel, 

not as a lot or tract, when a special designation 

is necessary for identification. To distinguish 

among several parcels, they may be called 

“Parcel A,” “Parcel B,” and so on. 

Subdivision of Sections-Special Cases 

7-8. The need for subdivision of sections 

and any usual methods required are brought 

out in the special instructions. Examples are 

Indian allotment surveys, subdivisions within 

reclamation projects, the determination of 

boundaries between intermingled public and 

patented lands within a section, the subdivision 

of sections into “small tracts,” and various fragmentary surveys needed to mark the boundaries 

of the remaining public lands. In complicated 

cases the subdivision of sections may be advisable to avoid the possibility of an incorrect local 

survey. 

7-9. Nearly always the subdivision-of-section lines are run out in accordance with the 

showing of the official plat. An uncommon exception is when a disposal has been made of a 

parcel whose description clearly differs from 

the lottings or aliquot parts represented on the 

plat. 

7-10. The customary lottings are often not 

shown on plats of very old surveys. A determination of what the disposals were intended to 

convey can then be made only by reference to 

to the record of the disposals themselves. Furthermore, in some of the old surveys quartersection corners were not established on all true 

lines of the survey. Instead, the record shows 

that “half-mile” points were marked on the 

random line and not corrected to the true Iine 

midpoints. All such unusual problems should 

be brought out in the special instructions, as 

the diversity of the questions arising and the 

limited applicability of the answers precludes 

extended Manual treatment. (See Half-Mile 

Posts, Alabama and Florida, section 5-39.) 

7-11. Where special methods are unavoidable, they should be made to conform as nearly 

as possible with the rules for the subdivision 

of sections discussed in chapter 111. The special 

instructions should specify the procedure when 

the areas do not conform to the rectangular 

system of surveys. 

7-12. If a section is subdivided, the center 

quarter-section corner is established and monumented. If a quarter section is subdivided, all 

sixteenth-section corners are established and 

monumented. Monuments of lower order are 

established where necessary to mark the actual 

boundaries of the minor subdivisions involved. 

Only the required boundaries need be surveyed 

within the sixteenth section, but, if this method 

is used, such lines must be connected to and 
160 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

2040 

I 

20 40 I I 

FIGURE 74.-Subdivision of sections within an Indian 

reservation. 

balanced between corners on the sixteenth-section lines. 

7-13. Figure 74 illustrates the subdivision 

of sections within an Indian reservation. This 

includes a dependent resurvey of the section 

lines and the reservation boundary, followed 

by the subdivision of sections as needed for 

administrative purposes. 

Under the general and special allotment acts it has sometimes been the practice to 

make awards in units of less than the usual 

quarter-quarter section. The Indian bureau is 

expected to advise upon the appropriate act 

to be employed and the configuration and ex7-14. 

tent of the subdivision. When a proposed allotment is described by metes and bounds, it is 

assigned a lot number within each of the one 

or more sections involved. The lot numbers are 

independent of the serial allotment numbers. 

Status diagrams which show the Indian allotment awards should always be furnished with 

the special instructions. 

7-15. Where the sections to be subdivided 

border meandered bodies of water, the shore 

line may have been changed materially by erosion, accretion, the construction of a dam, or 

the recession of the water. If it is desirable to 

remeander the body of water in order to show 

the true conditions at the date of the subdivision of the sections, the plat should show new 

lottings for unpatented lands within the fractional sections. (See section 9-81 and illustration, figure 88). 

In a situation which involves erroneous original meanders the rules to be followed will be 

found under “Water Boundaries” of this chapter. The need for work of this type should be 

brought out clearly in the special instructions 

for the survey or in supplemental instructions 

if the facts are developed after the survey has 

been commenced. 

Metes-and-Bounds Surveys 

7-16. Metes-and-bounds surveys are required to define the boundaries of irregular 

areas of land which are not conformable to legal 

subdivisions. This type of survey may involve 

mineral claims, small-holding claims, privateland grants, forest-entry claims, national parks 

and monuments, Indian reservations, lighthouse reservations, trade and manufacturing 

sites, homestead claims in Alaska, or the like. 

The survey procedure is similar for each type 

of claim, grant, or reservation having irregular 

boundaries. A monument is required at each 

angle point of the boundary. The angle points 

are given serial numbers beginning with No. 1 

at the initial point. Monuments on the boundary 

should not be more than 45 chains apart. When 

the lengths of courses exceed that distance, witness points are established on the tops of ridges, 

at streams, trails, roads, or other accessible and 

prominent places. In the survey of boundaries 

of large grants or reservations, mile corners are 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 161 

established in addition to the angle points and 

witness points. The plan of monumentation 

should be designated in the special instructions 

for the survey. 

Metes-and-bounds surveys located upon surveyed land are connected to a regular corner 

of the subdivisional survey. If the area surveyed 

lies entirely within a surveyed section, it should 

be designated as a lot of that section and be 

numbered accordingly. If the location is within 

an unsurveyed township, the special instructions should call for the running of a connecting 

line to an established corner, the establishment of a location monument, or the determination of the geographic position of the initial 

point. 

Nonriparian boundaries of these irregular 

areas, as called for by the law or executive order 

creating them, have sometimes been partly or 

entirely located along a natural boundary such 

as a watershed. Boundaries of this sort are 

normally winding, and it should be understood 

that they are technically defined by the natural 

feature and not by the straight lines between 

angle points monumented in a survey. Northern Pacific Railway Co. v. United States, 227 

U.S. 355 (1913). 

Townsite Surveys 

7-17. R.S. 2380 and 2381 (43 U.S.C. 711, 

712) and numerous special acts make provision 

for the executive withdrawal of public lands 

for townsite purposes. A townsite survey, in 

public-land surveying practice, is a survey made 

within one or more regular units of the township subdivision by which the land is divided 

into blocks, streets, and alleys as a basis for the 

disposal of title in village or town lots. 

Ordinarily special instructions are prepared 

site and for the resurvey and subdivision of 

sections which may be necessary. These are followed by supplemental instructions based on the 

findings of the examination and providing for 

the townsite survey proper. 

I for a preliminary reconnaissance of the townPlanning the Survey 

7-18. Townsite surveys fall into two general classes, those with few or no prior improvements and those where villages or towns 

already exist. Occasionally a townsite may be 

planned in connection with some Federal project where the survey must fit special requirements already set up. Whatever class the townsite falls in, a study of approved townsite plats 

with similar elements is helpful in planning. 

A visit to some of these developed areas may be 

worth-while to show good and bad planning 

clearly. 

7-19. Consideration of every facet of townsite planning is beyond the scope of this Manual. 

There may be need for consultation with specialists in architectural and industrial planning, 

landscaping, and various branches of city engineering such as water supply, sewerage, street, 

highway, and railroad location. Provision is 

needed for public school grounds, other public 

buildings, and park areas. All these things are 

interdependent, and, wherever possible, local 

planning bodies should be asked to present plans 

which meet with zoning requirements. The 

planner should also refer to some of the many 

books on the subject of town planning. 

Surveying the Townsite 

7-20. The rules that follow set out the 

minimum specifications for the running and 

measuring of the lines, the monumentation, 

and the elements of plat construction by which 

the blocks and lottings may be identified. The 

detail of the plan should be set out in the special 

instructions. 

The character of the area-the topography, 

its location, and whether it is a new townsite or 

an addition to an old one-to a large extent 

determines the detail of the street and block 

system. A topographic survey is of value in ascertaining the layout best suited; the special 

instructions should call for the appropriate contour interval. Wherever practicable, especially 

where there are existing improvements, photogrammetry should be employed in the preliminary examination with panelled boundary 

monuments incorporated in the aerial control. 

7-21. In the typical townsite the block 

dimensions are usually between 300 and 400 

feet. The principal streets are usually made 80 

feet in width, though frequently as much as 

100 feet where greater width is called for. The 
162 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

less important intersecting streets, though narrower, are seldom given a width of less than 60 

feet. 

The normal frontage of the lots is 50 feet. 

Unless conditions require a special plan, the 

whole system is laid out on cardinal. The blocks 

are given serial numbers, usually beginning 

with the northeast block and proceeding with 

the numbers alternately to the west and to the 

east. The lots are given serial numbers within 

the block. 

7-22. The foot unit is employed in townsite surveys, and long steel tapes graduated 

in that unit are furnished for the purpose. 

Lengths of lines are reduced to the horizontal. 

In most cases the necessary accuracy can be 

secured only with the use of a spring balance 

for the maintenance of the proper tension, and 

with allowance for temperature corrections to 

the degree at which the tape is standard. 

7-23. The field traverse of the townsites 

will ordinarily be made to close within an error 

not to exceed 1/5000, and never to exceed 

1/2000. The determined lengths of lines and 

their bearings are balanced to secure a perfect 

closure for the data which are to be carried to 

the plat. Instrumental accuracy is obtained by 

the method of repetitions in turning the angles. 

These data should leave no discrepancy whatever in any calculated position, whether working from one monument to another, or between 

any two points. 

7-24. If the proposed townsite is in an area 

already surveyed, great care should be exercised 

to identify the original section lines and to subdivide the section or sections in the proper legal 

manner to ascertain the assigned townsite 

boundaries. Permanent monuments are placed 

at each angle of the townsite boundary. These 

may be the regulation 21/-inch iron post or a 

tablet seated in a concrete post, 3 feet long and 

at least 8 inches square in cross section. Markings consist of the usual subdivisional identification marks, the capital-letter initials of the 

townsite name, and the letters “TS” in the appropriate quadrant. 

7-25. The boundary streets are laid out 

first, then the other streets, blocks, and lots. 

Permanent control monuments are established 

and connecting line measurements made as 

necessary to afford an exact relocation of any 

point. All data, including true bearings and 

deflection angles, connecting lines, and dimensions of streets, blocks, and lots are carried to 

the townsite plat. Their sufficiency may be 

tested by the ease with which the position of 

any given point can be ascertained and the area 

of any lot can be calculated. If there are curved 

lines, the curve elements are shown on the plat. 

Permanent monuments are placed at 

the intersections of the street center lines and 

connections made to the block corners to insure 

a ready restoration of any block corner which 

might be obliterated. The 21/2-inch iron post 

or a tablet seated in a concrete post, 24 inches 

long and at least 6 inches square in cross section may be used. These should be sub-surface 

monuments, placed as much as a foot below the 

probable grade line of the street and marked 

only for the point of intersection. 

Where the street center-line intersections are 

intervisible, the markers may be placed at alternate intersections. Otherwise, a marker is 

placed at each intersection. 

7-27. Where the street center-line intersection is not marked, the adjacent block corners are monumented with the regulation post 

set with the top flush with the ground and with 

a guard stake. If the intersection is monumented, durable markers such as galvanized 

iron pipes are set at the block corners and the 

front corners of the lots. These points are always monumented. The lot corners are set only 

on the block lines. Only the monuments at block 

corners are marked with the appropriate numbering. A permanent monument is placed at 

each angle point within the block boundary, 

when irregular, and at each point of curvature 

and point of tangency if the line of the block has 

been placed on a curve. 

7-28. Lengths of lines and all angles or bearings are determined in the field for all irregular 

blocks and lots. In such cases both the side 

lines and back lines are always measured in the 

field. The dimensions are carried to the plat 

wherever needed, as when the lines cannot be 

readily located by the method of intersections. 

7-26. 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 163 

Use of Photogrammetry 

7-29. Photogrammetry is especially useful 

in showing the irregular layout of an existing 

town or village. With the extent of the improvements known, the streets, blocks, and lots can 

be laid out on a trial basis on the photographs 

in order to determine the best plan. If the coordinates of lot corners, street center lines, 

monuments, and other points of significance are 

to be determined, the work'should be done with 

a first order plotting instrument or by analytical methods. A sufficient number of positions 

are marked in advance of photography to reduce the work of transit and tape to a minimum. 

Bield Notes and Plats 

7-30. The field notes of the townsite survey 

describe the resurvey of the old section lines, 

the restoration of any needed corners, the subdivision of sections, and the controlling monuments. All important connecting lines and measurements between the boundary monuments 

and the corners of the block lines, or to the 

permanent monuments marking the street center lines adjacent to the boundaries, are included. The plan followed in the townsite survey 

is explained and a general statement made as 

to the monumentation. Beyond this, the further 

detail of all directions and lengths of lines is 

carried to the plat but omitted in the field note 

record. If any improvements are unavoidably 

left in conflict with the townsite layout, the 

information is brought out in the field notes 

but omitted from the plat. 

7-31. Townsite plats are usually published 

at a scale of 200 feet to an inch, but they are 

frequently drawn at a somewhat larger scale, 

subject to reduction when published. A marginal diagram is usually supplied in order to 

show the relation of the townsite boundaries 

to the section lines, with lengths of lines here 

given in the chain unit. Tenths and hundredths 

of links are used where appropriate for making 

reduction to the lengths of lines shown on the 

main drawing. 

On the main drawings all lengths of lines are 

shown in the foot unit, with tenths where 

needed. All directions and lengths of lines, intersection angles, and connecting lines to monuments are given on the plat with a view to the 

location of any point by calculation from the 

points of permanent control. This facilitates 

ready calculation from the plat of the area of 

any individual lot. 

The drawing shows the block and lot numbers, areas of lots to the nearest square foot, and 

the designation of streets by letters, numbers 

or names. In drafting the data for the regular 

blocks some of the figures which would be applied in each lot of the block may be omitted if 

it is left clear within the block that the lottings 

are regular for dimension and area. 

All permanent monuments are shown on the 

main drawing and connecting data supplied. 

The widths of the streets should be plainly 

shown, but not repeated needlessly. Where all 

of the lots in a block are of the same dimensions, it is sufficient to show the measurements 

only along the block lines. A memorandum is 

supplied to note the general plan of monumentation, with an outline description of the monuments. 

If there are reservations for public-school 

grounds, or of grounds for other public buildings or parks, the provision should be stated in 

the special instructions. The designated blocks 

are shown upon the plat, numbered regularly 

and titled, but not subdivided. 

Reference should be made to chapter IX for 

the usual requirements regarding the title and 

the certificates which are to appear on the townsite drawing. 

Small Tract Surveys 

7-32. The Act of June 1, 1938, (52 Stat. 

609), as amended by the Act of June 8,1954 (68 

Stat. 239; 43 U.S.C. 682a), provides for the sale 

or lease of small tracts not exceeding five acres. 

The survey made to delineate the tracts differs 

from a townsite survey in that it normally follows a pattern of progressional subdivision 

down to the desired lot sizes without block 

designations or the segregation of streets and 

alleys. Regulations provide for reserving rightsof-way in the patents or leases. 

7-33. The first requirement of the survey 

is the establishment or reestablishment of the 

section boundaries. The ensuing subdivision 

into small tracts should not be made without a 
164 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

study of the terrain. Under favorable circumstances the section may be subdivided into legal 

subdivisions and thereafter into lesser aliquot 

parts. However, it is sometimes necessary to 

depart from normal subdivision lines in order 

to make the tract layout compatible with drainage features, existent roads, and improvements 

on adjoining lands. 

7-34. Aerial photographs and topographic 

maps are helpful in devising a suitable plan of 

subdivision. A preliminary survey and development of a topographic map may be necessary. 

The small tracts might then take an irregular 

form so to fit the topography. While the individual parcels are called “small tracts,” they 

are designated on the official plat as lots when 

not describable as aliquot parts of the section. 

If the survey is in the vicinity of urban or suburban development, the plan should be discussed with local officials as to suitability. 

Small-tract surveys should always be 

executed within a closure limit of 1:2560 in 

either latitude or departure. If stricter limits 

are desirable in an urban or suburban area, provision will be made in the special instructions. 

7-36. All corners of each lot should be 

monumented. Regulation monuments lare used 

on section boundaries and on subdivisional lines 

down to 1/64 section lines. Further monumentation may be with approved materials called for 

in the special instructions such as iron pipes, 

rods, or angles. On an irregular lotting scheme 

regulation monuments should be used at approximate intervals of ten chains, preferably 

at intervisible points. Where all corners of an 

individual lot can be established on the lines of 

larger subdivisions, the minor subdivisional 

lines need not be surveyed. 

7-37. The final field notes contain the regular 

record of the survey or resurvey of the section lines and subdivisional lines to the extent 

of all actual field surveys. The plat shows all 

data relating to established lines and measurements. Lot lines and measurements developed 

by protraction should be appropriately dashed 

and shown parenthetically. Bearings should 

be shown to 15“ of angular value and distances 

to tenths of links. Each “tract” is assigned an 

appropriate lot number, and the area is shown 

to hundredths of an acre. 

7-35. 

7-38. Topographic detail on the plat should 

be kept to a necessary minimum and subordinated to the base data. Anticipated new rightsof-way for road and public utility purposes, to 

be reserved in the lease or conveyance of the 

lots, need not be shown. It may be desirable to 

show the scheme of corner monumentation on 

the plat by appropriate symbols. 

Mineral Segregation Surveys 

7-39. A mineral segregation survey is a 

metes-and-bounds survey made to define the 

limits of non-mineral public land adjoining one 

or more mining claims and to supply data for 

lotting the non-mineral land against the claims. 

Although a necessary part of the survey is to ascertain the boundaries and position of the mining claims, it is not a mineral survey and confers 

no permanent rights upon the mineral claimant. If the subsisting records fmish the 

information necessary for a proposed segregation of mineral claims from the non-mineral 

public lands, no mineral segregation survey is 

required. 

7-40. Mineral segregation surveys fall into 

two classes: 

(1) Where the record of official mineral surveys is faulty or fails to locate the claims accurately with respect to the rectangular net. 

Proper segregation usually requires the resurvey of section boundaries with connections to 

the mineral surveys. 

(2) Where unsurveyed mining claims require segregation from land embraced in a 

pending administrative action. The field work 

consists of metes-and-bounds surveys of the 

mining claims, with connections to corners of 

thetpublic land net, and the resurvey of section 

boundaries. 

7-41. Where regular conditions are found, 

the mineral segregation survey consists only 

in running not less than two connecting lines 

from identified corners of the rectangular survey to a corner or corners of the mineral location, followed by a survey of the outboundaries 

of the mining claim or group of claims. 

Monuments are placed at the angle points 

along the boundary of the mining claim or outboundaries of a group of claims as needed to 

mark the limits of the non-mineral land. The 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 165 

angle points of the claim are numbered in accordance with the practice in mineral surveys. 

Each monument is marked with the initials of 

the name of the claim or claims and the angle 

point number. If the monument at the corner 

of the mineral location is in proper position, 

constructed of durable material, and suitably 

marked, the monument may be adopted without 

any alterations, and its description entered 

in the field notes. 

7-42. In townships where there appears to 

be an extensive obliteration of monuments, or 

where the condition of the lines does not conform to the original plat and field notes, the 

survey will consist of such retracements 

and restoration of the corners of the section 

lines as may be necessary to define the nonmineral land or pending entry. If the distortion of the section lines is so great as to warrant the subdivision of one or more sections, 

the work authorized should be described in the 

special instructions or supplemental instructions. 

7-43. The retracement of the lines of the 

mineral location should be made with the same 

degree of accuracy as a mineral survey, but all 

measurements are returned in the chain unit. It 

is essential that the requirements regarding the 

legal length and width of the mineral claims be 

observed, including parallelism of end lines. 

That is, the claim should be confined to the legal 

length along the mineral lode, the side lines 

should be placed within the legal width as determined from the center of the vein at the surface, 

and the end lines of each claim should be parallel. The segregated claim is to be made identical with, or be embraced within, the boundaries of its location, as provided in the mining 

regulations. A corner of the survey not identical 

with the corresponding corner of the location is 

tied to that corner. 

7-44. Rules for the plat construction are 

found in chapter IX. 

Mine Surveys 

This class of survey is important in 

connection with the leasing of mineral lands, 

particularly coal lands. The field work usually 

consists of a dependent resurvey and partial 

7-45. 

subdivision of the section or sections involved, 

a traverse of the main entries of the mine, with 

ties to the portals and improvements, and the 

marking of the section and subdivision-of-section lines within the mine which divide private 

and public ownership. 

A plat showing the subdivisions of the section 

or sections is prepared with an additional diagram added to show the underground workings 

of the mine or mines. This diagram should generally be drawn to the same scale as that used 

on the plat of the mine operations, which is 

usually 1 inch to 50 or 100 feet, thus permitting a direct comparison. The traverses of the 

underground workings should be shown by 

broken lines and the section and surveyed subdivision-of -section boundaries indicated by solid 

lines. 

SPECIAL SURVEYS-WATER 

BOUNDARIES 

7-46. The subject of water boundaries has 

been divided into a number of parts-navigability, beds of nonnavigable streams and lakes, 

apportionment of accretion and reliction, accretion after survey but prior to entry, avulsion, 

and erroneously omitted areas-in order that 

the elements of each type of problem can be 

brought out clearly. As a practical matter, two 

or more of the conditions discussed are nearly 

always present along water boundaries where 

the surveyor will be working. An overall analysis is necessary to find out which problems are 

involved. A study of the available historic maps 

and aerial photographs should be made in all 

but the simplest cases. 

Navigability 

Upon the admission of a State into 

the Union title to the beds of navigable bodies 

of water inures to the State as an incident of 

sovereignty. In Pollard’s Lessee v. Hagan, 44 

U.S. 212 (1844), the Supreme Court held that: 

First. The shores of navigable waters, and the soils 

under them, were not granted by the constitution to 

the United States, but were reserved to the States 

respectively. Secondly. The new States have the same 

rights, sovereignty, and jurisdiction over this subject 

as the original States. 

7-47. 
166 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

7-48. The question of navigability in law, 

where there may be controversy, is a matter to 

be decided by the courts, based upon the facts 

and conditions in each case as these prevailed 

at the date of Statehood. A frequently cited 

definition of navigability appears in The Daniel 

Ball, 77 U.S. 557 (1870) : 

Those rivers must be regarded as public navigable 

rivers in law which are navigable in fact. And they 

are navigable in fact when they are used, or are susceptible of being used, in their ordinary condition, as 

highways for commerce, over which trade and travel 

are or may be conducted in the customary modes of 

trade and travel on water. 

The same definition is applied to lakes. In 

United States v. Holt State Bank, 270 U.S. 49 

(1926), the Supreme Court stated : 

The rule long since approved by this court in applying the Constitution and laws of the United States 

is that streams or lakes which are navigable in fact 

must be regarded as navigable in law; that they are 

navigable in fact when they are used, or are susceptible of being used, in their natural and ordinary 

condition, as highways for commerce, over which 

trade and travel are or may be conducted in the customary modes of trade and travel on water; and 

further that navigability does not depend on the particular mode in which such use is or may be hadwhether by steamboats, sailing vessels or flatboatsnor on an absence of occasional difficulties in navigation, but on the fact, if it be a fact, that the stream 

in its natural and ordinary condition affords a channel for useful commerce. 

Artificial or natural changes subsequent to 

the date of Statehood do not bear on the subject 

of navigability. However in United States v. 

Appalachian Electric Power Co., 311 U.S. 377 

(19401, the Supreme Court made the following 

clarification : 

“Natural and ordinary condition” refers to volume 

of water, the gradients and the regularity of the 

flow. A waterway, otherwise suitable for navigation, 

is not barred from that classification merely because 

artificial aids must make the highway suitable for 

use before commercial navigation may be undertaken. 

7-49. The legal question of navigability is 

determined by the facts in any particular case 

and not from any action on the part of the 

surveyor. In Oklahoma v. Texas, 258 U.S. 574 

(1922), the Supreme Court stated : 

A legal inference of navigability does not arise from 

the action of surveyors in running meander lines along 

the banks of the river. Those officers are not clothed 

with the power to settle the questions of navigability. 

7-50. The navigability or nonnavigability of 

a body of water may have been resolved by a 

jury upon consideration of the evidence and the 

opinion of competent witnesses. Courts have 

often taken judicial notice of the navigability or 

nonnavigability of streams and lakes. Where 

such determinations have not been made, studies by the Corps of Engineers in connection 

with the improvement of rivers and harbors are 

helpful in showing whether a river is navigable 

in fact. In questionable cases the necessary research as to navigability should be made and 

the facts noted in the special instructions. 

Beds of Nonnavigable Streams and Lakes 

Nonnavigable streams and lakes are 

meandered under certain conditions which were 

described in chapter 111. Title to the beds remains in the United States until the shore lands 

have passed into private ownership. United 

States v. Oregon, 295 U.S. 1 (1935). The Government’s conveyance of title to a fractional 

subdivision fronting upon a nonnavigable body 

of water, unless specific reservations are indicated in the patent, carries ownership to the 

middle of the bed in front of the basic holding. 

Oklahoma v. Texas, 261 U.S. 345 (1923). See 

also 43 U.S.C. 931, quoted in chapter I. 

It is necessary at times to survey the 

beds of nonnavigable streams and lakes, or the 

portions of the beds owned by the Government, 

in connection with the administration of the 

public lands. Where all the shore remains in 

public ownership, the survey is simply an extension of the regular system. More commonly, it 

is desired to establish partition lines between 

private and public lands. In either case, if the 

area is covered by water, the survey cannot be 

monumented in the regular manner, and many 

of the lines cannot be surveyed on the ground. 

The plat then represents a survey made largely 

by protraction. The procedure should be outlined in detail in the special instructions. 

The field work usually consists of : (1) 

a dependent resurvey of the lands bordering on 

the area to be surveyed ; (2) the subdivision of 

the upland sections when necessary to determine the boundaries of publicly owned riparian 

subdivisions ; (3) the monumentation of as 

many corners as practicable; (4) the exten7-51. 

7-52. 

7-53. 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 167 

sion of section lines across the bed to the extent 

needed for making computations; and (5) the 

establishment of median and partition lines if 

this is to be done on the ground. 

Median Lines 

7-54. It is sometimes nectssary to define a 

line representing the limits of ownership 

between opposite banks. In navigable waters 

such a line might be either the deepest navigable 

channel (thalweg) or a median line. This is 

occasionally important in cases of reliction to 

public land fronting a navigable body of water. 

In nonnavigable waters the common property 

line‘is usually the median line. 

The median line is a continuous line,’formed 

by a series of intersecting straight line segments or a combination of straight line and 

curved line segments, every point of which is 

equidistant from the nearest point on the opposite shores. The method by which the median 

line is to be determined should be specified in 

the special instructions. 

7-55. Deftnition by Salient P0ints.l The 

simplest method of determining the median line 

is by use of salient points. This method is of 

limited application in public land surveys, 

where the median line is nearly always determined from the meander lines. In certain 

surveys in Alaska no ground survey is required 

along meanderable water boundaries, and the 

salient point method may be used. It may also 

be applicable in special circumstances elsewhere 

if the meander lines are not defined. A salient 

point is any point on the shore that has an effect 

on the location of the median line. Along smooth 

shore lines the number of salient points becomes 

infinite, and a mathematical definition by this 

method is impracticable. 

The angle points of the median line are first 

approximated graphically on suitably controlled 

The salient point method is that used generally in 

connection with sea boundaries. As defined in the United 

Nations’ “Convention on the Territorial Sea and the 

Contiguous Zone,” held in Geneva in 1958, a median 

line is a “line every point of which is equidistant from 

the nearest points on the baseline.” In that case, the 

“baseline” is the line of mean low water. The definition 

may be made applicable to inland submerged land 

boundaries by substituting “line of ordinary high water” 

for “baseline.” 

Figure 75.-Definition of a median line by salient points. 

aerial photographs or reliable maps. The coordinates of the points are then determined 

analytically with values placing them truly 

equidistant from the nearest salient points. The 

analysis treats the salient points as lying on the 

circumference of a circle with radii extending 

from an angle point of the median line. 

In figure 75 the median line has been initiated 

at point P midway between salient points A and 

D. The median line must pass through point P 

and be perpendicular to the line connecting A 

and D. 

The coordinates of a point on the median line 

exactly midway between two salient points, such 

as point P, are 

xa f xd 

2’ xp = 

and 

Ya + Ya 

YP = 2 

Line segment QR represents a portion of the 

line every point of which is equidistant from 

salient points A and C, one on each opposite 

shore. The median line passes through point M 

midway between salient points A and C, and is 

perpendicular to line AC. 

Angle points on the median line occur at the 

intersection of adjacent straight line segments. 

At an angle point such as point R, the median 

line is equidistant from three salient points, one 
168 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

of which must be located on the shore opposite 

the other two. 

The coordinates ( (xo, yo) of point R are determined from the equations 

2G 

Hb2 (X, - Xn) - Hn2 (Xc - Xn) 

Yo = 

and 

Hn2 - 2Yo - (Yb- Yn) x, = 

in which : 

2 (xb - xn) 

G = (Yc - Yn) (xb - Xa) - (Yd - Yn) (Xc - Xn) 

Ha2 = xb2 + yb2 - Xn2 - Yn2 

Hb2 = Xc2 + Ye2 - Xn2 - Yn2 

xn = the x coordinate of point A, and 

Yb = the y coordinate of point B, etc. 

If the angle point is equidistant from more 

than three salient points, any three points can 

be used in determining the coordinates of the 

angle point. The three points selected should 

form the strongest possible geometric figure, 

that is, most nearly form the vertices of an 

equilateral triangle. 

7-56. Definition Between Meander Lines 

When the original meander line defines the 

true shore, or where new meanders have been 

run preliminary to the determination of the 

median line, the points on the median line may 

be considered as the centers of circles tangent 

to the meander course on either shore or coincident with one or more angle points of the 

meander line. The resulting median line is made 

up of intersecting straight line segments and 

curved line segments. 

Straight line segments represent those portions of the median line every point of which is 

equidistant from straight line segments of the 

two meander lines, one on each opposite shore 

and more or less parallel to one another. 

Straight line segments also occur under certain conditions when the median line passes 

between two meander line angle points on opposite shores. 

Angle points occur at points of intersection 

between adjacent straight line segments of the 

median line. At angle points the median line is 

equidistant from three or more straight line 

segments of the two meander lines, one of which 

segments must be located on the shore opposite 

the others. Median line angle points usually 

occur in the vicinity of a meander line angle 

point when one shore line is concave toward the 

median line and the opposite shore line is 

straight. 

Curved line segments of the median line occur 

whenever the median line is equidistant from 

an angle point on the meander line on one shore 

and a straight meander course on the opposite 

shore. The meander line at the angle point is 

convex toward the median line. 

The approximate positions of the angle points 

on the median line can be determined most 

easily by graphical means based on aerial 

photography or maps. A detailed analysis is 

too lengthy to include here. The surveyor should 

present the survey data for office computation. 

Partition Lines 

The partition lines are established in 

accordance with the same principles for both 

rivers and lakes. Some variation is necessary 

in adapting the methods to particular cases. 

Care must be taken to award each basic holding 

on the shore the part of the bed in front of it. 

If one method fails to do this, another method, 

or a combination of methods, must be used. 

7-57. 

RIVERS 

7-58. Instructions for surveying the partition lines are found in 50 L.D. 216 (1923), in the 

syllabus : 

In establishing the side boundaries of claims of 

riparian proprietors to the area between the original 

meander line on the north and the medial line of 

Red River in Oklahoma in accordance with the decisions of the Supreme Court in the case of Oklahoma 

v. Texas, lines should be run from points representing 

the limits of frontage of the original claims on the 

meander line to points on the medial line at distances 

thereon proportionate to the lengths of frontage of 

the respective abutting owners. 

This is an adaptation of the rule outlined in 

the case of Johnston v. Jones, 66 U.S. 117 

(1861). By that rule the new frontage along 

the water boundary of an accreted area was 

apportioned in the same ratio as the frontage 

along the ancient bank. In applying the rule, 

if the shore has deep indentations or sharp 

projections, the general shoreline, not the actual 

length, should be taken in setting the ratio. 

Normal lines are extended to the median line, 

above and below the area to be apportioned, at 
m 

SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 169 

FIGURE 76(a).-Method of apportioning the bed of a nonnavigable river. Points were selected above and below the 

bend from which normals were extended to the median line. The intervals along the median line were determined by proportionate measurement. In this case the results are not as satisfactory as those obtained by the 

method shown in figure 76 (b) . 

points where the river’s course is straight, or 

nearly so. The intermediate distance along the 

median line is then prorated according to the 

frontage. See figure 76 (a). 

7-59. An alternate method is to run each 

partition line normal to the median line. This 

method awards to each riparian lot the area immediately in front of it. Where a winding 

stream course causes the normals to deflect 

rapidly, more than one normal can sometimes 

be extended from a single point on the shore, 

or perhaps no suitable normal can be drawn. A 

combination of methods may then have to be 

used to obtain equitable results. For instance, 

normals might be drawn to the median line at 

straight parts of the river, and the intermediate 

parts apportioned along the median line. See 

figure 76 (b). 

LAKES 

7-60. The method of procedure depends on 

the shape of the shore line. The courts have 

generally held that the bed of a round lake 

should be divided among the riparian owners by 

ascertaining the center point and connecting 

that point by straight lines to the boundary 

corners on the shore. When a lake is long in 

comparison with the width, the methods applied to streams, with converging lines only at 

the ends, make the best division. 

7-61. In figure 77 the ends of the lake have 
170 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I i 

See. 15 --+ I 

-1 

I1 

I 

FIGURE 76(b).-Alternate method of apportioning the bed of a nonnavigable river by extending normals to the 

median line. 

been treated as arcs of a circle; the remainder 

of the bed has been divided by use of proportionate measurement along the median line. In 

this case normals to the median line would 

have resulted in the encroachment of some lots 

in front of others, and two normals could have 

been projected from several points as indicated 

by the dashed lines. 

Apportionment of Accretion 

and Reliction 

The term “accretion” is applied both 

to the gradual and imperceptible deposition of 

material along the bank of a body of water and 

the lands formed by this process. 

7-63. “Reliction” is the gradual uncovering 

of land caused by the recession of a body of 

7-62. 

water. Relicted land is treated in the same manner as accreted land insofar as its survey is concerned. 

7-64. A meander line is not surveyed as a 

boundary. When the Government conveys title 

to a fractional lot fronting on a navigable body 

of water, the intention, in all ordinary cases, is 

that the lot extends to the water’s edge. 

7-65. The title and rights of ribarian owners 

in areas below the line of mean high water of 

navigable bodies of water are governed by 

State law rather than Federal law. Whether 

Federal or State law controls the ownership 

of land accreted to a riparian holding has been 

answered in a series of cases: 

In Borax Consolidated, Ltd. v. Los Angeles, 

296 U. S. 10 (1935), the Supreme Court held 

that “The question as to the extent of this 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 171 

Sec. 17 Sec. 16 

211 -1 

I I 

I I 

I I 

FIGURE 77.-Apportionment of the bed of a nonnavigable lake. 

federal grant, that is, as to the limit of the 

land conveyed, or the boundary between the 

upland and the tideland, is necessarily a federal 

question.” 

The ownership of accretion to land covered 

by an Indian trust patent was considered in 

United States v. Washington, 294 F. 2d 830 

(1961), cert. den., 367 U. S. 817 (1962). The 

Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals held that 

Federal law applied because of the underlying 

Federal title. 

The general question of whether Federal or 

State law controls as to ownership of accretion 

was considered in Hughes v. State of Washingtm, 389 U. s. 290 (1967). The Supreme Court 

ruled : 

The question for decision is whether federal or 

state law controls the ownership of land, called accretion, gradually deposited by the ocean on adjoining 

upland property conveyed by the United States prior 

to statehood. . . . We hold that this question is governed by federal, 

not state, law and that under federal law Mrs. 

Hughes, who traces her title to a federal grant prior 

to statehood, is the owner of these accretions. . . . This brings us to the question of what the federal 

rule is. The State has not attempted to argue that 

federal law gives it title to these accretions, and it 

seems clear to us that it could not. A long and unbroken line of decisions of this Court establishes that 

the grantee of land bounded by a body of navigable 

water acquires a right to any natural and gradual 

accretion formed along the shore. . . . We therefore hold that petitioner is entitled to the 

accretion that has been gradually formed along her 

property by the ocean. 

It is therefore settled that wherever it retains title to the original subdivisions along a 

body of water, either navigable or nonnavigable, 

the Government may subdivide the lands formed 

by accretion or by recession of the water, since 

these, too, are public lands. 

7-66. A survey of accreted or relicted land 

is usually made when one or more of the riparian subdivisions has been disposed of, and it is 

desired to mark the boundaries of the remaining public land. As in the apportionment of the 

beds of nonnavigable bodies of water, the riparian owner is entitled to the area lying in front of 

his basic holdings. In the case of navigable waters the extent of survey is the water’s edge. 

Accrued lands granted by State law to riparian 

proprietors within the bed of a navigable body 

of water are not considered here, since their 
172 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

definition would be in accordance with State 

law. 

Apportionment of the accreted lands is 

usually made by proportioning the new frontage in the same ratio as the frontage along the 

old shore as outlined in the case of Johnson v. 

Jones, 66 U.S. 117 (1861), discussed in sections 

7-58 and 7-61. 

If there should be substantial areas of 

accretion to be dealt with that fact will be 

brought out in the special instructions, with outline of the governing procedure, and the surveying work in reference to all accretion areas will 

be distinctly mentioned in the field notes and so 

shown upon the plat. 

7-67. 

Accretion Prior to Entry 

7-68. Occasionally, subsequent to survey, 

but before entry, a large body of land has 

formed by accretion between the meander line 

and the high water line. If such land had 

formed after entry, it would merely attach to 

the riparian holdings. If the land had ldeen in 

place before the survey and at all subsequent 

times. it would fall in the class of omitted land, 

to be treated as hereafter described under that 

subject. But, in this special case, the meander 

line is treated as the boundary line of the 

grants, and patent is construed to convey only 

the lands within the meander line. Madison v. 

Basart, 59 I.D. 415 (1947). 

The lands accreted after survey but 

before entry are not usually surveyed as would 

be ordinary accreted lands. Instead, the regular 

rectangular survey is extended to the body of 

water. The same procedure would be followed in 

surveying regular accreted lands only if none 

of the riparian lots had been patented and it 

was desired to extend the survey. 

7-70. In determining what constitutes a 

“substantial” accretion, to which the rule in 

Madison v. Basart is applicable, the area of 

accretion should be compared quantitatively 

with the riparian lots to which it attached. Some 

consideration should also be given to the total 

area accreted. Accretion to a small lot might be 

large in proportion but negligible in absolute 

size. From the standpoint of size and relative 

size, the area in question can be weighed as in 

the case of omitted lands. 

7-69. 

A uulsion 

7-71. “Avulsion” is the sudden and rapid 

change of channel of a boundary stream, or a 

comparable change in some other body of water 

forming a boundary, by which an area of land is 

cut off. An island may result or the avulsed land 

may become attached to the opposite shore. 

In the case of Nebraska v. Iowa, 143 

U.S. 359 (1892), the Supreme Court held : 

When grants of land border on running water, and 

the banks are changed by the gradual process known 

as accretion, the riparian owner’s boundary line still 

remains the stream; but when the boundary stream 

suddenly abandons its old bed and seeks a new course 

by the process known as avulsion, the boundary remains as it was, in the centre of the old channel: and 

this rule applies to a State when a river forms one 

of its boundary lines. 

7-73. An avulsive change cannot be assumed to have occurred without positive evidence. When no such showing can be made, 

it must be presumed that the changes have 

been caused by gradual erosion and accretion. 

The change in course of a stream is 

clearly avulsive when the land between the old 

and new channels remains substantially as it 

was. The unaltered condition of the land may be 

indisputably shown by the continued existence 

of improvements in place or of timber, undergrowth, and other vegetation. A study of historic documents, especially maps and aerial 

photographs, will often help in determining 

what process has taken place. As a general rule 

the abandoned channel is easily identifiable 

where an avulsive action has occurred. 

The bed of a new channel resulting 

from avulsion continues to belong to the owner 

ol the land encroached upon. The bed of the 

former channel continues to belong to the riparian owners if the stream is nonnavigable. Ownership of the abandoned bed of a navigable 

stream is governed by State law. 

When the change in a water course is 

avulsive, and the boundaries remain unchanged, 

any subsequent movement of the avulsive channel, whether caused by accretion or by another 

avulsive action, does not change property lines. 

7-72. 

7-74. 

7-75. 

7-76. 

Erroneously Omitted Areas 

Lands exposed by changes in water 

level or accreted subsequent to survey are not 

7-77. 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 173 

erroneously omitted lands. This title is applied 

to lands, not shown on the plat of the original 

survey, which were excluded from the survey 

by some gross discrepancy in the location of a 

meander line. The unsurveyed land typically 

lies between the actual bank of a lake, stream, 

or tidewater and the record meander line. 

7-78. In some older surveys temporarily 

flooded lands, or swamp and overflowed lands, 

were meandered as if they were permanent 

bodies of water. In a few cases, meander lines 

were reported where no body of water ever 

existed in fact. In still other instances, several 

lakes have been surveyed as one lake. All are 

treated in the same manner as those where the 

discrepancy is a grossly erroneous position of 

the record meander line. The converse is sometimes found where the record meander line 

leaves the bank and extends into the body of 

water. A water area may thus be shown as land. 

7-79. Marginal discrepancies between the 

meander lines and the water at the time of 

survey fall into two classes, those that are 

merely technical differences and those that 

constitute erroneous omission. The guide lines 

for determining the class of a particular case 

are laid down in court and departmental decisions. 

If land is to be regarded as erroneously omitted from survey, it must first be shown 

affirmatively that the area was land in place at 

the date of the original subdivision of the township. Then, if the land is similar to the surveyed 

lands, the usual inference that the official survey was correct may be set aside, and the conclusion may be substituted that the land should 

have been covered by that survey. However, a 

convincing showing is needed that the representations of the original plat and field notes are 

grossly in error. 

7-81. Applications for the extension of the 

subdivisional lines to include the areas erroneously omitted from the original survey may be 

initiated either by settlers on the omitted land 

or by the owners of the adjoining land. The owner of the surveyed land, or a claimant who has 

purchased from him, may apply for the survey 

as a preliminary to quieting the title. There 

may or may not be adverse claims. The immediate question is the merit of the application 

7-80. 

under the acts of Congress which grant relief 

in these cases. A field examination is nearly always required to verify the conditions alleged 

in the applications. It is objectionable in principle to amend a plat unless large and unwarranted discrepancies can be shown. 

7-82. The survey of erroneously omitted 

lands may also be undertaken as an administrative responsibility for identifying public lands. 

Such cases may be brought to the attention of 

the Bureau by a Federal agency having administrative authority over the general area. 

7-83. No proof is required to show the whys 

and wherefores of an erroneous meander line, 

but only that the line as run and as represented 

on the plat and in the field notes is in effect 

grossly in error. The rule is concisely stated in 

John McClennen, 29 L.D. 514 (1900) : 

It is not necessary to search for the source of the 

error. The result is the same whether such error arose 

from mistake, inadvertence, incompetency or fraud 

on the part of the men who made the former survey. 

7-84. Where lands have been determined to 

be erroneously omitted from the original survey, the original meander line is made a fixed 

and limiting boundary segregating the previously surveyed areas from the unsurveyed public lands. The line is reestablished and marked 

with permanent monuments at the old angle 

points. Retracement between successive meander corners nearly always will show differences 

from the record in latitude and departure. The 

positions of the angle points are adjusted by 

the broken boundary method described in section 5-43 under “Angle Points of Nonriparian 

Meander Lines.” The angle points are given 

serial numbers which do not duplicate numbers 

that may have been previously assigned in that 

section. The monuments are marked as shown 

in section 445. 

The position of the original meander line having been determined, the survey is extended 

across the unsurveyed areas. Finally, a new 

meander line is surveyed in the correct position. 

7-85. The requirements for making the 

plats to represent omitted land surveys are 

outlined in sections 9-78 through 9-83. The plat 

should carry a memorandum precisely stating 

the situation with reference to the survey represented, as in the following cases: 
174 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

The position of the original record-meander courses 

of the so-called Moon Lake is shown by an irregular 

line with numbered angle points. This line as thus 

originally reported was grossly in error, and has 

therefore been marked as a fixed boundary, with the 

directions and lengths of the several courses adjusted 

to the record of the original survey. 

The position of the original record-meander courses 

of Ferry Lake fronting along lot 4, section 9, and lots 

2, 3, and 4, section 10, is shown by an irregular line 

with numbered angle points. This line as thus originally reported was grossly in error, an! has therefore been marked as a fixed boundary, with the directions and lengths of the several courses adjusted to 

the record of the original survey. 

The position of the original recordmeander courses 

of a lake reported as having been located in section 

36 is shown by an irregular line with numbered angle 

points. This line as thus originally reported was 

grossly in error, and, with the exception of certain 

courses fronting along lots 1, 2, and 9, has therefore 

been marked as a fixed boundary, with the directions 

and lengths of the several courses adjusted to the 

record of the original survey. 

This memorandum is in addition to the memorandum referring to the dependent resurvey 

of the original section lines. 

7-86. The three examples represented by 

the memoranda in section 7-85 are situations 

where the survey of erroneously omitted areas 

has been necessary. An examination of the manner in which each type was treated will help in 

determining how to approach similar cases. 

Nonexistent Moon Lake: Tke plat of 

T. 12 N., R. 9 E., Fifth Principal Meridian, 

Arkansas, approved October 27, 1845, shows a 

meandered lake occupying the greater part of 

sections 22 and 27, and extending a short distance into section 26. The field notes of the line 

between sections 26 and 27 call for an intersection with the southeast side of “Sunk Lake,” 

here classed as impassable and navigable. The 

surrounding fractional subdivisions as surveyed 

were all patented to the State under the provisions of the swamp land grant. 

The case originated on the report of the removal of timber from portions of the area under 

the color of title arising through the ownership 

of the adjoining land. The report indicated that 

practically all of the area was high, dry land, 

covered with a growth of large timber, with no 

difference in the character of the land from that 

. which had been included in the original subdivision. The topography, elevation, and timber 

7-87. 

all revealed little if any change since the date 

of the subdivision of the township. 

The greater part of the excluded area was 

found to be covered with various species of oak, 

maple, cottonwood, hickory, sycamore, hackberry, cypress, and willow. Many of the trees 

were of great age, 300 years or more, and many 

of them indicated strictly upland site conditions. 

The area was found to be level land, at about the 

same elevation and in some places higher then 

the surrounding lands, though there was evidence of what had been a slough along parts 

of the edge of the so-called lake. 

7-88. By decision dated November 30, 1909, 

bearing departmental approval, the Commissioner of the General Land Office held that the 

area, 853.25 acres, was not a navigable lake on 

June 15, 1836, the date when Arkansas was adS8SoZZ’W 

FIGURE 78.-The nonexistent “Moon Lake.” 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 175 

mitted into the Union, nor in 1841 at the date 

of the subdivision of the township. As. the land 

was in place at that period and was not permanently covered by water, it was part of the 

public domain, and title had not passed from 

the Government. 

On November 5, 1917, the Supreme Court 

announced an opinion (Lee Wilson & Company 

v. United States, 245 U.S.‘24) denying the 

merits of the riparian claims to the area within 

the meander line of the so-called lake, restating 

two legal propositions held indisputable because 

settled by previous decisions : 

First. Where, in a survey of the public domain a 

body of water or lake is found to exist and is meandered, the result of such meander is to exclude the 

area from the survey and to cause it as thus separated 

to become subject to the riparian rights of the respective owners abutting on the meander line in accordance with the laws of the several States. Hardin v. 

Jordan, 140 U.S. 371 (1891) ; Kean v. Calumet Canal 

Co., 190 U.S. 452 (1903); Hardin v. Shedd, 190 U.S. 

608 (1903). 

Second. But where upon the assumption of the 

existence of a body of water or lake a meander line 

is through fraud or error mistakenly run because there 

is no such body of water, riparian rights do not attach because in the nature of things the condition 

upon which they depend does not exist and upon the 

discovery of the mistake it is within the power of the 

Land Department of the United States to deal with 

the area which was excluded from the survey, to 

cause it to be surveyed and to lawfully dispose of it. 

Niles v. Cedar Point Club, 175 U.S. 300 (1899); 

French-Glenn Live Stock Co. v. Springer, 185 U.S. 

47 (1902) ; Security Land & Exploration Co. v. Burns, 

193 U.S. 167 (1904) ; Chapman & Dewey Lumber Co. 

v. St. Francis Levee District, 232 U.S. 186 (1914). 

Other important points in this and similar 

If, in the making of a survey of public lands, an 

area is through fraud or mistake meandered as a 

body of water or lake where no such body of water 

exists, riparian rights do not accrue to the surrounding lands, and the Land Department, upon discovering the error, has power to deal with the meandered 

area, to cause it to be surveyed, and lawfully to dispose of it. 

The fact that its administrative officers, before discovery of the error, have treated such a meandered 

tract as subjected to the riparian rights of abutting 

owners, under the State laws, and consequently as 

not subject to disposal under the laws of the United 

States, cannot stop the United States from asserting 

its title in a controversy with an abutting owner; 

and even as against such an owner, who acquired his 

property before the mistake was discovered and in 

cases are found summarized in the syllabus : 

reliance upon such actions and representations of 

Federal officers carrying assurance that such riparian 

rights existed, the United States may equitably correct the mistake and protect its title to the meandered land. The equities of the abutting owner, if any, 

in such circumstances are not cognizable judicially, 

but should be addressed to the legislative department 

of the Government. 

The swamp land act of September 28, 1850 (ch. 

84, 9 Stat. 519), did not convey land of its own force, 

without survey, selection, or patent. 

7-89. The surveying in the Moon Lake case 

consisted of a retracement of the boundaries of 

the several sections, a restoration of the obliterated corners, a remonumentation of all of 

the corners, a retracement of the record meander line with monumentation of the angle points, 

and a completion of the fractional section lines. 

7-90. Erroneous19 meandered Ferry Lake : 

Ferry Lake is one of the lakes formed by the 

“Great Raft” of the Red River. The “Great 

Raft” was a complex series of logjams which 

probably began to form in the fifteenth century. 

Over a long period of time the raft moved upstream as the lower end decayed and additional 

material lodged against the upper end. As the 

raft moved, it blocked off tributaries and forced 

the main river into new channels. Numerous 

lakes and bayous were formed which extended 

almost to the Arkansas-Louisiana State line. 

Ferry Lake was formed near the close of the 

eighteenth century. It was a permanent, navigable body of water in 1812 when Louisiana was 

admitted into the Union. Because the “Great 

Raft” was a hindrance to navigation and transportation, Congress provided funds by the 

Act of May 23, 1828, to remove it. Clearing the 

river was a slow process, and the removal of 

the “Great Raft” was not completed until 1873. 

Most of the lakes were thereby artificially lowered or drained, and the State retained the uncovered portions of the beds. Only lands above 

the line of mean high water before the artificial 

relz‘ction could be considered in determining if 

there had been an erroneous omission from the 

original survey. Location of the mean high 

water line was one of the complications of the 

case. 

The plat of T. 20 N., R. 16 W., Louisiana 

Meridian, Louisiana, approved August 31, 1839, 

shows the north boundary of the township discontinued on the bank of Ferry Lake (now Cad- 
176 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

See.; 16 

28.33 I 

I 

FIGURE 79.-The Ferry Lake case. The contour representing the mean high-water elevation of the lake in 1812, when 

Louisiana was admitted into the Union, and in 1839, when the township was subdivided, is shown thus _________

do Lake). The line between sections 10 and 11, 

in harmony with the remaining subdivisions, 

was discontinued on the lake bank, but the line 

between sections 3 and 10, instead of being extended to the main lake front was stopped on an 

arm or bay of the lake. The meander line 

through section 3 could be and was run with 

reasonable conformity, but in section 10, owing 

to the failure to extend the northern section 

boundary to the main lake front, there was no 

possibility of running a true meander line. Excepting the end courses, the record line, as developed, bears no proper relation to the bank as 

it existed at the time of the survey. 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 177 

The plat of fractional sections 4, 9, and 10 of 

the same township, approved August 18, 1871, 

represents an extension of the lines between 

sections 3 and 10, and between sections 4 and 9, 

to the main lake front. The corner of sections 

3, 4, 9, and 10 was established in this survey, 

also a meander corner on the west side of a narrow bayou which drains out of the north part 

of section 9 ; but again, for no apparent reason, 

in running south on the line between sections 9 

and 10 the survey was terminated at a point 

more than 3,400 feet north of the bank of Ferry 

Lake. A part of the meander courses in sections 

4 and 9 were accurately run, but the remaining courses, particularly those which connected 

with the terminal point on the line between 

sections 9 and 10, were merely a traverse line 

through the woods, though represented in the 

field notes and shown on the plat to be the bank 

of the lake. 

Following the discovery of oil and gas, mineral applications were filed with the Department 

in 1909 and 1910. The locations covered not 

only the omitted area but the bed of the lake. It 

was alleged that large errors had been made in 

running the meander lines, that the lake was 

merely a temporary body of water, and that it 

had not been navigable in 1812 when Louisiana 

was admitted to the Union. By 1910 all of the 

fractional lots adjoining the omitted area had 

been disposed of by the United States. 

The report of the field investigation covered 

the historical data, the geology of the lake basin, 

an examination of the forest trees, and the surveying situation. It was concluded that Ferry 

Lake existed as a navigable body of water in 

1812, though there had been a marked recession 

of the lake by 1910; and that in neither of the 

surveys of 1839 and 1871 had the lake been 

correctly meandered in sections 9 and 10, either 

as it was at the dates of the surveys or as it was 

in 1812. 

The soil, topography, and timber on the omitted area were the same as found on the surveyed 

land. Along most of the meander line there was 

no indication of there ever having been a lake 

bank or water-washed escarpment of any kind. 

The forest growth on the omitted land included overcup oak, sweet gum, and red gum on 

the lower levels, and on the higher levels post 

, 

Y 

oak, blackjack oak, Spanish oak, hickory, pine, 

and other varieties, many of them of great age, 

and clearly the descendants of a mixed forest 

that had existed for many centuries. The overcup oak was found in a belt immediately above 

a belt covered predominately by cypress, which 

occupied the plain terraces above and below an 

easily traceable escarpment. This bank, which 

had been made by the waters of Ferry Lake, 

continued without interruption around the entire basin. A contour survey showed the elevations in the omitted area in sections 9 and 10 to 

range up to 17 feet above the former lake level. 

The area omitted in these sections amounted 

to 229.67 acres. 

7-91. Upon a review of the record, the Attorney General of the United States, in a letter 

to the Secretary of the Interior, dated September 11, 1916, concluded: 

That no action should be taken to enforce or assert 

any claim by the Government to that portion of the 

area involved which is covered by the waters of the 

lake because if the State's title'by virtue of its sovereignty should fail for any reason, I see no way of 

successfully resisting her claim under the swamp 

land grant. 

However, in so far as concerns the land lying between the old meander line and the waters of the 

lake, I entirely agree with you that it constitutes unsurveyed public land of the United States, and . . . On January 2, 1923, the Supreme Court of 

the United States announced an opinion (Jeems 

Bayou Fishing & Hunting Club v. United States, 

260 U.S. 561), denying the claims to the land in 

sections 9, 10, 15 and 16, adverse to those of the 

Government, and commented : 

The inaccuracy of the plat is plainly apparent upon 

a like inspection. Why - made the survey and 

returned the plat as he did is a matter of speculation, 

but the facts demonstrate that no survey of the large, 

compact body of land, which includes the tract in 

controversy, was ever made. The circumstances, as 

well as the extent and character of the lands, necessitate the conclusion that the omission was of deliberate purpose or the result of such gross and palpable 

error as to constitute in effect a fraud upon the Government. 

7-92. Surveying the Ferry Lake case consisted of the steps mentioned in the Moon Lake 

case, also a monumentation of the contour which 

agreed with the evident mean high-water elevation of the lake as it was in the year 1812. 

7-93. Crooked Lake and Bear Lake: The 

plat of T.43 N., R. 6 E., Fourth Principal Meri- 
178 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

dian, Wisconsin, approved April 6, 1863, shows 

a meandered lake in section 36. Meander corners 

were established regularly on the south and 

east boundaries of the section. The field notes 

show the running of meander courses through 

the section on opposite sides of the lake, and 

call for high banks, along timbered land. No 

mention is made of an arm of a lake extending 

northwesterly into section 25. The fractional 

lottings were disposed of according to the representations of the plat. 

By letter dated April 16, 1923, the Commissioner of the General Land Office advised the 

Secretary of the Interior of an application to 

make a forest lieu selection for the NEXSWX 

sec. 36 (lot 15, figure 80), which according to 

the representations of the township plat would 

be located entirely within the bed of the meandered lake as above described. This letter contains a review of the facts as developed by a 

field examination, and concludes with a recommendation that the land theretofore shown as 

a meandered lake be surveyed and a proper plat 

constructed. The proposed action bears departmental approval. 

The report of the field examination showed 

the following facts : 

The south and east boundaries of the section 

N 89'58% 

1765 I 2067 

-r - --- --- 

FIGURE 80.-The Crooked Lake and Bear Lake case. 

cross two lakes instead of one, the lakes being 

separated by a body of land amounting to 236.90 

acres contained within the lines represented on 

the original plat as the banks of the one meandered lake. This area is rolling upland ranging 

up to 50 feet above the level of either lake, and 

forested with pine, hemlock, birch, maple and 

spruce timber. There was no evidence of any 

changes in the water level of the lakes, nor of 

any escarpment along the fictitious meander 

courses connecting them, these lines having 

been found to traverse rolling land instead of 

following a contour, with not the slightest difference between the character of the land, soil 

or timber on the area theretofore surveyed and 

that which had been omitted. The shores of the 

two lakes were well defined, with banks from 3 

to 8 feet high, bordered by a strip of level land 

from 10 to 30 feet in width, surrounded by rolling hills. The geologic formation, as well as the 

forest trees, indicated great age. 

The surveying work to be done consisted of 

the steps previously outlined in the Moon Lake 

case. 

Survey of Land Outside Meander Line 

Where No Gross Error Is Involved 

Lands omitted from the original survey lying between the position for the record 

meander line and the actual bank of a lake, 

stream, or tidewater, situated in front of Government-owned subdivisions, are subject to survey as public land although they may not be of 

sufficient size and extent to constitute gross 

error or fraud in the original surveys. 

If title to all the subdivisions in a section, 

shown to be riparian by the plat of the original 

survey, is still in the Government, and there is 

no reason for retaining the original lottings, 

new areas and designations may be returned for 

the public land. This procedure ordinarily is not 

involved unless warranted by the values involved, or justified by the difference in area of 

the subdivisions. However, when title to some 

of the record riparian subdivisions has passed 

into private ownership and no claim can be 

maintained by the United States to the omitted 

land in front of these subdivisions, partition 

lines are run and monumented segregating the 

public land from the area belonging to the priF- 

- 

7-94. 
SPWIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 179 

vate owners. Generally it is necessary to subdivide the sections in the regular manner, reestablish the original meander line, and remeander the body of water. Lot numbers and areas 

are shown on the official plat for the public land 

being surveyed for the first time. 

Where title to all the land in a section based 

upon the plat of the origiqal survey has passed 

from the Government, it is not necessary to reestablish the original meander line. This line is 

protracted upon the survey plat, which should 

be prepared in the manner similar to the method 

adopted for showing an area formed by accretion in front of patented lands (figure 88, chapter IX) . The division lines between patented 

holdings are not surveyed in the field or shown 

by protraction upon the plat. 

The partition lines between the Government 

land and privately owned land are run in the 

same manner as partition lines dividing areas 

formed by accretion. The general rule is to follow the method described in Johnston v. Jones, 

66 U.S. 117 (1861), that is, to apportion the 

new frontage along the water boundary in the 

same ratio as that along the line of the record 

meander course. There are acceptable variations 

to this rule where local conditions prevail and 

the added lands are not of great width or extent. 

In such cases the extension of normal lines to 

the water boundary is an equitable division to 

the avoidance of unrealistic or oblique lines 

which are not commensurate with the considered manner of the land’s formation. 

SWAMP AND OVERFLOWED LANDS 

7-95. The acts of Congress which granted to 

certain States the swamp and overflowed lands 

within their respective boundaries were listed 

in chapter I. These lands are not conveyed without survey, selection, or patent. Lee Wilson & 

Company v. United States, 245 U.S. 24 (1923). 

They are surveyed as public lands and subject 

to classification at that time. 

In Sun Francisco Savings Union, et a1 v. 

Irwin, 28 Fed. 708 (1886), aff. Irwin v. Sun 

Francisco Savings Union, et al., 136 U.S. 578 

(1890), the court stated: 

The act of 1850 grants swamp and overflowed lands. 

Swamp lands, as distinguished from overflowed lands, 

may be considered such as require drainage to fit 

them for cultivation. Overflowed lands are those which 

are subject to such periodical or frequent overflows 

as to require levees or embankments to keep out the 

water, and render them suitable for cultivation. 

Swamp lands include marshes and intermittent ponds which do not have effective natural 

drainage, particularly where such conditions 

are long continued. 

Overflowed lands include essentially the lower levels within a stream flood plain as distinguished from the higher levels, according to the 

characteristic effect of submergence where long 

continued. 

7-96. Tidelands are coastal areas situated 

above mean low tide and below mean high tide, 

particularly as they are alternately uncovered 

and covered by the ebb and flow of the daily 

tides. As a part of the bed of navigable waters, 

such lands belong to the States. Pollard’s Lessee 

v. Hagan, 44 U.S. 212 (1844). Tidelands are 

mentioned here to stress their distinction from 

swamp and overflowed lands. Coastal “salt 

marshes” that are covered by the daily tide are 

tidelands and not subject to survey. On the 

other hand, coastal marshes that are not covered by the daily tide are swamp and overflowed 

lands within the meaning of the grants and 

are subject to survey. 

7-97. It has already been emphasized in section 3-115 that meander lines will not be established between the upland and the swamp and 

overflowed lands. Riparian rights, which are 

applicable within the beds of lakes, streams, 

and tidal waters, are not enforceable over the 

swamp and overflowed lands granted to the 

States. The survey of meander lines at the 

margin of swamps in the past has been an important cause of the erroneous omission of lands 

from survey. 

The following rules should be followed 

in making surveys or field examinations of 

swamp and overflowed lands : 

(1) According to R.S. 2481 (43 U.S.C. 984), 

any legal subdivision the greater part of which 

is “wet and unfit for cultivation,” shall be included in the category of swamp and overflowed 

lands. When the greater part of a subdivision is 

not of that character, the whole of it shall be 

excluded. The legal subdivision referred to is the 

quarter-quarter section or comparable lot. 

7-98. 
180 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

(2) “Wet and unfit for cultivation” is interpreted to mean that the land must have been so 

swampy or subject to overflow during the planting, growing, or harvesting season, in the majority of years at or near the date of the grant, 

as to be unfit for cultivation in any staple crop of 

the region in which it is located, without the 

use of some artificial means of reclamation such 

as levee protection or drainage ditches. 

(3) A subdivision which becomes swampy or 

overflowed at a season of the year when this 

condition does not interfere with the planting, 

cultivating, or harvesting of a crop at the 

proper time and by the ordinary methods is not 

“made unfit for cultivation’’ and does not qualify 

under the swamp land grant. 

(4) Tame grass or hay, when produced by 

the ordinary methods of preparing the ground, 

is considered a staple crop, as well as the cereals, 

or cotton, or tobacco. 

(5) In the administration of the swamp acts 

the States have been allowed optional methods 

of preparing the lists of subdivisions that are to 

be identified as swamp and overflowed within 

the meaning of the acts. But the surveyor must 

determine with accuracy the position and extent 

of the swamp and overflowed land within the 

area under survey regardless of the methods 

employed by the States in asserting claims. 

(6) Alabama, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan, 

Minnesota (excepting as to lands within the 

Indian reservations), Mississippi, Ohio, and 

Wisconsin have elected to base their swampland lists on the field note record. In these States 

it is imperative that the field notes include a 

specific list of the subdivisions each of which is 

more than 50 per cent wet and unfit for cultivation, regarding such character as at the date of 

the passage of the granting act. 

Arkansas, by the Act of April 29, 1898 (30 

Stat. 367; 43 U.S.C. 991), relinquished all right, 

title, and interest to the remaining unappropriated swamp and overflowed lands within its 

boundaries. 

(7) In California, under R.S. 2488 (43 U.S.C. 

987), the swampland lists are based upon the 

representations of the plat of survey, and in this 

State it is imperative that the plats correctly 

show the conditions in this respect. 

(8) The selection of swamp lands in Florida, 

Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Oregon, and in 

Indian reservations within Minnesota, is based 

upon investigations and reports by representatives of the State and of the Bureau of Land 

Management, but this does not set aside the 

Manual requirements for the usual complete 

showing of the character of the land. 

It is always important to note any 

marked changes in the water level and drainage 

conditions of the region, and to ascertain the 

situation as of the date of the granting act. It 

is desirable to secure the testimony of persons 

who have known the lands for long periods. The 

most convincing evidence of the land’s character at the date of the granting act is the older 

native timber, as the varieties reflect their site 

conditions with great certainty. 

This line of investigation requires an inquiry 

into the habitat of the forest species which are 

found, particularly as to whether the usual 

range of the tree is within low wet ground, as 

for example the cypress, tupelo, sweet gum, 

water ash, water locust, and red bay of the 

southern latitudes, and the tamarack, white 

cedar, black spruce, swamp spruce, and black 

ash of the northern latitudes of the United 

States. The presence of any of the species named 

indicates the possibility of swamp land, and, 

while conclusive with some of them, others of 

the species named have a wider range and may 

be found associated with upland varieties. If 

upland varieties are present the plain inference 

will be that the site conditions are that of upland, even though a forest species may favor 

moist rich soil. 

7-99. 

SOIL CLASSIFICATION 

7-100. Earlier manuals have stressed the 

appraisal of soil characteristics as an essential 

part of the survey returns. This classification 

has been an invaluable aid in the development 

of the public domain, both to the prospective 

settler and in the administration of natural resources. Such information is now generally 

available from other sources, and its provision 

by the field notes is not as important as it once 

was. Yet, in the making of original surveys, it 

is necessary to tie the available information 

to specifically described lands. Further, the gen- 
SPECIAL SURVEYS AND INSTRUCTIONS 181 

era1 law (R.S. 2395; 43 U.S.C. 751) requires the 

surveyor to note and report upon the soil types. 

These requirements will hereafter be limited to 

lands being surveyed for the first time and need 

not be routinely applied to resurveys unless provided for by the special instructions. 

The soil types, when considered in 

relation to precipitation and other climatic factors, the drainage, the adaptability of the terrain to irrigation, the elevation, and the latitude, 

will indicate whether the highest and best use 

of the land is for farming, grazing, forestry, or 

other purposes. 

An outline of the matters to be considered in soil studies is presented below as a 

guide to the surveyor in making his report. 

(1) Texture; Gravel, coarse and fine; sand, 

coarse and fine; sandy loam; silt loam; loam; 

clay, heavy and light ; and muck. 

(2) Structure : Single grained, pulverulent, 

and lumpy. 

(3) Color: Surface soil and subsoil, both 

when dry and when wet. 

(4) Chemical properties : Acidity, alkalinity, 

and humus content. 

(5) Depth : Surface soil and subsoil. 

(6) Location: River bottom or flood plain, 

bench, slope, plateau, prairie, and mountain. 

(7) Topography : Level, rolling, broken, hilly 

and mountainous ; and elevation above sea level. 

(8) Drainage: Direction, depth to water 

table, and quality, as poor, good, or erosive. 

(9) Mode of formation: Water laid, glacier 

laid, wind laid, and residual. 

(10) Geological derivation : 

7-101. 

7-102. 

(a) Sedimentary rocks are either formed 

of fragments of other rock transported from 

their sources and deposited as conglomerate, 

sandstone, and shale; or formed by simple precipitation from solution, as limestone, or of 

secretions of organisms, as some coastal rocks. 

(b) Metamorphic rocks : Formed through 

change in constitution, especially those due to 

great pressure, heat, and water, and resulting in 

a more compact or more highly crystalline condition, including, for example, quartzite, marble, 

slate, and schist. 

(c) Igneous rocks : Formed through the action of intense heat, including, for example 

(first, eruptive rocks) basalt, lava, and volcanic 

ash; (second, trap rock) felsite and quartzporphyry ; and (third, granular rock) granite, 

diorite, and porphyry. 

Soil has its origin in the material 

which comes from the disintegration of the 

rocks. Roots and other vegetable matter in the 

soil are by decay gradually converted into 

humus, which is found only in the surface soil, 

and in quantities which vary with the activity 

and profusion of plant life. Plant food comes 

from the chemical elements contained in the 

rock and the humus; one is the product of inorganic matter, the other a product of the decomposition of organic matter. Plants draw 

four elements from the soil that are essential to 

their development : phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, and calcium. Other elements are usually 

present in plentiful supply and so are of less importance. The amount of humus is important 

to the fertility of the soil, and it absorbs and 

retains moisture. 

Soil bacteria thrive best in soil that is rich 

in decaying vegetation, with favorable proportions of lime, air, light, warmth, and moisture, 

and through their presence much nitrogen is 

taken from the air for storage in the ground. 

The relation of these things leads to the notable observation that soils seem to select their 

plants, or vice versa. There is found in a certain 

soil type one class of grasses or forest cover, 

in another soil very different plant life. These 

are the keys to a study of the soil, and when all 

are considered in connection with the moisture, 

climatic, and other conditions of the environment, will very largely determine its value for 

agriculture, stock grazing, or forestry. 

The following is an illustration of a 

general description of the land and soil types 

found within a selected township, designed to 

bring out rather minute references to the soil 

structure : 

Land, level, and gently rolling plateau, with 

elevation from 500 to 700 feet above sea level. 

Soil, fine sandy loam; surface soil dark gray to 

black, rich in humus, from 10 to 15 inches deep ; 

subsoil, light brown loam, 36 inches deep, rest7-103. 

7-104. 
182 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

ing on gravel bed ; sedimentary origin, lake laid. 

Drainage good, the stream system being the 

River and its tributaries. The normal precipitation of the region 

is ordinarily deficient for general farming, but 

the soil is well adapted to any of the cereals 

usually grown in this latitude by dry-farming 

methods, and it produces excellent grasses, both 

native and tame. 
CHAPTER VIII 

Field Notes 

PURPOSE AND STYLE 

8-1. The field notes are the written record of 

the survey. This record identifies and describes 

the lines and corners of the survey and the 

procedures by which they were established or 

reestablished. The new subdivisions to be platted (or replatted in the case of some resurveys) 

and the quantity of land in each unit are derived 

from the field notes. The laws governing surveys of the public lands have required the return 

of field notes from the beginning. 

The initial notes are kept in pocket field 

tablets. The final field notes for filing are transcribed from the field tablets and are typewritten upon regulation field-note paper. It is desirable that the final field notes conform to the 

general arrangement and phraseology set out 

in the Manual. A large part of the final field 

notes must be extended from an abbreviated 

field record. At the same time, much of the 

minute detail of the initial notes may be summarized into a form of record which refers 

directly to the completed survey. This distinction in the two stages of the record is carried 

through the text. The subject in hand is the 

transcribed field notes, the record that is extended from the field tablets; this record is 

termed the “field notes.” 

8-3. All appropriate notes of the method and 

order of the survey procedures are entered in 

the field tablets. The tablets should show the 

dates on which each part of the field work was 

done. The field tablet record should supply the 

information needed for a complete preparation 

of the final record. 

Because of the great variety of survey 

types, the surveyor must plan carefully how the 

notes in the field tablet are to be arranged. The 

8-2. 

8-4. 

chief of field party is responsible for the accuracy and sufficiency of this record. 

The work of transcribing the record usually 

receives the personal attention of the surveyor, 

but it is important that the arrangement of the 

notes in the tablets and the use of abbreviations be such as to be readily understood by 

others who are familiar with the technical processes. Due regard should be given to the 

Manual requirements and form, though it is intended that set forms of expression be used 

flexibly and modified when necessary to conform to the survey procedure. The work of the 

reviewing officers is directed to the fundamental requirements of the Manual and the 

written special instructions. Comments as to 

the form of the transcribed field notes are based 

upon broad grounds, but it is necessary that the 

notes follow a standard form. 

Random lines with fallings are shown in the 

field tablets but are omitted from the transcribed field note record except where some 

special purpose is served by showing the detail 

of a triangulation, offset, or traverse. 

The township is considered as the unit 

in compiling the field notes. Normally the field 

notes of all classes of lines pertaining to a township when concurrently surveyed and not previously compiled are included in a single book. 

In the survey of a block of exterior lines only, 

all of the field notes may be placed in one book. 

8-6. The field notes and plat are considered 

the primary record of any survey and, upon 

their approval and acceptance, the responsibility for the survey vests in the accepting authority. After the final record has been prepared, accepted, and officially filed, the field 

tablets and related field data are disposed of. 

8-5. 

183 
184 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

TITLES 

8-7. Each book of field notes is included in 

a regulation cover, with appropriate title setting 

out general information as follows : 

(1) The description of the lines recorded in 

that book; 

(2) The principal meridian to which the survey refers; 

(3) The State in which the survey is located ; 

(4) The name or names of the surveyors by 

whom the work was executed ; 

(5) The date of the special instructions, with 

survey number or serial group number, and date 

of approval ; 

(6) The date of the assignment instructions ; 

and, 

(7) The dates of the beginning and completion of the work included in that book. 

EXAMPLES OF TITLES 

Field Notes 

Of the Survey of the 

Tenth Standard Parallel North, 

Along the South Boundary of Township 41 North, 

Through Ranges 13, 14, 15, and 16 West; 

and the 

Fourth Guide Meridian West, 

Through Townships 41, 42, 43, and 44 North, 

Between Ranges 16 and 17 West 

East and North Boundaries of 

Townships 41 and 42 North, 

Ranges 16 and 16 West 

Subdivisional and Meander Lines of 

Township 41 North, Range 16 West 

West and North Boundaries 

and 

Subdivisional and Meander Lines of 

Township 41 North, Range 13 West 

(All) 

Of the Sixth Principal Meridian 

.In the State of Wyoming, 

Executed by 

Wm. C. Jones, Cadastral Surveyor 

John B. Smith and Fred A. Brown, 

Cadastral Surveyors 

(All) 

Under special instructions dated June 30, 

1971, which provided for the surveys included 

under Group No. 205, approved July 9, 1971; 

and assignment instructions dated July 15, 

1971. 

Survey commenced July 26, 1971. 

Survey completed October 8, 1971. 

8-8. The descriptive portion of the title is 

appropriately modified if there is a fractional 

portion of a township included in a survey, and 

for resurveys and fragmentary surveys, as for 

example : 

Field Notes 

Of the Survey of 

A portion of Subdivisional Lines 

Completing (or continuing) the 

Subdivision of 

Township 39 South, Range 18 East 

Field Notes 

Of a Limited Dependent Resurvey 

Of Sections 26 and 27, 

Township 63 North, Range 12 West 

Field Notes 

Of the Survey of 

Fiddlers Island in Venice Bay, 

In Section 1, 

Township 39 South, Range 18 East 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey of the 

Exterior and Subdivisional Lines of 

Township 18 South, Range 69 West 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey of the 

Eleventh Standard Parallel North, 

Along the South Boundary of Township 46 North, 

Through Range 79 West; 

The East Boundary of 

Township 45 North, Range 80 West; 

and the 

South Boundary of 

Township 46 North, Range 79 West 

Field Notes 

Of the Independent Resurvey of the 

East Boundary and Subdivisional Lines of 

Township 45 North, Range 79 West, 

and 

Metes-and-Bounds Survey of Private Claims 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey of the Boundaries of the 

Anastasia Island Lighthouse and Military Reservations 

In Sections 21, 22, 27, and 28, 

Township 7 South, Range 30 East 

Field Notes 

of U.S. Survey No. 9901 

at Mile 320, Alaska Highway 

and 

(or) 

(01) 

(01) 

(01) 

(or) 

(or) 

(01) 
FIELD NOTES 186 

Establishment of Location Monument No. 9901 

at Geodetic Position: 

Latitude 53O22'17.63" N., Longitude 146"58'43.00" W. 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey and Extension Survey, 

Subdividing Land Bordering Ferry Lake and James 

Bayou, 

In Sections 9, 10, 16, and 16, 

Township 20 North, Range 16 West 

Field Notes 

Of the Retracement and Extension Survey 

Subdividing Accretion Area Bordering Red River, 

Including Riverbed Tracts, 

In Sections 4, 5, and 8, 

Township 6 South, Range 14 West 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey of the Section Boundaries, 

The Subdivision of the Sections, 

and 

The Establishment of Corners of Indian Allotments, 

Sections 9, 10, and 16, 

Township 143 North, Range 30 West 

(01) 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey of the Section Boundaries, 

The Subdivision of the Sections, 

and 

The Establishment of the Boundary, Block and Lot 

Corners, and Street Center Lines of the 

Townsite of Lac du Flambeau, 

In Sections 5 and 8, 

Township 40 North, Range 6 East 

Field Notes 

Of the Dependent Resurvey of the Section Boundaries 

And the Metes-and-Bounds Survey of a body of land 

classified as mineral bearing, included within the 

Whitmore Quartz and the Monday Quartz Mining 

Claims, in Section 22, 

Township 7 North, Range 12 East 

Field Notes 

Of a Traverse of the Workings in the 

Badger Coal Mine 

and 

A Dependent Resurvey and Subdivision 

Township 36 North, Range 75 West 

(or) 

(or) 

(or) 

(01) 

(or) 

' of Section 15, 

INDEX 

is often necessary, however, to construct an 

additional special diagram to suit the work. For 

this a sheet of regulation field-note paper, or 

a sheet of the same size, is employed, and a scale 

adopted that is suited to the available space. It 

is usually preferable to orient the diagram with 

north to the top of the page, though sometimes 

the outline of the work is such that it is better 

to orient the diagram with north to the lefthand or binding edge. The diagram should show 

all of the lines surveyed with the page number 

on which the record of each begins. Meanders 

and other irregular lines should be drawn and 

indexed. The added index sheet is inserted in 

the book on the inside of the front cover, to 

appear on the right-hand side, without page 

number. Field notes will not be written on the 

index sheet. 

HEADINGS 

8-10. Each page of the field notes is given 

a heading. The heading is a short summary of 

the titIe of the field notes to be continued on that 

page. New headings are employed within the 

body of the field notes where changes are made 

to a new division of the survey; this will become the h'eading of the pages that follow. The 

heading should include the principal meridian 

and State. Examples may be found in the specimen field notes in the appendix. 

New headings inserted in the body of the 

field notes of a resurvey are accompanied by 

subheadings which relate the resurvey to the 

earlier work. For example : 

(1) Dependent Resurvey of the W. Bdy. 

of T. 2 N., R. 18 W., Prin. Mer., Montana 

(Restoring the 1882 survey by 

James M. Harvey) 

(or) 

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE 

LEL NORTH, SOUTH BOUNDARY 

CIPAL MERIDIAN, WYOMING 

ELEVENTH STANDARD PARALOF T. 45 N., R. 79 W., SIXTH PRIN8-9. Each book of field notes has a small- Reestablishment of the survey executed by John B. Smith, Deputy Surveyor, in 1872 

scale index diagram of the lines included, for 

which there is a form on back of the cover. It 
186 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

(2) METES-AND-BOUNDS SURVEY OF 

PRIVATE CLAIMS IN T. 45 N., R., 

79 W., SIXTH PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN, WYOMING 

As originally located in accordance 

with the survey executed by John B. 

Smith, Deputy Surveyor, in 1872 

(3) Independent Resurvey of the Subd. 

Lines of T. 45 N., R. 79 W., 6th Prin. 

Mer., Wyoming 

(Superseding the 1872 survey by 

John B. Smith) 

ABBREVIATIONS 

8-11. The following abbreviations, especially 

suited to field notes of surveys, are permitted in the final transcript record, and are used 

where repetitions in the form of the record 

and the expressions used are such as to make 

the abbreviations readily understood. These abbreviations are in addition to those shown in 

chapter I1 for analytical notation of observations, and those shown in chapter IV for marks 

upon monuments. Some of these abbreviations, 

as appropriate, are employed upon the township plat. All abbreviations will be given capital 

or lower-case letters the same as would be 

proper if the spelling were to be completed. 

TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS 

A. -I--..-..-.________..-... 

alt. .......................... 

a.m. ............ 

Am ......................... app. noon ............... 

app. t asc .. 

BM ... 

bet .......................... 

bdy., bdrs. .............. 

ch., chs ................... cor., cors .. 

decl. ........................ 

dep 

desc ........................ diam ..... dir .......................... 

con! .--_____l-__l-__. 

acres 

a1 t i t u d e 

forenoon 

amended 

apparent noon 

apparent time 

ascend 

bench mark 

between 

boundary, boundaries 

chain, chains 

corner, corners 

correction 

declination 

departure 

descend 

diameter 

direct 

dist ......................... E ............................. 

e.e .......................... elev ......................... ft ............................ 

frac ........................ Gr .. GM.., 

hor. ......................... 

h ............................. 

h. a ......................... in., ins ,... .............. 

lat ........................... 

lk., lks .................... 1. m. noon^- 

1. m. t. .................. 

log ........................... 

long ..................... 

1.c ........................... m ........................ 

meas ...... 

mer ....................... Mi. Cor .................. mkd. ............ 

MS ......................... 

N..----. ................. 

NE ........... 

NW ................... 

No .......................... obs. ................. 

obsn ........................ 

ong ................... p.m. ........................ 

pt .............. 

Prin. Mer .............. R., Rs ..................... red ......................... rev. ......................... 

s ............................ - 

see., secs ................ s ............................ 

SE .......................... 

sw .............. .- ..... .- 

sq .. Stan. Far. ........... 

sta. ... 

temp ....................... t ....................... 

T., Tp., Tps. ...... 

u.c ......................... USLM .............. 

USMM .................. 

vert ........................ w ........................... 

w. e. ...................... 

x ............................. 

distance, or distant 

east a 

eastern elongation 

elevation 

foot, feet 

fractional 

Greenwich 

guide meridian 

horizontal 

hour, hours 

hour angle 

inch, inches 

latitude 

link, links 

local mean noon 

local mean time 

logarithmic function 

longitude 

lower culmination 

minute, minutes, (time) 

measurement 

meridian 

mile corner 

marked 

mineral survey 

north a 

northeast 

northwest 

number 

observe 

observation 

original 

afternoon 

point 

principal meridian 

range, ranges 

reduction 

reverse 

second, seconds, (time) 

section, sections 

south 

southeast 

southwest 

square 

standard parallel 

station 

temporary 

time 

township, townships 

upper culmination 

United States Location Monument 

United States Mineral Monument 

vertical 

west a 

western elongation 

separating dimension values 

1 Discontinued in favor of the preferred term “United States Loca2 Optional use of period (.) 

tion Monument (USLM)”. 
FIELD NOTES 187 

THE DETAILED FIELD-NOTE 

RECORD 

8-12. The introductory statement includes : 

(1) History of prior pertinent surveys. 

(2) The surveys encompassed in that book of 

field notes. 

(3) Description of unusual survey situations 

and special methods used. 

(4) A statement that the survey was 

executed in accordance with specifications set 

forth in the Manual of Surveying Instructions 

and the special instructions. 

(5) How the directions of lines were determined and that they refer to the true meridian. 

(6) In the case of a dependent resurvey, a 

statement to the effect that “Preliminary to the 

resurvey the lines of the original survey were 

retraced and search was made for all corners 

and other calls of the record. Identified corners 

were remonumented in their original positions ; 

lost corners were restored and monumented at 

proportionate positions based on the original 

record. The retracement data were thoroughly 

verified and only the true line field notes are 

given herein.” 

(7) The geographic position of a corner of 

the survey-the southeast township corner if 

practicable-and how it was determined. 

(8) The observed magnetic declination. 

8-13. The items of information to be included in the field notes are described in section 

3-126. The description required for particular 

subjects is covered by the following list. 

Amended monuments, section 3-36. 

Base line, method of alining, section 3-11. 

Corner descriptions in general, sections 4-3, 4-6, and 

Corner descriptions, markings-form to follow 

8-14. 

Iron posts and brass tablets, sections 4-24-4-46. 

Stone monuments, sections 4-48-662. 

Tree monuments, sections 4-64, 4-67-4431. 

Closing corners, sections 5-41, 8-16 (4) (5) (6). 

Location monuments, sections 10-32, 10-33, and 

Quarter-section corners, sections 8-16 (7) (8) (lo).- 

Sixteenth-section corners, section 8-16 (8) (10). 

Use of non-standard monuments, section 4-7. 

Witness corners, sections 4-15 and 4-82. 

Witness points, sections 4-17 and 4-82. 

Bearing trees, sections 4-85, 4-86, 4-87, 4-96- 

Corner descriptions, other references 

10-34. 

Corner accessories 

4-114. 

Bearing objects, sections 4-86, 4-89, and 4-90. 

Memorials, section 4-91. 

Mound of stone, section 4-92. 

Pits, section 4-95. 

Reference monuments, section 4-82. 

Dependent resurvey, sections 6-28, 6-29, and 6-30. 

Field examination, sections 6-22 and 6-50. 

Independent resurvey, sections 6-49 (5) (6) (9) and 

Magnetic declination, section 2-18 and 3-126 (19). 

Meander lines, sections 3-119, 3-121, 3-122, and 

Measurement of standard line, section 3-9. 

Metes-and-bounds surveys, sections 7-16 and 9-82. 

Mineral segregation stirveys, sections 7-41 and 742. 

Parts of sections, section 3-94. 

Recovered monument, sections 3-32, 4-3, and 6-28. 

Report on swamp and overflowed land, section 7-98. 

Resurveys, section 6-1. 

Resurveys prior to extension, section 3-102. 

Resurveys prior to subdivision of township, section 

“Small tract” surveys, section 7-37. 

Soil classification, section 7-100-7-103. 

Subdivision of sections, section 3-75. 

Subdivision of township, sections 3-53 and 3-67. 

Testimony about corner point, section 5-11. 

Township exteriors, section 3-23. 

Townsite surveys, section 7-30. 

Triangulation, section 2-6. 

Unofficial marks at corner, section 5-12. 

Examples of application are found in the 

sample field notes in the appendix. 

8-14. A full description of all monuments of 

the established survey, upon which the new 

lines are to be initiated or closed, or all monuments of the established survey which is to be 

resurveyed, is furnished to the surveyor when a 

field assignment is made. It has been required 

in previous manuals that such monuments be 

completely described in the new record only if 

changes are made in the new survey or if the 

monument or its accessories do not agree with 

the record. Since one of these conditions is 

nearly always the case, the new requirement is 

that a redescription be made in every case. However, it is not required that the markings on 

the brass cap of a properly marked regulation 

monument be repeated. If the year date is 

added, that information may be placed in the 

field notes without showing a complete corner 

diagram. The description of an identified corner 

should follow the order given in section 6-29. 

Examples of descriptions are shown in the 

sample field notes in the appendix. 

8-15. 

3-123. 

3-32. 
188 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

When it is necessary to refer to a reconstructed corner monument described in another 

book of field notes of concurrent resurveys, a 

reference is given to the particular field notes 

in which the description of that monument will 

be found. For example: “the cor. of secs, 3, 4, 

33, and 34, on the N. bdy. of the Tp., previously described in the field notes of the dependent resurvey of the S. bdy. of T. 24 S., R. 

3 W,. of this assignment.” 

The complete description of a monument is 

entered once only. In subsequent notes the expression “heretofore described” may be employed when referring to a point already occupied in the new survey. All corners recorded 

in the same book of field notes are referred to 

by name only, without repeating the description of the monument, as for example: “the 

cor. of secs. 2, 3, 10, and 11” or “the standard 

cor. of secs. 33 and 34” or “the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 

31, and 32, on the S. bdy. of the Tp.” 

8-15. In the record of an independent resurvey the field notes of the metes-and-bounds 

survey of each valid claim are preceded by a 

copy of the abstract of entry. A brief statement then follows concerning the principal factors controlling the location of the particular 

tract, and whether or not the claimant was consulted or communicated with, in the matter of 

the identification of the boundaries of his claim. 

The statement should be clear as to whether the 

location of a claim, shown either as a tract segregation or as conforming to the lines of the 

resurvey, was controlled by collateral evidence, 

or by one or more identified corners of the original survey, nearby or remotely located, or by 

its relation to adjoining tracts. In case all of 

the tract segregations within a township can 

be covered by one general statement, the same 

should appear at the beginning of the field notes 

of the metes-and-bounds surveys. The field notes 

should be made to account for each tract shown 

upon the status diagram. 

Historical references to the field notes and 

plats of the earlier surveys, to the lines more 

recently resurveyed that form a portion or portions of the plat outline, to lines run and marked 

by the county surveyor and similar surveys 

found acceptable for the identification of tract 

boundaries, etc., should be incorporated in the 

introductory part of the field notes of the independent resurvey. 

8-16. It is important to standardize the 

writing of the field notes of retracements and 

the subdivision of sections, and to simplify the 

record so far as possible. In the majority of the 

work this can be done by adherence to the 

following rules : 

(1) Complete descriptions are given in those 

cases where the retracement is not followed by 

resurvey procedure or the subdivision of a section. 

(2) No detailed description of the retracement is required in the field notes when the retracement is followed by a resurvey. In that case 

the procedure is described in the introductory 

statement, and the corner monumentation and 

lines (corrected to true lines) are described in 

the field notes of the dependent resurvey. When 

the section lines are retraced as a preliminary 

to subdivision of a section, it is usually necessary to resurvey them in order to establish sixteenth-section corners on the section lines. 

(3) The directions and lengths of the true 

lines ; the descriptions of natural objects, 

stream crossings, principal slopes, and other 

topographic calls ; the descriptions of the physical, collateral, and record evidence or testimony 

concerning the old monuments and their accessories ; and all new monumentation are given in 

the true-line field notes. 

(4) The descriptions of closing comers of 

the exterior and subdivisional surveys originally placed on the standard parallels or township exteriors where the record calls for two 

sets of corners, and similarly within partially 

subdivided townships where there are offsets to 

be dealt with, will be given in the field notes of 

closing lines of the exterior or subdivisional 

survey that is being retraced or resurveyed. 

(5) When a closing corner monument is 

found which marks a line that is not being concurrently resurveyed, a connecting course and 

distance and a complete description of the monument will be given in the field notes of the retracement or resurvey of the line closed upon. 

(6) The new monument for a closing corner, 

in those cases where required, will always be 

placed at the true point of intersection, and so 

stated clearly. An off-line monument will be 
FIELD NOTES 189 

marked AM, connected by course and distance, 

and fully described in the field notes of the closing line. 

(7) Intermediate quarter-section corners between closing corners will be recorded in the 

field notes of the closing section immediately 

following the description of the closing line 

which completes the survey of the section. A 

cross reference will be entered in the field notes 

of the retracement or resurvey of the line closed 

upon. 

(8) The descriptions of the section, quartersection, and sixteenth-section corners on the 

section boundary lines, as required for the subdivision of a section, will be given in the field 

notes of the retracement or resurvey of the 

section boundaries. 

(9) Random or trial lines that are required 

for the subdivision of a section are treated in a 

prefacing statement concerning the type of 

work to be performed in one or more sections, 

but no field-note statement of the detail is 

necessary. 

(10) The descriptions of the center quartersection corner, and of the sixteenth-section 

corners within the section will be carried in the 

true-line field notes of the subdivision-of-section 

lines. 

8-17. The character of the land, soil, and 

forest cover upon the lines surveyed will be 

summarized at the conclusion of the field notes 

of each mile. The record of the mile will be 

closed by a line drawn across the page. A general description of a township as a whole, with 

regard to topography, soil, forest cover, merchantable timber, native grasses, water supply 

and drainage, minerals, settlement, and improvements, will be supplied at the conclusion 

of the subdivisional notes. This general description for resurveys need not be as expansive as 

that for original surveys. 

8-18. Signed statements relating to the 

positions of lines or corners are placed in the 

field notes following the general description. 

The record of the names of the assistants and 

the certificates of the surveyor and of approval 

will take the forms given in the specimen field 

notes in the appendix. 

SPECIMEN FIELD NOTES 

8-19. In the specimen field notes in the appendix there are shown the several forms of 

description of the approved types of corner 

monuments. The types that are employed ordinarily are given prominence, but those that are 

used in exceptional circumstances are included 

in order to supply a form of description. The 

indicated departures from the usual type of 

monumentation (iron posts) are not to be construed as an authorization to disregard the 

standard practice. 

8-20. Other specimen field notes as needed 

to show the miscellaneous forms of record relating to a variety of surveys found in the usual 

work are available in the survey office. A liberal 

assortment of such field notes and their accompanying plats should be on hand for reference 

purposes. 

8-21. In the case of fragmentary surveys, 

such as the limited resurvey of a section line, 

the survey of a connecting line, the survey of an 

island, or other surveys that require only a brief 

note record, the field notes may be placed directly upon the plat. 
CHAPTER IX 

Plats 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PLAT 

9-1. The plat is the drawing which represents the lines surveyed, establislled, retraced, 

or resurveyed, showing the direction and length 

of each line; the relation to the adjoining official surveys ; the boundaries, description, and 

area of each parcel of the land; and, as far as 

practicable, the topography, culture, and improvements within the limits of the survey. Occasionally the plat may constitute the entire 

record of the survey. 

9-2. Ordinarily an original survey of public lands does not ascertain boundaries; it 

creates them. The running of lines in the field 

and the platting of townships, sections, and 

legal subdivisions are not alone sufficient to 

constitute a survey. Although a survey may 

have been physically made, if it is disapproved 

by the authorized administrative officers, the 

public lands which were the subject of the survey are still classed as unsurveyed. 

The returns of a survey are prepared in the 

state survey office or service center and transmitted to the Director, Bureau of Land Management, by the state or service center director for 

consideration as to acceptibility. The survey 

only becomes official when it is accepted on behalf of the Director by the officer to whom he 

has delegated this responsibility. Any necessary 

suspension or cancellation of a plat or survey 

must be made by the same approving authority. 

9-3. The legal significance of plat and field 

notes is set out in Alaska United Gold Mining 

Co. v. Cincinnatti-Alaska Mining Co., 45 L.D. 

330 (1916). 

It has been repeatedly held by both State and Federal courts that plats and field notes referred to in 

patents may be resorted to for the purpose of determining the limits of the area that passed under such 

L 

patents. In the case of Cragin v. Powell (128 U.S. 

691, 696), the Supreme Court said: 

“It is a well settled principle that when lands are 

granted according to an official plat of the survey 

of such lands, the plat itself, with all its notes, lines, 

descriptions and landmarks, becomes as much a part 

of the grant or deed by which they are conveyed, and 

controls so far as limits are concerned, as if such 

descriptive features were written out upon the face 

of the deed or the grant itself.” 

These legal principles apply to subsequent deeds 

of transfer related to the official plat. 

The public lands are not considered surveyed 

or identified until approval of the survey and 

filing of the plat in the administering land office by direction of the Bureau of Land Management. United States v. Cowlinshaw, 202 Fed. 

317 (1913). No subdivisions are to be “disposed 

of” until so identified. United States v. Hurlburt, 72 F. 2d 427 (1934). 

9-4. The subdivisions are based upon and 

are defined by the monuments and other evidences of the controlling official survey. As long 

as these evidences are in existence, the record 

of the survey is an official exhibit and, presumably, correctly represents the actual field 

conditions. If there are discrepancies, the record 

must give way to the evidence of the corners in 

place. 

9-5. In the absence of evidence, the field 

notes and plat are the best means of identification of the survey and they will retain this purpose. In the event of a resurvey they provide 

the basis for the dependent method and the 

control for the fixation of the boundaries of 

alienated lands by the independent method. 

PLAT REQUIREMENTS 

9-6. Plat requirements have been given in 

numerous sections of the preceding chapters in 

191 
192 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

connection with technical field procedure. The 

following list will serve as a reference: 

Latitude and longitude, section: 2-21. 

Retracements that require platting, section 3-32. 

Amended monuments to be platted, section 3-36. 

Direct tie, computed from traverse, to be platted, secSubdivision of sections to be protracted on plat, secLots and some 40-acre subdivisions to be shown, secProtractions against segregated areas, sections 3-79 

Size and shape of lots, section 3-81. 

Numbering of lots, section 3-82. 

Lotting of elongated sections, section 3-83. 

Lots adjoining defective south and east boundaries, 

Subdivision of sections, sections 3-87, 3-88, 3-90, and 

Lots ad joining irregular boundaries, sections 3-97 and 

Protraction of outlying areas, section 3-100. 

Retracements in connection with extension surveys, 

Completion of partially surveyed sections, sections 

Lots resulting from fragmentary surveys, sections 

Platting meanders, section 3-118. 

Showing the tie to A.M.C. and outline of artificial 

bodies of water, section 3-121. 

Platting of islands, section 3-122. 

Summary of items to be shown, section 3-126. 

Witness corner to be shown on plat, section 4-16. 

Adjustment of broken boundaries, sections 6-43 and 

Conformed entries and conflicts to be shown on plat, 

Resurvey lottings, no duplication, sections 6-52 

New lots adjacent to meanders, section 7-16. 

Townsite plats, sections 7-26, 7-28, 7-30, and 7-31. 

Beds of nonnavigable lakes and streams, sections 7-62 

Plats of accretion, sections 7-66 and 7-67. 

Plats of omitted lands, sections 7-86 and 7-94. 

Showing of swampland on plats, section -7-98 (7). 

Abbreviations on plats, section 8-11. 

Field notes on plat, section 8-21. 

tion 3-71. 

tion 3-74. 

tions 3-77 and 3-78. 

and 3-80. 

section 3-84. 

3-92. 

3-98. 

section 3-102 

3-103 through 3-107. 

3-111. 

6-44. 

section 6-49 (5) (6) ; see figure 90. 

through 6-64. 

through 7-61. 

SPECIMEN TOWNSHIP PLAT 

9-7. The specimen township plat (insert 1) 

is a revision of the one which accompanied the 

Manual of 1947. All-mechanical lettering has 

been used, and an enlarged diagram has been 

added to show the required data relating to the 

segregation of mineral snrveys. In practice, 

where the detail is often more complicated, the 

segregations may be shown on a separate sheet 

at an even larger scale. 

The green overlay is discontinued. The brown 

overlay is seldom needed but is shown for contrast where numerous examples are placed in a 

single township. The hachure has been retained 

only to show rimrocks or mesas. 

9-8. The specimen plat shows the basis of 

the computation of all areas. The distances 

noted in parentheses are the regular and fractional portions of lines which constitute the 

boundaries of the quarter-quarter sections and 

fractional subdivisions. Parenthetical distances * 

are employed where the field notes do not indicate what was used in the calculation of 

areas. The same lengths are adopted proportionately in establishing sixteenth-section corners on the section boundaries and for control 

in the subdivision of sections. 

9-9. Most township plats are maps in that 

they show topographic and other mapping features. Strictly speaking a plat is a base drawing stripped of every detail nonessential to 

the identification of the subdivisions shown. The 

base drawing is always in black. It shows the 

lines of section boundaries, subdivision of sections, and lines of segregation such as mineral 

or other claim boundaries, meander lines (unless to be shown in blue), together with all lettering referring to title, names, memorandum, 

certificates, section numbers, lot numbers, 

areas, and lengths and directions of lines, aa 

well as important improvements, works, or 

structures where required. The arrangement 

of data on all base drawings is made as nearly 

uniform as possible and in harmony with the 

specimen drawing, subject to modification 

where irregular lottings are made. Sections 3-69 

and 3-71 explain the plan for relating patented 

irregular tracts to the rectangular system as a 

basis for their segregation. Conditions vary 

where the tracts are numerous, particularly 

where there is a network of patented mineral 

surveys to be segregated. The important plat 

feature is the resulting fractional lottings. It is 

generally unnecessary to show the courses and 

distances of the boundaries of the mineral surveys or their connections unless they affect the 

lotting, a mere outline being sufficient. Frer 

i 
PLATS 193 

quently this permits their complete showing on 

the base drawing. 

Occasionally it is feasible to letter the number 

and name of each claim on the base drawing. 

More often this is impracticable, and serial 

numbers for the purpose of indexing only should 

be assigned to all segregated locations throughout the township and carried to a marginal table 

followed by the survey number and name of 

each location. When this is done only the serial 

numbers are shown on the face of the drawing. 

Where a number of mineral surveys are segregated, large scale drawings on additional sheets 

may be required for each of the sections invaded. An outline of the mineral surveys is 

shown on the base plat for the sections involved, 

and a marginal reference is made on the base 

drawing calling attention to the sheets upon 

which the segregations in the various sections 

may be found. In many instances an enlarged 

diagram on the base plat will obviate the necessity for an additional sheet. Figure 84 (discussed in section 9-74) is an example of a drawing which should be shown as an enlarged diagram on the base plat. 

9-10. Transparent color overprints are employed for those plats where topographic features tend to obscure the essential data on the 

base drawing. Overprints are not required 

where these features may readily be shown in 

black on the base drawing. 

DRAFTING THE BASE DRAWING 

9-11. Township plats are generally drawn 

on the scale of 1 inch equals 40 chains, on sheets 

19 x 24 inches when trimmed. The scale is often 

enlarged to 1 inch equals 20 chains for showing 

portions of townships in detail; the scale of 1 

inch equals 10 chains or larger is employed 

where necessary. A bar or graphic scale stating only the unit of measurement is shown on 

all plats. The size of the sheets is always made 

19 x 24 inches, regardless of the scale or area to 

be show; this is important on account of the 

need for uniformity in the dimensions of filing 

devices. A borderline rectangle l6y2 x 20 inches 

is right for the normal township plat; the size 

of the rectangle may be varied slightly when 

necessary. Generally the drawing is placed to 

the left of the center of the sheet, thus allowing 

space for the memorandum and other data in 

the margin to the right and resulting in a better balanced plat. 

9-12. The plat subject should be compiled 

or laid out with a good grade, medium hard 

drawing pencil, one which will make a clean 

mark, but not so hard that it will engrave the 

lines. 

9-13. The township is drafted as a plane, 

without allowance for reduction from the 

spheroid, as is required in the making of smallscale topographic maps showing large areas. 

All regular townships are laid out as a rectangular grid, with allowance for fractional 

measurements along the north tier and west 

range of sections. 

9-14. In the case of irregular townships, or 

those containing meanderable bodies of water, 

or irregular tracts, the drawing should be laid 

out from the field closing sheets, duly balanced. 

The point of origin is selected on the drawing, 

from which point the exteriors are carefully 

laid out, each salient being accurately located 

by scaling, from the point of origin, the balanced 

values of the total latitude and departure of 

that salient. The section boundaries are then 

laid out similarly from suitable points of origin 

on the exteriors. Finally the subdivisions of 

each section, including the necessary lines of 

segregation and meander lines, are accurately 

scaled by the method of total latitudes and 

departures from an origin on the section boundary. On this plan the work may be laid out without introducing accumulative errors of scaling. 

9-15. Elements of triangulation figures and 

ohet lines are not shown on the plat when the 

field procedure results in ascertaining the course 

and length of the line established. Such diagrams are shown in the field notes if needed for 

a clear understanding of the procedure but are 

not required on the plat. 

9-16. Plats of entire townships show the 

complete condition of all exteriors, including 

closing and standard township and section corners, with connecting courses and distances 

(figure 81). The connecting courses and distances are omitted where the scope of the work 

is not sufficient to determine the relationship 

accurately. A line common to two townships is 
194 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

drawn with equal completeness for both, as far 

as approved surveys permit. The relative position of and the data for nearby corners of one 

or two townships and closing township corners, 

if established, are shown. Corners of maximum 

control are shown only as referring to the subdivisional survey on that plat. Separate diagrams of township exteriors are not required 

when the townships are subdivided. 

9-17. The boundary of a State, surveyed reservation, or private land grant is lettered on 

T. 21 S., R. 12 E. s 

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I 

/20.001 40.00 

wEsr 8450 

FIGURE 81.-Plat showing two sets of corners on an irregular township boundary. 

the plat, and connecting distances are shown 

from line intersections to the mile posts. 

Where only a portion of a township is 

being surveyed, the condition of the adjacent 

areas is shown clearly by words lettered thereon, such as “Unsurveyed,” “Rancho San Luis,” 

“Surveyed by John Smith, 1877,” or “Waste 

Lava Bed.” 

9-19. On plats of fragmentary surveys, 

areas previously surveyed do not have the sections and lots drawn in unless needed to show 

the relation of the old and new work along the 

common boundary. 

9-20. The line of demarcation between areas 

previously counted in the total acreage surveyed 

and the new surveys is distinctly shown. A light 

diagonal shading with black ink on the side previously surveyed is recommended to distinguish 

such a line. 

9-21. Each regFlar section shows the center lines only and the area as 640 acres. In other 

sections where lottings are required, each subdivision must be distinctly shown. Where a section contains one or more fractional lots, its 

regular parts show the usual areas as 40, 80, 

or 160 acres ; the fractional lots each show the 

assigned lot number and are computed to the 

nearest WOO of an acre. The total area of public land within each irregular section is shown 

as equal to the sum of the several parts, as 

identified by the plat, disregarding parts omitted. 

9-22. The complete technique of laying out 

the regular and fractional subdivisions of sections and the designations of the same by reference to aliquot parts and serial lot numbers is 

covered by sections 3-74 through 3-123. 

9-23. On plats which show the completion 

of sections, particularly where parts have been 

shown as outlying areas protracted as surveyed 

(sections 3-100 through 3-111), it is the practice, where irregular conditions are found on 

the ground and no entries have been made, to 

annul the showing on the former plat. See section 9-2. The special instructions should provide 

that such unentered, protracted subdivisions 

need not be protected, thus simplifying the 

execution and platting of the new surveys. 

9-18. 
PLATS 196 

COMPUTATION OF AREAS 

9-24. The deficiency in area which results 

from the convergency of meridians is placed 

normally in the fractional lots adjoining the 

west boundary of the township. Sections 7, 18, 

19, 30, and 31 each usually contains lots 1 to 4, 

inclusive, whose meridional dimensions are all 

an even 20.00 chains ; the dimensions of the latitudinal boundaries of these lots are computed 

proportionately from the fractional measurements ascertained on the section lines. The 

area, in acres of each lot, is then found simply 

by adding the lengths, in chains, of its north and 

south boundaries. 

9-25. For example, taking section 30, shown 

on the specimen plat, the dimensions of the 

latitudinal boundaries and the areas are found 

as follows : 

N .. 18.21 18.245 18.28 18.315 chs. 

S . 18.245 18.28 18.315 18.35 chs. 

(1) (2) (3) (4) 

___-__ __ 

36.455 36.525 36.595 36.665 acres 

36.45( +) 36.63( -) 36.59( +) 36.67( -) acres 

9-26. The areas of lots 5, 6, and 7, section 6, 

are ascertained similarly, making due allowance, when calculating the length of the north 

boundary of lot 5, for any material variation 

from 20.00 chains in the meridioml dimension 

of lot 4. 

9-27. The surplus or deficiency in area 

which results from the discrepancy in the meridional measurements between the exterior 

boundaries and the subdivisional lines is placed 

normally in the fractional lots adjoining the 

north boundary of the township. Sections 1 

through 5 each usually contains lots 1 through 

4, whose dimensions on their latitudinal boundaries are all treated as an even 20.00 chains ; the 

meridional dimensions of these lots and their 

areas are computed on the plan heretofore described for the fractional lots adjoining the 

west boundary of the township. 

9-28. The areas of lots 1, 2, and 3, section 

6, are ascertained similarly, making due allowance when calculating the length of the west 

boundary of lot 3, for the departure across lot 

4, where more or less than 20.00 chains. The 

area of lot 4, section 6, in acres, equals the product of its mean dimensions in chains, divided by 

10. 

9-29. The following is an example of ascertaining the areas of the fractional lots in 

section 6, shown on the specimen township plat: 

(1) (2) (3) 

E ....... 20.05 20.037 20.024 

W ...... 20.037 20.024 20.011 

40.087 40.061 40.035 

40.09 40.06 40.03( + ) 

-- 

( 5) (6) (7) 

N 17.78 17.81 17.84 

S. .. 17.81 17.84 17.87 

35.59 35.65 35.71 

-- 

2.0005 X 17.765 = 

(4) 

20.011 chs. 

20.000 chs. 

acres 

acres 

20.005 mean 

17.75 chs. 

17.78 chs. 

acres 

17.765 mean 

35.539 acres 

35.54 acres 

9-30. In irregular sections and in sections 

which are invaded by meanderable bodies of 

water, or by lines of segregation, the center 

lines of the section and the center lines of each 

quarter section in turn are given calculated 

values based upon the balanced field closing 

sheets. Points of intersection of the center lines 

with the meander lines or other lines of segregation are then computed in order to complete 

the boundaries of each fractional lot. With the 

results of these computations at hand the area 

of each fractional lot may be most readily computed by the method of “double meridian distances.” 

9-31. In order to compute an area by double 

meridian distances, the closing error of the 

figure is eliminated, or the traverse of its 

boundary is balanced, by the most applicable 

rule. The general rule is that the correction to 

be applied to the {latitude departure } of any course is 

to the total error ‘ in (latitude departure }as the length 

of the couree is to the perimeter of the figure. 

Another method of balancing the closing error is 

applicable if the purpose is to apply a uniform 

correction to the directions and lengths of lines. 

Section 5-44. 

The double meridian distances (D.M.D.’s) of 

the several courses are then computed by the 

following rules : 

(1) The D.M.D. of the first course equals 
196 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

the departure, or the increment in easting or 

westing, of the course itself; 

(2) The D.M.D. of the second course, and 

each of the succeeding courses in turn, is ascertained by taking the D.M.D. of the preceding course, plus the departure of the preceding 

course, plus the departure of the course itself; 

and, 

(3) The D.M.D. of the last course is numericalIy equal to its departure, but with opposite 

sign, thus verifying the value of each preceding 

D.M.D. 

algebraic sign of the final result are of positive 

sign. 

The next step is to multiply the latitude of 

each course by the double meridian distance 

of the course; the positive products are arranged in a column for "north areas," and the 

negative products in a column for "south areas." 

The sum of the negative products is subtracted 

from the sum of the positive products. The area, 

corresponding to the unit of measurement that 

is employed, is ascertained by taking one-half 

of the last result. Where the unit of measureF~~ convenience in making the computat~ons, 

the differences in (latitude departure } to the { :z2h} 

are treated as of positive sign, to the 

as of negative sign. The point of beginning is 

taken at the westernmost salient of the figure, 

and the direction of the traverse is run counterclockwise. On this plan each D.M.D. and the 

ment is the chain, the area in square chains is 

divided by 10 to give the area in acres. 

The field closing sheets may be readily 

adapted to the calculation of areas by the 

method of double meridian distances; two examples follow: 

Tabling and calculations of T. 15 N., 

R. 20 E., Diamond Rock, in Lins Lake, in section 

18: 

9-32. 

Latitudes Departures Totals 

No. Course Distance North South East West D.M.D.'s N. areas S. areas Lat. N Dep. E 

Tie N. 71" 30' E .......... 21.44 6.80 ........ 20.33 ............................................. 6.80 20.33 

+ .006 

6 S.86"46'E .......... 3.19 ................ 0.18 3.186 .............. 4.73 ...... 0.86 6.62 23.62 

4 N.33"OO'E ..... 2.20 1.846 ................ 1.20 .............. 9.12, 16.83 .... 8.466 24.72 

3 N.48'30'W ..... 3.60 2.32 ............................. 2.62 7.70 17.86 .............. 10.786 22.10 

2 S.6l016'W ... 2.90 ................ 1.396 ........... 2.64 2.64 ... '3.64 9.39 19.66 

1 S.16'30'E ........... 2.70 ........ 2.69 .77 .............. .77 ................ 1.99 6.80 20.33 

4.166 4.166 6.166 6.16 .............. 34.69 6.38 .............................. 

.006 6.38 

14.49 4.166 4.166 6.16 6.16 .............. 28.31 Double area. 

D. M. D.'s 14.16 Square chains. 

Begin total lab. and deps. at M. 0. OR W. bdy. see. (1) 0.77 9.12 (4) 1.41 Acres. 

19, for purposes of platting. f.77 f1.20 

-- 

+3.19 -2.62 

Begin D. M. D.'s at angle point of meanders farthest 

Numbering of courses as taken from field notes, order (6) 4.73 7.70 (3) west, end of course No. 2 running SW., or end of 

11.20 -2.64 

(4) 9.12 2.54 (2) 

reversed to counterclockwise. +%19 -2.62 ' course No. 1 running NW. 

-- 
PLATS 197 

9-33. Tabling and calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., right bank of Yellowstone River, in 

section 25 : 

Latitudes Departures Totals 

No. Course Distance North South East West D. M. D.'s N. areas S. areas Lat. N. Deo. E. 

S. O"O1' E .............. 6.36 .............. 6.36 0.00 ................ 0.00 .................................... 0.00 0.00 

S. 89" 66' E... ........ 79.96 ............ .09 79.96 ............... 80.00 .................... 7.20 -.09 80.00 

+ .04 

North ...................... 23.u) 23.20 ............................. 160.00 3,712.00 .................. 23.11 80.00 

S. 86'00' 13.00 ............ 1.13 12.96 147.04 ................ 164.68 21.99 67.04 

S. 72" 00' W ...... 7.10 ...... 2.19 ..... 6.76 127.33 278.85 19.80 60.29 

S. 64"30' 13.00 .. 6.60 .............. 11.73 108.84 .......... 608.42 14.21 48.66 

S. 40" 30' W.. ....... 6.40 .... 4.11 ......... 3.61 93.69 ............... 384.66 10.10 46.04 

S. 77" 46' W... ........ 7.00 .. 1.49 ............. 6.84 83.24 ....... 123.20 8.62 38.20 

N. 76" 00' W .......... 7.40 1.79 ............................ 7.18 69.22 124.60 ................... 10.42 31.02 

S. 80" 00' W ...... 12.00 .............. 2.08 ............. 11.82 60.22 ................. 103.96 8.36 19.20 

S. 81" 08' W .......... 19.43 .............. 3.00 .............. 19.19 19.20 .................... 57.41 6.36 0.00 

-.01 +0.01 

- .01 +.01 

- .01 

+.01 

-.01 

-.01 +.01 

.............. 24.99 26.06 79.96 79.97 ....... 3,836.60 1,728.37 

.............. +.01 -.06 +.04 +.03 ................ 1,728.37 

84.33 26.00 26.00 80.00 80.00 ............... 2,108.23 Double area. 

Begin traverse and D.M.D.'s at M. C. on W. bdy. of sec. 25. 

Begin total lab. and deps. at point for S. 446 sec. car. on W. bdy. of see. 26, 

Numbering of courses as taken from field notes. 

1,054.11 Square chains. 

106.41 Acres, sum of lots 6 to 8, incl. 

for purposes of platting. 

Tabling and calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., section 26, lots 5 and 6: 

No. Course 

Latitudes Departures 

North South East West 

Distance D.M.D.'s N. area8 5. areas 

South 19.73 ................ 19.73 ................................ .. .............. 

S. 89" 66' E.... ................................. 20.00 ................ .02 20.00 ............... 20.00 0.40 

North 23.20 23.20 ................................................ 40.00 928.00 ............. 

1 S. 86"OO' W.. ................................... 13.00 ............... 1.12 ................ 12.96 27.04 ................. 30.28 

2 S.72"OO'W ..................................... 7.10 ................ 2.19 ................ 6.76 7.33 .................. 16.06 

3 S. 64"30' W.. .33 .14 .29 -29 .................. .04 

.. . 

................................... ... ................ 

23.20 23.20 20.00 20.00 ............... 928.00 46.77 

46.77 

881.23 

44.06 Lot 6 

South ........................................ 9.06 ................ 9.06 ............................. .................... 

S. 89" 66' E. .................................... 20.00 .......... .OZ 20.00 ............... 20.00 .......... 0.40 

North .............................................. 19.73 19.73 ................................................ 40.00 789.20 .............. 

3 S. 64" 30' W .................................... 12.67 ................ 6.46 ........ 11.46 28.66 166.60 

4 S.40°30'W ................................... 6.40 ................ 4.11 ................ 3.51 13.69 .................. 66.86 

6 S.77'46'W .................................... 6.16 ................ 1.09 ................ 6.04 6.04 .................. 6.49 

19.73 19.73 20.00 20.00 . 789.20 217.34 

217.34 

571.86 

28.69 Lot 6 
198 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Tabling and calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., section 25, lots 7 and 8: 

Latitudes Departures 

North South East Wast 

No. Course Distance D.M.D.'s N. areas S. areas 

S.O"O1'E ........................................ 8.51 ................ 8.51 

S. 89" 56' E ................................... 20.00 ................ .03 20.00 ................ 20.00 .................. 0.60 

North ......................................... 9.06 9.06 ................................................ 40.00 362.40 

5 S.77"45'W .................................... 1.84 ................ .39 ................ 1.80 38.20 .................. 14.90 

6 N.76"OO'W ................................... 7.40 1.80 ................................ 7.18 29.22 52.60 ............. 

7 S. 80" 00' W.. ................................. 11.19 ................ 1.93 ................ 11.02 11.02, .................. 21.27 

................................................................................ 

10.86 10.86 20.00 20.00 415.00 36.77 

36.77 

378.23 

18.91 Lot 7 

S.O"O1'E ....................................... 5.36 ................ 5.36 ................................................................................ 

S. 89" 56' E.. .................................. 20.00 ...... .02 20.00 ................ 20.00 .................. .40 

N. 0" 01' W.. .................................. 8.51 8.51 ................................................ 40.00 340.40 .............. 

7 S. 80" 00' W. .81 ................ .14 ................ .80 39.20 .................. 5.49 

8 S. 81"08' W ..................................... 19.43 ................ 2.99 ................ 19.20 19.20. .................. 57.41 

8.51 8.61 20.00 20.00 340.40 63.30 

63.30 

277.10 

13.85 Lot 8 

9-34. The use of electronic data processing 

equipment affords a fast and accurate means of 

calculating the area of irregular land and water 

forms. Where practical, with resultant savings 

in time and funds, this equipment may be used 

to make lengthy and complicated calculations. 

No specific instructions can be given for establishing a computer program or presenting the 

data for calculation purposes as there are several makes and sizes of this equipment available, each with the capacity to make area determinations. The computer program should be 

based upon the procedures of the double meridian distances method (section 9-31). 

INKING THE DRAWING 

9-35. The best black drawing ink should 

always be employed, and the ink should never be 

diluted. The drafting work should be sharp and 

clear, uniform in density of color, and the lettering standardized as to gage and style. It is 

important to bear in mind that if the drafting 

is done with a diluted ink or otherwise left gray 

in appearance, it will be lost in varying degrees 

during the process of reproduction. 

9-36. The drafting work should be open, 

making reasonable allowance for needed separation of detail. This will help to avoid a tendency 

for work to close across narrow spaces during 

reproduction. The detail of improvements, 

works, or structures should be omitted when 

necessary to avoid overlapping or obscuring 

the more essential features of the plat. The 

arrangement of some of the more minute data 

on the specimen township plat illustrates the 

minimum to which the work may be condensed 

safely. Attention is directed to the space allowed between the lettering and the adjacent 

lines ; this is never less than the space between 

the upper two points of the gage for the lettering; this is the rule where the drawing is 

to be reproduced at the same scale; proportionately more space should be allowed on special drawings where a reduction of scale is to be 

made on reproduction. The same safeguards 

should be applied in spacing the adjoining letters, and it will be noted that the spacing between letters bears a definite relation to the 

gage employed. 

9-37. An experienced draftsman keeps the 

drawing as clean as possible to avoid needless 

- 
PLATS 199 

erasing. A cover sheet, with an opening, is 

recommended. The sharp, black lines must be 

preserved in their original clear-cut effect, or 

else, unless carefully retouched, there will follow a certain loss in the process of reproduction. 

If uniformity is lacking, such as a mixture of 

heavy and pale letters and figures of a varying 

degree of density, the photographing has a 

tendency to exaggerate the differences and the 

reproduction will be unsatisfactory. 

LETTERING 

9-38. Generally all letters and figures are 

drafted in pure Gothic style. The improvement 

in recent times of mechanical lettering templates and pens permits the almost exclusive 

use of such equipment in lettering the plat. If 

the lettering is accomplished by free hand 

methods, direct type impression or by the stickup process with type printing on adhesive backing, corresponding sizes should be used. 

9-39. The following list on pages 200 and 

201 shows the usual styles and sizes to be 

followed in preparing a plat on the scale of 1 

inch equals 40 chains ; the number of the guide 

refers to thousandths of an inch. 

9-40, At this stage of the drafting work 

attention should be given to the showing of the 

directions and lengths of all necessary connecting lines, in addition to the data which ordinarily appears on the section boundaries. The 

requirements are set out in sections 3-36, 3-71, 

3-121,3-122, and 4-15. Additional sheets, drawn 

to a larger scale, are used to show the detail of 

complicated situations. Section 9-9. 

TOPOGRAPHY 

9-41. Generally only the most essential 

topographic data need be shown upon the plat. 

Some plats may not require the showing of any 

topography, others may require the showing 

of many different features, where the drawing 

in addition to being a plat may be a complete 

topographic map. The map features are delineated by the standard symbols adopted by the 

Board of Surveys and Maps of the Federal 

Government.1 A summary of what is required 

is contained in section 3-126. 

In the preparation of the drawing the 

first question to be considered, after the completion of the base and before adding the topography, is how the important map features are 

to be shown without obscuring the base data. In 

simple cases all work may be done readily in 

black ink on the base drawing. In the difficult 

cases overprints in transparent colors are occasionally required. Good judgment should be 

exercised regarding what is essential, and how 

the essential things may be shown without unwarranted cost. 

If a transparent overprint of a particular conventional color is required, all of the 

map features usually shown in that color are 

included. The specimen plat is intended as an 

example whereall map features, with the exception of certain improvements, works, or structures are shown in conventional transparent 

overprints. 

9-44. Where colors are not required, all map 

features or groups of features are delineated 

upon the base drawing in black ink, following 

the conventional symbols, and with the exercise 

of the greatest care that the map features do 

not interfere with or overlap, or too closely approach the base data. In all such simple cases 

the topography is shown as in the following 

outline : 

Low relief .............................. Black hachure. 

Roads and highways ... Black lines, parallel 

Trail ....................................... Black line, broken. 

Culture .................................. Black pattern. 

Alkali flats ......................... Black depression-contour 

and pattern. 

9-42. 

9-43. 

Simple Drawings, All Black 

Sand dunes ............................ Black pattern. 

Water surface, large rivers 

and lakes .......................... Black meander line, without water lines. 

and dots. 

Minor drainage .................. Black line, or broken line 

Wide sandy bottomed draws Black pattern. 

Ponds .............................. Black pattern. 

Marsh .................................... Black pattern. 

Timber 

~- 

.................................. Marginal note. 

'Standard symbol sheet may be obtained from the 

Director, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., 

20242. 
200 

Description 

MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Lettering Style Guide - Pen Size 

Plat Heading 

Subtitle 

North Arrow 

TOWNSHIP I NORTH 

DEPENDENT RESURVEY 

SUPPLEMENTAL PLAT 

240 - 3 

175 -2 

80- 000 

Section Number 

Area (section) 

Lot Numbers & Area 

Bearing 

Distance 

Sec. 16 

160, 639.54 

10 39.95 

N. 89 O58'W. 

79.95 

120-0 

100 - 00 

60 - 0000 

80 - 000 

80 - 000 
PLATS 

Description 

Witness Corner 

Proper Names 

Descriptive Names 

Hydrographic Names 

Mineral Survey 

Lode or Placer Name 

Scale 

Extra Sheets 

Control Station 

Guide Meridian 

Standard Parallel 

Sectional Correction 

Line 

Geog ra p h ic Posit ion 

Lettering Style 

W.C., N.O0O5'W, 0.50 

LAKE CITY TOWNSITE 

Ivy Islond, Alkali Flot 

YELLOW R/VER 

Clear Lake 

Canal, Spring, Aqueduct, Clear Cr. 

M.S. 2053 

NUGGET 

10 8 80 

Scole in Choins 

SHEET 1 OF 3 

ROUNDUP 1942 

U.S.C.8 G.S. 

NORTH PEAK 1957 

U. S.G. S. 

F/RST GUIDE MERIDIAN EAST 

SECOND STANDARD PARALL€L SOUTH 

Loti t ud e 48O 17'4 6.7 5'". 

Longitude 12Io35'15.58"W. 

201 

Guide - Pen,Size 

60 - 0000 

loo- 00 

80 - 000 

100 - 00 

loo-00 

80 - 000 

80 - 000 

80 - 000 

60 - 0000 

80 - 000 

140- I 

60 -000 

120-0 

80- 000 

80 - 000 

9-45. Where groups of important map fea- Brown Overprint 

tures are extensive or complicated, or are of 

such a character that it is impracticable to execute the drawing in black without detriment to 

the base, transparent overprints are employed Trails ~ Brown line, broken. 

as shown in the following outlines: 

LOW relief, where imporRoads and highways ......~ ....Brown lines, parallel. 

Culture _............................~-.-- Brown pattern. 

tant, and heavy relief . .... Brown hachure. 
202 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

FIGURE 82.-Enlarged diagram. Boundaries of Lake City 

townsite. 

Alkali flats _........___...__........_.. Brown depression-contour 

and pattern. 

Wide sandy bottomed draws Brown pattern. 

Sand dunes Brown pattern. 

Water surface, large rivers 

Blue Overprint 

and lakes Blue meander line and blue 

water lines, or black 

meander line with flat 

blue tint. 

Blue line, or broken line 

and dots. 

Minor drainage ..... ~ .... ~~ 

Ponds Blue pattern. 

Marsh Blue pattern. 

9-46. In making the drawing, where overprints are required, separate transparent sheets 

are employed, known as overlays, upon each of 

which is drawn in black ink all natural features 

which are to be shown by overprint in the same 

color. The transparencies must have a low coefficient of expansion so there will be an exact 

register with the base. 

9-47. Usually it is best to transfer the section boundaries accurately from the base drawing to the overlay by carefully pricking through, 

then showing the lines in pencil only. For purposes of assembling, the positions of a few section corners should be indicated by very short 

intersecting fine black lines. The township corners and the center point of the township generally serve best for purposes of registration. 

Additional points may be employed if the work 

is complicated. The map features are then drawn 

on the overlay in black ink. 

Each color employed requires a separate 

overlay. 

9-48. The description of the timber 

throughout the township is covered by a marginal note. The use of the green overprint to 

show timber has been discontinued. 

9-49. The hachure is seldom used on modern 

plats. It may be used to show abrupt changes in 

elevation within level and gently rolling regions, 

such differences as the eye would quickly note on 

the ground and readily follow. The hachure is 

also used to show important mesas, peaks, 

ridges, spurs, and heavy slopes, in such a manner as to portray the bold relief without attempting to show unimportant and minor detail. Only the most important slopes are shown 

in a gently rolling country. If the hachure is 

used, care should be taken in drafting to avoid 

giving a rolling mountainous region the appearance of abrupt or high mountainous slopes. 

9-50. The blue overprint is used where there 

are streams and lakes of importance, or where 

the drainage features, if shown in black, would 

obscure the base, as where there are numerous 

lakes and streams, or extensive ponds or 

marshes to be shown in areas of swamp and 

overflowed lands. 

9-51. The availability of well-prepared topographic maps of much of the public land area 

makes it less important to show upon the plat 

all of the detail relating to topography, culture, 

and improvements. However, it is still necessary 

to show the major items of topography and improvements in their correct relationship to the 

survey. It may be advantageous to use these 

maps to complete detail within the sections. 

~ 
PLATS 203 

FIELD SKETCH 

9-52. Where the area to be surveyed is not 

covered by reliable topographic maps or aerial 

photography, the surveyor must prepare an accurate field sketch for reference in the drafting 

of the final plat. The sketch should show the 

crest or divide forms, slope forms, and stream 

or drainage lines correctly related to the lines 

of the survey. 

9-53. If hachure is to be used on the final 

plat, the relief is shown on the sketch plat by 

form lines that approximate contours, sketched 

without an exact interval or precise elevation 

above sea level. The available data for elevation 

above sea level and extent of ascents and descents along the surveyed lines may be incorporated in the form-line method for field sketching. The draftsman transfers the form lines 

to the overlay in pencil and then supplies the 

hachuring for the final plat. 

9-54. In the areas where aerial photographs 

are available, copies should be supplied with the 

field data. While the survey is in progress, connecting lines may then be run to points selected 

on the photographs. A half dozen such points 

fairly evenly spaced along each flight afford 

ample control for laying out the section or other 

lines of the survey on the photographs. 

The following statement, when applicable, is 

placed on the final plat above the border line in 

the lower left corner: 

Aerial photographs, coordinated with ground control 

obtained during survey have been used in compiling 

the topography shown on this plat. 

9-55. The special instructions for each survey should outline any exceptional methods to 

be employed in the field in obtaining topographic data, particularly where overprints will 

be required on the completed plat. The field 

sketch should represent the situation on the 

ground with an accuracy in details which reflects the practical relative importance. 

Occasionally, in connection with resurveys, 

for example, the development of map data may 

even precede other parts of the survey work, 

for its value in making restorations of lost or 

obliterated corners, and for locating roads, improvements, and cultivated tracts upon patented 

and entered lands. The map features of the plat 

are also important in certain classes of surveys 

within Indian and forest reservations, coal 

fields, mineral areas, waterpower sites, reservoir sites, irrigation projects, and other regions 

of relatively large prospective value. In these 

cases, which frequently embrace regions of extremely bold relief, coordinated cadastral and 

topographic surveys are made if advisable for 

administrative purposes. 

The names of natural features must 

be given according to accepted usage. Surveyors are not authorized to report names of 

their own selection, but in case of doubt may 

submit the question through official channels 

to the United States Board on Geographical 

Names. 

9-56. 

TITLES AND SUBTITLES 

9-57. Every plat is given a title similar to 

that on the specimen plat. This shows the township, the principal meridian, and the State. 

Plats showing the original subdivision of only 

a portion of a township are usually given a 

similar title for the sake of simplicity. Supplemental plats, plats of fragmentary subdivisional 

surveys, and resurvey plats are given an appropriate subtitle to qualify the nature of the 

survey. The title and date of acceptance usually 

suffice to identify the plat. The subtitle, if employed, explains the special purpose of the plat. 

A subtitle is modeled after one of the 

following forms : 

9-58. 

(1) Supplemental plat 

(2) Four Islands in Burntside Lake 

(3) Extension Survey 

(4) Dependent Resurvey 

(5) Independent Resurvey 

(6) Survey of Omitted Lands 

(7) Survey of Accretion Lands 

(8) Survey of Tracts 37 and 38 

(9) Subdivision of Sections 

(10) Survey of Hiatus 

(11) Survey of the Moore Coal Mine 

(12) Poplar Townsite 

(13) Segregation Survey 

Only the main purpose of the plat is included 

in the subtitle. The detail is carried in the 

memorandum. 
204 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

MEMORANDUM 

9-59. A memorandum is required on each 

plat to correlate and consolidate the record of 

the subsisting surveys so far as shown on that 

plat. This memorandum will have a wide variety 

of references. The simple form shown on the 

specimen township plat is extended as required. 

Where the plat represents the entire record 

of the survey, a statement to that effect should 

be placed on the plat. 

A conventional symbol is shown to indicate 

the line of the true meridian. The mean magnetic declination over the area surveyed is 

shown at the base of the north arrow. Sections 

2-18 and 3-126 (19). 

The latitude and longitude are shown for the 

southeast corner of the township, lettered on 

the plat at that point, or for the southeast point 

of the survey when less than the normal township. The values are given according to the best 

available data, such as to the nearest even 

single minute when depending upon a calculation from some remote known station. The value 

may be extended to tenths of minutes based on 

an accurate map reference or to seconds if the 

field notes give a tie to a geodetic station of 

known accuracy. Section 2-21. 

Each plat of an original survey carries a note 

of the total area surveyed, derived by taking 

the sum of all sectional-total areas which are 

identified by that plat. If resurveys are involved the rule is stated in sections 9-86 and 

The scale of the plat is shown by a bar scale. 

9-60. The following list covers other marginal or tabular data that facilitate the drafting 

and increase the usefulness of the plat : 

Retracement of prior surveys, section 3-102. 

Witness corners, section 4-16. 

Townsites, monumentation, section 9-31. 

Townsites, titles and certificates, section 7-31. 

Erroneously omitted areas, memorandum, section 

Flat requirements, general, section 9-6. 

Base drawing, memoranda and data on, section 9-9. 

Use of aerial photographs, section 9-64. 

Supplemental plats reference to fdrmer plats, section 

Supplemental plats, memorandum and certificates, 

Erosion, memorandum on plat, section 9-81. 

9-106. 

7-86. 

9-67. 

sections 9-72 through 9-76. 

Fragmentary surveys, reference to former plat, secDependent resurvey, memorandum, section 9-86. 

Independent resurvey, conformation of claims, secIndependent resurvey, memorandum, sections 9-88, 

Independent resurvey, index of segregated tracts, secIndependent resurvey, overlapping claims, section 

Independent resurvey, memorandum, section 9-103. 

Independent resurvey, numbering of sheets, section 

Resurveys, citation of authority, section 9-107. 

Resurveys, descriptions and areas, section 9-108. 

Subtitles, section 9-68. 

tion 9-82. 

tion 9-87. 

9-89, and 9-90. 

tions 9-94, 9-96, 9-97, 9-98, and 9-110. 

9-102. 

9-104. 

CERTIFICATES 

9-61. The approval of surveys of the public 

lands is a part of the authority vested in the 

Director, Bureau of Land Management, under 

the direction of the Secretary of the Interior 

(R.S. 453 ; 43 U.S.C. 2). The certificate shows 

official acceptance of the survey as represented 

on the plat. The form and arrangement of the 

certificate of acceptance are shown on the specimen township plat and should be followed so 

far as practicable on all plats. 

REPRODUCTION AND 

DISTRIBUTION OF PLATS 

9-62. Two photolithographic copies of the 

original plat are printed on hard paper which 

are designated as the official duplicate original 

plat and triplicate original plat. The original 

plat is transmitted to the proper state survey 

office, the duplicate original is retained in the 

Washington office, and the triplicate original is 

transmitted to the proper land office. Other 

copies printed on map paper are transmitted 

to the state public survey office or retained in 

the Washington office for official use and to 

supply the public. 

9-63. The original returns of current surveys within those States where the public survey offices have been discontinued are filed in 

the Bureau of Land Management at Washington, D.C. The duplicate original plat and field 

notes of such surveys are furnished to the 
PLATS 205 

proper State office, noted in section 1-23. The 

triplicate original plat is furnished to the proper 

land office. 

9-64. The state public survey offices should 

furnish to the appropriate regional office of the 

Geological Survey, from their supply of map 

paper prints, a copy of each accepted survey, 

resurvey, or supplemental plat. Courtesy copies 

of the plats are also furnished to other federal 

or state agencies as appropriate. 

SUPPLEMENTAL PLATS 

9-65. A supplemental plat is prepared entirely from office records and is designed to 

show a revised subdivision of one or more sections without change in the section boundaries 

and without other modification of the subsisting 

record. Supplemental plats are prepared for acceptance by the Director. 

9-66. Supplemental plats are required where 

the subsisting plat fails to provide units suitable for administration or disposal, or where a 

modification of its showing is necessary. They 

are also required to show the segregation of 

alienated lands from public lands where the 

former are included in irregular surveys of 

patented mineral or other private claims made 

subsequent to the plat of the subsisting survey 

or where the segregation of the claims was 

overlooked at the time of its approval. 

9-67. All supplemental plats should show a. 

proper reference to the former plat, the purpose 

of and the authority for the preparation, and all 

essential data, without unnecessary duplication 

of that carried by the former plat. The scale of 

the supplemental plat may be enlarged to 1 inch 

equals 10 or 20 chains, as appropriate. 

9-68. The new lots are numbered as required in sections 3-82 and 3-111, and proper 

areas returned. The areas of the lots are computed from the subsisting record. No revision 

of the total area within the section is required 

and generally there is no occasion for showing 

topography. 

9-69. The revised lottings on supplemental 

plats resulting from the segregation of mineral 

surveys are not confined to the subdivisions embraced within the pending entry. It is desirable 

to lot all public land within the scope of the 

plat to avoid later piecemeal 

ditional supplemental plats. 

The plat should show an 

tie between a claim and a 

preparation of adappropriate direct 

section corner or 

distances along claim and section lines to points 

of intersection. Complete courses and distances 

are shown for the claim lines which bound the 

public lands. 

9-70. The lengths of lines are expressed in 

feet in the record of a mineral survey and in 

chains in the record of the rectangular net. 

Whenever the segregation of mineral claims is 

involved, the values on the face of the drawing 

are given in the chain unit only. 

9-71. The administrative determination of 

the need for a supplemental plat ordinarily rests 

with the State Director, subject to the plat’s acceptance by the Director, Bureau of Land Management. 

9-72. The certificate of acceptance follows 

the arrangement shown on the specimen township plat ; the memoranda include the pertinent 

data involved in the preparation of the plat. 

Following are examples for supplemental 

plats : 

9-73. Illustration, figure 83. 

A modified form of lotting to provide new descriptions, based entirely upon the public land survey 

record on file in the public survey office, and without 

additional field work. 

Title: Township 8 North, Range 20 West, of the 

San Bernardino Meridian, California. Subtitle : Supplemental Plat. 

Scale: Bar scale in chains. 

Memorandum : 

This plat showing a subdivision of original lots 

3 and 4, sec. 19, T. 8 N., R. 20 W., S.B.M., California, 

is based upon the plat approved October 8, 1880. 

S 89’5I’W 79.97 

119.971 I f2o.OOJ 40 00 I 

I I 

I 1) I 

--- 4 I I 

FIGURE 83.-Explanation in section 9-73. 
206 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

33.53 I 

I 

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- -1 

I 

I 

I 

--I------- 

3632 I I 3757 I 

I 

I I 

I S 8So139b! I 

I I 

I 

80 17 

FIGURE 84.-Explanation in section 9-74. 

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on the 

specimen township plat. 

This plat, showing amended lottings, is based upon 

the official records and, having been correctly prepared in accordance with the regulations of this Bureau, is hereby accepted. 

.~......~.................~..~~~~..~...................~..........~~~....~ ..-- 

For the Director 

A modified lotting made subsequent to two forest 

homestead entry surveys, based entirely upon the 

public land and forest entry survey records on file 

in the Bureau of Land Management, Washington, 

D.C., and without additional field work. 

Title: Township 6 South, Range 6 East, of the 

Black Hills Meridian, South Dakota. Subtitle : Supplemental Plat. 

9-74. Illustration, figure 84. 

Scale: Bar scale in chains. 

Memorandum : 

This plat of sec. 16, Township 5 South, Range 6 

East, of the Black Hills Meridian, South Dakota, is 

based upon the plat approved May 23, i899, showing 

amended lottings created by the segregation of forest 

Homestead Entry Surveys Nos. 263 and 477, accepted July 19, 1916, and June 30, 1917, respectively. 

Certificate: Same as above. 

9-75. Illustration, figure 85. 

Segregation of mineral claims, based entirely upon 

the public land and mineral survey records on file 

in the public survey office, and without additional 

field work. The data shown in parentheses along the 

lot boundaries are derived by calculation. 

Title: Township 9 North, Range 2 West, of the 

Gila and Salt River Meridian, Arizona. Subtitle: Supplemental Plat. 

Bar scale in chains. 

Memorandum: 

This plat showing amended lottings created by the 

segregation of Mineral Survey No. 4180 in section 

32, T. 9 N., R. 2 W., Gila and Salt River Meridian, 

Arizona, is based upon the plat approved May 14, 

1920. 

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on the 

specimen township plat. 

This plat, showing amended lottings, is based upon 

the official records, and having been correctly prepared in accordance with the regulations of this Bureau, is hereby accepted. 

For the Director 

PLATS OF 

MINERAL SEGREGATION SURVEYS 

9-76. Plats of mineral segregation surveys 

are similar to supplemental plats that segregate 
PLATS 

~~ 

207 

1 I 

l 

I a 

I 39.99 I 

WEST 80.00 

FIGURE 85.-Explanation in section 9-75. 

patented mineral surveys but are based upon 

data obtained by a field survey rather than 

solely from office records. All field data are 

shown and used in the computation of the 

amended lottings. 

Such plats are also accepted by the Director, 

as indicated by the following examples : 

Illustration, figure 86. 

Segregation of patented mineral claim, including 

a resurvey of the section boundaries. Field work required to secure connecting line from the public land 

net to the location monument and other data for the 

accurate showing of the new lots. 

Title: Township 20 South, Range 10 East, of the 

Gila and Salt River Meridian, Arizona. Subtitle: 

Mineral Segregation. 

Scale: Bar scale in chains, and bar scale in feet. 

Memorandum : 

Dependent resurvey of section 24, and survey of 

connecting line to U.S.M.M. No. 6 for segregation of 

the Lillie Lode of Mineral Survey No. 562, executed 

by Roger F. Wilson, Associate Cadastral Engineer, 

December 20 and 21, 1946, under Special Instructions 

dated August 29, 1946, for Group 133, Arizona. 

E. bdy. surveyed by Lewis Wolfley, D.S., in 1885, 

and subdivision by G. J. Roskruge, D.S., in 1886, as 

shown on the plat approved March 27, 1888. 

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on the 

specimen township plat. 
208 

39 95 

MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

4f. 23 

This plat is strictly conformable to the approved 

field notes, and the survey, having been correctly executed in accordance with the requirements of law and 

the regulations of this Bureau, is hereby accepted. 

For the Director 

9-77. Illustration, figure 87. 

Metes-and-bounds survey of an unsurveyed mineral 

claim, including a resurvey of the section boundaries 

and the survey of connections to the mineral claim. 

Title: Township 21 South, Range 70 West, of the 

....--.---..-... Meridian, (State). Subtitle: Mineral Segregation. 

Scale: Bar scale in chains, and bar scale in feet. 

Memorandum : 

Metes-and-bounds survey of an unsurveyed mineral 

claim with connecting lines and the incidental dependent resurvey of section 20, providing the basis 

for the segregation of the mineral claim, executed by 

John Smith, Cadastral Surveyor, October 7 to 12, 

1972, inclusive, under Special Instructions dated 

September 14, 1972, for Group ... - _-.......... , (State). 

Boundaries of sec. 20 surveyed by Albert W. Brewster, D.S., in 1879, as shown on the plat approved October 23, 1879. 

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on the 

specimen township plat. 

This plat is strictly conformable to the approved 

~ ________________....-.---..---.. 

field notes, and the survey, having been correctly 

executed in accordance with the requirements of law 

and the regulations of this Bureau, is hereby accepted. 

For the Director 

PLATS OF 

FRAGMENTARY SURVEYS 

9-78. The term "fragmentary survey" is 

applied to surveys made to identify parts of 

townships and sections that were not completed 

in the first instance. In this class are included 

partially surveyed sections ; omitted islands, if 

title is in the United States ; such areas as lands 

in place at date of original subdivision situated 

between a grossly erroneous or fictitious meander line and the actual bank of a steam or lake, 

where riparian rights do not obtain as under 

the usual doctrine; and other lands of substantial extent that for various reasons were not 

included in the original surveys. Section 3-100 

9-79. These types of surveys frequently require consideration of the question of title into 3-114,3-122,7-65,7-68,7-77, and 7-94. 
PLATS 209 

I 

+ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

-tI 

I 

I 

I 

I 

7 

42.29 

8 

45.24 

I 

+ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

-+ - 

I 

I 

I 

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- 

_-- 

FIGURE 87.-Explanation in section 9-77. 

volved preliminary to the extension of the former surveys. 

9-80. In all such fragmentary surveys the 

new lottings are in addition to but without 

changing the former subdivisions if alienated. 

The scale of the plats may be enlarged as appropriate. 

9-81. A notable exception to the principle 

that no changes should be made in the former 

lottings is found in those cases which involve 

retracements or resurveys where erosion has 

occurred along the bank of a stream or lake or 

other body of water which substantially 

changes the configuration of the former lots, 

and where it may be desirable to show the quantity of land remaining and that destroyed. Similar problems in platting are found in those cases 

of erroneous meandering where the record 

position of the original meander line is found 

to fall within the body of water. In these cases 

the former lot boundaries where situated within 

the water area are indicated in light broken 

lines, and the quantities of each subdivision affected are shown in two parts; part “a” denoting land area and part “b” denoting water 

area. These areas are computed proportionately 

according to the amount shown for the original 

subdivision, the sum of “a” and “b” being made 

equal to the original total. A memorandum to 

this effect should appear upon the plat. This 

procedure is applicable in showing the effect of 

the flooding of public lands by artificial impoundment. 

9-82. All technical data in reference to the 

retracement, reestablishment and extension of 

the section boundaries and connecting lines, and 

the complete topographical representation over 

the additional areas, are shown upon the plats 

of fragmentary surveys. If the retracements 

and remonumentation assume the character 

of a dependent resurvey of the boundaries of 

one or more sections, that fact is indicated on 

the plat together with a proper showing of the 

important map data throughout the entire area 
210 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

I 

40. ,oo 

1V89~/5% 70.00 \WCMC S89’15’W I369 

FIGURE 88.-Representing fractional subdivisions as affected by erosion and accretion after survey, without 

introducing questions of riparian rights. The subdivisions affected are shown in two parts: “a” denoting land area and “b” water area. A proportional adjustment is made in the computation of the quantities, 

if necessary, to make the sum of “a” and “b” equal 

to the original total. 

surveyed and resurveyed. There is also shown 

an appropriate reference to the former approved plat or plats, and a citation of the 

authorization for the extension survey. The 

area statement includes separately the total 

areas surveyed and resurveyed. 

In spme fragmentary surveys the main purpose is to ascertain by retracement the true location of previously established monuments, 

and to account for discrepancies in the directions and lengths of lines, for correct plat representation and as a proper basis for the calculation of exact areas within the lottings, where 

the methods customarily followed in the construction of a supplemental plat are inadequate 

(section 9-66). Where such field work is required, the data derived by the retracement is 

used for all purposes as in a dependent resurvey. 

Thus where there are segregations to be made, 

the areas of the new lottings are derived by 

exact calculation. 

In some metes-and-bounds surveys (section 

7-16) not all of the directions and lengths of 

lines between monuments, or between indicated 

corners of the subdivisions, can be carried to 

the plat without an overburden at the scale, or 

it may be unnecessary to represent all such data. 

In these cases it may be noted on the plat that 

the data will be found in the field notes of the 

survey. 

In some cases where there are numerous and 

frequently very irregular lottings it may be 

desirable to carry the complete data to the 

plat. The scale of the base drawing, or that of 

the required additional sheets, is enlarged in 

these cases to accommodate the proper representation of the data. Traverse lines may be 

shown by marginal tabulation. 

The certificate of acceptance on plats 

of fragmentary surveys will take the usual 

form; the necessary memorandum will be 

modeled after the examples given for the special cases already explained in chapter VII. 

9-83. 

RESURVEY PLATS 

9-84. A somewhat different type of plat is 

required for representing resurveys as defined 

in chapter VI. The identity of lands in which 

valid rights have been acquired based upon a 

prior subdivision must be preserved. The subdivision of the remaining public lands may or 

may not be modified, according to the type of 

resurvey. 

Requirements on Plats of 

Dependent Resurveys 

9-85. In addition to the usual data, the plat 

should carry a marginal memorandum that 

qualifies the character of the dependent resurvey, also a reference to the previous plat (or 

plats) to which it is related. 

For example, in case of a whole township completely resurveyed, the following general statement is applicable: 

This plat represents a dependent resurvey of the 

original township boundary and subdivisional lines 

designed to restore the corners in their true original 

locations according to the best available evidence. 

Except as indicated hereon, the lottings and areas 

are as shown on the plat (or plats) approved ______ -... 

.._.___ _..______... (date or dates). 
PLATS 211 

If the original subdivisions were executed in 

two or more parts, or if the township has not 

been completely resurveyed, the memorandum 

is modified. 

The reference to modified lottings or areas is 

omitted when there are no exceptions. 

A necessary additional citation takes the following form : 

Survey executed by 

beginning ....................... ~, and completed ............ -, 

pursuant to Special Instructions for Group No. 

, dated 

9-86. On plats of dependent resurveys the 

areas of the subdivisions are shown only in 

those exceptional cases where the. differences between the actual quantity of the vacant subdivisions as found by resurvey and the former 

area as returned on the original approved plat 

are so great as to warrant revision. In that 

case the question of a revision rests upon 

the element of quantity rather than upon that 

of distortiort. For practical purposes a variation 

of approximately 2.00 acres to the quarterquarter section has been found advisable before 

making a change. A new lot number and area 

are assigned to each vacant subdivision which 

is to be revised. No total area within the section 

is shown. Alienated subdivisions cannot be revised. 

An exception is sometimes made to the 2- 

acre minimum where it can be shown that more 

exact acreage is needed for proper management. 

The total number of acres covered by a dependent resurvey need not be shown as marginal 

data on the plat. 

Requirements on Plats of 

Independent Resurveys 

9-87. All claims should be accounted for on 

the plat of an independent resurvey either as 

segregated tracts or as conforming to the lines 

of the resurvey, as the case may be, with outline 

indicated by heavy black lines. An exception to 

this rule is made where all the claims within a 

township have been conformed to the lines of 

the resurvey under their original description, in 

which event a statement may be made on the 

margin of the plat thatAll claims originally described as in this township 

are intended to conform to the lines of the resurvey 

under their original description. 

9-88. The additional memorandum that is 

placed on the plat of the independent resurvey 

is designed to clarify its very special and unusual character. It should especially show that a 

former record plat of approximately the same 

area has been annulled by official action as the 

basis for the identification, administration, or 

disposal of the vacant or unappropriated public 

lands. Moreover, in protection of whatever 

rights may have been acquired based upon the 

cancelled plat, the locations are identified in 

accordance with the marks of that survey. 

The following should be regarded as a general suggestion : 

This plat represents a resurvey which is independent of and that supersedes, so far as the public lands 

are concerned (hereon indicated by new subdivisional 

lines, lottings, and areas) all such similar units that 

are shown upon the plat (or plats) approved ............ 

All tract segregations shown hereon represent the 

position and form of said tracts under the original 

description as referred to the original survey, located 

as such units and marked on the ground according to 

the best available evidence of their legal boundaries. 

Where the boundaries of certain sections of 

the former survey have been restored as the 

best identification and form of protection to the 

alienated lands, and possibly including other 

sections entirely public land whose boundaries 

have not been changed, the memorandum, and 

the historical citations, take the forms that are 

outlined in section 9-90. 

9-89. The above statement is modified if 

one or more of the claims shown on the status 

diagram are conformed to the lines of the resurvey by different legal subdivisions, as follows : 

........ (date or dates). 

All tract segregations shown hereon and all other 

claims shown to conform to the lines of the resurvey, 

whether by the original or new legal subdivisions, represent the position and form of said tracts under the 

original description as referred to the original survey, 

located as such on the ground according to the best 

available evidence of their true position. 

9-90. If the whole township has been resurveyed, and where the plat shows no sections 

whose boundaries as a whole have been restored 

by dependent methods, a memorandum to 

qualify the nature of the independent resurvey, 

and the reference to the prior plat (or plats) 

may take the form that is given in section 9-88. 

Where the boundaries of some of the sections 
212 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

have been restored by dependent resurvey 

methods, and the remainder of the township has 

been subdivided on a new plan that is independent of the prior survey, the memoranda should 

be extended to make these facts clear, as for 

example : 

This plat represents a resurvey that combines restored boundaries of certain sections with an entirely 

new subdivision of the remaining portions of the 

township as follows : 

The boundaries and corners of sections ................, ............... , .............. , etc., restored to their true original 

locations according to the best available evidence, and 

(excepting as new or modified vacant subdivisions 

are shown in these sections) the lottings and areas 

in said sections are as originally shown on the plat 

(or plats) approved ______________ (date or dates.) 

The remainder of the township has been subdivided 

by the running of new lines and the marking of new 

corners, thereby annulling the former record lines 

and corners with reference to the public lands remaining undisposed of. The tracts identified hereon 

represent entered or patented parts of sections shown 

on the plat (or plats) approved ........ date or dates.) 

The memoranda referred to in sections 9-87, 

A necessary additional citation takes the folSurvey executed by ....................... --9 

9-88, and 9-89 are supplied as appropriate. 

lowing form: 

.. begmning .................. ......, and completed .. ....., pursuant to Special Instructions for Group No. 

....................... , dated ......................... 9-91. Important items of topography and 

valuable permanent improvements are shown 

along the lines of the metes-and-bounds survey. 

However, it is apparent that the amount of data 

shown in connection with the metes- and-bounds 

surveys make it impossible, at the usual scale, 

to show objects of little relative importance. 

9-92. The requirements for showing the 

positions of alienated lands on the plats of independent resurveys are given in the memorandum forms which appear in sections 947,9438, 

and 9-89. The following sections show how the 

identification is accomplished in the cases of 

both tract segregations and conformed entries. 

9-93. The tract segregations are laid out on 

the plats of resurveys as any private land claim 

would be shown upon an original plat. In order 

to show the detail of complicated situations one 

or more additional sheets are frequently necessary. If a claim is found to be conformable as 

defined in section 6-49 (5), its boundaries may 

be shown by giving greater weight to such parts 

of the regular subdivision-of-section lines of 

the resurvey. The outline of each tract segregation is shown on the first or principal sheet on 

the plan usually empioyed to show other types 

of private land claims. 

9-94. On any of the several sheets, as appropriate, an index is supplied to tabulate the 

description of each tract in terms of the original 

plat. The following index form is acceptable: 

Index to segregated tracts 

Tract Original survey 

No. Entry and status TP. Rg. - see. subdvn. 

39 Buffalo 2979. 58 75 29 NW%NW%. 

H. E. 58 75 29 S?hNW%. 

W. J. Williams. 58 75 29 NW%SW%. 

Patented. 

41 Buffalo 1567. 58 75 20 SE%SW%. 

D. L. E. 58 75 20 W%SE%. 

W. J. Williams. 58 75 29 NE%NW%. 

Pending. 

77 Designated school section. 58 75 36 All. 

95 Sundance 03186. 

D. L. E. 

C. R. Massey. 

Final certificate. 

58 74 30 Lot 1. 

58 74 30 Lot 2. 

101 Vacant. 58 75 24 Lot 4. 

102 Vacant. 58 75 23 NE% SE%. - 
PLATS 213 

9-95. In some cases there is a demand for 

the description of a tract in terms of its component parts as determined by the original survey. In these exceptional cases, and only as appropriate, the several parts may be indicated by 

letters A, B, C, etc., with the index modified as 

follows: 

Index to segregated tracts 

Tract Original survey Component uarta 

SubNo. Entry and status TP. &. See. Subdvn. tract Area 

42 Buffalo 0833. 

H. E. 

Thomas R. Williams. 

Pending. 

58 75 20 NE% SEX. B 40.00 

58 75 21 Lot 4. A 32.00 

58 75 21 NW%SW%. C 40.00 

58 75 21 SW%SW%. D 40.00 

46 Buffalo 08642. 

H. E. 

Emmet Cain. 

Pending. 

58 75 24 LQt 3. A 28.12 

58 75 24 NWYaSW%. B 40.00 

58 75 24 NE%SW%. C 40.00 

58 75 24 SE Ya SW%. D 40.00 

9-96. The above method is well adapted to is shown as vacant. 

the identification and subdivision of isolated 9-97. If there are one or more conformable 

tracts of public lands where the tracts have claims to be identified by amended description 

been surveyed by metes and bounds. In these in terms of the resurvey, without segregation 

cases the arrangement of the data carried by by metes and bounds, another form of index is 

the index is the same, and the status of the tract required, as follows : 

Index to conformed entries under m,odified description 

Tract Original SUNW Resurvey 

Entry and status TP. Rg. SeC. Subdvn. TP. RB. See. Subdvn. 

Buffalo 984. 45 79 12 NE% SE%. 45 79 12 SW% SEX. 

T. & S. 45 79 12r NW% SE%. 45 79 12 SE%SW%. 

Fred A. Jones. 45 79 12 NE%SW%. 45 79 12 SW%SW%. 

Pending. 

Buffalo. 45 79 12 SE % SE Ya. 46 79 13 NW%NE%. 

S. S. List 6. 

Approved. 

9-98. The several forms of index may be 

combined into one tabulation, if desirable, in 

which case it should be given a general title as 

Index to Segregated Tracts and Appropriate 

Subdivisions. The bracket for “component 

parts” may be filled in only as needed. Tract 

segregations are required where modified descriptions embrace subdivisions that are smaller 

than the regular 40-acre unit. 

9-99. The special requirements for lotting 

fractional parts of sections invaded by tract 

segregations are set out in sections 6-52,, 6-53, 

and 6-54, and are illustrated by figures 89, 90, 

and 91. 

9-100. Occasionally there is need for denoting the several parts of a tract in terms of 

quarter-quarter sections and fractional lots of 

the resurvey. This may be accomplished by protraction, showing lot numbers and areas as determined by the resurvey. The lottings within 

the tract should be made to complete the adjoining fractional quarter-quarter sections of 

the resurvey. This type of lotting requires no 

change in the index. 

9-101. Where a tract is subdivided, preference is given to the method best suited to the 

situation : (1) If it is essential to perpetuate the 

units of the original survey, then the lines of 

the original quarter-quarter sections are 

shown; but (2) in those cases of relinquish- 
214 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

- 

8 

6 

Y 

P 

s 

68 

lot numbers should be assigned nor quantities 

shown within the segregated tracts that are 

involved in the conflict (figure 90). The showing 

of the component parts must await the construction of a supplemental plat. 

A memorandum is added to the index as follows: See field notes for area of any part of 

a tract in conflict with another tract. The uninvolved public land outside of the segregated 

tracts is lotted regularly except that the description of any subdivision of the original survey embraced in a tract or conformed entry 

under modified description is not repeated on 

the resurvey plat; instead it is assigned an appropriate lot number. 

FIGURE 89.-Normal tract segregations, with fractional 

lotting of the adjoining public land. The tract segregations are laid out on the plat as any private land 

claim would be shown on an original plat. 

ment or cancellation where it is probable that 

any new entry will be coupled with adjoining 

lottings by the resurvey, then a lotting within 

the segregated tract as determined by the section boundaries of the resurvey should be 

adopted. In the great majority of cases the 

patent eventually issues in accordance with 

the original entry, and the necessity for the 

subdivision of segregated tracts is exceptional. 

If it is necessary to subdivide a tract on the resurvey plat, the method should be based upon 

the type of disposal and the purpose to be 

served. Where such necessity is not clearly apparent no subdivision of this nature should be 

made, but a supplemental plat may be prepared 

at a later date to meet specific requirements. 

If there are overlapping claims as 

defined in section 6-49(6), the conflict is indicated on the plat of the resurvey ; but no new 

9-102. 

FIGURE 90.-Tract segregations in conflict, but not an 

adequate basis for amendment of descriptions. If 

there are overlapping claims the conflict is indicated 

on the plat of the resurvey. 
PLATS 215 

9-103. No memorandum or other declaration should be shown upon a plat of a resurvey 

that can be construed as an adjudication of a 

settlement right, entry, or State selection or 

right under any grant as to status nor as an 

adjudication of a conflict, excepting as appropriate action on the case may have been 

taken prior to the date of the approval of the 

resurvey plat. 

9-104. The usual technical data in reference 

to the direction and lengths of lines are arranged on the several sheets as may be appropriate. The fractional distances along the 

section lines, the record intersections of the 

lines of the resurvey with the lines of claims, 

and the connections to the angle points of the 

tract surveys are shown in such a manner as to 

indicate the values used in computing areas of 

the public land subdivisions. The complete topographical representation is carried by the first 

or principal sheet. The section numbers are carried on all of the sheets. The first or principal 

sheet carries a memorandum of the total number of sheets in the series. The sheets are numbered consecutively in the upper right corner, 

thus: “Sheet 1 of 7 Sheets”, “Sheet 3 of 5 

Sheets”, etc. 

9-105. On plats of independent resurveys 

the lot numbers and areas within the sections 

that are invaded by nonconformable tract segregations are usually shown on the additional 

sheets, where such sheets are required. Otherwise, the lot numbers and areas are shown on 

the first or principal sheet. 

The total area shown within each independently resurveyed section indicates the 

sum of the several parts which are hereafter to 

be identified by exclusive reference to the resurvey plat. In the total area statement to be supplied on the plat of an independent resurvey the 

acreage is shown in three parts: (1) Total area 

of segregations ; (2) total area exclusive of segregations; and (3) total area resurveyed. If a 

tract overlaps a township boundary, only the 

part within the township is counted in this total. 

If there are conflicts, the area in conflict is 

counted once only. 

9-107. The first or principal sheet of the 

plat carries an appropriate memorandum of the 

authority upon which the resurvey was made. 

9-106. 

All of the sheets show the usual form of certificate of acceptance. 

A supplemental plat must be prepared after the adjudication of the rights involved within a conflict when required to facilitate an amendment of entry or patent. On the 

supplemental plat, component parts that are 

free of conflict are protracted and designated 

as shown on figure 91. Lot numbers are assigned to the revised component parts of each 

adjudicated tract, serially within the sections 

of the resurvey, and areas shown, to afford descriptions that are conflict free. In these cases 

the supplemental plat should carry a revised 

index to the segregated tracts shown and a 

reference to the preceding plat. In the index all 

subdivisions in terms of the original survey are 

listed, but no sub-tracts are assigned to any 

subdivision that is reduced by the elimination 

Eleventb Sfandard Para//e/ North 

9-108. 

4065 , 1 f7.85 I 

I 

I 

CI 

Tract 3’8 

I 

I 

I 

I 

FI 

79 93 

39 

a 

Eb $ 

40 

50 

1 

FIGURE 91.-Supplemental plat issued subsequent to the 

adjudication of the rights involved within a conflict, 

with revised form of conflict-free lotting. 
216 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

of previous conflicts. The appropriate section 

numbers, lot numbers, and areas of the reduced 

tract subdivisions which are conflict free are 

listed in the columns of resurvey descriptions 

and areas of component parts. A footnote will 

follow the index referring to each new lot indicating the lot is a portion of the original subdivision free of conflict. 

The usual rules of field procedure are 

observed in the protraction of the tract subdivisions. Where adequate control is shown in the 

record, the original sections are subdivided regularly. But if tracts have been segregated by in9-109. 

dependent resurvey with limited control, the 

points for intermediate sixteenth-section, quarter-section, and section corners on the original 

tract boundaries are determined by proportionate intervals between the established angle 

points, and the interior lines are drawn to connect corresponding points on the opposite sides 

of the tract boundaries, fixing the corners of 

each component part by intersections. The computed areas are based upon the data derived in 

the resurvey. 

9-110. The following table is a revised index conforming to figure 91 : 

Index to segregated tracts 

Resurvey Component Tract Original survey parts1 

Area Tp. Rg. See. Subdvn. Sub- status Subdvn. tract TP. Rg. See. Entry and No. 

38 Buffalo 010118. 44 80 1 Lot 4. A 35.16 .................... 

H. E. 44 80 2 Lot 1. B 35.86 ..................................... 

Ralph R. Baldwin. 44 80 2 Lot 2. C 36.06 .......... ~ .......,. 

Pending. 44 80 2 SW%NE%. D 40.00 ................................ 

44 80' 2 SE%NE%. E 40.00 ................................ 

44 80 1 SW%NW%. F 40.00 ... ............... 

44 80 2 Lot 3. ........... 28.81 44 80 3 Lot&* 

44 80 2 SE%NW%. ........... 30.97 44 80 3 Lot 7." 

41 Buffalo 09311. 44 80 3 Lot 1. A 36.66 ........................................... 

H. E. 44 80 3 Lot 2. B 36.85 ............................................. 

Henry J. Brun- 44 80 3 Lot 3. 0 37.00 ............................................... 

Pending. 44 80 3 .SW%NE%. E 40.00 .............................................. 

44 80 3 NW%SE%. F 40.00 ._ ...................... 

44 80 3 NE%SW%. G 40.00 .............................................. 

ning. 44 80 3 SE%NW%. D 40.00 ... ............ 

44 80 3 SE%NE%. ........... 39.76 44 80 3 Lot 6." 

43 Buffalo 011734. 44 80 3 SW%SW%. A 40.00 .... ........................ 

H.E. 44 80 10 NW%NW%. B 40.00 ............................................... 

Perry Barnes. 44 80 10 SE%NW%. c 40.00 ................................................ 

Pending. 44 801 10 SW%NW%. D 40.00 .............................................. 

44 80 3 SE%SW%. ~-- 

44 80 10 NE%NW%. -- ---- 

(28.32 44 80 3 Lot 9." 

2 2.94 44 80 4 Lot 9." 

4.47 44 80 3 Lot 10." 

0.41 44 80 4 Lot 10." 

1 2.12 44 80 9 Lot 8." 

125.37 44 80 10 Lot 9.' 

44 80 10 NW%NE%. ........... 8.42 44 80 10 Lot 8." 

44 80 3 SW%.SE%. ............ "0.00 .......................................... 

44 Buffalo 07532. 44 80 11 

H. E. 44 801 11 

Antoine Faure. 44 80 11 

Pending. 44 80 10 

44 80 2 

44 80 3 

44 80 2 

44 80 3 

NW%NE%. 

NE%NW%. 

NW%NW%. 

NE%NE%. 

NW%SW%. 

SE%SE%. 

SW%SW%. 

NE% SEX. 

A 40.00 ................................... 

B 40.00 ............................................. 

C 40.00 ................................................ 

D 40.00 .......................... ........_..... 

........... 27.61 44 80 3 Lot 8." ........... 32.90 44 80 3 Lot 11." 

.......... 38.12 44 80 3 Lot12.* 

............ *o.oo .. ....................... 

* See section 9-96. * Portion of original subdivision that is free of conflict. 
PLATS 217 

9-111. Not all resurvey plats can be treated 

similarly. Methods suited to situations not involved in a particular case should be set aside 

to avoid unnecessary complications. The norma1 resurvey may be brought within a fairly 

definite, standardized drafting practice, but each 

unusual case needs a special analysis as to how 

the detail may be most suitably platted. 
CHAPTER X 

Mineral Surveys 

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF 

THE MINERAL SURVEY 

10-1. This chapter sets out the field and 

office procedure to be followed in the execution 

of mineral surveys, and the filing of the returns. 

These surveys are made to mark the legal 

boundaries of mineral deposits or ore-bearing 

formations on the public domain where the 

boundaries are determined by lines other than 

the normal subdivision of the public lands. 

Mineral surveys are required most frequently 

where the deposits occur in ore-bearing rock 

veins, known as mineral lodes, where the prospector who has made a legal discovery is permitted to stake out a claim of specified dimensions, to develop the same to his exclusive use, 

and, if desired in the protection of his right, to 

apply for a mineral survey and obtain a patent. 

R.S. 2331 (30 U.S.C. 35) provides that all 

placer-mining claims located after May 10,1872, 

shall conform as nearly as practicable with the 

United States system of public land surveys and 

the rectangular subdivision of such surveys, and 

such locations shall not include more than 20 

acres for each individual claimant. Surveys of 

placer claims are conformed to the public survey unless they are located on unsurveyed land 

or the configuration of the mineral deposit 

makes conformation impracticable. Consequently, the mineral survey procedures apply 

especially to lode claims although they are followed generally in appropriate surveys of placer 

claims. 

Millsites embracing land occupied for milling 

purposes or used incidental to mining operations may be located, surveyed, and patented in 

a manner similar to lode claims. 

The early discoveries of free gold were made 

far in advance of settlement, mainly in the 

stream beds of the western territories that included the Black Hills, the Rocky Mountains, 

and the Pacific Slope. Mineral deposits in these 

regions were appropriated and their values extracted under varied local camp or mining district rules with the tacit approval but without 

any regulations by the Federal Government. 

Finally, with the spread and development of the 

mining industry, Congress adopted legislation 

not only recognizing the possessory right of 

citizens of the United States to minerals on public lands (R.S. 910; 30 U.S.C. 53), but also providing for their disposition. (R.S. 2319-2340 and 

47,51,52). Present procedures are derived from 

this basic legislation. 

10-2. Subsequent legislation has necessitated a detailed revision of the regulations governing the administration of mineral surveys, 

but the field surveying operations remained 

fixed. 

The appointment and bonding of mineral surveyors, suspension or revocation of their appointments, payment for their services, employment of their assistants, and the cost of office 

work to mineral claimants, ineluding refund of 

unearned deposits, are matters of internal office 

procedure. Rules for these administrative procedures and also the procedures for locating, 

maintaining, and obtaining patent to mining 

claims are contained in the Code of Federal 

Regulations, Title 43. 

The order for a mineral survey issues from 

the state office administering the public lands 

where the claim is located. 

2343-2344; 30 U.S.C. 22-24, 26-30, 33-43, 46, 

219 
220 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

REQUIREMENTS OF FIELD WORK 

10-3. The mineral survey includes not only 

the usual technical procedure but also the examination required for preparing affidavits of 

the value of expenditures for development purposes and any other reports to be made by the 

mineral surveyor. 

10-4. The survey must be an actual survey 

on the ground in full detail, made by the mineral surveyor in person after the receipt of the 

order. It must be made without reference to any 

knowledge he may have previously acquired by 

having made the location survey or otherwise. 

The record must show the actual facts existing 

at the time of the survey. This precludes a calculation of the connections to corners of the 

public survey and to location monuments, or of 

any other lines of the survey, through prior 

surveys, unless it is satisfactorily shown in his 

report that he has retraced such lines and found 

them to be correct. Veta Grande Lode, 6 L.D. 

718 (1888) ; Lincoln Placer, 7 L.D. 81 (1888). 

The survey of a mining claim may include several contiguous locations owned in common, but in conformity with statutory requirements the survey record must distinguish the 

several locations and exhibit the boundaries of 

each. S.F. Mackie, 5 L.D. 199 (1886) ; Golden 

Sun Mining Co., 6 L.D. 808 (1888) ; Argillite 

Stone Go., 29 L.D. 585 (1900). 

10-6. Lengths of lines are returned as their 

true horizontal equivalents in the foot unit, as 

determined by the methods of measurement prescribed in chapter 11. The high degree of accuracy required in making mineral surveys calls 

for careful steel-tape measurements or the use 

of an electronic measuring device. If needed for 

acceptable results, a spring balance should be 

used and temperature corrections applied when 

measuring with the steel tape. 

10-7. Mineral surveys must be made with 

an instrument by which the meridian may be 

determined independently of the magnetic 

needle, and the directions of lines must be referred to the true meridian. A transit with or 

without a solar attachment may be used in any 

of the methods described in chapter 11. The true 

course of at least one line of each survey is to 

be ascertained at the time of the survey by 

observation of the sun, Polaris, or an equatorial 

10-5. 

star with proper verification of the time and 

latitude. The methods employed and the results 

are recorded in the field notes of the survey. 

Specimen field notes of a mineral survey will 

be found in the appendix. 

10-8. The magnetic declination is to be 

noted at each corner of the survey. If it is the 

same at the several corners, that fact and the 

value of the declination are stated in the field 

notes. The magnetic declination must be noted 

and recorded at each corner of the survey where 

differences are found. 

10-9. The survey must be made in strict 

conformity with, or be embraced within, the 

lines of the location upon which the order is 

based. If the survey and location are identical 

that fact is to be clearly stated in the field notes. 

If not identical, a bearing and distance are to 

be given in the field notes from each established 

corner of the survey to the corresponding corner of the location. The lines of the location as 

found upon the ground should be laid down upon 

the preliminary plat only in such manner as to 

contrast and show their relation to the lines of 

survey. Philip Dephger, 1 L.D. 581 (1882). 

10-10. The survey is given but one number. 

A location under the mining laws can legally 

be made only of a tract or piece of land embraced within one set of boundary lines. Two or 

more tracts merely cornering with each other 

cannot legally be embraced in a single location. 

Gomeira Placer Claim, 33 L.D. 560 (1905) ; 

Hidden Treasure Mine, 35 L.D. 485 (1907). An 

owner of several claims who has received patent 

for certain contiguous claims in the group may 

apply for patent to the remainder in one application, even though they are not contiguous to 

each other, if each is contiguous to the body of 

land embraced in the patented claims. Wagner 

Assets Realixatiom Cory., 53 L.D. 614 (1932). 

10-11. In acordance with the principle that 

courses and distances must give way when in 

conflict with fixed objects and monuments, the 

mineral surveyor may not change the corners 

of the location for the purpose of making them 

conform to the description in the record. If the 

difference from the location certificate is slight, 

it may be explained in the field notes, as indicated in the specimen field notes. 

1 
MINERAL SURVEYS 221 

10-12. R.S. 2324 (30 U.S.C. 28), expressly 

provides that “the location must be distinctly 

marked on the ground so that its boundaries can 

be readily traced,” and “that all records of mining claims made after May 10, 1872, shall contain the name or names of the locators, the date 

of the location, and such a description of the 

claim or claims located by reference to some 

natural object or permanent monument as will 

identify the claim.” Each location certificate 

should give the name of the location. 

10-13. A single discovery working cannot 

support more than one location, Poplar Creek 

Mine, 16 L.D. 1 (1893), unless the vein or lode 

can be traced on outcroppings on contiguous 

claims. 

10-14. These provisions of law must be 

strictly complied with in each case to entitle the 

claimant to a survey and patent. Should a claimant under a location made subsequent to May 

10, 1872, who has not complied with said requirements in regard to marking the location 

upon the ground and recording the location certificate, apply for a survey, the mineral surveyor must decline to make it prior to reporting the facts to the survey office and receiving 

further instructions. Philip Dephanger, 1 L.D. 

581 (1882). 

10-15. If after having obtained an order for 

survey the applicant should find that the record 

of location does not practically describe the location as staked upon the ground, he should file 

a certified copy of an amended location certificate, correctly describing the claim, and obtain an amended order for survey. In fact any 

change in the original order including the addition or dropping of locations or designation of 

a different surveyor calls for an amended order. 

10-16. If the survey is applied for under a 

location made prior to May 10, 1872 (see R.S. 

2319-2328, 2331), the mineral surveyor is governed by the special instructions accompanying 

the order for survey. 

LODE LINES AND END LINES 

10-17. No lode claim located subsequent to 

May 10, 1872, may exceed the statutory limit 

of 300 ft. in width on each side of the center 

of the vein, or 1,500 ft. in length. All surveys 

must close within 0.50 ft. in 1,000 ft., and the 

error must not be such as to make the claim 

exceed the statutory limit. In the absence of 

proof to the contrary, the discovery point is held 

to be the center of the vein on the surface. The 

course and length of the lode line or presumed 

course of the vein should be marked upon the 

plat and specifically described in the field notes. 

The record of the intersections of the end lines 

with the lode line are given in the field notes 

from the lowest numbered corner on each end 

line running toward the next higher numbered 

corner. Where conditions permit, the distances 

are shown on the plat. 

It was held in Beliggerent and Other 

Claims, 35 L.D. 22 (1906), (syllabus), that - 

There is no warrant in the mining laws for extending, arbitrarily and without any basis of fact 

therefor, the vein or lode line of a location in an irregular and zigzag manner for the purpose of controlling the length or situation of the exterior lines 

of the location to suit the convenience, real or imagined, of the locator. 

The end lines of a lode location must be straight 

and parallel to each other and when at right angles 

with the side lines may not exceed 600 feet in length. 

The mining laws contemplate that the end lines of 

a lode claim shall have substantial existence in fact, 

and in length shall reasonably comport with the width 

of the claim as located. 

10-18. 

METHOD AND ORDER OF 

PROCEDURE 

10-19. The position of the official survey 

upon the ground is fixed by connecting it by 

course and distance either to a corner of the 

public survey, preferably the nearest, or to a 

location monument. In either case the connecting line may not exceed a length of 2 miles. If 

both a corner of the public survey and a location monument are within the limiting distance, the connection should, if practicable, be 

made to the public survey corner. Each location 

of a survey embracing two or more locations 

must be so connected. 

10-20. When a mining claim is situated 

within the limits of a township the survey of 

which is in good standing, but where no corner 

of the survey can be found within 2 miles of 

the claim, after diligent search, connection may 

be made with a location monument, which in 
222 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

turn mat be connected with an established public survey corner. 

10-21. As a matter of convenience in the 

preparation of subsequent metes-and-bounds descriptions it is preferable that the corner of each 

location from which the connection is made be 

established as corner No. 1. 

10-22. The three preceding sections are intended to permit the surveyor to obtain connections in a practicable manner based upon 

existing field conditions. Any unusual conditions that may be encountered in obtaining connections should be explained in the field notes. 

10-23. From corner No. 1 the successive 

boundaries of each location are run in regular 

manner, numbering the remaining corners in 

consecutive order. 

10-24. A lode and a millsite embraced in 

one survey are distinguished by the letters A 

and B, respectively, following the number of the 

survey. The corners of the millsite are numbered independently of those of the lode. A corner of the millsite, preferably corner No. 1, is 

connected with a corner of the public survey or 

location monument, and a corner of the millsite 

with a corner of the lode claim. 

10-25. When a placer claim includes lodes, 

or when several contiguous placer or lode locations are included as one claim in one survey, 

the corners of each location are given a separate consecutive numerical designation, beginning with corner No. 1 in each case. The placer 

claim should be described in the field notes before describing the lodes. 

10-27. When the lines of two locations of 

the survey intersect, only the point of intersection is given on the line being described. 

10-28. Conflicts with unsurveyed locations 

are not reported unless excluded from the area 

claimed. 

10-29. Surveyed claims owned by the applicant, in conflict with or contiguous to the survey, must be reported in the field notes. 

A connecting line should be run from 

some corner of the survey to a corner of each 

conflicting survey, also to a corner of each conflicting unsurveyed location that is to be excluded. 

Connection is also made to any survey, the record position of which is within 100 

feet of the lines of the survey being executed; 

also to any other neighboring survey, the location of which is not definitely fixed by the record. Such connections should be made and conflicts shown according to the boundaries of the 

neighboring or conflicting claims as each is 

marked, defined, and actually established upon 

the ground. 

The field notes must fully and specifically 

state how and by what visible evidence the several conflicting surveys were identified on the 

ground, as well as those which appear to conflict, according to their returned tie or boundary 

lines, and report all material errors or discrepancies found in such surveys. In the survey of a 

group of contiguous claims where any corners 

are common to two or more claims of the group, 

bearings should be mentioned but once and the 

corner described as a common corner in the 

claim first mentioned in the field notes. 

10-30. 

10-31. 

CONFLICTS 

LOCATION MONUMENTS 

10-26. When an exterior line of a claim 

intersects the surveyed line of another claim, 

the field notes must show (1) the distance to 

the point of intersection and (2) the course and 

distance along the line to a corner of the conflicting claim. Where a corner of the conflicting 

survey falls within the claim being surveyed, 

this corner should be selected from which to 

give the tie. When the same line of a conflict 

is intersected by two lines of the survey, the 

tie is given from the same corner of the conflicting survey at both intersections. 

10-32. When a survey is situated in a district where there are no corners of the public 

survey and no other monuments within 2 miles, 

a location monument is established. The site, 

when practicable, should be some prominent 

point, visible from every direction, where the 

permanency of the monument will not be endangered by snow, rock, or land movements or 

other natural causes. The geographic position 

of the location monument is recorded in the 

field notes. The latitude and longitude should 
MINERAL SURVEYS 223 

be determined as accurately as the known data 

and the instruments used will permit. 

The monument should consist of an 

iron post similar to the type used for rectangular surveys or a stone not less than 30 inches 

long, 20 inches wide, and 6 inches thick, set 

three-fourths in the ground with a conical 

mound of stone 4 feet high and having a 6-foot 

base alongside. The letters “USLM” followed 

by the number of the survey are marked on the 

brass cap or plainly chiseled upon the stone. 

The exact reference point is indicated on the 

top of the monument by ,a cross. Any necessary 

departure from the prescribed material and 

size of monument is to be explained. 

10-34. From the monument the precise 

course and distance is to be taken to two or more 

bearing trees or rocks, and to any well-known 

and permanent objects in the vicinity, such as 

buildings, shafts, mouths of adits, prominent 

rocks, or the confluence of streams. Bearing 

trees are scribed “BT” and the bearing rocks 

chiseled “BO” together with the number of the 

location monument. The exact point on the tree 

or stone to which connection is made is indicated 

by a cross or other unmistakable mark. Bearings should also be taken to prominent mountain peaks or other landmarks and the approximate distance and direction ascertained to the 

nearest town or mining camp. A detailed description of the location monument, with a topographic map of its location, is to be furnished 

in the record of the survey. 

10-33. 

CORNER MONUMENTS 

10-35. Corner monuments may consist of 

the following, given in the order of preference: 

(1) Tubular iron post with flared base and 

brass cap for marking with steel dies of the 

type adopted for public land surveys. 

(2) A stone at least 24 inches long, 6 inches 

wide, and 4 inches thick, set 16 inches in the 

ground, with a conical mound of stone, 11/2 feet 

high, 2-foot base, alongside ; or, 

(3) A rock in place. 

If none of these is available, a concrete post, 

at least 24 inches long, 6 inches square, set 16 

inches in the ground, and surrounded by a substantial mound of earth or stone, may be used. 

If it is necesary to vary from these instructions, 

the returns should contain an explanation. 

10-36. All corners must be monumented in 

a permanent and workmanlike manner. Themonument is marked by stamping the distinguishing initial letter or letters, corner numbers, and survey numbers on the cap of a brasscapped monument. The marks on a stone or post 

are chiseled on the sides facing the claim or 

claims. The precise corner point is permanently 

indicated on the monument. When a rock in 

place is used, its dimensions above ground 

should be stated, and a cross chiseled at the exact corner point. Corners common to two or 

more locations are marked with the initial letter and corner number of each location. 

10-37. In case the point for the corner is 

inaccessible or unsuitable, a witness corner is 

established, which will bear the letters “WC” 

in addition to the regular markings. When practicable the witness corner should belocated upon 

a line of the survey and as near as possible to 

the true corner point, with which it must be 

connected by course and distance. The reason 

for the establishment of a witness corner should 

be stated in the field notes. 

The position of each corner should be 

recorded by course and distance to bearing 

trees, rocks, and other permanent objects, as 

prescribed in the establishment of location 

monuments, and when no objects are available 

the field notes should so state. In the latter 

event a memorial, if practicable, should be deposited at the corner and described in the 

field notes. 

10-38. 

TOPOGRAPHY 

10-39. The topographic features of the 

claim should be noted carefully. Distances on 

the lines are shown to intersections with all 

streams, gulches, ditches, ravines, trails, etc., 

with their widths, courses, and other data required for mapping. If the claim lies within a 

townsite, all important municipal improvements, 

and the street and block system, within the 

claim should also be located for mapping purposes. 
224 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

FIELD NOTES 

AND PRELIMINARY PLAT 

10-40. Field notes and other reports must 

be typewritten in black-record ink, and upon the 

proper blanks, which are furnished with the 

order for survey or upon application. No interlineations or erasures are permissible, and no 

abbreviations or symbols may be used excepting 

those shown in section 8-11 and as employed in 

the specimen field notes in appendix 11. 

The mineral surveyor prepares and 

files a preliminary plat on tracing cloth, drawn 

on a scale of 200 feet to an inch, if practicable, 

in conformity with the specimen plat (insert 

No. 2), the lines of the claim surveyed being 

shown heavier in contrast with conflicting 

claims. A copy of calculations of areas (made 

by double meridian distances) and of all triangulations or traverse lines should also be 

furnished. 

10-42. In order that the results of the survey may be reported in a uniform manner, the 

field notes and preliminary plat are to be prepared in strict conformity with the specimen 

field notes and plat. These are designed to furnish all needed information concerning the manner of describing the boundaries, corners, lode 

lines, connections, intersections, conflicts, and 

improvements, and of stating the magnetic declination, area, location, and other data connected with the survey of mineral claims, and 

to prescribe certain forms of certificates for the 

surveyor, and for listing his assistants. 

10-43. Throughout the description of the 

survey, after each reference to the lines or corners of a location, give the name thereof, and 

if unsurveyed state the fact. If reference is 

made to a location included in a prior official 

survey, the survey number is given, followed 

by the name of the location. 

10-44. The total area of each location in a 

group embraced by its exterior boundaries, and 

also the area in conflict with each intersecting 

survey or claim, should be stated. When locations of the survey conflict with each other, such 

conflicts should be stated only in connection 

with the location from which the conflicting 

area is excluded. 

10-45. The field notes and plat of survey 

should not show exclusions, or attempt to specify 

10-41. 

the net area of the claim. These are matters for 

the applicant to state in connection with his 

application for patent, and the notices posted 

and published. The field notes should merely 

show the total and net areas of conflict, so that 

any exclusion desired may be made readily. 

10-46. The field notes should state specifically whether the claim is upon surveyed or 

unsurveyed public lands, giving in the former 

case the quarter section, township, and range 

in which it is located, and in the latter the township and range as nearly as can be detmnined 

by the information at hand. When upon surveyed lands, the section boundaries should be 

indicated by full lines and quarter sections by 

broken lines. 

10-47. The title-page should contain the 

post-office address of the claimant or his authorized agent. 

IMPROVEMENTS 

10-48. In R.S. 2325 (30 U.S.C. 29), it is directed that at least $500 shall be expended upon 

a mineral claim as a prerequisite to patent. 

In preparing the certificate of the 

value of the improvements, the form shown in 

the specimen field notes is followed. 

10-50. Only actual expenditures and mining 

improvements made by the claimant or his 

grantors, having a direct relation to the development of the claim, are to be included in the estimate. Labor performed or improvements made 

outside the boundaries of the claim are within 

the meaning of the statute when they facilitate 

the extraction of the metals in the claim. Emily 

Lode, 6 L.D. 220 (1887). 

The expenditures required may be 

made on the surface or in running a tunnel, 

drifts, or crosscuts for the development of the 

claim. Improvements of any other character, 

such as buildings, machinery, or roadways are 

excluded from the estimate unless it is clearly 

shown that they are associated with actual 

excavations, such as cuts, tunnels, and shafts, 

and are essential to the practical development 

and to actually facilitate the extraction of mineral. Mills for ore treatment, or roadways, tramways, or trails built for transporting the extracted ore from the mine, are not to be included. 

10-49. 

10-51. 
MINERAL SURVEYS 225 

10-52. All mining and other improvements 

on the claim are located by course and distance 

from corners of the survey, or from points on 

the indicated lode line, specifying with particularity the dimensions and character of each. 

The improvements upon each location should be 

numbered consecutively, the point of discovery always being No. 1. ImproJements made by 

a former locator who has abandoned his claim 

are not to be included in the estimate, but should 

be described by separate statement in the field 

notes and shown on the plat. 

The field notes should show in detail 

the value of each mining improvement included 

in th‘e estimate of expenditures, and when a tunnel or other improvement has been made for the 

development of other claims in connection with 

the one for which survey is made, the name, 

ownership, and survey number, if any, of each 

claim to be credited, and the value of the interest credited to each should be stated. 

10-54. When a lode and millsite are included in the same survey, an expenditure of 

$500 at the time of application for patent is required upon the lode claim only. 

10-55. When a survey embraces several locations held in common, constituting one entire 

claim whether lode or placer, an expenditure of 

$500 at the time of application for patent for 

each location embraced in the group is required. 

10-56. It is held in James Carreto, 35 L.D. 

361 (1907), (syllabus), that - 

Where several contiguous mining claims are held 

in common and expenditures are made upon an improvement intended to aid in the common development of all of the claims so held, and which is of 

such character as to redound to the benefit of all, 

such improvement is properly called a common improvement. 

Each of a group of contiguous mining claims held 

in common and developed by a common improvement 

has an equal, undivided interest in such improvement, 

which is to be determined by a calculation based upon 

the number of claims in the group and the value of 

the common improvement. 

There is no authority in law for an unequal assignment of credits out of the cost of an improvement 

made for the common benefit of a number of mining 

claims, or the apportionment of a physical segment 

of an improvement of that character to any particular 

claim or claims of the number, such an arbitrary adjustment of credits as the exigencies of the case may 

seem to require being utterly at variance with the 

10-53. 

essential idea inherent in the term “a common improvement.” 

In any patent proceedings where a part of a group 

of mining claims is applied for and reliance is had 

upon a common improvement, the land department 

should be fully advised as to the total number of 

claims embraced in the group, as to their ownership, 

and as to their relative situations, properly delineated 

upon an authenticated map or diagram. Such information should always be furnished in connection with the 

first proceeding involving an application of credit 

from the common improvement, and should be referred to and properly supplemented in each subsequent patent application in which a like credit is 

sought to be applied. 

10-57. It is also held in Aldebran Mining Co., 

A common improvement or system, offered for 

patent purposes, although of sufficient aggregate 

value and of the prerequisite benefit to all the mining 

claims of a group, can not be accepted as it then 

stands in full satisfaction of the statutory requirement as to such of the claims the location of which 

it preceded, the law requiring that an expenditure of 

at least $500 shall succeed the location of every claim. 

If the requisite benefit to the group is shown, or to 

the extent of such of the claims as are so benefited, 

and the elements of contiguity and common interest 

in the claims concerned appear; if the improvement 

represents a total value sufficient for patent purposes 

for the number of claims so involved; if for each claim 

located after the partial construction of the improvement the latter has been subsequently extended so as 

to represent an added value of not less than $500, 

each is entitled under the law to a share of the value 

of the common improvement in its entirety, no claim 

receiving more or less than another from that source, 

participating therein without distinction or difference, 

and as to each the statutory requirement is satisfied. 

10-58. The explanatory statement in such 

cases should be given in the field notes or affidavit at the conclusion of the description of the 

improvements included in the estimate of expenditure, and should be as full and explicit as 

the facts in the case warrant, dealing only with 

improvements, conditions, and circumstances as 

they actually existed at the time of survey or 

subsequent field examination. 

10-59. If the value of the labor and improvements upon a mineral claim is less than 

$500 at the time of survey, authority is given 

to file thereafter supplemental proof showing 

$500 expenditure made prior to the expiration 

of the period of publication. The information 

on which to base this proof must be derived by 

the mineral surveyor, who makes the actual sur36 L.D. 551 (1908), (syllabus), that- 
226 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

vey, from a careful examination upon the premises. 

10-60. Only improvements made by the 

claimant or his grantors subsequent to the 

location of the claim are available under the 

statutes for patent expenditure. The survey 

office certifies to this fact according to the record, and, as the certificate is based on the report 

of the mineral surveyor, the latter should exercise special care to see that such improvements 

only are reported. 

AMENDED SURVEYS 

10-61. Amended surveys are ordered in the 

same manner as original mineral surveys. The 

conditions and circumstances peculiar to each 

separate case and the object sought by the required amendment are set forth in the office authorization, and alone govern all special matters 

relative to the manner of making such surveys 

and the form and subject matter to be embraced in the field notes. 

10-62. An amended survey must be made in 

strict conformity with, or be embraced within, 

the lines of the original survey. If any portion 

of the amended and original surveys are identical, that fact must be distinctly stated in the 

field notes. If not identical, the bearing and distance are given from each established corner 

of the amended survey to the corresponding 

corner of the original survey. The lines of the 

original survey, as found upon the ground, are 

laid down upon the preliminary plat in such 

manner as to contrast and show their relation 

to the lines of the amended survey. 

10-63. The field notes of the amended survey are prepared on the same size and form 

of blanks as are required for the field notes of 

the original survey, and the abbreviation “Am,” 

will be used after the survey number wherever 

it occurs. 

PLAT§ 

10-64. Chapter IX covers the essentials of 

plat making. In addition, the following instructions relating especially to mineral plats should 

be observed. The returns of the survey when 

filed in the public survey office are carefully examined and compared with the records to determine that all conflicts with prior approved 

surveys are correctly shown, that all connecting 

lines given are in harmony with the record, that 

all material errors found in prior surveys are 

fully reported, and that the calculations of intersections and of conflicting areas are correct. The 

final plat is drawn on a scale of 200 feet to an 

inch when practicable. See Specimen Mineral 

Plat, insert No. 2. 

The scale should be large enough to illustrate 

clearly the improvements, conflicts, and physical 

features described in the field notes, together 

with all courses and distances of intersecting 

lines and connecting lines, where space permits. 

Any topographic features described in the field 

notes tending to confuse or obscure the plat may 

be omitted, but as the copy of the plat posted 

on the claim is a notice to the public of the 

ground applied for, all of the roads, streams, 

and other objects that may aid in locating the 

surveyed ground should be shown. 

In case the entire survey cannot be shown 

on one sheet on a scale large enough to be clear, 

two or more sheets may be used and numbered 

consecutively, each sheet bearing the inscription “Survey No.-, Sheet No.- of - 

Sheets.” The last sheet should carry the certificate of approval, with the extra sheets of the 

same width and not longer than the last sheet. 

The mineral survey is approved in 

the survey office. When approved, the plat is 

reproduced and the returns of the survey are 

distributed in accordance with existing regulations. 

10-65. 
APPENDIX I 

Adjustment of the Solar Unit 

First, make certain that the transit itself is 

in good order. Before making any adjustments 

of the solar unit, determine that: 

(1) The solar telescope revolves smoothly in 

its collar bearings, neither too tightly nor too 

loosely. 

(2) There is free and smooth motion to the 

latitude and declination arcs. 

(3) The clamps are positive, and the tangent 

motions smooth. 

(4) The eyepiece is carefully focused upon 

the crosswires. 

(5) The objective is carefully focused upon a 

distant object, then secured in this position. 

Field Tests 

If the general adjustments, accomplished as 

hereinafter described, have not been disturbed 

appreciably, there are only three field tests preliminary to checking the solar unit for orientation. Two of these are made by the prime vertical method, more fully described under that 

heading; the third is the noon observation. 

(1) To ascertain whether the line of collimation of the solar telescope (or polar axis) is 

truly parallel to the vertical plane of the transit 

telescope when the solar is set and clamped in 

the latitude of the station. Any difference here 

is a constant, i.e., any discrepancy to the right 

or to the left should remain the same in all 

orientation, both a.m. and p.m. 

Select a suitable sighting point, then in order 

to find its reflected image, determine the vertical 

angle counting from the H.I. or reflector ; compute the setting for a north declination on the 

value: sin 6 = sin $I sin v. 

Start with the main telescope on the sighting 

point, plate reading at zero, reflector in the 

direction of the sighting point; the solar telescope clamped in the latitude of the station; a 

north declination set on the above value. 

On the first check, turn the transit go”, and 

turn the solar telescope in hour angle to pick 

up the image of the sighting point. It is usually 

helpful to shade the reflector so as to protect it 

from all light excepting those rays coming from 

the direction of the sighting point. Next, set the 

central equatorial wire on the image of the 

sighting point by movement of the declination 

tangent motion. This brings the solar unit in a 

position for beginning the reversals, alternately 

at 90” to the right and left of the line from the 

transit station to the sighting point. 

In making the reversals, each on the exact 

plate setting of go”, correct as necessary, half 

on the declination tangent motion, half on the 

lower tangent motion of the transit. When good 

in both positions, set back to zero on the horizontal plate. Observe the sighting point ; if good 

in the main telescope, the adjustment for parallelism in this latitude is good. If the main telescope is to one side of the sighting point, note 

which side, and the amount; that will be the 

discrepancy in parallelism for the latitude of 

the station. 

Ordinarily no change in the adjustment should 

be made at this stage, nor until it has been 

demonstrated that there is a consistent discrepancy that can be improved by a “touch up” 

adjustment. Before doing that analyze the results given by the prime vertical method for 

parallelism both in this position and in zero latitude to ascertain which of the two points of 

adjustment can be improved. 

(2) To ascertain the index error of the declination arc, suitable for the date, and for the 

range of the sun’s declination in that immediate 

, 

227 
228 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

period. In this test the solar telescope is set and 

clamped in zero latitude. The declination arc is 

set at or near the desired declination. 

If the sighting point is in the horizon, the 

angle to be turned on the plates for the successive reversals will be 90” * 6; plus for north 

declination ; minus for south declination. If the 

sighting point is above the horizon, the value of 

the angle to be turned on the plates should be 

“A” sin 6 determined by the equation: cos A= - 

cos v’ 

being the horizontal angle counting from the 

sighting point. The equation -gives the right 

supplemental value for the plate angles for the 

same north or south declination value; over 90” 

for north declination; less than 90” for south 

declination. 

Start with the main telescope on the sighting 

point, plate reading at zero, reflector in the direction of the sighting point. On the first check, 

turn the solar telescope in hour angle, and 

pick up the sighting point by the tangent motion of the declination arc. On the subsequent 

reversals, each on the exact plate setting as 

determined by the equation, correct as necessary, half on the declination tangent motion, 

half on the lower tangent motion of the transit. 

When the sighting point is in good position on 

the reversals, without having to change the tangent motions as described, read the declination 

arc carefully. The difference between this reading and the value of the declination that was 

used in the equation is the exact index error for 

that position in declination; this gives the index error to employ for that date or period. 

(3) To ascertain the instrumental latitude of 

the station. The instrumental latitude is the one 

observed by the solar unit at apparent noon. 

It may agree with, or it may be slightly more 

or less than the true latitude. The instrumental 

latitude is the one to employ in solar orientation, as this value disposes of any possible discrepancy between exact zero setting for latitude (index error at horizontal) and correct 

reading for the station. 

With the instrument carefully levelled and 

set in the meridian, and having carefully set the 

declination arc for the sun’s noon declination for 

that date, with refraction duly added to a north 

declination, or subtracted from a south declination, and with the index error of the declination arc determined as above explained (2), 

duly applied to the declination as calculated, 

bring in the sun at meridian passage with the 

tangent motion of the latitude arc. The reading 

of the latitude arc will then be the proper instrumental latitude. This is tested daily in regular 

field practice. 

Orientation 

The solar unit is now ready for p.m. and a.m. 

tests for orientation, by comparison with a carefully determined meridian. Any discrepancy in 

(1) will be a constant, as already noted. A discrepancy in either (2) or (3) will result in a 

variable orientation. (Table 22, Standard Field 

Tables). 

If the field tests (l), (Z), and (3) have been 

carried through successfully, the solar unit 

should give satisfactory orientation within the 

Manual tolerance (l’3Of’ during the usual 

hours), without going through the general adj ustments. 

The tests for orientation should duplicate actual line practice on the survey. Care in levelling, and close setting of the arcs to the nearest 

half-minute; everything counts just as in making an altitude observation for azimuth, recalling that the variables in the latter will also be 

appreciable and can be brought within small 

limits only by close attention to every element 

of the observation. 

The general adjustments are designed for the 

instrument assembly in the beginning, and after 

repairs have been made, or in remounting a 

solar unit if it has been removed. These give attention to the correct relation of all working 

parts, good for any latitude. The general tests 

and adjustments are also made after the return 

of an instrument at the end of a long season; 

after cleaning and lubrication; and to ascertain if repairs are required. Again, after repairs have been made, to see that an instrument 

is ready for field assignment. 

Any large discrepancies in the field test (1) , (2) , and (3), or in the orientation trials, will 

demonstrate that something is fundamentally 

wrong in the condition of the solar unit, or in 

the general adjustment. Ordinarily this will be 

unusual, indicating that some important detail 
APPENDIX 229 

has escaped attention. The smaller discrepancies, or residuals, are best taken care of by 

close attention to the performance, day after 

day in the tests on the camp meridian, and in 

the observations that should be made frequently 

oh the lines of the survey to verify the instrumental performance. 

A uniform discrepancy in orientation, i.e., 

always holding about the same amount to the 

right or left of the meridian, may be traced 

only to field test (1) , to be treated as an index 

error, or to be corrected by careful touch up 

adjustment when fully demonstrated. 

The variables are more difficult to analyze. 

Those traceable to either (2) or (3) may be due 

to poor fitting of the clamps or tangent motions ; 

back lash in the tangent screws; opposing 

springs not in good order; or a weaving in the 

tangent motions ; these are mechanical difficulties. Another mechanical difficulty, not at all unusual on worn instruments, which will be manifest in variable orientation, may be traced 

directly to poor fitting of the collar bearings, 

too snug in a portion of the turn, too loose in 

places, or not truly round. All other tests may 

appear to be good, but if the outside equatorial 

wires may not be spaced equally from the true 

line of collimation it will establish a residual 

that is disturbing until fully identified by performance. 

Detail of the Adjustments 

The general adjustments of the solar unit 

should be considered in the following order: 

(1) The equatorial wires must be made parallel to the axis of the reflector. 

(2) The line of sight of the solar telescope 

must lie in its true turning axis. 

(3) The polar axis, or line of sight of the 

solar telescope, must be normal to the axis of 

the latitude arc, describe a true vertical plane 

when turned in latitude, and this plane must be 

parallel to the vertical plane of the transit. 

(4) The latitude arc should read zero when 

the solar telescope is horizontal, and should be 

tested for reading true latitude of station. 

(5) The declination arc should be tested for 

reading the true declination of the sun, plus the 

refraction in polar distance, in all positions. 

(6) The hour circle should read the sun’s apAdditionally, tests are required to ascertain : 

(7) If the collar bearings are free from inequality or roughness that would cause a displacement in the turning in hour angle from 

6 a.m. to 6 p.m., i.e., truly round. 

(8) If there is appreciable inequality in the 

spacing of the equatorial wires. 

The above may be termed performance requirements and tests, as distinguished from the 

maker’s adjustments which are designed to accomplish the correct construction and assembly. 

There are several methods of approach to the 

general adjustments, all with regard to the 

same geometric problem wherein each step is 

intended to bring one element into appropriate 

relationship with the other parts. 

The Solar Diagram 

The general adjustments, and preliminary 

tests, may be accomplished most readily with 

the help of the solar diagram, dimensioned for 

the particular instrument or instruments of 

that model. The diagram is mounted by means 

of a board, similar to a plane-table board but 

held vertically by a bracket, on a light tripod, 

placed at a measured distance from the instrument, and adjustable to the same H.I. The diagram has the appearance shown below for the 

arrangement of the lines and the lettering. The 

letters read normally when viewed through the 

solar telescope with its inverting eyepiece, and 

when receiving reflected light rays in certain 

positions of the tests. See Figure 92. To be 

placed in pocket. 

The measured base is required only for the 

tests (7) and (8) ; it may be used also for a 

check of the transit stadia-wire interval ; the 

same diagram is correct for any model in these 

particular tests. The base measurement from 

the vertical axis of the transit to the face of 

the drawing board is 2.50 chains (165 feet). 

The diagram may be placed at any distance 

for the remaining tests, the conditions being to 

secure the same H.I., good light, and sharp 

images, including the reading of the letters, 

which will appear normal, and will identify the 

line that is to be used in each test. The several 

offset lines are placed to conform with the dimensions of one standard model. 

parent time. 
230 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

The board is to be oriented to face the transit, carefully set to exact right angle with the 

line of sight, vertical, and moved into the exact 

H.I. of the transit. The lower horizontal lines 

then indicate the H.I. of the solar telescope. The 

"D" and "R' vertical lines show the offset of the 

solar telescope when in direct and reversed positions measured from the vertical axis of the 

transit. The lower vertical lines are for testing the declination arc at 0" and at 15" each 

for north and south declinations. The "X" lines 

are for testing the parallelism of the telescopes 

when the solar is set and clamped at latitude 

40". 

(1) The equatorial wires, for parallel to axis 

of reflector. With the solar telescope clamped 

at 0" latitude, 0" in declination, and the transit 

oriented 90" from the line to the target, pick 

up the reflected image of the main vertical line. 

Use the transit tangent motion to bring the central equatorial wire onto the vertical line. Then 

turn the solar telescope in hour angle. The equatorial wire should follow the central intersection across the field. If not in good adjustment, 

the solar cross-wire assembly, or reticle, requires a slight rotation to bring it into good 

position. 

The test may be made on the sun, as follows : set up the instrument as in a regular solar 

observation, setting off the latitude, declination and apparent time; bring the sun's image 

accurately between the equatorial wires by 

orienting the transit, in which position the instrument should be clamped. Turn the solar 

telescope in hour angle, causing the sun's image 

to travel across the field from side to side. If 

the image follows the equatorial wires accurately the latter are parallel to the axis of the 

reflector as required. 

If the image departs materially from the 

equatorial wires, the capstan screws which 

hold the reticle should be loosened, and the reticle rotated until the equatorial wires are made 

to agree with the path of the image across the 

field; then return each capstan to a proper seat. 

(2) Collimtion. With the solar telescope 

clamped at 0" latitude, make a direct sighting 

on the solar diagram, using the transit tangent 

motion to set on the vertical line; the latitude 

tangent motion to set on the horizontal line. 

Turn the solar telescope 12 hours in hour angle; 

the displacement, if any, on the center intersection, is double the error in collimation, in 

both directions, for the equatorial wires, and 

for the time wire. 

The same test may be made by sighting on a 

distant point: set the line of sight on a distant 

point and clamp the instrument. Revolve the 

solar telescope 12 hours in hour angle. If the 

line of sight remains fixed on the point it agrees 

with the turning axis as required. If after revolution, the line of sight appears to be above or 

below, or to the right or left of the point, onehalf of each difference should be taken up with 

the capstan screws. The test should be repeated. This test and adjustment is similar to 

collimating the telescope of the Wye level. 

As the eyepiece of the solar telescope gives an 

inverted image, the direction for the movement 

of the reticle to correct for collimation is apparently to reduce the error, i.e., if there is appreciable displacement, turn the capstan screws 

so as to move the reticle in the direction towards 

the image of the sighting point, both vertical 

and horizontal. The correction is for only half 

the amount of the displacement. Be very careful not to over-adjust, i.e., not to pass the point 

of perfect adjustment. Exercise the same precautions as in adjusting the transit telescope 

for collimation. 

(7) and (8) Collar bearings, amd spacing of 

the equatorial wires. The next step is to test the 

spacing of the equatorial wires. These should 

fit the outside line of the inner circle, spaced 

on a radius of 15'45", which is the sun's semidiameter at the July 1 date. Check carefully for 

equality of spacing on the two sides. 

There is no way to correct an inequality except by the maker. If there is an appreciable 

inequality, the collimation test should be by the 

reversal of one outside equatorial wire into the 

position of the other, rather than on the central 

point of intersection. 

Carefully turn in hour angle, pausing at each 

hour interval, to check the rotation of the solar 

telescope in its collar bearings. Any roughness 

or inequalities will be manifest in the direct 

sighting on the circle, i.e. the equatorial wires 

will appear to jump or to be displaced in relation to the circle. If there is appreciable dis- 
APPENDIX 231 

placement at any point, note the place on the 

hour circle. There will be a corresponding displacement, or variable, in the orientation tests 

on the meridian at the same position in hour 

angle. Irregularities in the collar bearings cannot be corrected in the field. 

(3) The polar axis. Several steps are combined in this adjustment. The line of collimation should be normal to the latitude axis; the 

latter should be horizontal; and the plane of 

the solar line of collimation when moved in 

latitude should be parallel to the vertical plane 

of the transit. This makes for general adjustment in any latitude. For just one latitude or 

area it is only necessary that the line of collimation (as a line, called the polar axis) be made 

parallel to the vertical plane of the transit. The 

field test (l), preliminary to the test for orientation, heretofore described, takes care of that. 

Make a direct sighting of the solar telescope 

on the D line of the target, first setting the 

transit telescope on the main vertical line. If 

the solar telescope points to one side of the D 

line, note the amount and whether to the right 

or to the left. Turn the transit 180” and repeat, 

sighting with the solar telescope in the reversed 

position. Note the amount that the pointing is 

to one side of the R line, and whether to the 

right or to the left. The two pointings now require analysis. For illustration, assume pointings as indicated by diagram (‘a”, Figure 93. 

To be placed in pocket. 

NOTE. First, the diagram projections are in 

true relation. With the inverting eye-piece 

(image inverted) the right and left appear 

reversed, and the image is upside down ; Second, 

if the line of sight is not normal to the latitude 

axis, the line will describe a cone in the reversal. 

The short dash line is the normal to the latitude axis ; the full line shows the assumed pointings. 

Adjust first on the base plate at the foot post 

that controls the pointing at horizontal sighting; make the correction to the position where 

the sighting will conform to the full line in diagram “b”. 

In the projection, the latitude axis will be 

normal to the vertical plane of the transit (although not necessarily horizontal). The pointings should be symmetrical with respect to the 

D and R lines. 

Adjust second at one end of the frame that 

supports the solar telescope. Make the correction to bring the pointing exactly to the D and 

R lines, as shown in diagram ‘(c”. This brings 

the line of sight of the solar telescope into 

normal with the latitude axis. 

In using the solar diagram, the adjustment 

that is required to bring the latitude axis into 

horizontal must be preceded by the test for the 

zero position of the declination arc, but when 

that has been accomplished (the declination 

vernier remaining clamped in that position) 

then set and clamp the solar telescope in latitude 

40”. From this point on, the steps are as previously described for the primary field test (1) 

to ascertain if the line of collimation of the 

solar telescope, when set and clamped in the 

latitude of the station, is parallel to the vertical 

plane of the transit. 

Make the test on the X lines, either a.m. or 

p.m. position ; reflected light rays as in regular 

solar orientation ; all clamps set ; transit turned 

90” from the main line of sight. This setting 

will be either 6 a.m. or 6 p.m. in hour angle. The 

adjustment should check in both a.m. and p.m. 

positions, which accomplishes a reversal of the 

horizontal axis. The slant of one line of the X 

represents the direction of the sun’s movement 

at sunrise or sunset, zero declination, 40” latitude. The reflected image of the second line of 

the X will appear to be horizontal. The intersection is in the same 33.1. as the reflector in the 

line of the polar axis. 

When taking the sight, the center equatorial 

wire will be on, or parallel to, one line of the X, 

and will follow that line, or continue to be parallel to it, when the solar telescope is turned in 

hour angle. 

The adjustment is good when the center 

equatorial wire is on the line of the X. If adjustment is required, bring the center equatorial wire to the line of the X ; adjust on the base 

plate at the foot post that controls the position 

of the latitude axis for true horizontal. 

The adjustments at the foot posts on the base 

plate of the solar unit should now be fully accomplished, or completed except for the slightest “touch up” if and when the need becomes 
232 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

demonstrated by performance in orientation, 

and then only to secure final accuracy in the 

position of the polar axis for parallelism with 

the vertical plane of the transit. 

Note also, that the adjustments on the foot 

posts should be in final position, or nearly so, 

before making the test (4) for the index error, 

if any, in the setting of the latitude vernier. 

The mechanical construction at the points of 

contact of the base frame of the solar unit with 

the inner capstans or hexagon nuts at the foot 

posts is designed to accommodate an adjustment 

without straining the base frame, but care is 

necessary not to place too much pressure on the 

points of contact while making adjustments. A 

strain here will cause difficulty in coming into 

good position, or a jump in position when the 

strain is relieved. The safest plan is to ease off 

the pressure at the point or points that must 

be relieved in order to make the adjustment, 

also a slight easing off at the other point or 

points (including the one at the 90" angle) ; 

follow with the adjustment turns ; then re-seat 

with equal pressure at each point. 

The statement of the adjustments of the polar 

axis is intended to show the successive steps 

that are appropriate when the whole unit requires examination and testing. Later, an explanation will be given for the more rigid test of 

the polar axis by the prime vertical method. If a 

residual error is then present, the latter test will 

show which point of adjustment on the foot 

posts will control the improvement. 

While the statement here may seem involved, the steps are simple enough if taken in 

proper order. A demonstration by some one 

experienced in solar transit work will be an aid 

to those who may need that assistance. The way 

to accuracy in solar transit orientation, as in 

all observations for azimuth, is to give close 

attention to every essential detail, 

The latitude axis may be adjusted to horizontal as described in the next paragraph, striding level method, including also the other steps 

to bring the polar axis into good position, if the 

solar diagram is not available. Note that the 

striding level method for this and the next adjustment is applicable only to model A. 

Carefully level the transit and then sight the 

main telescope to a distant point and clamp the 

instrument; sight toward the same point with 

the solar telescope, and place the striding level 

on the latitude axis. The striding level should 

be reversed to see if there is any error in the 

level itself, and if so take the mean position for 

the true indication of the level. 

If the latitude axis is not horizontal it may 

be made so by adjusting the capstan nuts on 

the base frame. 

If the line of sight of the solar telescope is not 

parallel to that of the main telescope it may be 

made parallel by means of the capstan nuts on 

the base frame of the solar. Next, turn the 

transit 180" in azimuth and reverse both telescopes so as to sight again to the same distant 

object, setting the main telescope upon the object. If the solar telescope does not again sight 

upon the distant object, one-half the error is due 

to its line of sight's not being at right angles to 

the axis of the latitude arc. Take up half of the 

amount of the error by means of the capstan 

nuts at one end of the solar telescope, and take 

up half of the error by correcting the capstan 

nuts on the base frame of the solar. The line of 

sight should now be normal to the axis of the 

latitude arc, should describe a vertical plane 

when turning on said axis, and this should be 

parallel to the vertical plane of the transit. The 

tests should be carefully repeated until the 

adjustments are perfected. 

The several steps for the adjustment of the 

polar axis may be accomplished, and rigidly 

checked by the prime vertical method, hereinafter described more fully. 

(4) The latitude vernier-Solar diagram. 

With the transit carefully leveled, make a direct 

sighting with the solar telescope; use the latitude tangent motion to bring the central equatorial wire on the lower horizontal lines (hour 

angle at noon). The reading of the vernier will 

indicate the index error in zero latitude. 

As a rule it is better not to change the vernier 

setting if the fitting is good and only a small 

difference exists. The primary field test (3) 

is made to secure an instrumental latitude at 

the station. Ordinarily that will agree with the 

true latitude -C the index error at 0", or check 

this very closely. A discrepancy will appear 

in case there should be a slight eccentricity in 

the mounting of the latitude arc on its frame, 
APPENDIX 233 

i.e., there will be a slight variable in the index 

error between 0" and the part of the arc as from 

30" to 50". 

The test may be made with the striding level 

as follows: Carefully level the transit, clamp 

the latitude arc at zero, and place the striding 

level in position on the solar telescope. The striding level should be reversed to see if there is 

any error in the level itself, and if so take the 

mean position for the true indication of the 

level. If the telescope is not horizontal it may be 

made so by means of the tangent motion of the 

latitude arc. When it has been made truly horizontal the reading will indicate the index error 

of the vernier of the latitude arc. The vernier 

may be shifted to read zero, or the difference 

from zero may be carried as an index error. 

Without the solar diagram or striding level, 

the test may be made by first ascertaining a 

sighting point (or line) in the true horizontal plane of the solar telescope. 

(5) The declination vernier-Solar diagram. 

Set and clamp at 0" latitude, and the declination at or near 0". Set the main telescope on the 

long vertical line, then turn the transit 90" to 

the left, and the solar in hour angle to 6 p.m. 

Pick up the image of the central short vertical 

line, p.m. position; set the central equatorial 

wire exactly on that line by the declination 

tangent motion. Now reverse the transit, 

oriented 90" to the right of the solar diagram; 

turn the solar telescope 12 hours in hour angle 

to the 6 a.m. position. Pick up the image of the 

central short vertical line, a.m. position ; note 

the central equatorial wire, and if not in coincidence make the correction half with the declination tangent motion, half with the lower 

tangent motion of the transit. Repeat the reversals, and the half-and-half corrections until 

there is coincidence in both a.m. and p.m. positions. The reading of the declination arc will 

give the index error, if ang, in the setting of the 

vernier in zero declination. If the discrepancy 

is small, and the vernier well fitted, it is usually 

better not to disturb the adjustment. 

On the solar transit constructed between 1914 

and 1945 (Model A) the declination arc and 

vernier are both movable. The arc should not be 

moved unless necessary to correct for radius, or 

to correct for concentric position with the axis 

of the reflector. The vernier may be shifted as 

necessary to correct for index error. 

On the solar transit constructed between 1937 

and 1945 (Model B) the declination arc is fixed 

in position. The vernier is held in position by 

two small screws; it may be shifted if necessary. 

On the model constructed since 1946 (Model 

C) the declination arc is permanently seated at 

proper radius, and proper spacing. It is not intended that this relationship will be disturbed 

by field adjustment. The vernier is graduated 

on the declination-vernier arm. The vernier adjustment is controlled at the reflector axis, 

where the declination-vernier arm is locked in 

position by three setscrews. The setting is carefully made at the time of construction. It should 

rarely require attention except at the time of 

repair by the maker. 

When setting the vernier in zero position, a 

test is made to bring the reflector into an exact 

45" with the line of collimation of the solar 

telescope. The reflector and the tangent-clamparm are left clamped in that position. 

The first step in making the adjustment is 

to loosen the three hold-down screws, just 

enough to allow the declination-vernier arm to 

be shifted. The reflector position is not disturbed. Next, remove the "dummy" screw that 

is placed about midpoint of the arm, and in its 

place insert the special adjusting post (the latter will be found inserted, for safe keeping, near 

the top of the right standard of the transit). 

When in position the end of the post projects 

into a hole in the tangent-clamp-arm. There are 

two opposing capstan screws in the tangentclamp-arm which are to be brought into play 

against the adjusting post. 

The parts are now in position for an exact 

setting of the vernier to zero reading on the 

declination arc. Two capstan pins are used in 

opposing movement to accomplish the exact adjustment. 

After adjustment, tighten the three holddown screws at the reflector axis. Back off the 

two opposing capstan screws. Remove the special adjusting post. Replace the "dummy" screw. 

Replace the adjusting post for safe keeping. 

Tighten the two capstan adjusting screws to 

avoid loss. 
234 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Repeat the original test to make sure that the 

declination clamp held properly during test and 

that the reflector position was not disturbed 

from any cause. 

The next step is to check the reading at 15" 

north declination. Proceed in the same manner 

as above, except to make the turns 105" to the 

left and right of the solar diagram, and use the 

N lines in the p.m. and a.m. positions. Record 

the reading when the reversals indicate true 

position 15" north declination. 

Check again on 15" south declination. The 

turns are 75" for the S lines. 

The arc and vernier are well mounted when 

the index error, if any, runs along the same, 

or nearly the same in three positions. An appreciable variable will indicate an inaccuracy in 

the mounting of the declination arc, either in 

the setting for radius or an element of eccentricity, or both. 

The field test (2), preliminary to the test for 

orientation, heretofore described, will ascertain 

the index correction in any position of the arc. 

In field practice it should be determined for the 

period when the instrument is being used. 

A careful analysis of the variables in orientation in actual performance of the instrument 

during the early a.m. and late p.m. hours will 

show if the index correction for the declination 

reading is about right, or if it can be improved 

slightly. Those periods are best for that check 

because any slight discrepancy in the reading 

of the latitude arc, which would be apparent 

during the 6 or 8 hours of the middle portion 

of the day, disappears in the early a.m. and late 

p.m. The check should not be made when too 

close to sunrise or sunset as the refractions 

then become large and more or less uncertain. 

(6) The hour circle-Solar diagram. This adjustment may be made at any stage of the tests 

after the completion of (1). Make a direct sighting. Bring the time cross wire into coincidence 

with the long vertical line. In that position the 

circle should read 12 hours. There is a set 

screw which holds the graduated circle in position ; the circle can be shifted as needed. 

Without the solar diagram, make an observation for the meridian passage of the sun. A few 

minutes before apparent noon set the instrument in the meridian, elevated to the sun's altitude. Set your watch to read 12 o'clock as the 

sun's center crosses the vertical wire of the 

main telescope. At any convenient time thereafter set off the proper readings on the latitude 

and declination arcs, and with the instrument 

in the meridian, bring the sun's image to the 

center of the field of the solar telescope and 

observe the watch time. If the reading of the 

hour circle agrees with the watch it is in adjustment; if not, it may be made to read apparent time by loosening the set screw which 

holds the hour circle in position, shifting the 

circle until the reading agrees with the watch, 

care being taken not to move the telescope in 

hour angle until after the set screw is again 

seated. The test may then be repeated. 

The Prime Vertical Method 

A complete adjustment may be accomplished 

by the prime vertical method. These tests are 

made by using a distant sighting point, and do 

not require the solar diagram or the striding 

levels. Some of the tests are by direct sighting ; 

the remainder are in the positions where the 

arcs are clamped as in normal orientation, light 

rays reflected. 

The plan is based on the conception of using 

the solar unit for an observation upon a star 

when in or passing the prime vertical, equal 

altitude method, permitting all necessary reversals. A suitable sighting point serves for the 

star position. It is intended especially for use 

when duplicating field conditions, and mainly for 

the touch up adjustments, rather thp for running through the general adjustments. 

The conditions for the sighting point are that 

it may give a sharp point that can be seen 

clearly as a reflected-image. If it is a long distance away it may be used as a point in all of 

the sightings, but if substantially less than onehalf mile an allowance should be made for the 

instrumental offsets as presented in the solar 

diagram method. A sky-line point may be used 

under many field conditions, as the station will 

frequently be remote from a church spire, flag 

pole, water tower, and such ideal sighting 

points. If no suitable point can be picked up 

from the instrument station, a piece of white 

paper may be tacked up where the light is 

good. There is no better sighting point than a 
APPENDIX 235 

small hand-mirror reflecting sunlight from the 

top of a stake that has been set to hold the position. If the paper sighting point is placed as 

much as one-fourth mile distant all necessary 

offsets may be provided by trimming as follows : 

width between the vertical edges to be double 

the right-angle off set of the reflector axis counb 

ing from the latitude axis ; the lower right-andleft corners to be cut off for several inches on 

an angle from the vertical equal to the latitude 

of the station. Observe on the vertical edges for 

tests in the 0" latitude settings ; on the slanting 

edges when the solar telescope is set in the latitude of the station. 

(a) The vertical angle counts from the H.I. 

of the reflector. 

(b) To set the correct north declination for 

the pick-up of the sighting point, solar unit, reflected image, when clamped in the latitude of 

the station, use the equation: 

sin 6 = sin C#I sin v 

(c) To ascertain the horizontal angle, counting from the sighting point, that is to be turned 

in the tests of the declination arc, more than 90" 

for north declination, less than 90" for south 

declination, employ the equation : 

sin 6 

cos A = __ 

cos v 

The purposes and the order of the tests, and 

in most cases the principles that are involved, 

have already been set out, included in (1) primary field tests, solar unit in good order; and 

(2) the general adjustments, solar diagram 

method, including the alternatives, both with 

and without the striding levels. These should 

be understood in principle. The explanations 

that follow are explicit to the extent that the 

prime vertical method gives a different approach to the problem. 

(1) The equatorial wires, foy parallel to axis 

of reflector. Start with the solar telescope 

clamped in the latitude of the station ; the main 

telescope set on the sighting point, plate reading 0", reflector in the direction of the sighting 

point; and a north declination set to the value : 

sin 6 = sin C#I sin v; then turn the transit 90" 

to the right or left. Pick up the image of the 

sighting point by turning the solar telescope in 

hour angle ; use the transit lower tangent motion 

to bring the central equatorial wire onto the 

image of the sighting point. Then turn the solar 

tdescope in hour angle. The equatorial wire 

should follow the image of the sighting point 

across the field. This is the equivalent of test 

(1) of the general adjustments. 

(2) Gollimation. Make a direct sighting of 

the solar telescope on the sighting point; use 

the transit tangent motion for horizontal movement, the latitude tangent motion for movement 

in vertical angle. The test and adjustment then 

become the equivalent of test (2) of the general 

adjustments. 

When the collimation is nearing close adjustment, complete the check by moving over to an 

outside equatorial wire. Use the transit tangent 

motion ; set the equatorial wires on vertical, one 

outside wire on the sighting point. In this position the collimation test should be made by the 

reversal of one outside equatorial wire into the 

position of the other. 

(3) The polar axis. Proceed as explained for 

test (3) of the general adjustments when using the solar diagram. Make the tests with the 

main telescope set on the sighting point, and 

direct sights through the solar telescope. The 

need for an allowance for the offset between the 

two telescopes depends upon the distance to the 

sighting point; it may be disregarded if more 

than one-half mile. In the endeavor to make allowance for an offset, much depends upon the 

sharpness of the image, the light, and the 

quality of the solar telescope for optical performance. A low vertical angle to the sighting 

point is preferred for this adjustment, but any 

vertical angle up to 20" is fully compensated in 

the steps that follow. Complete the first and 

second adjustments as previously explained 

when using the solar diagram. These two steps 

will bring the line of sight of the solar telescope 

into normal with the latitude axis, and the two 

telescopes substantially parallel at horizontal. 

The next step is to check carefully for parallelism at horizontal, and to test (5) the reading of the declination arc in true 0" position. 

Set and clamp at 0" latitude, and declination 

arc at or near 0". Set the horizontal plate to 

read 0", the main telescope on the sighting point, 

the reflector toward the sighting point. Then 

turn the transit 90" to the left; the solar in 

hour angle to late p.m. position. Pick up the 
236 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

reflected image of the sighting point; set the 

central equatorial wire on the sighting point by 

the declination tangent motion. Now reverse 

the transit, oriented 90" to the right of the 

sighting point; turn the solar telescope in hour 

angle to early a.m. position. Again pick up the 

image of the sighting point. Note the position 

of the central equatorial wire; if not in coincidence make the correction half with the declination tangent motion, half with the lower 

tangent motion of the transit. Repeat the reversals, and the half-and-half corrections until 

there is coincidence in both a.m. and p.m. positions. The reading of the declination arc will 

give the index errw, if any, in the setting of the 

vernier for zero declination. 

Also, now turn back to 0" horizontal plate 

reading. Observe the sighting point with the 

main telescope. The discrepancy here, if any, is 

the error in parallelism at horizontal. This 

shows what final "touch up", if any, may be 

required at the foot post that controls the pointing at horizontal sighting. If small, as it should 

be if the direct sighting tests were successfully 

executed, proceed with the final test for parallelism before changing the adjustment. 

Clamp and set the solar telescope in the latitude of the station; then start with the main 

telescope set on the sighting point, plate reading 0", reflector in the direction of the sighting 

point, and declination arc set to the value: 

sin 6 = sin + sin v. Then turn the transit 90" 

to the left. Pick up the image of the sighting 

point by turning the solar telescope in hour 

angle ; use the tangent motion of the declination 

arc to bring the central equatorial wire onto the 

image of the sighting point. Now reverse the 

transit, oriented 90" to the right of the sighting 

point; turn the solar telescope in hour angle, 

and again pick up the image of the sighting 

point. Note the position of the central equatorial 

wire ; if not in coincidence make the correction 

half with the declination tangent motion, half 

with the lower tangent motion of the transit. 

Repeat the reversals, and the half-and-half corrections, until there is coincidence in both a.m. 

and p.m. positions. Now turn back to 0" horizontal plate reading. Observe the sighting point 

with the main telescope. The discrepancy, if 

any, is the error in parallelism when set in the 

latitude of the station. 

If the parallelism is good when set in the 

latitude of the station it is better to let wellenough alone, i.e., no further touch-up adjustment is required. If not quite good, the previous 

test for parallelism at horizontal will show 

whether the final touch up should be made at 

the foot post that controls the pointing at horizontal sighting, or if the improvement is required at the foot post which controls the axk of 

the latitude arc for horizontal. 

It is believed that this prime vertical method 

affords the most rigid test and adjustment of 

the polar axis that can be applied. 

(4) The latitude vernier. The test for the 

reading of the vernier in true position of zero 

latitude may be made by direct sighting, first ascertaining a sighting point (or line) in the 

true horizontal plane of the solar telescope. This 

is the equivalent of test (4) of the general adjustments. Note also, that the primary field test 

(3) is made to secure an instrumental latitude 

at the station, which gives the value to be employed in solar orientation. 

(5) The declination vernier. Note that in 

the adjustment (3) for the rigid test of the 

polar axis, one step required and gave an exact 

determination of the index error or setting of 

the vernier for zero declinatioa. Note also, that 

the field test (2), preliminary to the test for 

orientation, is made to ascertain the index correction, if any, in that position of the arc for 

the period when the instrument is to be used. 

In field practice this is combined with the test 

for instrumental latitude. The test of the declination arc in the appropriate order of sequence is called the "prenoon test". 

Begin by making a calculation of the sun's 

declination, for the apparent noon of the date, 

refraction applied. Then compute the horizontal 

angle A that is to be employed in making the 

reversals in this test, using the equation: 

cos A = - sin ; in this, ((6" is the calculated 

noon declination; A will exceed 90" for north 

declinations; less than 90" for south declinations. 

Start the test with the main telescope on the 

sighting point, plate reading at 0", reflector in 

cos v 
/ 

APPENDIX 237 

the direction of the sighting point. On the solar 

unit, set and clamped in 0" latitude ; declination 

set at or near the desired noon value. On the 

first check, turn the transit to the left in the 

amount of the computed horizontal angle A. 

Turn the solar telescope in hour angle to late 

p.m., then pick up the image of the sighting 

point, set the central equatorial wire exactly 

on the image of the sighting point by the declination tangent motion. Now orient the transit 

to the right of the sighting point on the horizontal angle A ; turn the the solar telescope to 

the early a.m. position. Pick up the image of the 

sighting point ; note the central equatorial wire ; 

if not in coincidence make the correction half 

with the declination tangent motion, half with 

the lower tangent motion of the transit. Repeat 

the reversals, and the half-and-half corrections 

until there is coincidence in both a.m. and p.m. 

positions. Now read the declination arc carefully. This is the right setting of the declination arc for the noon determination of the instrumental latitude. The discrepancy, if any, 

between this reading and the value of the declination as computed is the exact index error 

for use in that part of the arc. 

(6) The hour circle. This is the same test as 

in the general adjustment (6) when made without the use of the solar diagram. Observe the 

watch reading and correction in apparent time 

at the meridian passage of the sun, for comparison with the reading of the hour circle. An 

altitude observation on the sun for apparent 

time may be substituted. 

Summary List of Adjustments and Tests for the Transit and Solar Unit: 

Principal Adjustments and Tests 

Plate levels 

Cross wires, horizontal and vertical 

Collimation 

Horizontal axis 

{single bubble Horizontal sighting reversion bubble 

Fitting of vernier, vertical circle 

Zero of vernier at two positions of vertical circle 

Vert. ang. readings at + 40" and - 40" 

Stadia ratio 

Needle : pivot, magnetism, and balance 

Equatorial wires, parallel to axis of mirror 

Collimation 

Spacing of equatorial wires 

Line of sight, right angle to latitude axis 

Latitude axis horizontal 

Parallel sighting at horizontal 

Parallel sighting at 40" N. 

Zero, latitude vernier 

Reading of latitude arc at 40" N. 

Zero. declination vernier 

Tests for Repairs and Reconditioning 

TRANSIT 

Centers 

Focusing movements 

Collimation, both long and short focus 

Pivots and bearings 

Readings, A and B verniers, at intervals of 30" 

Repetition of angles, at 30", 60", and 90" 

Reading of graduations, both circles and verniers (conHorizontal and vertical clamps and tangent motions 

Leveling screws (condition) 

Clean and lubricate (condition) 

dition) 

(condition) 

SOLAR UNIT 

Fitting of telescope in collar bearings 

Focusing movements 

True image, direct sighting 

True image, reflected 

Fitting of axis of mirror 

Fitting of latitude arc, vernier, clamp, and tangent 

Fitting of declination arc, vernier, clamp, and tangent 

Reading of graduations, both arcs and verniers (condimotion 

motion 

Reading of declination arc, noon test, latitude known 

Azimuth tests: a. m. and p. m. 

tion) 

Reading of decl. arc at 15" N. and 15" S. 

Reading of decl. arc on 30" true hor. ang. 

Reading of hour circle 






















































































.. Abbrevlations used in field notes ....... 8-11 

Bearing trees and bearing objects ........................................................................... ....... 4-86 to 4-90 

Markings . 4-96 to 4-114 

Memorials .................................................................. ... 4-91 

Mound of stone ........... 4-92 

Pits .............................................. . ................. 4-94 

Reference monuments ..... 66, 616, 4-82, 4-83, 4-96 

Accreted lands, sovereignty over ............ 7-65 

Accretion and reliction ~ .................. 7-62 to 7-70 

Admission of States into the Union .. ............................................................ .................. 14% 

Aerial photography (See also Photogrammetry) ............................................... ............... 2-8 to 2-14 

Aliquot parts of sections .................................................... ...................... 1-21, 3-33, 3-76 

Altitude observation of sun for azimuth ...... 2-66 to 2-63 

Amended monument ..................................................................................... . 3-36, 6-41, &16(6) 

Angle points ........ 3-96, 4-4 

Accessories 4-113 

Independent resurveys 6-38, 6-39, 6-49 

Marks on monuments ........................................................................................................................................ 4-45, 6-49(7) 

Metes-and-bounds surveys . ............ 7-16 

Restoration on grant boundaries ............... .... 644 

Restoration on irregular boundary .. 6-36 

Restoration on nonriparian meander lines ................................................. 6-43, 7-84 

Apparent time . ........... 2-27, 2-70 

Apportionment of accretion and reliction ...................... ........... 7-62 to 7-67 

Apportionment of beds of nonnavigable waters .......... 7-57 to 7-61 

Arcs of earth's surface, lengths of %81 

Areas, computation of .. . ............ 9-24 to 9-34, 9-86 

Artificial bodies of water ........... 3-121 

Auxiliary correction line 3-13 

Auxiliary .. guide meridian ......... 3-16 

Auxiliary meander corners . .. 3-12.1, 3-122 

Accessories . 4-111 

Markings . ... d43,4-62, 4-81 

Auxiliary standard parallel ..................................................................................................................................... 3-13 

Avulsion . .. 7-71 to 7-76 

Azimuth, observation for 

Altitude observation of a star ............................................ 2-50, 2-66 

Altitude observation of the sun 2-56 to 2-64 

Equal altitude observation of the sun ..... ........ %66 

Polaris ................................................................................................................ 2-41, 2-46 to 2-48 

Solar unit .... 2-66 to 2-69 

Base line ..._ ............................ 3-9 to 3-11 

Bearing of lines ...... 2-17 to 2-19 

Bearing trees and bearing objects ...................................................................................................................... 4-85 to 4-90 

Markings ..... . 4-96 to 4-114 

Beds of nonnavigable streams and lakes ....................................................... 7-51 to 7-61 

Blazing lines 3-126 

Accessories to corner monuments (See also specific class of monument) .................................................. 4-5, 4-83, 4-96 

.. .. .............. 

.. 

. . .. .. .. 

.. 

.. 

* First number indicates chapter . Second number indicates section of that chapter . 

325 
326 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Bona fide rights of claimants 

Boundaries (See Township boundaries, Water boundaries, Grant boundaries, 

Brass tablets for monumentation 4-7 

..................................................................................................... 4-23 to 4-46 

Broken boundaries (restoration) 5-36, 5-43, 5-44 

Cadastral survey, definition .............................................................................................................................................. 1-2 

Celestial observations (See Observations, Solar observations, Stellar observations) 

Center quarter-section corner ........................... -3-93, %95, 7-12 

Arrangement and markings of accessories ............................................................................................................. 4-109 

Marks on iron posts ................................................................................................. 4-38 

Chain, prescribed unit of linear measure .............. ............................................ 2-1 

Discrepancies in early measurements 5-23 

Chaining 2-2 

Claims in area of survey .................................... 3-71 

Closing corners .................................................................... 3-14, 3-15, 3-19, 3-26, 3-42, 3-43, 3-50, 3-58, 

3-59,3-61,3-68,3-72,3-73, 3-113 

Arrangement and marking of accessories ..................... . 4-97 to 4-114 

Marks on monuments ................................................................... 4-25, 4-30, 4-44, 4-49, 4-54, 4-68, 4-73, 5-41, 8-16(6) 

Recovered off line ........................................... 5-41 

Restoration of .. ............................................ 5-41 

Closing error .. .. 3-46, 3-124 

Collateral evidence ................................................................................................................. ..................................... 5-9 to 5-16 

Completion and extension surveys . .. 3-100 to 3-114 

Completion of partially surveyed sections ............. 3-103 to 3-111 

Computation of areas .................................................................................................................................. 9-24 to 9-34, 9-86 

Construction of monuments 4-9 to 4-14 

Control points ................................................................................................................................................. 2-11, 2-14, 4-19 

Marks on monument .................................. 4-82 

Control surveys in photogrammetry .......................................................................................................................... 2-11, 

Convergency of meridians 2-79 to 2-81, 3-46 

Coordinate systems, State ........................................................................................................................................... 2-11, 2-83 

Corner accessories .. 4-5, 4-83, 4-96 

Arrangement and marking ...................................................................................................................... 4-9, 7 to 4-114 

Corner monuments, marks on 

Iron posts and brass tablets ........................................................................................... 4-20 to 4-46 

Stone monuments ... - ............... 4-47 to 4-62 

Tree monuments ............................................................................................................... 4-63 to 4-81 

Corners of public land surveys, defined ... 5-4 

Corners of two sections, method of establishment .............................................. 3-37 

Correction lines 3-12, 3-13 

Crooked Lake and Bear Lake case ........................................................................................................................................ 7-93 

Declinations of sun, computing hourly ........... .................................... .. 2-69 

Defective exteriors, rectification of ............................................................... ....................................... 3-36 to 3-45 

Dependent resurvey . 6-4, 6-2'5 to 6-32 

Deposits (Memorials) .................................. ................... 4-91 

Direction of lines ..... 2-17 to 2-19 

Distance measurement ................................................................................................................................................... 2-1 to 2-7 

Divlsion of accreted or relicted land .. 7 ~2 to 7-67 

Double meridian distances .......................................................................................................................................... 9-30 to 9-33 

Double proportionate measurement .. 5-25 to 5-29 

Double sets of corners ... 3-42', 3-43 

Restoration .-..... . 5-35 

Electronic telemetry .................................................................................................................... s7 

Elongated sections .. ................. 3-83, 4-41, 6-53 

Equal altitude observations of sun for true meridian ....................................................................................................... 2-65 

Equation of time .................. ............................................................................................................................... 2-30 

Erroneously omitted areas (erroneous meander lines) ........................ ............................. 7-77 to 7-94 

Error of closure 3-46, 3-124 

6-12 to 6-18, 6-42 

Reservation boundaries) 

Marks on 

.. 

.. .. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

... .. 

Ephemeris, The ................................ ................................ ................................................. 1-8 (2) 
INDEX 327 

Evidence of previous survey 

Existent corner 

1-20, 3-4, 4-2, 5-5, 5-9, 9-4 

Defined ................ ...... - ...... - ....... 5-5 

Identification 5-4 to 5-8 

3-1001 to 3-114 

.................................................... 7-90 to 7-92 

.......... 2-11, 2-14 

.. 

Extension and completion surveys ........ 

Exteriors (See Township boundaries) 

Ferry Lake case 

Field control, photogrammetry 

Field notes, Chapter VIII . (For composition of field notes, see section 3-126, the list 

by subject in section 8-13, and sample field notes in the appendix.) ... As identification of survey ................... 9-5 

Copies furnished upon field assignment 7-2(8) 

Erroneously omitted areas ........... 7-87, 7-90, 7-93 

Legal significance ..... 9-3 

Statutory requirement for .. .......... 1-18, 1-2'0 

Use in recovering existent corners 5-6, 5-7, 5-11, 5-16 to 5-18, 5-41, 6-27 

Use in restoring lost corners ... .... 3-4, 5-21 to 5-25, 5-27, 5-29, 5-36, 537, 

Where filed ................................. 1-23, 9-63 

Field notes, mineral surveys (See under Mineral surveys) 

Field tablets 8-2 to 8-6 

Fractional sections, subdivision of (See also Lotting of fractional sections) 

by protraction .............................................................................................................................................. 3-81, 3-82, 7-15 

by survey .......... 3-88, 3-90 

Fractional townships, subdivision of .......................... 3-97 to 3-99 

General rules of survey 1-20 

Geographic (geodetic) position and control .................................................................................................... 2-21, 2-81, 2-82 

Governing township boundaries . 3-17 

Governing section lines ..................... . 3-59, 3-62 

Grant boundaries ....................................................................................................................................... 3-69, 3-70, 3-73, 5-44 

Guide meridians . 3-14 to 3-16 

Gunter's link chain ......................................................................................................................................................... 2-1, 5-23 

Half-mile posts ..... .............. 5-39, 7-10 

High water mark (See also Water boundaries) ... 3-115, 3-116 

Hourly declinations of the sun, computing .................... ..._ - ....... 2-69 

Hoversight ...................................................... 2,7 

Identification of existent corners ............. 5-4 to 5-8 

Independent resurvey 6-5, 6-33 to 6-36 

6-39 to 6-49 

6-50 to 6-55 

6-36 to 6-38 

Indian allotment surveys 7-8, 7-13, 7-14 

Initial points .. 3-6, 3-7 

Islands, survey of 3-122 

Lakes (See also Meander lines) 

Meanders ............ 3-121 

Partition of beds (nonnavigable) .................................................................................................................... 7-47 to 7-61 

Instrumental ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2-71 

Meridian altitude observation of the sun ........................................... 2-65 

Polaris observations for ............................................................................................................................ 2-41, 2-44, 2-45 

True parallel of ....................................................... 2-75 to 2-78 

Latitude and longitude %21, 2-81, 2-82, 9-59 

Laws relating to system of public surveys 1-16 to 1-20 

Legal subdivisions of section .. .. 1-21, 3-33., 3-75 

Limits of authority of surveyor .................................................................................................................................. 5-13, 6-11 

Limits of closure 3-46, 3-124 

Limits, rectangular .. 3-34 

Line trees 3-125, 3-126 

6-18 

Direction for preparation in special instructions 7-2(9) 

.. 

5-39, 6-40, 5-42 to 5-47, 6-27 

.. 

.. 

.. 

. 

.. 

Metes-and-bounds surveys of private claims . 

Projection of new lines ...............................................I 

Reestablishment of outboundaries 

.. 

.. 

.. Latitude 

... .. 

.. 

.. 

.. Use in reestablishing lost corner ..... 
328 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Local and county surveyors. function of 3-76 

Local mean time ..... 2-29 

Location monuments .. -4-18 

Lost corner, defined (See also Restoration of lost corners) .. 5-20 

Lotting of fractional sections .. 3-77, 3-79 to 3-82, 9-80 to 9-82 

Low water mark . 3-116 

Magnetic needle .... ...............-. .2-18, 3-126(19) 

Magnitude of stars ................................................................................................................................................................... 2-61 

Marking lines . 3-126 

Marks on monuments (symbols) ..... 4-22 

Meander corners 

Accessories ...................................................................................................................................................... 4-108, 4-111 

Control in restoring lost corners 6-32 

Marks on monuments .......... . ............. &37,4-42, 4-43, 4-61, 4-62,4-80, 4-81 

Restoration of .. 6-40 

Where established 3-10, 3-18, 3-21, 3-117, 3-121, 3-122 

Meander lines (See also Water boundaries) 2-14, 3-81), 3-116, to 3-123, 6-43 

Mean high water ......................................................................................................................................................... 3-115, 3-116 

Mean solar time ........................................... 2-28 

Measurement 

Methods ........................................ . 2-2 to 2-7 

Units 2-1 

Median line of body of water . 7-64 to 7-66 

Memoranda on plats . 9-59 

Memorials .... 4-91, 4-93 

Meridian observation of sun for apparent noon 2-64 

Meridian observation of sun for latitude ... 2756 

Meridians 

Convergency of . %79 to 2-81 

Guide . 3-14 to 3-16 

Principal . ................................................. 3-6 to 3-9 

of irregular tracts .............................................. 7-16 

of private claims in resurvey ........ 6-39 to 6-49 

Mile corners . 4-46, 6113, 6-4, 6-19, 7-16 

Mineral segregation surveys . 7-39 to 7-44 

Mineral surveys 

Amended surveys .. ...... 10-61 to 10-63 

Applications for survey anq order ......................................................................................................... 10-2, 10-10, 10-14 

Appointment of mineral surveyors 10-2 

Boundaries of each claim to be ascertained 10-5 

Amended location certificate .. 10-14 

Boundaries confined to location 10-9, 10-11, 10-12 

Failure to show discovery or to mark boundaries of location ........................................................................ 10-14 

Locations prior to May 10, 1872 10-16 

Closure of boundaries . 10-17 

Computation sheets ......... - ........... 10-41 

Connecting lines to corners of conflicting surveys, and to locations if excluded ..................................... 10-26, 10-30 

Claims under same ownership lO-29 

Field note record .. 10-31 

Two locations of same survey . ....................................................................... 10-27 

Unsurveyed locations ...... ............................... 10-28 

10-31 

10-19 to 10-22 

Corner of millsite ......................................... 10-24 

Corner monuments, establishment 10436 

Bearing objects and trees ....................................................................................................................................... 10-38 

Marks . 10-36 

Material ................................................................................................................................................................... 10-36 

Witness corners ...... 10-37 

Definition ......................................................................................................................................................... 10-1, 10-3, 10-4 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

Metes-and-bounds survey 

.. 

* . 

.. Connecting lines to corners of neighboring surveys .. 

Connecting line to location monument or subdivisional corner .............................................. .. 

.. 
INDEX 329 

Mineral surveys-Continued 

Deposit for cost of office work 10-2 

Direction of lines ... 10-7 

Discovery point 10-13, 10-17, 10-52 

Employment of assistants ........................................................................................................................................... 10-2 

Field note record ................................................... .................................................. 10-40 

Address of claimant ................................................................................................................................. 10-47 

Amended surveys 10-62, 10-63 

Areas to be shown or reported 1044, 10-45 

Improvements ..... 10-52, 10-53, 10-58 

Lode line .. ............................................................ 10-17 

Names of locations and survey numbers ........ .. ......... ....... 10-43 

Reference to subdivisional survey ............................................................................................................ 10-46 

Specimen field notes 10-42 

Topography 10-34,lO-39,1 0-64 

Witness corner ............... 10-37 

Improvements (or development) ......................................................................................................I......................... 10-48 

Certificate ................................. 10-49 

Common improvements ......... ...................................... 10-53, 10-55 ta 1657 

Labor or improvements (or development), definition ........................................................................ 10-50; 10-51 

Location to be ascertained .................................................................................................... 10-52 

Millsite included with lode claim .... .............................................. 10-54 

Numbering 10-52 

Report to be made if improved under abandoned location ............................................................... 10-52, 10-60 

Supplemental proof 10-69 

Value to be ascertained .... . 10-53 

.................................................................................... 10-17, 10-18 

............................... 10-20, 10-32 

Bearing objects and trees, topographic map 10-34 

Construction and marks ....................................................................................................................................... 10-33 

Lode line position to be recorded in field notes and shown upon plat ......... ......... 10-17 

Qualifications .......................................................................................................................................................... 10-18 

Magnetic declination ........ ........... 10-8 

Measurement of lines ...................................................................................................................................................... 10-6 

Mineral laws .. 10-1, 10-2 

Appointments ............................................................................................................................................................. 10-2 

Improvements . 10-48 

Locations prior to May 10, 1872. .......................................................................................................................... 10-16 

Locations to be marked ..... 10-12 

Restrlctions on mineral surveyor .. 10-2 

10-2'1, 10-23 

Contiguous claims 10-25 

Millsite .... ......... 10-24 

Placer claims ............................................................................................................................................................ 10-25 

Plat . 10-41 

Amended surveys .... ............................................................................ . - ....................... 10-62 

Approval . .. 10-65 

Certificate .. 10-64 

Detail to be shown . .. 10-64 

Disposition .. 10-65 

Lode line . .. 10-17 

Order of approval 10-2 

Specimen mineral plat ... 10-64 

Subdivlsional survey to be shown ........... ..................................................................................................-..-i.. 10-46 

Survey number 10-10; 10-24 

Topography ............................................................................ 10-34, 10-39, 10-64 

Witness corners . 10-37 

Mineral surveys on township plat 3-126 (13), 9-9, 9-66 

Mine surveys . 7-45 

Monumentation (See also specific type monument) 

General requirements .. 4-4 4-6 

Legal significance . 4-2 

.. 

... 

................................................................................................................. 

... 

Length and width of claim 

Location monument, establishment .......................................................................... 

.. .. 

.. 

Numbering of corners . 

.. 

... 

... 

.. 
330 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Monument construction ...................................................... 4-9 to 4-14 

Monument, regulation . .. 4-7 

Monuments, (special purpose) 4-16 to 4-19 

Accessories . .... ~ ........ 4-96 

Marks on ... 4-82 

Moon Lake case . 7-87 to 7-89 

Mound of stone ............. ................................................................ 4-92 

Navigability . .............................. 7-48 to 7-50 

Nonnavigable bodies of water 

............................................................. 3-115 to 3-123 

7-51 to 7-61 

Non-riparian meander lines ............................................................................................................................ 6-43 

Obliterated corner 

Definition . ........ 6-9 

Identification ............................. 6-10 to 5-16 

Testimony ........................................................................................................................................................................... 5-11 

Use of topography 5-16 

Observations, general requirements (See also Polaris observations, Solar 

..................... 2-20 to 2-25 

Omitted lands ....... 7-77 to 7-94 

Outlying areas .. 3-103 

Parallel of latitude ..... ............................. 2-75 to 2-78 

Parallels, standard . 3-12, 3-13 

Partition of accreted or relicted lands . ....................... 7-62 to 7-70 

Partition of beds of nonnavigable waters ............................................................................................................... 7-57 to 7-61 

Partition of land outside meander line, no gross error .......................... 7-94 

Parts of sections, survey of ...................................................................................................................................... 3-93 to 3-96 

Penalty for alteration or removal of monument ......... ......... 4-2 

Photogrammetry, general requirements .................................................................................. ...................... 2r8 to 2-16 

.. 3-123 

......... 7-29 

Phototriangulation 2-12, 2-13 

Pits ...................................... ......... 4-94 

Plane coordinates . 2-11, 2-83 

Plats 

Acceptance 9-1, 9-61 

Aerial photographs, and use of data 9-54 

Annulment or disapproval 9-2 

Base drawing ...................................................................................................................................................... - ............... 9-9 

Certificates .... 9-61 

Computation of areas ............................................. 9-24 to 9-34, 9-86 

Copies for public . 9-62 

Directions and lengths of lines and areas .............................. 3-12#6, %I, 9-8, 9-9, 9-21 

............................ 3-36, 3-69, 3-71, 3-121, 3-122, 4-15, 9-40 

Distribution of original, duplicate and triplicate ........................................ 9-62 to 9-64 

Field sketch ............................................................................................................................................. 3-126, 9-53 to 9-56 

Fragmentary surveys 9-78 

Areas, lotting and scale ........... 9-80 

Certificates and memorandum .... 9-82, 9-83 

Directions and lengths of lines, and topography 9-82 

Distinguished from supplemental plats ...................................................................................................... 9-66, 9-78 

Titles and subtitles ...................................... 9-58 

Geographic names ............................................................................................................................................ 9-56 

Latitude and longitude to be shown ........................................... 9-59 

Marginal data ................................................................................................................................................................. 9-60 

Memoranda .... ........................ ........ 9-59 

Mineral plats (See also under Mineral surveys) 10-64 

Outlying areas relating to former plats 9-23 

No additional outlying areas shown on new plats ... 3-100 

Requirements with reference to the general Manual subjects 9-6 

... 

Meanders . 

Division of beds ... 

.. 

.. 

observations, Solar transit, Stellar observations, Time) 

.. 

.. 

In survey of meander lines .. 

In townsite surveys ................... _ ........................... 

Connecting lines .. ... .. 

.. 

... 

.. 
INDEX 331 

Plats -Continued 

Revised lottings ......................... ..._. ...... 9-8 1 

Specimen township plat (See Insert No . 1) ............... 9-7 

Titles and subtitles ........ 9-57, 9-58 

Use in subdividing sections ....... 3-74, 3-75, 3-92, 9-4, 9-5 

Polaris observations .. 2-32, 2-35, 2-38 to 2-49 

Posts, standard monumentation 4-7 

Marks on - ........ 4-23 to 4-46 

Principal meridians .. 3-6 to 3-9 

Proportionate measurement 6-40, 5-41 

Basic rules and application ................. 6-16, 5-21 to 5-24 

Control corners .......................... 3-101, 5-17, 5-18, 5-42, 6-%, 6-28 

Double proportionate measurement . 6-26 to 6-29 

Single proportionate measurement ................................................................................................................... 5-30 to 5-38 

Protraction diagrams 214, 3-6 Footnote 1 

Protraction, subdivision of sections by ................................................................................................... 3-77 to 3-84 

Public lands 

Administration of ........................................................................................................................................ 1-9 to 1-11 

General rules for survey of 1-20 

States created from 1-23 

3-8, 3-18, 3-21, 3-22, 3-37, 3-40 to 3-43, 3-48, 3-51)] to 3-52, 

Arrangement and markings of accessories ........... 4-105 to 4-107 

Marks on iron posts 4-34 to 4-36 

Marks on stone monuments .............................................................................................................................. 4-68 to 4-60 

-Marks on tree monuments 4-77 to 4-79 

Restoration .. 5-34 to 5-36, 5-38 

Records of surveys, where filed .............. 1-23, 9-62 

Rectangular limits . ............................................................................................................... 13-33 to 3-36 

Rectangular surveys 

Early development ............... 1-17 

Legal definition ...... .. ... 3-2, 3-4, 3-33 

Principles of . 3-3, to 3-7 

Reference monuments .......... 4-5, 4-16, 4-82, 4-83, 4-96 

Reliction ................... ~ ......._ 7-63 

Removal or alteration of monument, penalty for ........ 4-2 

Reservation boundaries ..................... 3-69, 3-70, 3-73, 5-44 7-13 

Restoration of lost corners (See also particular type of corner) 

Authority and jurisdiction .................................................................................................................................. 5-1 to 5-3 

General procedure . 6-21 to 5-23 

Special cases .................................................. 5-46, 547 

1-8(3) 

... 

.. .. 

.. 

.. ... 

.. 

Quarter-section corners 

3-58, 3-61 to 3-63,3-69, 3-103 to 3-10.5, 3-107 

.. 

.. .. 

.. 

.... 

Restoration of lost or obliterated corners and subdivision of sections, 

Resurveys, Chapter VI (See also Dependent resurvey, Independent resurvey) 

a guide for surveyors .... 

Definitions : 

Dependent resurvey . 6-4 

Independent resurvey 6-5 

Resurvey 6-1 

Retracement 6-7, 6-8 

General field methods 6-19 to 6-24 

Jurisdiction ..................................................................................... 6-9, 6-10 

Retracement, definition ................................... 6-7 

Rights of claimants 6-12 to 6-18, 6-42 

Riparian rights ...... 3-122, 7-88, 7-94, 7-97 

Rivers (See also Meander lines) 

Meanders ~ ............. 3-120 

Partition of beds (nonnavigable) ............ 7-47-t~~ 7-59 

Sectional correction line ..... ..... 3-40, 3-61 to 3-63, 3-66 

Sectional guide meridian ............................................................. 3-41, 3-68 to 3-60, 3-64 

Section corners ..... 3-8, 3-18, 3-21, 3-22, 3-34, 3-37, 3-40! to 3-42, 

3-48,3-68, 3-61 to 3-63 . 4-102 to 4-104 

... .. 

... 

.. 

.. 

Arrangement and marking of accessories 
33 2 MANUAL OF SURVEYING INSTRUCTIONS 

Section corners-Continued 

Marks on iron posts 4-29 to 4-33 

Marks on stone monuments ~ ............................................................................................................................. 4-63 to 467 

Marks on tree monuments .... ..- ....................... 4-72 to 4-76 

Restoration ... ........... 6-28, 6-29, 6-34 to 6-37, 6-46 

Sections, subdivision of . 3-74 to 3-92 

Sidereal time ...................... 2-32 

Single proportionate measurement 6-30 to 6-38, 641 

Sixteenth-section corners ........................ ........................................ 3-86, 3-89 to 3-96, 7-12 

Arrangement and marking accessories ... 4-110 

Marks on iron posts .................................... 4-38, 4-40, 4-41 

Sketch plat .. 3-127, 9-52 to 9-66 

Small-tract surveys ........... - ........................................... ..................................... 7-32 

Soil classification .. 3-126, 7-100 to 7-104, 8-17 

Solar observations (See also Observations) ............................................................................... 2453 to 2-66 

Solar transit ............... 2-66 to 2-73 

Appendix 1 

Sovereignty over navigable waters . 1-12 

Special instructions, defined 7-1 

preparation of 7-2 

Special meander corner ...................................................... 3-121, 3-122 

Accessories 4-111 

Markings . . ...................................................................................... 442, 4-62, 4-81 

Speci'dl surveys, definition of 7-4 

Specimen mineral plat 10-64 

Specimen township plat . %7 to 9-10 

Stadia, limitation of use 2-3 

Standard field tables and trigonometric formulas ....... 1-8(1) 

Standard parallels ... 3-12, 3-13 

Standard quarter.section, section, and township corners 3-10 

Arrangement and marking accessories .............. 4-97, 4-10.6 

Marks on iron posts .................... 4-24, 4-29, 4-34 

Marks on stone monuments .......................................................................................................................... .a-48,4-63, 4-68 

Marks on tree monuments .................................................................... 4-67, 4-72, 4-77 

Restoration .... . 6-30, 5-32, 6-33 

Standard time .... 2-31 

Star identification 240, 2-61 

Star magnitudes 2~61 

State boundary monuments ....................................................................................................................... 3-69, 4-26, 4A6, 5-19 

State coordinate systems 2-11, 2-83 

Stellar observations (See also Polaris observations) ....... .....,.............. ............................................ 2-60 to 2+% 

Stereophotogrammetry (See Photogrammetry) 

Stone monuments . ...................................................... 4-8 

.................. 4-12, 4-47 to 4-62 

Subdimion corners, minor .... ............................................ 4-39, 4-83, 7-12 

Subdivision of fractional sections 

by protraction ......................................................................................................................... 3-81, 3-82, 7-15 

by survey 3-88, 3-90 

Subdivision of fractional townships . 3-97 to 3-99 

Subdivision of sections by protraction . ...... 3-77 to 3-84 

In completing partially surveyed section .......................................... 3-1101, 3-111 

Independent resurveys ................ 9-88, 9-93, 9-100 to 9-102, 9-104, 9-106, 9-108, 9-109 

Plat construction ................................................................................................. 9-8, 9-9, 9-21 to 9-30, 9-65, 9-82, 9-86 

Supplemental plats .. ..................... 9-66, to 9-69, 9-73 to 9-76 

3-86 to 3-92, 3-95, 7-8 to 7-16 

............. 3-74 to 3-76 

3-47 to 3-73, 3-97 to 3-99 

2-4 

3-93' to 3-96 

... 

.. 

Adjustment of solm unit 

.. 

.. 

.... 

... 

Marks on ............ ... 

... 

.... 

Subdivision of sections by survey ........................................... 

Subdivision of sections, general ........... 

Subdimion of townships 

Subtense bar, rules for use of 

Supplementalplats (See under Plats) 

Survey of parts of sections .. 

... 

............................... 
INDEX 333 

Swamp and overflowed lands 

Definition and rules for survey ... 

Legislation . 

...... . 7-95 to 7-99 

............ 1-13 to 1-15 

System of rectangular surveys (See Rectangular surveys) 

Tablets, regulation brass, for monumentation .. .......................... 4-7 

Tapes, description and use ..... .... 2-2 

Telemetry, electronic .. ................................................................................................................ 2-7 

Tidelands . .......................................................................................... 1-12, 7-96 

Time conversion, examples ............. 2-36, 2-37 

Time, equation of ............................................................................................................................................................... 2-30 

Time, observations for 

2-63 

2-52 

Meridian observation of the sun .... .................................................................................... 2-54, 2-55 

Time, rates and definition by class 2-26 to 2-38 

Topography ........................................ ..................... 3-126,5-16, 5-40, 7-2(8), 8-16(~), 9-41 to 9-56 

Township boundaries .................. 3-17 to 3-46 

Allowable deviation from cardinal course ......................................................... 3-26 to 3-28 

Closing error ... ............................ 3-46 

Completion of partially surveyed exteriors ........................................................... .......................... 3-29, 3-30 

Defective exteriors, rectification ... .............. 3-36 to 3-45 

Governing boundaries . ............................ 3-17 

Latitudinal boundaries, surveying procedure ............................................................................ 3-21, 3-22 

Meridional boundaries, surveying procedure ........................................................................................... 3-19, 3-20 

Order of survey .............................................................................................................................................................. 3-18 

Retracement before subdividing .... .............................. 3-31, 3-32 

Section lines as offsets to exteriors ................................................................. 3-25 

Township corners .......... 3-8, 3-10, 3-14, 3-18, 3-20, 3-26, 3-30 

Marks on iron post ............................................................................................................................................. 4-24 to 4-28 

Marks on stone monuments ........ .................. -~4-48 to 4-52 

Marks on tree monuments .................................................................... P67 to 4-71 

Restoration ..................... 5-26, 5-27, 5-29 

Townsite surveys ..................................................................................................... 7-17 

Transfer of azimuth, station error, and curvature 2-74 

Traversing 

Connection lines . .. .................................................... 3-71 

Rules for ........................................................................................................................... ..... 2-5 

Tree corner monuments ........................ 4-13 

Marks on .................................................................................................................. 4-63 to 4, 81 

Triangulation -. ... ............... .............. 2-6, 3-23, 3-53, 3-122 

Underground or mine surveys ... 7-45 

Upland within swamp and overflowed lands ..................................... ........................... 3-122 

Water boundaries (See also Meander line) ...................... ...................................................................... 7-46 to 7-94 

Witness corners .................. 3-117, 4-15 

Accessories .... . . ..... 4-5, 4-96 

Marks on monuments ..................................................................................................................................... 4-82 

Use of in king original corner point 5-17 

Witness point, defined ................ 4-17 

Accessories .. ....................................................................... ... 4-96 

.. 

.. 

Altitude observation of the sun .................................................................................................. 

Meridian observation of a star .. 

.. 

Field note record .................................................................................. ................................. 3-23, 3-32 

... .. 

.. 

.. .. 

Marks on monuments ................................................................................................. 4-82 

Witness trees (See Bearing trees) 

ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1987-165-847