- - 

4-. U.S. Department of Justice 

PROPERTY OF 

National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) 

Box 6000 

Rockvjlle, MD 20849-6000 

CML DISABILITIES OF CONVICTED FELONS: 

A STATE-BY-STATE SURVEY 

OCTOBER 1996 

PREPARED BY 

OFFICE OF THE PARDON ATTORNEY 

Margaret Colgate Love Susan M. Kuzma 


Pardon Attorney Attorney Advisor 

FOREWORD 
 &?3 


. . . ... i/ 1v11 D~sabbt~es of Convicted Felons was first published in 1992; this volume 

represents its first comprehensive update. The summaries contained in this manual survey the 

principal state and federal laws that impose disabilities as a result of a felony conviction, and 

the means provided for removal of these disabilities in each jurisdiction. These laws affect, 

among other things, the exercise of civil and political rights, eligibility for professional 

licenses and other employment, and the legal ability to possess firearms. 

This survey was originally undertaken to assist the Office of the Pardon Attorney in 

evaluating pardon applications from federal offenders seeking a pardon for the purpose of 

restoring civil rights and/or removing other legal disabilities imposed as a result of a criminal 

conviction. As we researched the law and talked with state and federal officials, it quickly 

became apparent that the information we were collecting had a broader usefulness. 

It is obviously important for government officials at all levels to be able to determine 

the legal rights and responsibilities of criminal offenders, both to ensure compliance with the 

law and to provide accurate and consistent advice to individuals seeking guidance. Our 

research revealed that the laws governing the same rights and privileges vary widely from state 

to state. Even within a single jurisdiction, there was at times disagreement among various 

agencies about how the law should be interpreted and applied. The area of firearms 

disabilities presents special problems, involving for state felons a complex interplay of federal 

and state law that has implications for effective law enforcement and for the individuals whose 

rights are at issue. 

It is our hope that the information we have gathered and summarized here will be of 

assistance to state and federal authorities with operational and policy responsibilities in the 

fields of law enforcement, corrections, and clemency. We hope to update the survey on a 

regular basis, and we encourage all interested parties to notify us when new laws are enacted 

or existing laws are amended or given new interpretation. In this regard, we would like to 

express our great appreciation to those state and federal officials and agencies that commented 

on our survey before publication. Your comments and suggestions were of great help in 

ensuring the accuracy, currency, and completeness of the survey, and we are much indebted to 

you for your valuable assistance. 

Finally, we want to thank the members of the staff of the Office of the Pardon Attorney 

who provided tremendous research support in updating the survey, including staff attorney 

Michael DuBose, paralegals Andrew Eveleth and Alex Scofield, and our summer intern Tom 

Sharp. Our continued thanks to staff attorney J. Keith Waters who worked on the 1992 

version of the survey. 

Margaret C. Love, Pardon Attorney 

Susan M. Kuzma, Attorney Advisor 
Page ii 

DISCLAIMER 

Civil Disabilities of Convicted Felons: A State-bv-State Survey is provided for 

informational purposes only, as an aid to further inquiry. The Office of the Pardon Attorney 

does not have official responsibility for the interpretation of the law of any state, and found in 

compiling the survey that in a number of jurisdictions there was disagreement among agencies 

about the interpretation of state law. Further, the laws in many states are revised frequently. 

The reader is therefore cautioned that the relevant state agency should always be contacted for 

a current and authoritative interpretation of state law. Similarly, the views expressed in the 

survey on questions of federal or state law do not necessarily represent the official position of 

the Department of Justice. 

The volume, complexity, and variation of laws considered in compiling the survey 

made it necessary to be selective in what we covered, if we ever hoped to finish it at all, let 

alone before it was out-of-date. Accordingly, we have focused on the effect of a federal felony 

conviction upon the exercise of three major political rights (thi rights to vote, serve on a jury, 

or hold office) and on firearms privileges. Obviously, disabilities are imposed upon conviction 

of state felonies, disabilities other than those covered by the survey may attend upon conviction 

of a felony, and conviction of crim.es other than felonies may also result in disabilities. While 

these and many related issues, necessary to a determination whether a given person is subject -%

'

L'as 

to a particular disability, are certainly worthy topics of research, time and resource consliabts, 

well as the interest of uniforx&y in reporting on eachjurisdiction, required us to take a 

more limited approach. Finally, while we attempted to make the entries user--frindly to 

persons most likely to consult them, we adhered to a high (though hopefully not compulsive) 

degree of conformity to Blue Book style in citation conventions. We hope that, despite its 

limited focus and perhaps unfamiliar abbreviations, people will find it a useful reference. 

The information conkied in the survey is current as of April 1996. Conynents are 

welcome and should be sent to the Office of the Pardon Attorney, U.S. Dep-ent of ~ustice, 

500 First Street, N.W., Fourth Floor, Washington, D.C. 20530. 
Page iv 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DISCLAIMER .................................................. ii 


INTRODUCTION ................................................ 1 


FEDERALLAW ................................................. 6 


I. FEDERAL LAW REGARDING EFFECT OF CONVICTION ON VOTING. 


OFFICE HOLDING. JURY SERVICE. LICENSING. EMPLOYMENT. 


FEDERAL BENEFITS. AND IMMIGRATION ................... 6 


A. 	 Right to vote .....................................6 


B. 	 Right to serve on a federal jury ......................... 6 . 
 C. 	 Employment and licensing ............................. 6 


1. t to hold fedad office or emplovme~ ............. 6 


2 . 	 b d forces ................................ 7 


3. Selected fede-osed occ-1 r e. . s w 


giisabw .................................. 8 


(a) 	 General ............................... 8 


(b) 	 Banking. commodities. and securities ............ 8 


(c) 	 Labor organizations ....................... 9 


(d) 	 Participation in federal contracts or programs ...... 10 


D. 	 Federal benefits .................................. 11 


E. 	 Immigration ..................................... 11 


F. 	 Registration statutes ................................ 12 


I1. 	 RESTORATION OF CIVIL RIGHTS AND REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 


UNDER FEDERAL LAW ................................ 13 


I11. 	 LOSS AND RESTORATION OF FEDERAL FIREARMS PRIVILEGES . . 14 


ALABAMA ................................................... 19 


ALASKA .....................................................22 


ARIZONA ........ 

ARKANSAS ................................................... 27 


CALIFORNIA ................................................. 29 


COLORADO ..................................................33 


CONNECTICUT ................................................ 35 


ILLINOIS ..................... 


KENTUCKY 


DELAWARE .................................................. 37 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA ........................................39 


FLORIDA ................................................. 41 


GEORGIA .................................................... 43 


HAWAII .....................................................47 


IDAHO ......................................................49 


INDIANA .................................................... 54 


IOWA ....................................................... 57 


KANSAS ..................................................... 59 


LOUISIANA .................................................. 64 


MAINE ......................................................67 


MARYLAND .................................................68 


MASSACHUSETTS .............................................. 71 


MICHIGAN ................................................... 73 

Page vi 

MINNESOTA ................................................... 76 


MISSISSIPPI .................................................. 80 


MISSOURI .................................................... 83 


MONTANA ................................................... 85 


NEBRASKA ................................................... 88 


NEVADA .................................................... 90 


NEWHAMPSHIRE ..............................................92 


NEWJERSEY .................................................94 


NEWMEXICO .................................................97 


NEWYORK .................................................. 99 


NORTH CAROLINA ............................................ 102 


NORTH DAKOTA ............................................. 104 


OHIO ...................................................... 106 


OKLAHOMA ................................................. 110 


OREGON ................................................... 112 


PENNSYLVANIA .............................................. 115 


RHODE ISLAND .............................................. 118 


SOUTH CAROLINA ............................................ 120 


SOUTH DAKOTA .............................................. 122 


TENNESSEE ................................................. 124 


TEXAS ....................................... 

Page vii 

UTAH ...................................................... 129 


VERMONT .................................................. 132 


. VIRGINIA ................................................... 133 


APPENDICES 


LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTS TO VOTE,TO HOLD STATE OFFICE 


AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION . .A1-6 


WASHINGTON ............................................... 135 


WEST VIRGINIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 


WISCONSIN ................................................. 141 


WYOMING .................................................. 143 


SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON 


CONVICTION . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .B1-12 

INTRODUCTION 


Under federal law and the laws of many states, conviction of a felony has consequences 

that may continue long after a sentence has been served. For example, convicted felons may 

lose essential rights of citizenship, such as the rights to vote and to hold public office, and may 

be restricted in their ability to obtain occupational or professional licenses. Under the federal 

gun control laws, and under the laws of many states, felons lose their firearms privileges. 

These and other "collateral" consequences of a felony conviction are burdens that follow from 

conviction, in addition to any prison sentence, probation, or fine imposed by a court. 

Restoration of one or more of these rights frequently can be achieved, either automatically by 

the passage of time or the occurrence of an event, such as completion of sentence, or through 

some affirmative executive or judicial act, which may be based on evidence of rehabilitation. 

Although it may come as a surprise to many, a number of significant disabilities that 

are imposed upon conviction are imposed by state, rather than federal, law, even when the 

conviction is for a federal rather than state offense. The loss of the rights to vote, to hold state 

office, and to sit on a state jury are chief examples of such disabilities. Just as state law 

imposes a disability on a federal felon, so too a federal felon may be able to employ a state 

procedure to remove the disability, instead of employing the only presently available federal 

restoration mechanism, presidential pardon. 

The summaries and charts that follow survey the federal statutes and the principal laws 

of the 50 states and the District of Columbia that deal with the effect of a felony conviction 

upon the rights to vote, to hold office, and to sit as a juror, and upon the ability to possess 

firearms. While the focus of the survey is the loss and restoration of political rights and 

firearms privileges, employment-related disabilities are also touched upon, as are registration 

requirements for sex offenders. The summaries, and especially the charts, are not intended to 

be exhaustive, since the complexity of the law in some jurisdictions makes summarization 

difficult. Further, new legislative enactments and judicial and administrative interpretations 

arise continually. Accordingly, the text of relevant federal and state statutes, current case law, 

and the policies and interpretations of federal, state, and local agencies that control the 

exercise of a particular right must be consulted for additional detail and up-to-date 

interpretation. 

Our research revealed that the laws governing the same rights and privileges vary 

widely from state to state, making something of a national crazy-quilt of disqualifications and 

restoration procedures. It also showed that there was at times disagreement among agencies 

'Some states appear to have adopted the position that the Supremacy Clause of the United States 

Constitution precludes them from "pardoning" a federal offender, as such action would derogate from the 

President's pardon power. Interestingly, such states do not consider it a usurpation of federal power to impose 

civil disabilities and disqualifications upon federal offenders in the first instance. Other states, while accepting the 

proposition that only the President can forgive a federal offense by means of a pardon, nonetheless conclude that 

the state has the power to restore to a federal offender the rights taken away by operation of state law. &, u, 

Amett v. Stumb~, 287 Ky. 433, 153 S.W.2d 889 (Ky. 1941). 
October 1996 Page 2 

about how the law in a particular jurisdiction should be interpreted and applied. For this 

reason, our interpretations may not always command a consensus. More importantly, the 

uncertain state of the law in various jurisdictions raises questions about a convicted felon's 

ability to determine his legal rights and responsibilities, which obviously can have serious 

consequences for affected individuals. This is particularly true in connection with some 

felons' legal ability under federal law to possess firearms. 

Although our survey emphasizes certain consequences of a federal felony con~iction,~ 

we found that not all states have paid consistent attention to the place of federal offenders in 

the state's scheme for loss and restoration of civil rights. While some state statutes expressly 

address federal offenses, both as to the loss of rights and as to the availability of restoration 

procedures, many do not. The disabilities imposed upon felons under state law generally are 

assumed to apply with the same force whether the conviction is a state or federal one; in only 

a few states have particular disabilities been held not to apply to federal offenders. Similarly, 

state laws dealing with restoration of rights do not always address how federal felons' rights 

may be regained. This is particularly true when state-law disabilities for state offenders may 

be removed only by a state pardon. In at least 16 states, federal offenders cannot avail 

themselves of the state procedure for restoring one or more of their civil rights, either because 

state law restores that right to state offenders only through a pardon and federal offenders are 

ineligible for a state pardon, or because a state procedure to restore rights to state offenders is 

unavailable to federal offenders. (-3 y 1 

The varied availability of state remedies to federal felons underscores the fact that the 

only method prescribed by federal law for restoring rights, aside from federal firearms 

privileges, is presidential pardon; there is no general federal statutory procedure for restoring 

'We have not attempted to describe all the adverse legal consequences of a felony conviction, or to cover 

in depth the adverse consequences of conviction of a crime other than a felony. Nor have we attempted to include 

consequences imposed under municipal law, or by corporate charter or otherwise by private organizations. In 

addition, although disabilities may attend upon being charged with or agreeing to pretrial diversion for a crime, 

we have not attempted to explore those issues or to define what is meant by "conviction" of a crime, which may 

vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and from context to context. For example, a person may not be considered 

"convicted" for some purposes until sentence is imposed, or may not be considered "convicted" if he pleads nolo 

contendere to the offense. Further, the treatment of military convictions, juvenile adjudications, and convictions 

in foreign countries or tribal courts is not covered to any significant degree in this survey. Finally, the issue of 

the effective dates of particular disabilities and restoration procedures is not addressed in any detail, but should be 

considered before concluding that a particular disability or restoration procedure applies as a result of a particular 

conviction. 

3For example, a presidential pardon is needed to restore to federal felons the right to sit on a jury in at 

least the following states: California, Delaware, Hawaii, Louisiana, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 

Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont (if the offender was sentenced to 

prison), and West Virginia. In addition, in some states, a state procedure for restoring rights is unavailable for 

certain types of offenses or offenders. Accordingly, a pardon is necessary to restore rights in such circumstances. 
B- ' 

/---> 

t ,j 

p -

'-' 

i__ 

October 1996 Page 3 

rights or expunging a criminal re~ord.~ Accordingly, in at least these 16 states, federal 

offenders must obtain a presidential pardon in order to exercise one or more of their three 

political rights. 

Our research further revealed that, despite considerable variation among the states, 

their laws regarding the loss and restoration of rights generally reflect five patterns. In the 

first pattern, the right to vote, the right to hold office, or the right to sit on a jury is not lost as 

a result of a conviction or is lost only if the offender is incarcerated upon conviction and are 

automatically restored upon release from incarceration. In a second pattern, these rights are 

automatically restored by the completion of the sentence, by obtaining a certificate of 

discharge from the sentence, or by the passage of time. In a third pattern, rights may be 

restored through a judicial or administrative procedure, which typically requires that the 

offender have completed his or her sentence and imposes a waiting period for seeking 

restoration and which may require a demonstration of law-abidingness and rehabilitation. In a 

fourth pattern, one or more rights may be regained only by a pardon. Finally, in a small 

number of states, one or more rights are permanently lost. 

Typically, state statutes that impose disabilities upon voting, office holding, and sitting 

as a juror apply upon conviction of a "felonyn or an "infamous crimen (which may be defined 

under state law as a felony), but sometimes apply upon conviction of a "crime of moral 

turpitude" or certain designated offenses, such as, concerning the right to vote, an election-law 

crime. State statutes imposing firearms disabilities tend to be more narrow, in that they may 

not apply upon conviction of every "felony," but, for example, only upon conviction of a 

"crime of violence, " or upon conviction of specifically designated offenses, including weapons 

or drug violations, that may include misdemeanors. 

In all but three states, the right to vote is lost, although in many states the right to vote 

is lost only if the offender is incarcerated. Further, the right to vote is most likely to be 

restored automatically upon release from incarceration or completion of the sentence, or by the 

passage of time. The right generally hardest to regain is the right to sit on a jury, although a 

number of states preclude restoration of the right to hold off~ce, even by a state pardon, at 

least for convictions of certain offenses. State procedures for restoring civil rights are more 

predominantly administrative than judicial, although the judicial remedies of deferred 

adjudication, probation without adjudication, setting aside the conviction, reduction of a felony 

to a misdemeanor, and expungement, at least for first offenders, are not uncommon. 

'There are in some cases specific, narrow expungement procedures for certain types of convictions. For 

example, before its amendment, 21 U .S .C. 5 844(b) permitted expungement of official records of misdemeanor 

convictions for possession of marijuana. Currently, for defendants who were less than 21 years old at the time of 

the offense, 18 U.S.C. § 3607permits a court to impose probation without entry of a judgment of conviction for 

violations of 21 U.S.C. § 844,and, upon the defendant's successful completion of probation, to expunge official 

records regarding the charge. 
October 1996 Page 4 

States generally impose numerous occupational and licensing disabilities upon 

convicted felons. While a number of states forbid automatic denial of employment or 

licensure because of a conviction after a certain time has passed (although they may except 

certain occupations and/or certain convictions from this prohibition), states generally permit 

consideration of criminal conduct as grounds for revoking or denying public employment or 

occupational or professional licensure, or for imposing sanctions upon the license or permit 

holder. There is considerable variation among the states as to whether loss or denial of a 

license or pennit based on a conviction is mandatory or discretionary. Under some 

occupational disability statutes, revocation and/or denial of a license or permit is mandatory 

for certain offenses and/or for certain occupations. For example, revocation and denial of a 

teaching certificate may be mandatory for someone convicted of a drug offense or of a sex 

offense involving children. Nearly all states have enacted statutes requiring the registration of 

sex offenders. 

The area of firearms disabilities is a specialized and complex one, in which regulation 

occurs on both the state and federal levels. Each state's summary discusses only the state laws 

governing firearms disabilities, and notes, when available, case law dealing with the interplay 

between the federal firearm disability upon felons and that particular state's laws regarding the 

loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges. (Intervening changes in state law 

regarding the loss and restoration of civil rights and fireanns privileges, however, may have 

limited or eliminated the continuing applicability of some of the cited cases.) Municipal or 

county rules may also exist in various jurisdictions (u,the City of Boston), and are not 

covered in the summaries. Moreover, although the use of the term "firearms privileges" 

suggests that it has an agreed and uniform meaning, in fact there is considerable variation 

among the states with respect to the scope of firearms disabilities imposed.' Therefore, the 

reader should be aware that the loss and restoration of firearms privileges is frequently not an 

all-or-nothing proposition. Finally, restoration of civil rights under state law, even through a 

governor's pardon, does not necessarily result in restoration of state firearms privileges. 

The federal firearms disability upon convicted felons raises particularly complex issues 

for state offenders because the applicability of the federal disability turns on the extent to 

which the state febn's "civil rights have been restored" under state law and the extent to 

which the restoration "expressly provides that the person may not ship, transport, possess, or 

'For example: A disability may apply only to handguns, not to long guns. In some jurisdictions only 

persons convicted of "violent" crimes or other designated offenses are barred from possession of firearms. A 

restoration procedure may apply only to long guns, or the right to ~ossessa gun may be restored, but not the right 

to one. A felon may lose the right to possess a gun only if outside his home or place of business. 

Moreover, while the summaries use the terms "handgun" and "violent crime" for the sake of convenience, there is 

considerable variation from jurisdiction to jurisdiction in the definitions of these and other terms that determine 

the scope of these disabilities. Finally, although we have used the term firearms "privileges," we do not intend 

the term to carry a technical, legal significance, for the purposes of those jurisdictions that distinguish between a 

"rightn and a "privilege. " 

(-,; f i 
October 1996 Page 5 

receive firearms." (The reader should consult the firearms section of the summary of federal 

law for an overview of the issues.) Although federal firearms laws seem to assume that 

restoration of civil rights is a monolithic concept with a specific meaning, that premise is 

belied by the many variations documented in our survey. Federal courts have grappled with 

whether and to what extent the federal firearms disability applies to state felons who lost no 

civil rights under state law as a result of their conviction, to state felons who lost civil rights 

upon conviction but who had them automatically restored by operation of state law, to state 

felons who lost several civil rights upon conviction and who have regained some but not all 

those rights, to state felons who have had their political rights restored but who are still 

prohibited by state law from possessing firearms, and to state felons who, despite restoration 

of their political rights and certain firearms privileges, are still prohibited by state law from 

exercising other firearms privileges. Again, these complexities raise a question about the 

ability of the average felon to determine his legal rights and responsibilities, as well as the 

government's ability to effectively ensure compliance with and enforcement of the law. 

For federal felons, the United States Supreme Court's 1994 decision in 

&Z&UD v. hted States, 511 U.S. 368 (1994), settled the question whether the federal 

firearms disability imposed upon convicted federal felons is removed by the restoration of 

rights under state law. In that case, the Court held that federal felons remain subject to the 

firearms disability of 18 U.S.C. 5 922(g)(1) until their rights are restored by a federal 

procedure, and therefore the disability continues to apply to a federal felon even if his civil 

rights have been restored under state law. As a result of Beech, a federal felon's only 

means of regaining fvearms privileges is through a presidential pardon or through the 

restoration process provided under 18 U.S.C. 5 925(c). Since fiscal year 1992, however, 

Congress has prohibited the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms from expending funds 

to process applications from individuals for relief under 18 U.S .C. 5 925(c). Accordingly, 

unless funding is restored, federal felons may remove the federal firearms disability only by 

receiving a presidential pardon. The loss of funding for 5 925(c) relief also eliminates an 

avenue by which state felons can remove their federal firearms disability, which is significant 

in states in which it is difficult to obtain a gubernatorial pardon or complete restoration of civil 

rights and firearms privileges under state law. 
October 1996 	 Page 6 

FEDERAL LAW 

I. 	 FEDERAL LAW REGARDING EFFECT OF CONVICTION ON VOTING, 

OFFICE HOLDING, JURY SERVICE, LICENSING, EMPLOYMENT, 

FEDERAL BENEFITS, AND IMMIGRATION 

A. 	 Right to vote 

The United States Constitution, aside from prohibiting disenfranchisement on grounds 

such as age, gender, and race, U.S, Const. amend. Xm, XIX,XXVI,6 provides that 

qualifications for voting in federal elections are determined by state law. U.S. Const. art. I, 

5 2, cl. 1; art. I, 5 4; art. 11, 5 1, cl. 2; amend. XVII. @or the District of Columbia, see U.S. 

Const. amend. XXm; D.C. Code Ann. $ 1-1301.) The power of the states to deny the right 

to vote because of participation in a crime is expressly recognized in the Fourteenth 

Amendment. U.S. Const. amend. XIV,$2. &g ggnmlly Richardson v. Rami?.ez,418 U.S. 

24 (1974). Therefore, the effect of a federal felony conviction upon the right to vote is 

determined by the law of the state in which the felon seeks to vote, and thus varies from state 

to state. 

B. 	 Right to serve on a federal jury 

Conviction in federal or state court of a crime punishable by imprisorhent for more 

than one year disqualifies an individual from sewing on a federal grand or petit jury unless 

"his civil rights have been restored. " 28 U.S.C. $ 1865(b)(5). The only method currently 

provided by federal law to restore civil rights is a pardon; however, the court in United States 

v. Hefner,842 F.2d 731,732 (4th Cir.), !x&&&d, 488 U.S.868 (1988), noted that 5 1865 

reflects a congressional concern that requiring a pardon would unduly limit the potential means 

by which an individual's civil rights may be restored. The court nonetheless held that "some 

affirmative act recognized in law must first take place to restore one's civil rights to meet the 

eligibility requirements of section 1865(b)(5)." u. This provision is discussed in greater 

detail at p. 13, m. 

C. 	 Employment and licensing 

In setting qualifications for federal office, the United States Constitution does not 


prohibit felons from holding elected federal office. 2U.S. Const. art. I, $5 1, 2; art. 11, 


b~ &Q 	 42 U.S.C.$8 1971 - 197388-10. 
October 19% Page 7 

§ 1; art. VI.' Various federal statutes, however, provide that a conviction may result in loss 

of or ineligibility for office. For example, conviction of treason renders the defendant 

"incapable of holding any office under the United States. " 18 U.S.C. 5 2381. Likewise, 

when an individual is convicted of bribing a public official or accepting a bribe, 

disqualification from federal office may be ordered by the sentencing court. 18 U.S .C. 

5 201(b). Other examples include: ineligibility for federal employment for five years after 

conviction of an offense arising from advocating the overthrow of the federal government or 

the government of a state, or interfering with the morale of the United States armed forces 

(18 U.S.C. $8 2385, 2387); removal from federal or District of Columbia office and 

ineligibility for employment by the United States or the District of Columbia for five years 

upon conviction under federal or state law of inciting, encouraging, or participating in a riot or 

civil disorder or any offense committed in furtherance of, or while participating in, a riot or 

civil disorder (5 U.S.C. 5 73 13); dismissal from office of an officer or employee of the United 

States upon conviction of bribery or disclosure of any taxpayer return or return information to 

any unauthorized person (26 U.S.C. § 7213); dismissal from office or discharge from 

employment of any officer or employee of the United States acting in connection with any 

federal revenue law who is guilty of extortion, bribery, conspiracy to defraud the United 

States, making false entries, or other enumerated offenses (26 U.S.C. 5 7214); removal from 

office or employment of certain persons upon conviction of unauthorized disclosure of certain 

confidential information relating to trade secrets or the financial status of any person or corporation, or upon conviction of using federal money to finance lobbying a Member of Congress 

(18 U .S .C. 55 1905, 1913). Aside from such specific statutory disqualifications, a felony 

conviction does not disqualify a person from federal employment, but is a factor in determining suitability for it, according to the Office of Personnel Management. 

An individual convicted of a felony is ineligible to enlist in any service of the armed 

forces. 10 U. S .C. 5 504. Any person guilty of mutiny, treason, sabotage, or rendering 

assistance to an enemy of the United States or of its allies forfeits all accrued and future 

"gratuitous" veterans benefits.' 38 U.S.C. 5 6104(a). Anyone convicted of certain offenses 

related to subversive activities forfeits "gratuitous" veterans benefits based on any of his 

military service. 38 U.S.C. $6105(a). After the first 60 days, military pensions may not be 

paid to an individual who is incarcerated in a federal, state, or local penal institution as a 

'The Constitution, however, provides that the "President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the 

United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery. or other 

high Crimes and Misdemeanors, " U.S. Const. art. 11, 5 4, and further provides that a judgment in a case of 

impeachment may include removal from office and "disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust 

or Profit under the United States." U.S. Const. art. I, 5 3. 

'According to the Veterans' Administration, veterans' benefits are considered gratuitous; therefore, 


the benefits forfeited under 5s 6104(a) and 6105(a) include pension, disability, hospitalization, loan guarantees, 


and burial in a national cemetery. 

. October 1996 Page 8 

result of conviction of a felony or misdemeanor. 38 U.S.C. $ 1505(a). However, the pension 


lost a result of such imprisonment may be paid to the spouse or children of the imprisoned 


veteran. 38 U.S.C. $ 1505(b). Any person guilty of mutiny, treason, spying, or desertion 


forfeits all rights to National Service Life Insurance and Servicemen's Group Life Insurance. 


38 U.S.C. 8s 1911, 1973. National Service Life Insurance, Servicemen's Group Life 


Insurance, and United States Government life insurance are not payable for death inflicted as 


lawful punishment for a crime or for military or naval offenses, except when inflicted by an 


enemy of the United States. 38 U.S.C. 5s 1911, 1954, 1973. 


. . . ... 3. cted fedewosed occw restrlct~ons 

(a) General 

Under 18 U.S.C. $5 3563(b)(6), 3583(d), and the United States Sentencing Guidelines, 


the sentencing court may impose certain occupational restrictions as a condition of probation 


or supervised release. The restrictions can be imposed when a "reasonably direct relationship" 


exists between the defendant's occupation and the offense, and the conditions are "reasonably 


necessary to protect the public because there is reason to believe that., absent such restriction, 


the defendant will continue to engage in unlawful conduct similar ro that far which the 


defendant was convicted. " U. S. S .G. §SFl.S(a). 


4

l'-

4 In addition, by statute a conviction may result in the loss of a federal license. b: k-,f customs broker's license (19 U.S.C. 5 1641(d)(l)(B)); export license (50 U.S.C. App. 

2410(h)(l)); license to export defense articles and services (22 U.S.C. 8 2778(g)(3)(A), (B)); 


merchant mariner's document, license, or certificate of registry (46 U.S.C. $9 7101, 7109, 


7302, 7503)); locomotive engineer's license (45 U.S .C. 43 l(i)(D)(iii)); licenses held by 


persons convicted of drug offenses (21 U.S.C. § 862(d); U.S.S.G. s5F1.6, discussed in 


section D, infria). 


A felony conviction is a relevant consideration when an agency reviews an application 


for a license. Although not an absolute bar to licensure, agencies closely examine convictions 


related to the license being given, and other convictions as a sign of the licensee's character. 


b,a,21 U.S.C. 823 (Attorney General directed to consider convictions relating to the 


manufacture, distribution, or dispensing of controlled substances in deciding whether to 


register an applicant to manufacture, distribute, or conduct research on controlled substances); 


5 F.C.C.R. 3252 (F.C.C. policy statement expanding scope of inquiry to consider all felony 


convictions in evaluating licensee's character). 


(b) Banking, commodities, and securities 

A person who has been convicted of any criminal offense involving dishonesty or a 


breach of trust or money laundering may not: become, or continue as, an institution-affiliated 
 f \ 

\, 
October 1996 Page 9 

party9 with respect to a federally insured depository institution; own or control an insured 

depository institution; or otherwise participate in the conduct of the affairs of such an 

institution. 12 U.S.C. 5 1829. This prohibition may be waived upon the written consent of 

the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, but consent may not be given until 10 years 

following the date of conviction in the case of certain offenses, generally relating to the 

banking and financial industry. 12 U.S.C. 5 1829. The Comptroller of the Currency has the 

discretion to remove from ofice an institution-affiliated party or prohibit such a party from 

participating in any manner in the conduct of the affairs of a federally insured depository 

institution if he has been convicted of the commission of a crime involving dishonesty or 

breach of trust that is punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year or of certain 

money laundering offenses if it is determined that "continued service or participation by such 

party may pose a threat to the interests of the depository institution's depositors or may 

threaten to impair public confidence in the depository institution. " 12 U.S.C. 5 18 18(g)(l)(c). 

The Commodity Futures Trading Commission may refuse to register or register 

conditionally a futures commission merchant, introducing broker, commodity trading advisor, 

commodity pool operator, or floor broker, or may suspend him or her, place restrictions on 

his registration, or revoke a registration if he has been convicted within the past 10 years of a 

felony relating to commodities futures trading or of an enumerated offense, including such 

crimes as embezzlement, mail fraud, false statements, theft, bribery, gambling, and federal tax 

offenses, 7 U.S.C. 5 12a(2)(D), (3)(D), or may refuse to register or register conditionally a 

person if he or she has been convicted of a felony or of an enumerated offense more than 10 

years ago, 7 U.S.C. 5 12a(3)@), or convicted of certain misdemeanors relating to 

commodities trading, 7 U.S.C. 5 12a(3)(E), or convicted in state, military, or foreign court of 

conduct that would be a felony under federal law. 7 U .S .C. 5 12a(3)(H). 

The Securities and Exchange Commission may censure, place limitations on the 

functions or operations of, suspend, or revoke the registration of any investment adviser if he 

or she was convicted within the previous 10 years (or within 10 years of filing an application 

for registration) of certain enumerated felonies or misdemeanors, including such offenses as 

securities violations, theft, forgery, counterfeiting, embezzlement, perjury, bribery, and mail 

fraud. 15 U.S.C. $5 80b-3(e)(2), 78o(b)(4)(B). 

(c) Labor organizations 

Conviction of certain offenses (including such offenses as robbery, bribery, extortion, 

embezzlement, fraud, drug violations, murder, assault with intent to kill, rape, and certain 

offenses relating to a labor organization or employee benefit plan) disqualifies an individual 

from serving in any of several capacities relating to a labor organization and employee benefits 

plans, including consultant, adviser, officer, or director of the labor organization's governing 

board. 29 U.S.C. $5 504, 11 11. The disability lasts for 13 years after conviction or "the end 

\.-

%is term refers primarily to any director, officer, employee, or controlling stockholder. 
October 19% Page 10 

of imprisonment," whichever is later, unless the sentencing court sets a shorter period of no 

less than three years. 29 U.S .C. $5 504, 11 11. The disability may be removed sooner if the 

individual's "citizenship rights, having been revoked as a result of such conviction, have been 

fully restored." The disability may also be removed for a federal offense committed on or 

after November 1, 1987, by the sentencing court, or, for state or local offenses, by the United 

States district court where the offense was committed, in accordance with the policy statements 

of the United States Sentencing Guidelines. 29 U.S.C. $5 504, 11 1 1. The disability for 

offenses committed before November 1, 1987, may be removed by the United States Parole 

Commission. &U.S.S.G. $551.1 (policy statement implementing $5 504, 11 1 1). & 

Viverit~v. m,395 F. Supp. 47 (N.D. Ill. 1975). 

(d) Participation in federal contracts or programs 

With certain exceptions, individuals convicted of fraud or any felony arising out of a 

contract with the Department of Defense are prohibited, for a period set by the Secretary of 

Defense of not less than five years, from working in a management or supervisory capacity, 

serving on the board of directors, or acting as a consultant for any company that is a defense 

contractor or subcontractor awarded a contract directly by the contractor. 10 U.S.C. 5 2408. 

The five-year period may be waived by the Secretary of Defense "in the interests of national 

security." 10 U.S.C. 5 2408. Mandatory and permissive exclusions from participation in 

Medicare programs and any designated state health care program based on conviction of 

certain types of crimes are set forth in 42 U.S.C. 5 1320a-7.lo Mandatory and permissive 

exclusions from participation in aspects of the generic drug industry based on conviction of 

certain types of crimes are set forth in 21 U.S.C. 5 335a.11 

"The Secretary of Health and Human Services is required to exclude persons convicted of a programrelated offense or an offense relating to neglect or abuse of patients in connection with the delivery of a health 

care item or service. 42 U.S.C.8 1320a-7(a). The Secretary may exclude persons convicted: (a) of an "offense 

relating to fraud, theft, embezzlement, breach of fiduciary responsibility, or other financial misconduct" "in 

connection with the delivery of a health care item or service or with respect to any act or omission in a program 

operated or financed in whole or in part by any Federal, State, or local government agency"; (b) "in connection 

with the interference or obstruction of any investigation" into any offense requiring mandatory exclusion or 

described in (a), above; or (c) of a criminal offense relating to the unlawful manufacture, distribution, 

prescription, or dispensing of a controlled substance. 42 U .S.C. § 1320a-7(b)(l)-(3). 

"Mandatory debarment of an individual from providing services in any capacity to a person that has an 

approved or pending drug product application is required upon conviction of a federal felony for conduct relating 

to the development or approval of any drug product or otherwise relating to the regulation of any generic drug 

product. 2 1 U.S.C. 8 335(a)(2). Debarment may also be imposed for a conviction of a misdemeanor under 

federal law or a felony under state law for conduct relating to the development or approval of a drug product or 

otherwise relating to the regulation of generic drug products, or a conspiracy to commit or aiding and abetting an 

offense that requires mandatory debarment for an individual, if, in either case, the conduct that formed the basis 

for the conviction "undermines the process for the regulation of drugs. " 21 U .S.C. 8 335a(b)(2)(B)(i). 

Debarment may also be ordered for any felony involving bribery, payment of illegal gratuities, fraud, perjury, 

false statement, racketeering, blackmail, extortion. falsification or destruction of records, or interference with or 

obstruction of an investigation into, or prosecution of, any criminal offense, or for conspiracy to commit or aiding 
i 

October 1996 Page 11 

(=-, 

$/ --

r \.-J/ 

D. Federal benefits 

Certain federal benefits may be revoked or modified upon conviction of a crime. Drug 

offenders convicted after September 1, 1989, may have restrictions placed upon their receipt 

of grants, licenses, contracts, and other federal benefits, retirement, welfare, Social 

Security, health, disability, public housing, and benefits based on military service. 21 U.S.C. 

5 862; U.S .S.G. 85F1.6.'* The denial of benefits is mandatory and permanent upon a third 

conviction for a drug offense. The disability may be suspended for participation in treatment 

programs, or for drug addicts who are rehabilitated or who enter into long-term treatment or 

who are prevented from entering into treatment because of its unavailability. The disability 

does not apply to persons who cooperate with the government in connection with the 

prosecution of other offenders. 

Upon conviction of certain offenses related to the national security, an individual, his 

survivor, and his beneficiary may not receive an annuity or retirement pay from the United 

States or District of Columbia government and may be subject to additional penalties regarding 

his collection of old-age, survivors', or disability insurance benefits, or health insurance for 

the aged and disabled. 5 U.S.C. 5 83 12; 42 U.S.C. 8 402(u)(l). A person convicted of an 

offense punishable by imprisonment for more than one year may not receive old-age, 

survivors', or disability insurance payments for any month in which he or she was 

incarcerated. 42 U. S .C. §402(x)(l)(A). 

E. Immigration 

An alien may be excluded from the United States upon conviction of certain offenses, 

including: crimes involving moral turpitude (except if the person committed only one crime 

the penalty for which was less than one year's imprisonment and a sentence of six months or 

less was imposed), multiple offenses for which the aggregate sentences to confinement actually 

imposed were five years or more; and drug violations. 8 U.S.C. § 1 182(a)(2)(A), (B), (C). 

An alien may be deported from the United States if he was excludable at the time of entry, 

8 U. S.C. 5 125 1 (a)(l)(A), or upon conviction of: a crime involving moral turpitude 

committed within five years after the date of entry (or 10 years in the case of certain lawful 

permanent residents) for which a sentence of one year or longer may be imposed; two or more 

and abetting such a felony, if the individual "has demonstrated a pattern of conduct sufficient to find that there is 

reason to believe that me] may violate requirements" relating to generic drugs. 21 U.S.C.8 335a(b)(2)(B)(ii). 

121ndividuals residing in federally funded public housing may be evicted upon "criminal activity that 

threatens the health, safety, or right to peaceful enjoyment of the premises by other tenants or any drug-related 

criminal activity on or near such premises," whether engaged in by the tenant, any member of the tenant's 

household, or any guest or other person under the tenant's control. 42 U.S.C.8 1437f(d)(l)(B)(iii). Expedited 

eviction procedures apply in cases of criminal or drug-related activity. 42 U.S.C.8 1437d(k). For three years 

from the date of eviction, tenants evicted because of drug-related activity are ineligible for certain preferences to 

enable them to reenter public housing. 42 U.S.C.8 1437f(d)(l)(A)(iii). 
October I996 Page 12 

crimes of moral turpitude not arising out of a single scheme; an "aggravated felony";13 a drug 

offense; certain f~earms offenses; certain offenses related to national security, such as treason 

and espionage; or certain immigration offenses. 8 U.S.C. 5 1251(a)(2). An individual is 

precluded from establishing "good moral character" and is therefore disqualified from 

naturalization if he or she during the required period of good behavior has been confined for 

180 days or more as a result of a conviction, has at any time been convicted of an aggravated 

felony, or has been convicted of any of the following offenses committed during the required 

period of good behavior: a crime involving moral turpitude (except crimes punishable by less 

than one year's imprisonment for which a sentence of six months or less was imposed); two or 

more offenses for which the aggregate sentence actually imposed was five years or more; a 

drug offense (except simple possession of a small amount of marijuana); or two or more 

gambling offenses. 8 U.S.C. 5s 1101(f)(3),(9,(7), (8); 1427(a). 

F. Registration statutes 

So-called "Megan's laws," which require persons convicted of certain sexual offenses 

to register with law enforcement officials, have become increasingly common in recent years. 

Federal law permits the United States Attorney General to promulgate regulations governing 

the establishment of state registration programs whereby a person convicted of a criminal 

offense against a victim who is a minor or of a sexually violent offense, or labeled a sexually 

violent predator, must register with a designated state law enforcement agency for a period of 

10 years after release from prison or placement on parole, supervised release, or probation. 

Failure to register may be punished as a criminal offense. 42 U.S.C. 5 14071(a). The 

regulations implementing this statute are found in 61 Fed. Reg. 15 110-17, and took effect on 

April 4, 1996. 

Nearly all states now require registration for sex offenders. b,Ark. Code Ann. 

5 12-12-901; N.J. Stat. Ann. 2C:71-11; Wyo. Stat. 5 7-19-301 am. The constitutionality 

of such registration statutes has been litigated in a number of recent cases. b,Artway V. 

Attorney Gem1 of New Jersey, 83 F.3d 594 (3d Cir. 1996). Although the states' statutes 

track the federal requirements, there is nonetheless considerable variation in the states' 

registration schemes, regarding such features as the crimes for which registration is required, 

the duration of the registration requirement, and the penalty for failure to register. A number 

of state statutes expressly apply to federal offenders, and a number apply to juvenile 

adjudications as well as to adult convictions. State statutes generally require registration not 

just for sexual offenders convicted in that state, but also for sexual offenders convicted in 

another state who move to the regulating state. Such statutes generally provide that they apply 

13"Aggravated felony" is defined to include a long list of enumerated crimes, under federal or state law or 

foreign violations for which the prison sentence was completed within the past 15 years; the list includes such 

offenses as murder, illicit trafficking in any controlled substance or in any firearm or destructive device, offenses 

relating to the laundering of monetary instruments, and a crime of violence for which the term of imprisonment 

imposed is at least five years. 8 U.S.C.$1 101(a)(43). 

(-f,_') I
{/--\) 

tL." * 

. --

.-

October 19% 	 Page 13 

to persons convicted of a sexual crime in "another jurisdiction" if that crime would constitute 

an offense requiring registration in the regulating state. The registration requirement typically 

lasts for a period of years, but may extend for the life of the offender, at least for certain 

crimes. Some states permit the offender to petition a state court to remove the registration 

requirement. 

11. 	 RESTORATION OF CIVIL RIGHTS AND REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

UNDER FEDERBL LAW 

A presidential pardon restores civil rights lost as a result of conviction, including the 

rights to vote, to serve on a jury, and to hold public office, and generally relieves other 

disabilities that attach solely by reason of the commission or conviction of the pardoned 

offense. &~il~tf; w,7 1 U.S. 333 (1866); Opinions of the Office of Legal Counsel, 

United States Department of Justice, June 19, 1995, Effectspf a B.See &Carlesiv. 

New YQ&, 233 U.S. 51 (1914). There is no general federal statutory procedure whereby civil 

rights may be restored after conviction or a federal criminal record expunged. As noted 

above, the loss of civil rights generally occurs as a matter of state law and thus rights may be 

restored by state action as well as by a presidential pardon. 

Certain federal statutes also specifically provide that a presidential pardon will remove 

a particular disqualification. For example, deportation may not be based on certain criminal 

convictions if they have been the subject of a presidential pardon. 8 U.S.C. 

5 1251(a)(2)(A)(iv), A pardon will remove additional penalties relating to the receipt or 

calculation of old-age or disability insurance benefits that a court may impose upon conviction 

of certain offenses. 42 U.S.C. 5 402(u)(3). Certain veterans' benefits forfeited by virtue of a 

conviction for subversive activities are restored by a presidential pardon. 38 U.S.C. 

5 6105(a); 38 C.F.R. 55 3.903, 3.904. 

The right to serve on a federal jury is reinstated if the individual's "civil rights have 

. . . been restored. " 28 U.S.C. 5 1865(b)(5). This provision relating to jury service has 

generally been interpreted by federal courts and the Administrative Office of the United States 

Courts to require an affirmative act by the state (such as pardon or amnesty) before the right to 

serve on a federal jury will be reinstated. Thus, the automatic restoration of civil rights that 

occurs in many states upon completion of sentence will not operate to restore the right to serve 

on a federal jury. &,u,United v. m,843 F.2d 731, 732 (4th Cir. 1988) 

(relying on the legislative history of 5 1865 to hold that "some affirmative act recognized in 

law must first take place to restore one's civil rights to meet the eligibility requirements of 

section 1865(b)(5) "). 

As noted earlier in section I, ineligibility for a federal benefit or license because of a 

conviction may only last a limited time, or eligibility for a benefit or license may be restored 

by administrative or judicial action. For example, the prohibitions relating to involvement in 

labor organizations and employee benefit plans last up to 13 years, but may be removed earlier 
October 19% Page 14 

if civil rights have been "fully restored," or if a federal court or the Parole Commission so 

directs. 29 U.S.C. 55 504, 1111. (See section I.C.3(c), sur>ra.) Under the immigration laws 

the Attorney General may waive the application of certain grounds for exclusion or 

deportation. u,8 U.S.C. 5 1 182(h) (waiver of exclusion authorized for certain offenses if 

certain conditions are met). Exceptions to the prohibition on military enlistment of convicted 

felons may be authorized by the Secretary of the affected branch of the service in "meritorious 

cases." 10 U.S.C. 5 504. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation may waive a 

conviction-related prohibition to permit individuals to participate in the affairs of a federally 

insured depository institution. 12 U.S.C. 8 1829. 

In. LOSSAND RESTORATIONOF FEDERALFIREARMSPRIVILEGES 


Under the Gun Control Act of 1968, as amended, 18 U.S.C. 5 921, g a.,a person 

convicted in any court of a "crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year" 

may not ship, transport, possess, or receive any fuearm or ammunition. 18 U.S.C. 

8 922(g)(l). The def~tion of firearm includes both long guns and handguns. 18 U.S .C. 

6 921(a)(3). This prohibition is inapplicable to certain federal and state "white-collar" 

offenses,14 to certain state offenses classified as misdemeanors," and to: 

[alny conviction which has been exp~nged, or set aside or for 

which a person has been pardoned or has had civil rights restored 

. . . unless such pardon, expungement, or restoration of civil 

rights expressly provides that the person may not ship, transport, 

possess, or receive firearms. 

18 U.S.C. 5 921(a)(20). 

Considerable litigation has resulted concerning the extent to which felons who have 

received a partial or automatic restoration of civil rights by operation of state law or pursuant 

to a state administrative procedure are subject to the penalties of fi 922(g), with numerous 

courts considering what it means to have one's "civil rights restored" and what it means to 

have a "restoration of civil rights expressly provideo" that the recipient may not possess 

firearms.16 The application of these statutory provisions to federal felons was clarified in 

"Excluded are "any Federal or State offenses pertaining to antiuust violations. unfair trade practices, 

restraints of trade, or other similar offenses relating to the regulation of business practices." 18 U.S.C. 

§ 921(a)(20)(A). 

''Excluded is "any State offense classified by the laws of the State as a misdemeanor and punishable by a 

term of imprisonment of two years or less. * 18 U.S .C. $921 (a)(20)(B). 

'me interpretation of the defmition of 'crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one 

yearn also arises in the context of determining whether a person prohibited from possessing fvearms under 

$ 922(g) is subject to the enhanced penalty under the Armed Career Criminal Act, 18 U.S.C. § 924(e). One way 
October I996 Page 15 

v. Uted States,'' in which the Supreme Court held that federal felons remain 

subject to the federal firearms disability until their rights are restored through a federal, not a 

state, procedure. Therefore, federal felons who have had their civil rights restored by a state 

law or procedure nonetheless are still prohibited by federal law from possessing firearms. As 

to federal procedures to restore rights, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (BATF) 

is authorized to restore federal firearms privileges to convicted felons under 18 U.S.C. 

5 925(c), but has not been permitted since fiscal year 1992 to expend funds for this purpose. 

Accordingly, at the present time restoration of a felon's federal firearms privileges forfeited as 

a result of a federal felony conviction may be accomplished only by obtaining a presidential 

pardon.l8 

As to state felons, considerable litigation has ensued regarding the application of the 

federal firearms disability in the context of various state schemes for taking away and restoring 

civil rights upon conviction of a state offense. A number of courts have held that the phrase 

"civil rights restored" refers to the basic rights of citizenship, such as the rights to vote, serve 

on a jury, and hold public office, and requires that civil rights must be "substantially restored" 

under state law. h,u,Wted v. Metzger, 3 F.3d 756, 758 (4th Cir. 1993); United 

States v. Gomez, 911 F.2d 219 (9th Cir. 1990). Even if a felon's rights to vote, serve on a 

jury, and hold public office have been substantially restored under state law, however, he 

remains subject to the federal firearms disability if the restoration of rights "expressly provides 

/"--. that the person may not ship, transport, possess, or receive firearms." Courts in a number of 

J cases have considered under what circumstances a state felon's civil rights have been restored \./' and in what circumstances the state felon's restoration of rights "expressly provides" that he 

may not possess firearms. To list but a few of the many variations on these issues that have 

been considered, courts have addressed the following questions: 

whether civil rights are considered to have been "restored" when a 

the enhancement is triggered is by having three or more convictions for a "violent felony," the definition of which 

incorporates the definition of "crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one yearn under 18 U.S.C. 

$ 921(a)(20). 18 U.S.C. $ 924(e)(2)(B). A number of the cases cited below and in the individual state summaries 

involve a considerationwhether the conviction can be considered in determining whether to impose the enhanced 

penalty of $ 924(e), rather than whether the conviction can serve as the predicate offense for a 5 922(g) charge; 

nonetheless, the issue in these cases is whether the conviction is one that meets the definition of "crime punishable 

by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year" under 18 U .S.C. 1) 921(a)(20). 

"511 U.S. 368 (1994). 

Y J v. MD,74 F.3d 64 (5th Cir.), w.denied, 117 S. Ct. 77 (1996); Mover v. 

Secrew-, 830 F. Supp. 516 (W.D. Mo. 1993). IWsgg IJnited States v. m,68 F.3d 702 (3d Cir. 

1995) (concluding that BATF's inability to process an application for relief from firearms disabilities under 

$ 925(c) constitutes an undue delay that excuses the applicant from exhausting administrative remedies and 

permits him to seek judicial review, whereby the court may determine in the exercise of its sound discretion 

whether there is a potential for a miscarriage of justice that would justify the submission of evidence to the court 

to establish fitness to have federal firearms privileges restored). 
October 1996 Page 16 

state felon does not lose his rights to vote, sit on a jury, and hold office 

under state law after convi~tion;'~ 

whether civil rights are considered restored when a state felon retains 

or regains some but not all his civil rights after convi~tion;~~ 

whether the restoration of rights must be accomplished by an 

individualized assessment of rehabilitation or whether automatic 

restoration by operation of state law or by the routine issuance of a 

certificate of discharge is sufficient;*' 

whether a state felon's civil rights are considered to have been 

restored, arid whether the restoration is considered to expressly provide 

that he may not possess firearms, when he retains or regains political 

rights but remains subject to state firearms disabilities, and whether the 

answers to these questions are different if the state, in restoring the 

felon's political rights, issues to him a certificate of restoration of rights 

that does not expressly mention the state law firearms disabilities;" 

19&, McGrath v. UnitedStates, 60 F.3d 1005 (2d Cir. 1995) (restoration under Vermont law); United ..-- v. m,961 F.2d 1003 (1st Cir.), &denied, 506 U.S. 934 (1992), QIWIUI&in g!aS by JLnnt-s b 

v. Caron, 77 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 1996) (en banc) (restoration under Massachusetts law). ( j -./" 

20&g,u,Unifedv. m.77 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 1996) (restoration under Massachusens law); 

d St= v. Elow& 29 F.3d 530 (10th Cir. 1994). m.denied, 115 S. Ct. 939 (1995) (restorationunder 

Utah law); United v. WG&y, 23 F.3d 181 (7th Cir. 1994) (restoration under Indiana law); !Jx&&Ws 

v. &&, 10 F.3d 968 (3d Cir. 1993) (restoration under Pennsylvania law); United St= v. &&. 987 F.2d 575 

(9th Cir.), Ef;Ct. &&j,510 U.S. 919 (1993) (restoration under Missouri law); Ynited St= v. RriscoU. 970 

F.2d 1472 (6th Cir. 1992). Ef;Ct. w.506 U.S. 1083 (1993) (restoration under Michigan law). 

2'&g, u, v. m,77 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 1996) (en banc) (restoration under Massachusetts 

law); Ynited Stm v. m,20 F.3d 1068 (10th Cis. 1994) (restoration under Colorado law); Uni$!d State&v. 

w,14 F.3d 1213 (7th Cir. 1994) (restoration under Minnesota law); Unitedv. Thomas,991 F.2d 206 

(5th Cir.), m.w,510 U.S. 1014 (1993) (restoration under Texas law); United v. Q&m.938 F.2d 

131 (9th Cir. 1991) (restorationunder Michigan law); !Jn&d Stm v. Qxnfz,911 F.2d 219 (9th Cir. 1990) 

(restoration under Idaho law). This issue was reserved by the Supreme Court in Beecham,511 U.S. at -n.**. 

22&g,u,United v. mHerron, 45 F.3d 340 (9th Cir. 1995) (restoration under Washington law); 

Unitedv. w,14 F.3d 1213 (7th Cir. 1994) (restoration under Minnesota law); Uued Stw v. 

Shoemaker,2 F.3d 53 (4th Cir.), m.$hU,510 U.S. 1947 (1993) (restoration under North Carolina law); 

United v. Thomas,991 F.2d 206 (5th Cir.), ~e~f. w,510 U.S. 1014 (1993) (restoration under Texas 

law); United v. Gi~son,985 F.2d 412 (8th Cir.), w.denred, 510 U.S. 823 (1993) (restoration under 

Illinois law); Unitedv. m,949 F.2d 952 (8th Cir. 1991) (restoration under Minnesota law); UES! 

Ssaw v. Swansw, 947 F.2d 914 (1lth Cir. 1991) (restoration under Alabama law); Ued Stam v. M.d.&m, 

904 F.2d 216 (4th Cir.), m.w,498 U.S. 875 (1990) (restoration under North Carolina law); Wd Stw 

v. Dahms, 938 F.2d 131 (9th Cir. 1991) (restoration under Michigan law); Unitedv. E&a.&& 932 F.2d 

3 18 (4th Cir.), m.w,502 U.S. 917 (1991) (restoration under Virginia law); !h~&&&s v. mTraxel, 914 
October 1996 Page 17 

F- whether the restoration of rights is considered to expressly provide that 

f - the felon may not possess firearms when state law continues to prohibit 

his possession of some, but not all, firearms, or his possession of 

firearms under some, but not all, circ~rnstances;~~ 

whether one looks to the law of the jurisdiction of conviction or to the 

law of the jurisdiction of residence in determining whether a person 

convicted in one jurisdiction but now living in another has had his civil 

rights restored;24and 

whether, in determining whether a particular right has been restored, 

one looks to the law in effect at the time of the claimed restoration, or to 

the law in effect at the time of the claimed violation of the federal 

firearms statute.2s 

Given the complexity of the issues and the abundance of litigation in the context of 

particular state disabilities and restoration schemes, this survey does not address the interplay 

between federal firearms laws and the state law concerning the loss and restoration of civil 

rights and firearms privileges. Accordingly, the reader is cautioned that the discussion in each 

state's summary regarding the restoration of the rights to vote, sit on a jury, and hold 

officeand of state firearms privileges does not purport to answer the question whether "civil 

/ * a"i rights [have been] restored" to a state felon within the meaning of the federal firearms laws, or 

k 

Y\.--, whether the restoration "expressly provides" that the person may not possess firearms for the 

purposes of federal firearms laws. Instead, relevant federal case law must be consulted to 

F.2d 119 (8th Cir. 1990) (restoration under Minnesota law); Wed St= v. m,902 F.2d 510 (7th Cir.), 

m. 498 U.S. 859 (1990) (restoration under Illinois law); United v. -, 899 F.2d 543 (6th 

Cir. 1990) (restoration under Ohio law). 

23United Statgs v. Lee,72 F.3d 55 (7th Cir. 1995) (restoration under Indiana law); united States v. 

Tomlinson,67 F.3d 508 (4th Cir. 1995) (restoration under North Carolina law); United v. -maker, 2 

F.3d 53 (4th Cir. 1993) (restoration under North Carolina law); United St= v. m,938 F.2d 131 (9th Cir. 

1991) (restoration under Michigan law); United Stw v. Essick,935 F.2d 28 (4th Cir. 1991) (restoration under 

North Carolina law); Unitedv. m,904 F.2d 216 (4th Cir.), a.M,498 U.S. 875 (1990) 

(restoration under North Carolina law). 

24&, u,United v. -, 61 F.3d 1379 (9th Cir. 1995) (restoration under the law of Illinois 

or Montana considered); yDited States v. EibtPI1, 31 F.3d 789 (9th Cir. 1994) (restoration under the law of 

Montana or North Dakota considered). Sgg United States v. Qpm, 992 F.2d 218 (8th Cir. 1993) 

(restorationunder South Dakota law); ThomDson v. United St=, 989 F.2d 269 (8th Cir. 1993) (restoration 

under South Dakota law). 

2S&g,u,united &&s v. m,61 F.3d 1379 (9th Cir. 1995); United States v. m,993 F.2d 

686 (9th Cir.), m.denied, (1993);Wed States v. m,983 F.2d 910 (9th Cir. 1993); Wed States v. -

i, Cardwell, 967 F.2d 1349 (9th Cir. 1992). Sgg &g United S- v. Qak, 993 F.2d 402 (4th Cir. 1993). 
October 1996 Page 18 

make that determination in a particular case. For the reader's convenience, case law involving 

the operation of the federal firearm disability in the context of a particular state's laws 

regarding the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges is noted in that state's 

summary; however, intervening changes in state law may have lessened or eliminated the 

continued applicability of some of the cases cited. 
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October 1996 	 Page 19 

ALABAMA 

I. 	 RIGHTSTO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Article VIII, 182 of the Alabama Constitution provides that a person convicted of 

certain enumerated offenses, "of any crime punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary, or 

of any infamous crime or crime involving moral turpitude," is disqualified from voting.* 

Anyone who is not a qualified elector or who has been convicted of "treason, embezzlement of 

public funds, malfeasance in office, larceny, bribery or any other crime punishable by 

imprisonment in the state or federal penitentiary" is ineligible to hold public office. AIa. Code 

fi 36-2-l(a)(l), (3). Persons convicted of "embeulement of the public money, bribery, 

perjury, or other infamous crime" are ineligible to serve in the legislature or to hold "any 

office of trust or profit. " Ala. Const. art. IV, 60. &g Hoeanv. Hartwell, 242 Ala. 646, 

7 So. 2d 889 (1942) (disqualification from office applies to federal as well as state 

con~ictions).~Any person convicted of a felony under federal law or the law of any state 

while holding "any office or place under the authority of [the] state" forfeits his office. Ala. 

Code § 36-9-2; Nd v. m,674 So. 2d 77 (Ala. 1995); Hendrlxv. m,607 So. 2d 

1254 (Ala. 1992). The right to serve on a jury is lost if the conviction is for an offense 

involving moral turpitude. Ala. Code 12-1 6-60(a)(4). 

A felony conviction may result in the loss of a professional or occupational license. 

u:attorney (Ala. Code 34-3-86(1)); certified public accountant (§ 34-1-12(5), (6)); 

physician (§ 34-24-360(4)); dentist (9 34-9-18(a)(5), (1 1)). Alabama has a registration 

requirement for sex offenders. Ala. Code § 13A-11-200,a seg. 

'The enumerated offenses are: treason, murder, arson, embezzlement, malfeasance in office, larceny, 

receiving stolen property, perjury, robbery, assault with intent to rob, burglary, forgery, bribery, assault and 

battery "on the wife," bigamy, living in adultery, sodomy, incest, rape, miscegenation, crime against nature, 

being a vagrant or tramp, and various election crimes. 

'This provision, however, was held unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in Hunter v. 

Ynderwood, 47 1 U.S. 222 (1985), a case in which persons convicted of misdemeanors deemed to involve moral 

turpitude (passing worthless checks) challenged the validity of Article VIII, 8 182 on equal protection grounds. 

The relief awarded by the Eleventh Circuit, whose decision was affirmed by the Supreme Court, was to allow the 

plaintiff class to register to vote. Underwood v. Hunter,730 F.2d 614 (1 lth Cir. 1984). See also Hobson v. 

m,434 F. Supp. 362 (N.D. Ala. 1977) (holding unconstitutional and unenforceable the disqualification of "wife 

beaters"); United States v. Brittain, 319 F. Supp. 1058 (N.D. Ala. 1970) (declaring Alabama's antimiscegenation 

statute unconstitutional). 

3For a consideration of what constitutes an "office of trust or profit," see Alabama Hi~hwav Department 

v. State Personnel Board, 628 So. 2d 878 (Ala. Civ. App. 1993). What constitutes a "conviction" is considered 


in Alabama ex rel. Woods v. Throwe~, 272 Ala. 344, 131 So. 2d 420 (1961). 

October 1996 Page 20 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

Civil rights lost as a result of a felony conviction may be regained only through a 

pardon. The state's pardoning power is generally vested in the Board of Pardons and parole^.^ 

Ala. Const. amend. 38; Ala. Code § 15-22-36. A state pardon does not relieve civil and 

political disabilities unless "specifically expressed in the pardon. " Ala. Code 5 15-22-36(c). 

A person who has forfeited his office as a result of felony conviction is not restored to that 

office by a pardon. Ala. Code 8 36-9-2. &&ix v. m,w.Except in cases of 

treason or impeachment, a person whose right to vote has been lost by conviction, "whether 

the conviction was had in a state or federal court," but who has been pardoned "may be 

restored to his citizenship with right to vote by the state board of pardons and paroles when 

specifically expressed in the pardon." Ala. Code 5 17-3-10. No state pardon may be granted 

to an individual who has not completed three years of permanent parole or his sentence of less 

than three years unless the pardon is based on innocence. Ala. Code 5 15-22-36. Persons 

convicted of a felony or certain other offenses involving danger to the person must submit to 

the taking of a DNA sample as a mandatory condition of pardon. Ala. Code $36-18-25(f). 

While federal felons are encouraged to seek a presidential pardon to restore their civil 

rights, the Board advises that it does accept applications from federal felons without first 

requiring them to request a presidential pardon. See Hoean v. &rtwell, (the state may 

restore by pardon a federal offender's right to hold state public office, lost by operation of 

Ala. Code $ 36-2-1). A pardon application from an out-of-state felon residing in the state will 

be accepted only if the jurisdiction of conviction declines to restore his civil rights. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of committing or attempting to commit a "crime of violen~e"~ is 

prohibited from owning, possessing, or controlling a "pistol. "6 Ala. Code 5 13A-11-72. A 

1991 state court decision suggests that a state pardon that restores civil and political rights also 

restores the right to own or possess a handgun under state law to one who lost that right by the 

operation of Ala. Code § 13A-11-72. See ex rel. Soklra v. u,580 So. 2d 1340 (Ala. 

1991). The Eleventh Circuit, relying on m,concluded that a certificate restoring civil and 

political rights from the state Board of Pardons and Paroles removed the state firearms 

'Except in cases of treason, impeachment, or in which a death sentence was imposed. Ala. Code 

5 15-22-36(a). The Governor has the power to grant commutations and reprieves to persons under a sentence of 

death. Ala. Const. amend. 38. 

SCrime of violence is defined to include murder, manslaughter (except manslaughter arising from 

operation of a vehicle), rape, mayhem, assault with intent to rob, assault with intent to ravish, assault with intent 

to murder, robbery, burglary, kidnapping, and larceny. Ala. Code 5 13A-11-70(2). 

6"Pistoln is defined as any firearm with a barrel less than 12 inches in length. Ala. Code 


13A-11-70(1). 

October 1996 Page 21 

disability under Ala. Code 5 13A-11-72 (and was effective to remove the federal firearms 

disability) resulting from conviction of a state crime of violence. United States v. Swanson, 

947 F.2d 914 (1 lth Cir. 1991). The State Board of Pardons and Paroles, however, in 

response to Sokira, has restricted the effect of future pardons, stating that the "Board does not 

intend, and has never intended, to restore the right to possess firearms to individuals who lost 

that right under State or Federal law," and that restoration of firearms privileges, if intended, 

would be set forth in "clear and unequivocal language." Board Order of March 25, 1992. 
October 1996 	 Page 22 

ALASKA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATEOFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of "a crime that constitutes a felony involving moral turpitude 

under state or federal law" loses the right to vote from the date of conviction through the date 

of unconditional discharge. Alaska Stat. 5 15.05.030. Accord, Alaska Stat. 5 33.30.241(a). 

No person convicted of a felony may serve on a jury until his unconditional discharge. Alaska 

Stat. $5 09.20.020; 33.30.241 (b). Alaska law does not generally prohibit felons from holding 

public office; however, specific statutes may deal with particular offices. For example, a 

regional school board member who is convicted of a felony involving moral turpitude or an 

offense involving a violation of the oath of office while serving as a school board member may 

not continue to serve. Alaska Stat. 5 14.08.045(a)(4). A judge shall be removed from office 

upon final conviction of a "crime punishable as a felony under state or federal law. " Alaska 

Stat. 5 22.30.070(b). 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, suspended, or revoked because 

of a felony conviction. u:insurance agent (Alhska Stat. 5 21.27.410(a)(7)); accountant 

(5 08.04.450(5), (6)); nurse (5 08.68.270(2)); real estate broker (5 08.88.171(a)). Alaska has 

a registration requirement for sex offenders. Alaska Stat. 55 11 S6.840; 12.63.010, aseg. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSJREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote and to serve on a jury are automatically restored to felons upon 

unconditional discharge. Alaska Stat. 55 09.20.020; 15.05.030; 33.30.241. Other 

disabilities may be relieved by a pardon. The pardon power, except in cases of impeachment, 

is vested in the Governor. Alaska Const. art. 111, 5 21; Alaska Stat. 5 33.20.070. While the 

Governor has the power to pardon offenses against the laws of the Territory of Alaska, Alaska 

Stat. 5 33.20.070, persons convicted under federal law or convicted under the law of another 

state are ineligible for a Governor's pardon. 

Alaska law also permits state judges to suspend imposition of sentence and place a 

person on probation, after discharge from which the person may have his conviction set aside. 

Alaska Stat. 5 12.55.085(e). This relief, however, is not available for certain recidivists and 

for certain offenses, including sex offenses and offenses in the commission of which the 

defendant used a firearm. Alaska Stat. 5 12.55.085(f). 
October 1996 Page 23 

/4-ai 

i .--, 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of a state or federal felony may not possess a firearm' capable of 

being concealed on the person. Alaska Stat. 5 11.61.200(a)(l). This disability is removed 10 

years from the date of unconditional discharge (except when the offense is one against a 

person2), or when the conviction has been set aside or the offense has been pardoned. Alaska 

Stat. 5 11.61.200(b)(l)-(3). In addition, a convicted felon during the period of disability may 

not live in a dwelling where he knows concealable firearms are kept unless he obtains written 

authorization from the court or the head of the law enforcement agency in his community. 

Alaska Stat. 5 1 1.61.200(a)(lO). 

'"Firearm" is defined to include pistols, revolvers, rifles, and shotguns. Alaska Stat $ 1 1.81.900(b)(22). 

-- -

i 

ZExamples of such offenses are homicide, assault, kidnapping, sexual offenses, and robbery. See Alaska 

Stat. tit. 11, ch. 41. 

,.._ C 
October 19% 	 Page 24 

ARIZONA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Conviction of a felony suspends the rights to vote, to hold public office, and to serve 

on a jury. Ariz. Const. art. 7, 5 2; Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 55 13-904(A)(l) - (3); 16-lOl(5); 

21-201 (3). Also suspended during imprisonment are "any other civil rights the suspension of 

which is reasonably necessary for the security of the institution in which the person is confined 

or for the reasonable protection of the public. " Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-904(A)(4). 

A person may not be disqualified from public employment nor may a person whose 

civil rights have been restored be denied an occupational or professional license, permit, or 

certificate solely because of a conviction; however, a person may be denied public 

employment and a person whose civil rights have been restored may be denied a license "if the 

offense has a reasonable relationship to the functions of the employment or occupation for 

which the license, permit or certificate is sought. " Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-904(E).' J&: 

insurance agent (Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 20-316(P\(6)); certified public accountant 

($5 32-721 (2), 32-741(A)(l)); dentist ($9 32-1263(2), 32-1290); nurse (5 32-1663(A)(2), 

(D)(2)); pharmacist (5 32-1 927(A)(2)). 

Arizona has a registration requirement for sex offenders. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann.5 13-

3821, GI m. A court may require a person adjudicated a delinquent based on the commission 

of a sex offense to register, and the duty to do so continues until he is 25 years old. Ariz. 

Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-3821(C). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

For a first felony offender (state or federal), civil rights, other than those pertaining to 

firearms, are automatically restored upon completion of the term of probation or upon an 

unconditional discharge from imprisonment and upon completion of payment of any fine or 

restitution. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-912. A person convicted under Arizona law of more 

than one felony may have his civil rights restored by the sentencing court two years after 

absolute discharge from imprisonment, Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-906, or, if sentenced to 

probation, upon discharge from probation. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-905(A). A person 

convicted of more than one federal felony may apply for restoration of civil rights on the same 

terms (two years after discharge from imprisonment or upon discharge from probation, 

'This provision does not apply to law enforcement agencies. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann.8 13-904(F). 
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October 1996 Page 25 

depending on his sentence) to the Superior Court of his county of residence. Ariz. Rev. Stat. 

Ann. $8 13-909(A); 13-910. There are no provisions in Arizona Jaw for restoring civil rights 

lost as a result of a felony conviction in a state other than Arizona. 

Arizona law also permits certain state offenders to have their convictions set aside by 

the sentencing court after successful completion of probation or sentence and discharge. This 

relief generally releases the person "from all penalties and disabilities resulting from the 

conviction." Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-907(A).* This procedure is unavailable to anyone 

convicted of a criminal offense involving the infliction of serious physical injury, the use or 

exhibition of a deadly weapon or dangerous instrument, a victim less than 15 years old, or a 

violation of the state's laws defining sexual offenses. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-907(B). 

The Governor has the authority to grant pardons, except in cases of treason or 

impeachment. Ariz. Const. art. 5, 5 5. A state pardon has the effect of restoring civil rights, 

including'firearms privileges, but cannot be obtained for a conviction under federal law or the 

law of a state other than Arizona. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

The "right to possess a gun or firearm" is suspended for any person convicted of a 

felony, Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-904(A)(5), and the length of the suspension depends on the 

number of offenses of conviction and their nature. A person convicted within or outside 

Arizona of a felony may not possess a deadly weapon (including pistols, revolvers, rifles, and 

shotguns, Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-3101(1)) if his civil rights have not been restored. Ariz. 

Rev. Stat. Ann. $8 13-3 101(6)(b), 13-3 102(A)(4).4 The automatic restoration of civil rights 

provision for first offenders "does not apply to a person's right to possess weapons as defined 

in 5 13-3 101, " Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 13-912(B); instead, the first offender must make an 

application to the court pursuant to Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. 8 13-906. 

iThe section, however, permits use of the conviction in any subsequent prosecution of the person by the 

state or a subdivision thereof. Thus, it would appear that relief under this section would not remove firearms 

disabilities. &&Q United St= v. m,588 F.2d 71 1 (9th Cir. 1978), denied, 440 U.S. 964 

(1979)(concluding that similarly worded predecessor statute did not eliminate state conviction as basis for federal 

felon-in-possession charge under 18 U.S.C. 8 922). 

3Ynited States v. Gevlet, 932 F.2d 1330 (9th Cir. 1991). dealt with the interaction between the federal 


firearms disability and the Arizona law concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges; 


however, the predicate offense in &ykt was a federal felony and its specific holding was rejected in 


&&s v. m,51 1 U.S. 368 (1994). 


4A person who is adjudicated delinquent is also prohibited from possessing firearms. Ariz. Rev. Stat. 


$i$i 13-3101(6)(b), 13-3102(A)(4). 

October 19% Page 26 

Under 5 13-906, firearms privileges are never restored to persons convicted of a 

"dangerous offense. "5 Persons convicted of a "serious offensew6 must wait 10 years after 

discharge from probation or prison to seek restoration of their firearms privileges, and all 

other felons must wait two years after discharge to seek restoration. The restoration procedure 

applies to federal as well as state felons. A person convicted of two or more felonies who has 

received an absolute discharge from imprisonment must have his or her firearms privileges 

restored through court action, and is not eligible to seek restoration until two years after 

discharge. Ariz. Rev. Stat. 5 13-906(A), (B).' 

A pardon may also operate to restore state firearms privileges, if it specifically so 

states. As noted, a state pardon is unavailable for federal or out-of-state offenses. 

'A "dangerous offense" refers to "a felony involving the discharge, use or threatening exhibition of a 

deadly weapon or dangerous instrument or the intentional or knowing infliction of serious physical injury upon 

another." Ariz. Rev. Stat. 9 13-604(P). 

6"Serious offense" is defined to include any of the following Arizona offenses, or offenses committed 

outside Arizona that would constitute one of the following offenses under Arizona law: firstdegree or seconddegree murder; manslaughter; aggravated assault resulting in serious physical injury or involving the discharge, 

use, or threatening exhibition of a deadly weapon or dangerous instrument; sexual assault; any dangerous crime 

against children; arson of an occupied structure; armed robbery; first-degree burglary; kidnapping; or sexual 

conduct with a minor less than 15 years old. Ariz. Rev. Stat. 13-604(U). 

'Special restoration provisions relating to juvenile adjudications are set forth in Ariz. Rev. Stat. 

§ 13-912.01. Firearms privileges may be restored by the adjudicating judge, but only if the juvenile was placed 

on probation. For persons adjudicated delinquent based on the commission of a "dangerous offense," a 'serious 

offense," first- or second-degree burglary, or arson, firearms privileges may not tre restored until the person is 30 

years old. For adjudications based on the commission of any other felony, the adjudicating judge may restore 

firearms privileges two years after the date of discharge from probation. 
re
1 


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October 1996 	 Page 27 

ARKANSAS 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person who has been convicted of a felony forfeits the right to vote. Ark. Const. 

art. 3, $5 1, 2, amended by Ark. Const. amend. 8; amend. 51, 5 1 l(a)(4). This 

disqualification has been held to apply to federal felons. Merritt v. Jones, 259 Ark. 380, 533 

S.W.2d 497 (1976). A person convicted of embezzlement of public money, bribery, forgery, 

or other "infam~us" crime, may not hold any ofice of trust or profit. Ark. Const. art. 5, 5 9. 

A felon is disqualified from jury service. Ark. Code Ann. $ 16-31-102(a)(4). 

A professional or occupational license may be revoked, suspended, or denied as a 

consequence of a felony conviction. Examples of such licenses include: physician (Ark. Code 

Ann. 5 17-95409(a)(2)(A)(i)); dentist (5 17-82-316(b)(3)(C)); psychologist 

(5 17-97-3 10(a)(2)); podiatrist ($ 17-96-308(a)(2)); public accountant (5 17- 12-601 (5)); 

landscape architect (5 17-36-306(5)). 

Arkansas has a registration requirement for sex offenders. Ark. Code Ann. 5 12-12-

901, alsg. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is automatically restored to all convicted felons upon completion of 

sentence. Ark. Const. amend. 5 1, 5 1l(a)(4). Restoration of the right to serve on a jury 

requires a gubernatorial pardon. Ark. Code Ann. 5 16-31-102(a)(5). The Supreme Court of 

Arkansas indicated in Ridgewav v. -, 238 Ark. 323, 379 S.W.2d 277 (1964), that 

eligibility to hold public office is not restored by a state pardon. The right to hold office is, 

however, restored by expungement in accordance with Ark. Code Ann. $8 16-93-301 to 

16-93-303 (described below), or similar expungement statute of another state. Ark. Code 

Ann. 5 7-6-102(d); Powers v. m,309 Ark. 568, 832 S.W.2d 232 (1992). 

The pardon power, except in cases of treason or impeachment, is vested in the 

Governor, who is assisted by the investigation and recommendation of the Post Prison 

Transfer Board. Ark. Const. art. 6, 8 18; Ark. Code Ann.5 16-93-204.' Felons convicted 

under federal law or the law of another state are eligible for a Governor's pardon to restore the 

'Ark. Code AM. 8 3-2-102 declares it an abuse of power and an impeachable offense to pardon anyone 

convicted of violating the laws against the unlawful manufacture or sale of liquor, except on proof that the person 

was not guilty. 
October 1996 Page 28 

right to serve on a jury. An expungement procedure is available to some persons who are 

pardoned. Ark. Code Ann. 5 16-90-605.2 

Arkansas law provides for deferred adjudication and expungernent in certain 

circumstances. A person who has no prior felony conviction, who has not previously availed 

himself of the benefits of deferred adjudication, and who pleads guilty or nolo contendere may 

be placed upon probation and have further proceedings deferred. Ark. Code Ann. 

$8 16-93-302(a)(l), 16-93-303(a)(l). Upon successful completion of or earlier release from 

probation, the defendant is discharged without an adjudication of guilt and the record is 

expunged, if consistent with the expungement procedures set forth in Ark. Code AM. ' 

$6 16-90-901 to 16-90-905. -A person whose record is expunged "shall have all privileges and 

rights restored, shall be completely exonerated, and the record which has been expunged shall 

not affect any of his civil rights or liberties, unless otherwise specifically provided for by 

law." Ark. Code Ann. 5 16-90-902(a). Expunged records may nonetheless be disclosed if the 

person applies for employment with a criminal justice agency or is subsequently convicted, or 

in connection with a prosecution. Ark. Code Ann. 5 16-90-903(a)(2), (3), (4). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

No person who has been "convicted of a felony" may own or possess a firearm,3 unless 

the person has been granted a pardon expressly restoring the ability to possess a firearm, or 

"unless authorized by and subject to such conditions as prescribed by the Governor, or his 

designee" or the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (or other designee of the United 

States Department of the Treasury). Ark. Code Ann. 5 5-73-103(a)(l), (b)(i). The Governor 

may, without granting a pardon, restore firearms privileges upon the recommendation of the 

chief law enforcement officer in the jurisdiction of the felon's residence if the offense occurred 

more than eight years ago and did not involve the use of a weapon. Ark. Code Ann. 

$ 5-73-103(d). 

2For persons pardoned on or after July 15, 1991, the Governor notifies the sentencing court of the 

pardon, and the court issues an order expunging all records relating to the conviction. Persons convicted before 

July 15, 1991, must apply for expungement. Expungement is unavailable to anyone who has been convicted of a 

sex offense, an offense resulting in death or serious physical injury, or an offense involving a victim less than 18 

years old. Ark. Code Ann.8 16-90-605. 

3"Firearm" is defined in Ark. Code Ann. § 5-1-102(6) to include both long guns and handguns. ,/ 

'\ 

> 
October 1996 	 Page 29 

CALIFORNIA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

The right to vote is suspended while a person is imprisoned or on parole for the 

conviction of a felony. Cal. Const. art. 11, $ 4; Flood v. Rlges, 80 Cal. App. 3d 138, 145 

Cal. Rptr. 573 (1st Dist. 1978). Persons who have been convicted of a felony or malfeasance 

in office, and whose civil rights have not been restored, are disqualified from jury service. 

Cal. Civ. Proc. Code $ 203(a)(5). 

Any person convicted of vote-buying, bribery, perjury, forgery, malfeasance in office, 

or other high crime is disqualified from public office. Cal. Const. art. VII, $ 8; Cal. Gov't 

Code § 1021; Cal. Penal Code $5 67, 68, 74, 88, 98. Earlier similar provisions of California 

law have been held to extend to federal convictions. Wna Rumtein Internat'l v. Youn~a, 

71 Cal. App. 3d 406, 139 Cal. Rptr. 473 (2d Dist. 1980). Additional disqualification statutes 

include: disqualification from public office for embezzlement of public money or falsification 

of public account records, Cal. Penal Code $ 424; disqualification from holding office as a 

peace officer upon conviction of felony, Cal. Gov't Code $ 1029(a). 

A conviction of a crime may result in the denial, suspension, or revocation of a 

professional or business license if the crime is substantially related to the qualifications, 

functions, or duties of the business or profe~sion.~ Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code $ 490. Some of 

these licenses include: law (Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code $ 6060(b)); real estate ($ 10177(b)); 

medicine ($ 2236); nursing (8 2761(f)); physical therapy ($ 2660(d)). Conviction of certain 

drug or sex offenses results in suspension and revocation of credentials issued by the State 

Board of Education or the Commission on Teacher Credentialing, Cal. Educ. Code 5 44425, 

or in the loss of other jobs in the field of education. Eg,Cal. Educ. Code $44435. 

California has a registration requirement for sex offenders, Cal. Penal Code $$ 290-

290.7, which expressly includes federal offenses. Cal. Penal Code 5 290(a)(2). Felony sex 

offenders and persons convicted of certain violent crimes are required to provide blood and 

saliva samples for DNA testing. Cal. Penal Code $ 290.2. 

'The California Constitution specifically disqualifies persons convicted of vote-buying, and permits laws 


to be passed disqualifying persons convicted of bribery, perjury, forgery, malfeasance in office, or other "high 


crimes." Cal. Const. an. VII, 8 8. Cal. Gov't Code § 1021 provides that persons are disqualified from any 


office who are convicted of "designated crimes as specified in the [California] Constitution and laws." Cal. Penal 


Code §§ 67, 68, 74, 88, and 98 define bribery and gratuity offenses. 


&&& v. b,98 Cal. App. 3d 167, 159 Cal. Rptr. 864 (1st Dist. 1979) (conviction of possession of 

marijuana for sale is substantially related to business of real estate broker as it shows lack of honesty and 

integrity); Wlndham v. Board of Medical Oualitv Ass-, 104 Cal. App. 3d 461, 163 Cal. Rptr. 566 (2d Dist. 

1980) (federal conviction for income tax evasion is substantially related to the practice of medicine). 
October 1996 Page 30 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is automatically restored upon completion of a sentence to 

confinement, including any period of parole. Cal. Const. art. 11, 5 4. Other civil rights may 

be regained only through a pardon. Under the California Constitution, the pardon power, 

except in cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor, after investigation and 

recommendation by the Board of Prison Terms. Cal. Const. art. V, 5 8; Cal. Penal Code 

$8 4800, 4812 - 48 13. The Governor's office advises that current policy is to accept a pardon 

application only if 10 years have passed from completion of sentence. The 10-year rule may 

be waived, however, in exceptional circumstances if the applicant can demonstrate a specific 

need for pardon. A pardon may not be granted to a recidivist unless a majority of judges of 

the State Supreme Court so recommend. Cal. Const. art V, 8 8; Cal. Penal Code 8 4852.16. 

Federal felons and persons convicted under the laws of a state other than California are 

ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon, and may regain their civil rights (other than the right to 

vote, which, as noted, is suspended only during a period of incarceration or parole) in 

California only through a pardon or "action analogous to a pardon" in the jurisdiction of their 

conviction. Therefore, a federal felon residing in California may regain his rights to hold 

public office and to sit on a jury only by obtaining a presidential pardon. 

A gubernatorial pardon does not seal or expunge the record of conviction, and, 

although it restores the convicted person to "all the rights, privileges, and franchises of which 

he or she has been deprived in consequence of that conviction or by reason of any matter 

involved therein," it does not preclude a state agency from considering the conviction in 

license proceedings. Cal. Penal Code $5 4852.15,4853. 

California law provides two paths to a gubernatorial pardon for a person convicted of a 

felony under California law. In addition to applying directly to the Governor for a pardon, a 

state felon may first apply to the superior court of his county of residence for a certificate of 

rehabilitation after the required period of rehabilitation and re~idency.~ Cal. Penal Code 

$8 4852.06, 4852.19. The certificate is an order embodying a court's finding that the 

defendant is rehabilitated and its recommendation that he be pardoned. Cal. Penal Code 

5 4852.13. When issued, the certificate is forwarded to the Governor and treated as an 

3The felon must have lived in California for at least three years immediately preceding the filing of the 


application, and must have completed parole or probation. Cal. Penal Code $5 4852.01, 4852.06. In addition to 


the three-year residency requirement, the felon is required to complete a period of rehabilitation, which in most 


cases, is an additional two or four years, depending on the severity of the offense. Cal. Penal Code 


5 4852.03(a)(l), (2). The period of rehabilitation is measured from the date of discharge from custody due to 


completion of sentence or release on parole or probation, whichever is sooner. Cal. Penal Code 5 4852.03(a). 


Persons who are serving mandatory life parole, under a death sentence, or in the military are ineligible to apply 


for a certificate of rehabilitation. Cal. Penal Code 5 4852.01(d). Felons convicted of a California offense who 


are ineligible to apply for the certificate of rehabilitation because they reside outside of California may apply 


directly to the Governor for a pardon. 

October 19% Page 31 

application for full pardon. The Governor may, but is not obligated to, grant the pardon and 

\. may, but is not obligated to, do so without further investigation. Cal. Penal Code 5 4852.16. 

The certificate of rehabilitation does not itself restore any civil rights, but a full and 

unconditional pardon based upon a certificate of rehabilitation restores "all civil and political 

rights of citizenship, including but not limited to . . . the right to vote" and, for persons not 

convicted of a felony involving the use of a dangerous weapon, firearms privileges. Cal. 

Penal Code Ej 4852.17. 

A state felon sentenced to probation (and not then under another sentence or charged 

with another crime) may also apply to the sentencing court to set aside the conviction and 

dismiss the charges after completion of sentence. Cal. Penal Code Ej 1203.4(a). The felon 

"shall thereafter be released from all penalties and disabilities resulting from the offense of 

which he or she has been convicted." This procedure, however, does not relieve the felon of 

the obligation to disclose the conviction in response to any direct question in any questionnaire 

or application for public office or licensure by a state or local agency, or for contracting with 

the California State Lottery, nor does it permit the felon to possess a gun; in addition, the 

conviction may be used in a subsequent prosecution for any other offense. Cal. Penal Code Ej 

1203.4(a). This procedure does not remove the duty to register as a sex offender. Cal. Penal 

Code 5 290.1. 

f-- . 11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES4 

t 3 

i,* 

A person convicted, under the law of California or of any other state, of a felony or an 

offense that involves the violent use of a firearmS may not own, possess, or have custody of 

any type of firearm6 Cal. Penal Code Ej 12021(a). A person convicted of a federal felony 

may not own, possess, or have custody of any type of firearm, including a rifle or a shotgun, 

if the conduct that led to conviction would be punishable as a felony under California law or 

the sentence imposed for the federal felony exceeds 30 days' imprisonment or a fine greater 

than $1,000. Cal. Penal Code Ej 1202 1 (f). 

The right to own and possess any type of weapon that may lawfully be possessed and 

owned by other citizens is restored by a full and unconditional pardon based on a certificate of 

rehabilitation, except for persons ever convicted of a felony "involving the use of a dangerous 

weapon." Cal. Penal Code Ej 4852.17. In granting any other pardon the Governor may 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and California law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Varela, 993 F.2d 

686 (9th Cir. 1993). 

'These offenses are described in Cal. Penal Code $ 12001.6. 

'"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Cal. Penal Code $ 12001(b) 
October 19% Page 32 

restore fxearms privileges, except to persons who were ever convicted of an offense 

"involving the use of a dangerous weapon. " Cal. Penal Code $4854. State firearms 

privileges are restored to a federal felon who has received a presidential pardon. Harbert v. 

-, 
 117 Cal. App. 3d 779, 173 Cal. Rptr. 89 (2d Dist. 1981). 
- - 

October 1996 	 Page 33 

c-	 COLORADO 
 .--

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person "sewing a sentence of detention or confinement in a correctional facility, jail, 

or other location or while sewing a sentence of parole" (unless he is awaiting trial) is 

ineligible to register to vote or to vote in any election. Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 1-2-103(4). 

Eligibility for jury service is not lost by conviction, since the disqualification statute was 

repealed in 1989. A person convicted of a felony is disqualified from holding public office 

while incarcerated or while on release from actual confinement on conditions of probation. 

Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 18-1-105(3). Disqualification from the State General Assembly or office of 

trust or profit, however, continues after incarceration for individuals convicted of 

embezzlement of public money, bribery (or solicitation thereof), or perjury (or subornation 

thereof). Colo. Const. art. XII, 5 4; Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 18-1-105(3). 

Conviction of a felony or crime involving moral turpitude does not automatically 

disqualify an individual from public employment or a professional or occupational license, but 

it may be taken into account in determining whether an applicant has the good moral character 

to qualify for such employment or license, Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 24-5-101, and in denying, 

revoking, or suspending a license. &: dentist (Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 12-35-1 18(b)); engineer 

(5 12-25-108(c)); nurse (5 12-38-1 17(b)); pharmacist (5 12-22-125(1)(b)); physician 

(5 12-36-1 1701)); realtor (5 12-61-1 13(m)). No person convicted of a felony or crime 

involving moral turpitude may be certified as a peace officer unless he has received a pardon. 

Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 24-3 1-304(a). Colorado has a registration requirement for sex offenders 

(including persons adjudicated as a juvenile based on the commission of a sex offense). Colo. 

Rev. Stat. 5 18-3-412.5. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote and to hold public office, except for the disqualification from public 

office for certain offenses, are restored automatically upon completion of a sentence of 

confinement, including parole or release from actual confinement on conditions of probation. 

Colo. Rev. Stat. 5s 1-2-103(4), 18-1-105(3). The pardon power is vested in the Governor, 

except in cases of treason or impeachment. Colo. Const. art. IV, 5 7; Colo. Rev. Stat. 

5 16-17-102. Pardon applications are not generally accepted until at least 10 years after 

completion of sentence.' Persons convicted under federal law or the law of another state are 

ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

'For a discussion of the procedural requirements relating to the issuance of a pardon, see Peo~leex rel.. 

Garrison v. Lamm,622 P.2d 87 (Colo. App. 1980). 

I 
October 1996 Page 34 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

Any person convicted of a felony (or attempt or conspiracy to commit a felony) under 

the law of any state or of the United States may not possess, use, or carry on his person a 

fuearm3 or a dangerous ~eapon.~ Colo. Gen. Stat. § 18-12-108(1), (2). The penalty is 

enhanced if the felon does so within 10 years of conviction of, or within 10 years of release 

from supervision for, burglary, arson, or any felony involving the use of force or the use of a 

deadly weapon. Colo. Rev. Stat. 8 18-12-108(2)(~).~ 

No procedure is specifically provided under state law to restore firearms privileges. 

Accordingly, state felons must seek a gubernatorial pardon to have their state firearms 

privileges restored. 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Colorado law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see Uted States v. w,20 F.3d 1066 

(10th Cir. 1994). 

3"Firearm" is defined to include both handguns and long guns. Colo. Rev. Stat. 5 18-1-901(3)@). 

4"Dangerous weapon" is defined to include a firearm silencer, machine gun, short shotgun, short rifle, or 

ballistic knife. Conn. Gen. Stat. 5 18-12-102(1). 

'The Colorado Supreme Court has held that it is an affirmative defense to a prosecution under Colo. Rev. 

Stat. § 18-12-108 that the defendant's purpose in possessing weapons was the defense of his home, person, and 

property. v. EQEg,193 Colo. 459, 568 P.2d 26 (1977). This holding was based upon an interpretation of 

Art. 11, !j 13 of Colorado's Constitution, which specifically guarantees the right to bear arms in defense of one's 

home, person, or property. 
October 1996 	 Page 35 

r3-.-	 CONNECTICUT 

f '\, 9" 

? 2 i_. 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A felony conviction deprives an individual of the rights to vote, to hold public office, 

and to serve on a jury. Conn. Gen. Stat. 55 9-46(a), (b); 5 1-217(a). 

A person may not be denied state employment or an occupational or professional 

license solely because of conviction of a crime. Conn. Gen. Stat. 5 46a-80(a).' Such 

employment or license, however, may be denied, suspended, or revoked by reason of 

conviction if it is determined that the person is not suitable for the job, taking into account the 

nature of the offense and its relationship to the job, the rehabilitation of the person, and the 

age of the conviction. Conn. Gen. Stat. $8 46a-80@), 46a-81(a). Examples of professions or 

occupations in which conviction of certain crimes may be relevant to the licensing process 

include: day care center operator or worker (Conn. Gen. Stat. 5 19a-87a(a)); psychologist 

(5 20-192); public accountant (5 20-281a(8)). 

Connecticut has a registration requirement for sex offenders, Conn. Gen. Stat. 

5 54-102r, and requires HIV testing (on request of the victim) and the giving of a blood 

sample for DNA analysis by persons convicted of designated sexual offenses. Conn. Gen. 

Stat. $5 54-102b, 54-102g. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is regained by submission of proof that all fines resulting from the 

conviction have been paid and that the felon has been discharged from his sentence, including 

parole or probation. Conn. Gen. Stat. 5 9-46a. Restoration of the right to vote results in 

automatic restoration of the right to hold public office. Conn. Gen. Stat. 5 9-46(b). The right 

to serve on a jury is automatically restored seven years after conviction (unless the felon is 

then incarcerated). Conn. Gen. Stat. 5 51-217(a). 

The State Board of Pardons has primary authority for granting pardons and 

commutations. Conn. Gen. Stat. 6 18-26. The Governor has limited power to grant reprieves 

after conviction. Conn. Const. art. 4, 6 13. Felons convicted under federal law or the law of 

another state are ineligible for a state pardon. Conn. Gen. Stat. 9 18-26(a) (jurisdiction 

conferred "in the case of any person convicted of any offense against the state"). 

'This limitation does not apply to law enforcement agencies. Conn.Gen. Stat. 5 46a-81(b). 
October I996 Page 36 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of a capital offense, of certain Class D fel~nies,~or, with certain 

exceptions, of a Class A, B, or C felony may not possess a firear~n.~ Conn. Gen. Stat. 

5 53a-217. In addition, persons convicted of a felony or certain violent misdemeanors lose the 

right to obtain a permit to carry a pistol or revolver. Conn. Gen. Stat. $5 29-28(b); 29-29.4 

Felons also lose the right to obtain an eligibility certificate to purchase a pistol or revolver, 

Conn. Gen. Stat. $5 29-36S 29-36j, or a permit to purchase firearms other than pistols and 

revolvers. Corn. Gen. Stat. 5 29-37a. No procedure other than pardon exists at the state 

level for restoring firearms privileges. 

2These felonies include a variety of offenses, such as third-degree burglary, robbery, and sexual assault. 

Conn. Gen. Stat. § 53a-217. 

3"Fireann" is defined to include both handguns and long guns. Corn. Gen. Stat. O53a-3(19). 

'Nor can a felon obtain a permit to carry any other "dangerous or deadly weapon or instrument." Conn. 

Gen. Stat. 8 53a-206. While Corn. Gen. Stat. 8 53a-3(6) indicates that the term "deadly weapon" as used in 

4 53-206 does not include a firearm, the definition of the term "dangerous instrument" may include long guns. 

See. Conn. Gen. Stat. 8 53a-3(7). 
October 1996 	 Page 37 

i" 	 DELAWARE 1-

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony forfeits the right to vote. Del. Const. art. V, 8 2; 

Del. Code Ann. tit. 15, 8 1701. Offenders convicted of certain election law violations are 

prohibited from voting for 10 years following completion of sentence. Del. Const. art. V, 

8 7; Del. Code Ann. tit. 15, 8 1701. Convicted felons who have not had their civil rights 

restored may not serve on juries. Del. Code Ann. tit. 10, 5 4509(b)(6). Individuals convicted 

of embezzlement of public money, bribery, perjury, or other "infamous" crimes are not 

eligible to hold a seat in the legislature or any office of trust, honor, or profit. Del. Const. 

art. 11, 8 21. The Governor has the power to remove from office a public officer convicted of 

misbehavior in office or an "infamous" crime. Del. Const. art. XV, 5 6. &g Slawik v. 

Folsom, 410 A.2d 512 (Del. 1979) (power to remove from office includes removal for federal 

convictions). 

A professional or occupational license may be revoked or suspended for conviction of 

certain crimes. &: medicine @el. Code Ann. tit. 24, 5 1731(b)(2)); dentistry (tit. 24, 

8 1131(2)); accounting (tit. 24, 8 117(a)(4), (5)); real estate (tit. 24, 8 2912(c)). A sentencing 

court may subject sex offenders convicted on or after June 27, 1994, to the state's registration 

requirement (including persons adjudicated a juvenile delinquent because of the commission or 

attempted commission of a sex offense who have been discharged or paroled from Juvenile 

Corrections). Del. Code Ann.tit. 11, 8 4120. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The power to pardon, except in cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor but 

only upon the written recommendation of a majority of the Board of Pardons after a full 

hearing. Del. Const. art. VII, 5 1. According to the State's Attorney General, a pardon 

restores the right to serve on a jury and probably the right to vote, but does not restore the 

right to hold public office. &&& ex rel. J&ir v. Petersm, 369 A.2d 1076 (Del. 1976). ' 

Felons convicted under federal law or the law of another state are apparently not eligible for a 

gubernatorial pardon.' 

270 A.2d 529 (Del. 1970), that a 

procedure under former Del. Code Ann. tit. 11, 5 4332(i) for striking from court records a guilty plea after 

successful completion of probation did not remove the disqualification from office under Del. Const. art. 11, § 21. 

The court further noted that this procedure did not expunge the conviction. No expungement procedure is 

provided under the current version of the statute. 

'Persons convicted under Delaware law and sentenced to prison may receive a certificate of discharge 

issued by the Board of Parole one year after the date of release from confinement, or sooner if the sentence 

The Supreme Court of Delaware held in Fonvlllev. -, 
October 1996 Page 38 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

Under state law, the following persons, whether convicted in Delaware or elsewhere, 

may not purchase, own, possess, or control any deadly ~eapon:~ a person convicted of a 

felony or a crime of violence involving bodily injury to another, whether or not armed with, 

or having in his possession any weapon during the commission of such felony or crime of 

violence; and a person convicted of the unlawful use, possession, or sale of drugs. 

Del. Code Ann. tit. 11, 5 1448. Fireanns privileges are "almost certainly" not restored by a 

Governor's pardon, or by a certificate of discharge or expungement, according to the State 

Attorney General's office. 

expires earlier. A discharge "shall have the effect of restoring all civil rights lost by operation of law upon 

commitment." Del. Code Ann. tit. 11, 4 4347(i). The office of the Delaware Attorney General, however, 

advises that these "civil rights" are limited to those "commonly exercised in everyday life," and exclude firearms 

privileges and the rights to vote, to serve on a jury, and to hold public office. 

3"Deadly weapon" is defined in Del. Code Ann. tit. 11, 8 222(6) & (10) to include all firearms. 
October 19% 	 Page 39 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVEON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A felon's right to vote is suspended only during imprisonment. D.C. Code Ann. 

$ 1-1302(7)(A).' Because eligibility for public office is generally contingent upon being a 

qualified elector, a felon is also disqualified from seeking or holding public office, including 

the offices of Mayor and City Council member, but only during a period of incarceration. 

D .C. Code Ann. $$ 1-225, 1-241 (c). Members of the Board of Elections and Ethics may be 

removed from office by the Mayor upon conviction of a felony in the District of Columbia (or 

elsewhere if the offense would be a felony under District of Columbia law). D.C. Code Ann. 

$ 1-1304(a)(5). Likewise, a member of the Board of Directors of the Washington Convention 

Center may be removed if convicted of a felony or a violation of the District of Columbia 

Campaign Finance Reform and Conflict of Interest Act. D.C. Code Ann. $9-602(e). 

Conviction of a federal felony or crime that would be a felony in the District of Columbia is 

grounds for removal of a District of Columbia judge. D.C. Code Ann. $ 1 1 -1526(a)(l). A 

person convicted of a felony loses the right to serve on a jury (unless he seeks certification, 

described m).D.C. Code Ann. $ 11-1906(b)(2)(B). 

A felon may not serve as the personal representative of a decedent in the probate of an 

estate if his sentence has not expired or has expired within 10 years (unless pardoned on the 

basis of innocence). D .C .Code Ann. $ 20-303(b)(4). Various occupational and professional 

licenses may be denied, revoked, or suspended upon conviction. u:health care 

professional (D.C. Code Ann. $2-3305.3(a)(l)); veterinarian ($ 2-2729(a)(2)); attorney 

(§ 1 1-2503); liquor license ($ 25-1 15(g)(l)). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote and to hold many public offices are restored upon release from 

imprisonment. D.C. Code Ann. $§ 1-225; 1-241(c); 1-1302(7)(A). The right to serve on a 

jury may be restored to a felon one year after completion of a term of incarceration, probation, 

or parole following appropriate certification as set forth in the jury system plan. D.C. Code 

AM. $ 11-1906(b)(2)(B). 

'For the purpose of the disqualification from voting, the term "felony" includes violations of the election, 

lobbying, and conflict of interest laws, many of which are otherwise misdemeanors. D.C. Code 'Ann. 

$ 1-1302(7)(B). 
October 1996 Page 40 

Individuals convicted of felonies in the District of Columbia are eligible to apply for a 

presidential pardon. According to the Office of the United States Attorney, the Mayor of the 

District of Columbia at most has the authority to grant pardons for violations of municipal 

ordinances under the provisions of D.C. Code AM. 5 1-311.2 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person "convicted in the District of Columbia or elsewhere of a felony" may not 

own, keep, or have in his possession or under his control a pistol. D.C. Code Ann. 

5 22-3203(a)(2).3 Nor may such persons obtain a registration certificate for firearm 

(including both long guns and handguns) or ammunition. D.C. Code Ann. 58 6-2313(a)(9), 

6-236l(3). 

A registration certificate is also denied to anyone who has been convicted: (1) of a 

"crime of violencen4; (2) of a "weapons offensew5; (3) of any violation of the D.C. laws 

requiring registration of guns or ammunition; (4) within the previous five years of a drug 

offense; or (5) within the past five years of any offense involving threats to do bodily harm or 

assault under the D.C. Code6 or "any similar provision of the law of any other jurisdiction so 

as to indicate a likelihood to make unlawful use of a fuearm. " D. C. Code Ann. 5 6-23 13. 

2Section 1-31 1 provides that the Mayor "may grant pardons and respites for offense against the late 

corporation of Washington, the ordinances of Georgetown and the levy court, the laws enacted by the Legislative 

Assembly, and the police and building regulations of the District." 

3"Pistol" is defined as any firearm with a barrel length of less than 12 inches. D.C. Code Ann. 

§ 22-3201(a). Also prohibited from possessing a pistol is anyone convicted of prostitution (D.C. Code Ann. 

§ 22-27011, keeping a bawdy house (D.C. Code An.. $22-2722), or vagrancy (D.C. Code AM. $8 22-3302 to 

3306). D.C. Code Ann. 22-3203(a)(3). 

4"Crime of violence" is defined in D.C. Code Ann. $5 6-2302(5) and 22-3201(f) to mean any of the 

followine crimes. or an attempt to commit any of them, committed in any jurisdiction (but excluding larceny or 

attempiexl larceny): murder; manslaughter; first- or second-degree sexual abuse; child sexual abuse; mayhem; 

maliciously asfiguring another; abduction; kidnapping; burglary; robbery; housebreaking; any assault with intent 

to kill, or to commit first- or second-degree sexual abuse, child sexual abuse, or robbery; assault with a dangerous 

weapon; assault with intent to commit any offense punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary; arson; or 

extortion or blackmail accompanied by threats of violence. 

S"Weapons offense" is defined in D.C.Code Ann. 6-2302(18) to mean "any violation in any 

jurisdiction of any law which involves the sale, purchase, transfer in any manner, receipt, acquisition, possession, 

having under control, use, repair, manufacture, carrying, or transportation of any firearm, ammunition, or 

destructive device. " 

6Specifically, offenses under D.C. Code AM. § 22-504 or 22-507. 
<-. * 

... 

\. 

i ; 

\..- .-, 

October 1996 	 Page 41 

FLORIDA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFTICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTEDOCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony loses the rights to vote and to hold public office. Fla. 

Const. art. VI,5 4; Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 97.041(2)@). A person convicted of a felony under 

Florida law or an offense under federal law or the law of another state that would be a felony 

if committed in Florida also loses the right to serve on a jury. Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 40.013(1). 

A person may not be disqualified from public employment solely because of a criminal 

conviction unless the conviction was for a felony or a first-degree misdemeanor and directly 

related to the position of employment sought. Fla. Stat. Ann. 8 112.01 l(l)(a). A person 

whose civil rights have been restored may not be denied an occupational or professional 

license solely because of a criminal conviction unless the conviction was a felony or firstdegree misdemeanor and directly related to the occupation or profession for which the license 

is sought. Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 112.011(1)@). These restrictions do not apply to law 

enforcement or correctional agencies,' Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 112.01 1(2)(a), or to the fire 

department, as to which a four-year disqualification is imposed (unless the person receives a 

pardon or has his civil rights restored). Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 112.01 1 (2)(b). Furthermore, a 

person convicted on or after October 1, 1990, of a felony sale of, trafficking in, or conspiracy 

to sell or traffic in drugs is disqualified from public employment and from applying for an 

occupational license, permit, or certificate unless he has completed his sentence or complied 

with certain conditions. Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 775.16. Examples of occupations in which 

conviction may prevent employment or licensing include: teacher (Fla. Stat. Ann. 

5 23 1.28(1)(e)); bartender (5 562.13(3)(a)(3)); liquor license (5 561.15). 

Florida has a registration requirement for felons, which includes persons convicted of a 

federal crime that would be a felony under Florida law, Fla. Stat. AM. 5 775.13, and a 

registration requirement for "sexual predators" whose current offense was committed on or 

after October 1, 1993. Fla. Stat. Ann. 5 775.22(2). f 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The civil rights of a person convicted of a felony are suspended until restored by 

pardon or restoration of civil rights. Fla. Stat. AM. $ 944.292. The power to grant pardons 

'A law enforcement agency has the broad discretion to refuse to certify an applicant as a law enforcement 

officer if it deems him to be of bad character or unfit, and may take into account even pardoned state convictions 

in making this determination. &g v. -ds . . & Tr- . . ' , 531 So. 2d 1344 

(Fla. 1988). 
October 1996 Page 42 

and to restore civil rights (except in cases of treason or impeachment) is vested in the 

Governor, with the approval of three members of the Cabinet (collectively known as the 

Clemency Board). Fla. Const. art, IV, 5 8(a). The Governor has the discretion to deny, for 

any reason, any request for clemency. State felons may not apply for pardon until 10 years 

have elapsed following completion of sentence. Rules of Executive Clemency of Florida, 5A. 

Federal felons are not eligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

A felon convicted under federal law or the law of another state who is a legal resident 

of Florida may apply to the Office of Executive Clemency for restoration of civil rights 

(without the specific authority to own, possess, or use firearms), which will be granted without 

hearing by the Clemency Board if the Florida Parole Commission certifies that all conditions 

of the sentence have been satisfied. Rules of Executive Clemency of Florida, 9D. A state 

felon who is certified by the Florida Parole Commission as having satisfied all the conditions 

of his sentence may receive without hearing a certificate from the Clemency Board restoring 

his civil rights (without the specific authority to own, possess, or use firearms). Rules of 

Executive Clemency of Florida, 9A. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

A person convicted of "a felony in the courts of this state or of a crime against the 

United States which is designated as a felony" or convicted of an offense under the laws of 

another state or country punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year may not 

own or have in his care, custody, possession, or control any firearm (which includes both long 

guns and handguns). Fla. Stat. Ann. $8 790.001(6); 790.23(1). Nor may he carry a 

concealed weapon. Fla. Stat. Ann. $790.23(1). These prohibitions do not apply to a person 

whose "civil rights and firearm authority have been restored, " Fla. Stat. Ann. 8 790.23(2), or 

who has received a full pardon. Rules of Executive Clemency of Florida, 4A. The Clemency 

Board will not entertain a request for restoration of civil rights including "specific authority to 

own, possess, or use firearms" until eight years after completion of sentence. Rules of 

Executive Clemency of Florida, 5D. 

2For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Florida law concerning 

(-‘, .. __ >

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see v. United States, 19 F.3d 1 (1 lth Cir. - 1994); United Sta@ v. Dwem, 15 F.3d 995 (11th Cir. 1994). \ 
October 1995 	 Page 43 

GEORGIA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERW ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony involving moral turpitude loses the right to vote until 

completion of sentence. Ga. Const. art. 11, 8 I, a III(a); Ga. Code Ann. 8 21-2-216(b).' A 

person who is not a registered voter or who has been convicted of a "felony involving moral 

turpitude" may not hold any office or appointment of trust, unless his civil rights have been 

restored 10 years have passed since completion of sentence without subsequent conviction 

of another felony involving moral turpitude. Ga. Const. art. 11, 5 11, Q A person 

convicted of a felony involving moral turpitude under the laws of Georgia, or of any other 

jurisdiction if the offense would be a felony under Georgia law, loses the right to hold any 

civil office, "unless restored to all his rights of citizenship by a pardon from the State Board of 

Pardons and Paroles. " Ga. Code Ann. 5 45-2- l(3). Persons convicted under federal law or 

the law of any state of "fraudulent violation of primary or election laws, malfeasance in office, 

or felony involving moral turpituden may not run for or be elected to municipal, county, or 

state office or serve in various election-related positions unless their civil rights have been 

- -,-, 	 restored. Ga. Code Ann. $5 21-2-8, 21-3-5. A person convicted of a federal or state felony 


or any offense involving moral turpitude is ineligible to be a sheriff. Ga. Code Ann. 


5 15-16-1 (c)(l)(F). The state Attorney General has concluded that this provision applies to 


federal convictions. 1980 Op. Att'y Gen. 201 (No. 80-96) (1980). 


A person convicted of a felony loses the right to sit on a grand or petit jury. Ga. Code 

Ann. §$ 15-12-60(b)(2), 15-12-120; 1983 Op. Att'y Gen. 69 (No. 83-33) (1983). The 

disqualification from grand jury service has been interpreted to apply only to persons 

convicted after 1976, and only to those convicted of felonies under Georgia law, not under 

federal law or the law of another state. v. State, 255 Ga. 370, 338 S.E.2d 269 (1986). 

State examining boards may deny or revoke an occupational or professional license, or 

impose discipline upon a licensee, because of a conviction of any felony or of a crime 

involving moral turpitude in any state or federal court. Ga. Code Ann. $43-1 -19(3). u: 

chiropractor (Ga. Code AM. $ 43-9-12(a)(3)); dentist (5 43-1 1-47(a)(3)); dietician 

( 31 1 A- l(3)). Georgia has a registration requirement for "sexually violent predators. " 

Ga. Code Ann. $ 42-1-12. 

'1986 Op. Atty Gen. 25 (No. 86-15) (1986) concluded that "generally. a drug related offense classified 

as a felony is a felony involving moral turpitude which will remove a person's right to vote." 

-	 *A previous provision disqualifying persons convicted of a felony involving moral turpitude from voting r ; and holding office was applied to a federal conviction in v. Thonon, 205 Ga. 753, 55 S.E.2d 115 (1949), 

A' and was concluded to apply to federal offenses in 1962 Op. Att'y Gen. 131 (1962). 
October 1996 Page 44 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is restored upon completion of sentence. Ga. Const. art. 11, 5 I, 

1III(a). To regain the right to sit on a jury, either a pardon or restoration of civil rights is 

necessary. 1983 Op. Att'y Gen. 69 (No. 83-33) (1983). To regain the right to hold office lost 

as a result of conviction of a "felony involving moral turpitude," the person must have had his 

rights restored and must wait 10 years after completion of sentence and have no subsequent 

conviction of a felony involving moral turpitude. Ga. Const. art. 11, 5 II, Q 111. &&Q 1983 

Op. Att'y Gen. 69 (No. 83-33) (1983).3 

The power to pardon and to remove disabilities is vested in the state Board of Pardons 

and Paroles, although it may be prohibited from issuing a pardon in certain cases.4 Ga. Const. 

a. 1 $ 11 11 The Governor is expressly precluded from exercising power or authority 

over pardons. Ga. Code Ann. $ 42-9-56. A pardon relieves "civil and political disabilities 

imposed because of [a] conviction," Ga. Code Ann. $42-9-54, which has been interpreted to 

include the rights to vote, to hold office, and to sit on a jury. 1954-56 Op. Att'y Gen. 506 

(1956). A pardon, however, does not restore a convicted felon to a public office he was 

forced to relinquish because of the conviction. Morris v. Hartsfield, 186 Ga. 171, 197 S.E. 

251 (1938).5 

For a felon convicted under federal law or the law of Georgia or another state, the state 

Board of Pardons and Paroles will issue a "Restoration of Rights and Removal of Disabilities" 

)Ga. Code Ann. § 45-2-1(3), however, would appear to require restoration of rights by means of a 

pardon for those persons disqualified under that section from holding civil office. 

'The Georgia Constitution permits the General Assembly to adopt mandatory minimum sentences for 

armed robbery, kidnapping, rape, aggravated child molestation, aggravated sodomy, or aggravated sexual battery, 

which then prohibits the Board of Pardons and Paroles from pardoning a person convicted of such an offense 

during the mandatory minimum portion of the sentence, except upon the ground of innocence. Likewise, the 

Georgia Constitution permits the General Assembly to adopt sentences of life without parole upon conviction of 

murder or upon a second conviction of any of the offenses enumerated above after a previous conviction for 

murder or any of those offenses, in which case the Board is prohibited from pardoning except upon the ground of 

imocence. The General Assembly may also prohibit a pardon except upon the ground of imocence for a second 

conviction of a crime bearing a possible life sentence or for a person serving consecutive life sentences for 

offenses committed in the same series of acts. Ga. Const. an.IV, $11. 11 II(b)(2), b(3). (c), (e). 

5~narbo our v. p,246 Ga. 193. 269 S.E.2d 433 (1980), it was held that a 

state pardon did not restore eligibility to be a sheriff. The case involved an earlier version of the state 

constitution, which specifically empowered the state legislature to establish higher qualifications for sheriff than 

otherwise provided by the state constitution for elected officials. See 1980 Op. Att'y Gen. 120 (No. 80-56) 

(1980). The current state constitution states that various county officers, including sheriffs, "shall have such 

qualifications, powers, and duties as provided by general law. " Ga. Const. art. IX, 4 I, 7 111. Ga. Code Ann. 

§ 15-16-l(c)(l)(F) expressly provides that the disability relating to service as a sheriff does not apply to 

convictions of "homicide by vehicle which occurred prior to January 1, 1965, and which did not involve the 

offense of driving a motor vehicle under the influence of alcohol or drugs" for which the person received a 

pardon. 
- - 

/-*\ i 


5 

"<. .-1 

Z 

-.-i 


October I996 Page 45 

if he has completed his sentence and lived a law-abiding life for five years. This relief not 

only restores basic civil rights, but also the right to be licensed by the state.6 

Certain first offenders prosecuted under Georgia law may be placed on probation or 

sentenced to confinement without an adjudication of guilt. Ga. Code Ann. 5 42-8-60. Upon 

successful completion of probation or sentence, the offender is discharged without a court 

adjudication of guilt; the discharge "completely exonerate[s] the defendant of any criminal 

purpose and shall not affect any of his civil rights or liberties." Ga. Code Ann. 5 42-8-62(a). 

While those sentenced to confinement are considered "convicted" during the period of 

incarceration, Ga. Code Ann. 5 42-8-65(c), after discharge the offender is "not considered to 

have a criminal conviction," Ga. Code Ann. 5 42-8-62(a), and "is to suffer no adverse effect 

upon his civil rights or liberties." 1990 Op. Att'y Gen. 105 (No. U90-6) (1990). Thus, an 

offender sentenced to probation under this scheme is not disqualified from jury service during 

the probation period, 1990 Op. Att' y Gen. 105 (No. U90-6) (1990), or from voting, 1974 Op. 

Att'y Gen. 48 (No. 74-26) (1974). A discharge may not be used to disqualify the offender 

from employment. Ga. Code Ann. 5 42-8-63. A finding of guilt for a discharged offense, 

however, "may be pleaded and proven as if an adjudication of guilt had been entered and relief 

had not been granted" to discharge the offender pursuant to this procedure. Ga. Code Ann. 

5 42-8-65(a). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATEFIREARMS PRIVILEGES7 

A person convicted of a felony8 under the laws of any state or the United States loses 

the right to receive, possess, or transport a firearm (defined to include handguns, rifles, and 

shotguns, Ga. Code Ann. 5 16-11-131(a)(2)). Ga. Code Ann. 5 16-11-131(b). This 

prohibition does not apply to a person who has received a pardon that expressly authorizes the 

receipt, possession, or transportation of a firearm. Ga. Code Ann. 5 16-1 1-131(~).~ In

addition, persons who have obtained relief from federal firearms disabilities under 18 U.S .C. 

'While the Board of Pardons and Paroles maintains that a pardon restores licensing privileges 

("extraordinary rights"), some state licensing boards adhere to an early contrary state Attorney General opinion, 

which concluded that licensing privileges are not restored by a pardon. These boards consequently may refuse to 

grant a license if an applicant has been convicted of any felony or crime of "moral turpitude." &g Effect of a 

Pardon on Extraordinary Rights, 1954-56 Op. Att'y Gen. 506 (1956). 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Georgia law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Bolter, 849 F.2d 541 (1 lth 

Cir. 1988). 

""Felony" is defined as "any offense punishable by imprisonment for a term of one year or more." It 

includes a court-martial conviction for an offense that "would constitute a felony under the law of the United 

States." Ga. Code Ann. $ 16-11-131(a)(l). 

9A first offender who is placed on probation by a Georgia state court and who is subsequently discharged 

without an adjudication of guilt is also relieved of this state firearms disability upon discharge. Ga. Code Ann. 

$ 16-1 1-131(e). 
October 1996 Page 46 

8 925(c),1° or who have been convicted of federal or state felonies pertaining to antitrust 

violations, unfair trade practices, or restraint of trade may apply to the Board of Public Safety 

for restoration of state firearms privileges, which will be granted upon proof that restoration of 

firearms privileges "would not be contrary to the public interest," and that the exercise of 

firearms privileges by the person "would not present a threat to the safety of the citizens of 

Georgia." Ga. Code Ann.5 16-11-131(d). 

Under Georgia law, a license issued by a probate judge of the county of residence is 

required to carry a handgun. l1 Ga. Code Ann. 8 16-1 1-129(a). A license may not be issued 

to: (1) any person convicted of a felony under federal law or the law of Georgia or any other 

state who has not been pardoned; (2) a person who has been convicted of a forcible 

misdemeanor12 and who has not been free of all restraint or supervision for that crime for at 

least five years; (3) a person who has been convicted of a violation of certain state firearms 

laws" and who has not been free of all restraint or supervision for that crime for at least three 

years; or (4) a person who has been convicted of an "offense arising out of the unlawful 

manufacture, distribution, possession, or use of a controlled substance or other dangerous 

drug," regardless of how much time has passed since completion of sentence. Ga. Code Ann. 

8 16-11-129(b)(3), (5). 

losince Congress has not appropriated funding for this restoration process since fiscal year 1992, this 

method of restoring state firearms privileges is not currently available. 

"Such a license authorizes the recipient to carry a handgun in any county of Georgia for five years, even 

if he or she changes county of residence. Ga. Code Ann.§ 16-1 1-129(a). 

''A 'forcible misdemeanor" is "any misdemeanor which involves the use or threat of physical force or 

violence against any person. " Ga. Code Ann. $ 16-1 -3(7). 

"These offenses are: carrying a concealed weapon, in violation of Ga. Code Ann. 16-11-126; carrying 

a deadly weapon to or at public gatherings, in violation of Ga. Code Ann. 16-1 1-127; and carrying a pistol 

without a license. in violation of Ga. Code Ann.$ 16-1 1-128. 
October 1996 	 Page 47 

HAWAII 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A felon's right to vote is suspended during incarceration, but not during probation or 

parole. Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 831-2(a)(1). The right to serve on a jury is forfeited upon 

conviction of a felony in state or federal court. Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 612-4(4). 

A felon may not seek or hold public office from the time of sentence until final 

discharge, Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 831-2(a)(2). A felon forfeits any public office held at the time 

of sentencing, as of the date of sentence for state convictions and as of the date a certification 

of sentence is filed in the Lieutenant Governor's office for persons convicted under federal law 

or the law of another state. Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 831-2(b).* 

With certain exceptions, a person may not be denied public employment or an 

occupational or professional license solely by reason of a prior conviction of a crime. Haw. 

Rev. Stat. 5 83 1-3.1(a), (d). Hiring and licensing entities may, however, consider a 

conviction (other than an expunged conviction or a conviction for a penal offense for which no 

jail sentence may be imposed or a misdemeanor 20 or more years ago not followed by any 

other conviction) as a possible justification for refusal, suspension, or revocation of 

employment or a license when the offense directly relates to possible performance in the job 

and it is determined that "the person so convicted has not been sufficiently rehabilitated to 

warrant the public trust." Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 831-3.1(b). To determine the sufficiency of the 

rehabilitation, "discharge from probation or parole supervision, or a period of two years after 

final discharge or release from any term of imprisonment, without subsequent criminal 

conviction, may be considered as one of many factors." U.Hawaii has a registration 

requirement for sex offenders. Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 707-743. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is restored upon release from incarceration; the right to seek and hold 

public office is (except for treason) restored upon final discharge. Haw. Rev. Stat. 6 831-2. 

Only a pardon restores the right to serve on a jury. Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 612-4(4). 

The power to grant pardons is vested in the Governor. Haw. Const. art. V, 8 5. 

While the Hawaii Constitution specifically permits the legislature to "authorize the governor 

. . . to restore civil rights denied by reason of conviction of offenses by tribunals other than 

'Persons convicted of "any act, attempt, or conspiracy to overthrow the state or federal government by 


force or violence," however, lose permanently the right to seek and hold public office. Haw. Rev. Stat. 


4 831-2(~). 

October 1996 Page 48 

those of this State," Haw. Const. art. V, $ 5, no statute expressly authorizes restoration of 

federal felons' civil right^.^ Therefore, it would appear that federal felons and felons 

convicted in another state may not obtain a Governor's pardon or restoration of civil rights. 

Hawaii has a procedure for conditional discharge of certain state drug offenders who 

have no prior drug convictions and who have not previously had a discharge and dismissal of a 

drug offense. Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 712-1255. Under this procedure, the sentencing court defers 

adjudication and places the defendant on probation, upon successful completion of which the 

court discharges the defendant and dismisses the charge without an adjudication of guilt. The 

dismissal "is not a conviction . . .for purposes of disqualifications or disabilities imposed by 

law upon conviction of a crime." Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 712-1255(3). If the person was 20 years 

old or younger when the violation OCCUK~~, he may apply for expungement after the discharge 

and dismissal. Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 712-1256. 

A more general procedure for deferring acceptance of a plea of guilty or no contest and 

placing the defendant on probation is provided under Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 853-1. If the 

defendant successfully completes probation, the court discharges him and dismisses the 

charges without an adjudication of guilt. Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 853-1. One year after the 

discharge and dismissal, the defendant may apply for expungement (except for certain 

offenses, such as prostitution, Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 712-1200). Haw. Rev. Stat. $ 853-1 (e). The 

procedure, however, is available only to persons with no previous felony conviction and no e-
 previous deferred adjudications, and does not apply to many state offenses. Haw. Rev. Stat. 

$ 853-4. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted in Hawaii or elsewhere of any felony, any "crime of ~iolence,"~ or 

any offense involving the illegal sale of any drug is disqualified from owning, controlling, or 

possessing a firearm or amm~nition.~ Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 134-7.5 The office of the state's 

Attorney General has advised that, in light of the existence of federal firearms disabilities, 

Governor's pardons, as a matter of policy, expressly state that possession of a firearm is not 

authorized by the pardon; however, express authorization to possess a firearm under state law 

may be granted by the Governor when requested by a pardon applicant and good cause is 

shown. 

'Ep,Haw. Rev. Stat. 8 353-72 merely requires the Director of Public Safety and the Hawaii Paroling 


Authority to consider "every application for pardon which may be referred to them by the governor," and to 


provide the Governor with a recommendation on each. 


'"Crime of violence" is defmed as "any offense, as defined in Title 37 [the Hawaii penal code], that 


involves injury or threat of injury to the person of another." Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 134-1. 


4"Firearm" is defined to include long guns and handguns. Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 134-1. 

'Likewise, a person less than 25 years old who has been adjudicated by a family court to have committed 


a felony, two or more crimes of violence, or an illegal sale of any drug is prohibited from owning, possessing, or 


controlling any firearm or ammunition. Haw. Rev. Stat. 5 134-7(d). 

1 

October 1996 	 Page 49 

IDAHO 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A sentence of custody to the Idaho State Board of Correction suspends all civil rights 

during the period of imprisonment, including the right to refuse treatment authorized by the 

sentencing court. The person, however, may exercise "all civil rights that are not political" 

during any period of parole or probation, other than firearms rights and the right to refuse 

treatment. Idaho Code 6 18-3 lO(1). 

A state agency may demote, suspend, or discharge an employee who is convicted of 

official misconduct in office, any felony, or any other crime involving moral turpitude. Idaho 

Code $67-5309(n)(9). State licensing boards may revoke, suspend, or refuse to issue a 

license because of conviction of a felony in several fields, including: law (Idaho Code 

8 3-301(1)); teaching (5 33-1208(l)(f)-(k)); veterinary medicine (5 54-21 13(5)); pharmacy 

(6 54- 1 726(c)(l)); dentistry (8 54-923); podiatry (6 54-608(3)); architecture (6 54-305(1)(d)); 

and accounting (5 54-219(e), (0). Idaho has a registration requirement for sex offenders. 

Idaho Code 5 18-8301, w. 

- L -	 B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

Except for certain enumerated offenses, a person convicted of any Idaho felony is upon 

final discharge restored to all rights lost upon conviction. Idaho Code $ 18-3 lO(2). Pardons 

are issued by the Idaho Commission of Pardons and Parole. Idaho Const. art. IV, 5 7; Idaho 

Code $5 20-210, 20-240.2 The Commission has authority to grant pardons, except in cases of 

treason and impeachment, only as provided by statute. Idaho Const. art. IV, 6 7. By statute, 

the Commission may not grant pardons for murder, voluntary manslaughter, rape, kidnapping, 

lewd and lascivious conduct with a minor child, or manufacture or delivery of controlled 

substances. In such cases, the Governor has the authority to pardon, upon recommendation of 

the Commission. Idaho Code 6 20-240. Felons convicted under federal law or the law of 

another state are not eligible for a state pardon. &Idaho Const. art. IV, 8 7 (authority "only 

as provided by statute, to grant . . . pardons . . . in all cases of offenses against the state"). 

Except in cases of treason or murder, a state judge may suspend execution of a 

judgment during the first 180 days of a sentence to the custody of the State Board of 

'Excepted are persons convicted of treason and, insofar as firearms rights are concerned, persons 

convicted on or after July 1, 1991, of any of the Idaho offenses listed in n. 4, &. 

Pardon applications may be submitted to the Commission three years after completion of sentence (five 

years for violent or sexual offenses). Rules of the Commission of Pardons and Parole 550.01(a). 
October 19% Page 50 

Correction or withhold judgment, and place the defendant on probation. Idaho Code 

8 19-2601. Upon application and showing of compliance with the terms of probation, the 

court may terminate the sentence or set aside the plea of guilty or conviction of the defendant 

and dismiss the case. The dismissal "shall have the effect of restoring the defendant to his 

civil rights." Idaho Code 5 19-2604(1). Further, if a sentence to the custody of the State 

Board of Correction was imposed but suspended (except for certain sex offenses involving 

minors), the court may amend the judgment of conviction from a term of custody of the State 

Board of Correction to "confinement in a penal facility," and the amended judgment "may be 

deemed to be a misdemeanor conviction. " Idaho Code 5 19-2604(2), (3). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES3 

A sentence of custody to the Idaho State Board of Correction suspends the right to ship, 

transport, possess, or receive firearms. Idaho Code 5 18-3 lO(1). This right is automatically 

restored upon "final discharge of a person convicted of any Idaho felony," except for those 

convicted of treason or certain enumerated felonies committed after July 1, 1991 .4 Idaho Code 

5 18-3 lO(2). A person convicted of a crime enumerated in 5 18-3 10, or of "a comparable 

felony crime in another state, territory, commonwealth or other jurisdiction of the United 

States," may not purchase, own, possess, or have under his custody or control a firearms 

unless his conviction has been "nullified by expungement, pardon, setting aside the conviction 

or other comparable procedure," or his "civil right to bear arms either specifically or in 

combination with other civil rights has been restored by any other provision of Idaho law. " 

Idaho Code 8 18-3316. 

A felon who does not qualify for automatic restoration may apply to the Commission of 

Pardons and Parole no sooner than five years after final discharge to restore his right to ship, 

transport, possess, and receive firearms. Idaho Code 5 18-3 lO(3). This relief is unavailable, 

however, for anyone convicted of murder in the first or second degree or any of the 

enumerated felonies the sentence for which was enhanced for the use of a fitearn in the 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Idaho law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see Mted St@ v. Gomez, 91 1 F.2d 219 (9th Cir. 

1990). m: involved an earlier version of Idaho law concerning firearms privileges different from the 

state firearms law set forth in this section. 

'The enumerated offenses are: aggravated assault; aggravated battery; assault with intent to commit a 

serious felony; battery with intent to commit a serious felony; burglary; lewd conduct with a minor or child under 

16; sexual abuse of a child under 16;felonious rescuing prisoners; escape by one charged with, convicted of, or 

on probation for a felony; unlawful possession of a firearm; degrees of murder; voluntary manslaughter; assault 

with intent to murder; administering poison with intent to kill; ludnapping; mayhem; rape; male rape; robbery; 

ritualized abuse of a child; cannibalism; felonious manufacture, delivery, or possession with intent to manufacture 

or deliver, or possession of a controlled or counterfeit substance; drug trafficking; or attempt, conspiracy, or 

solicitation to commit any of these crimes. Idaho Code 5 18-310(1), (2)(A). 

S"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Idaho Code 5 18-33 16(3). 
October 19% Page 51 

commission of the crime. Idaho Code $ 18-310(3). The Commission of Pardons and Parole -

x- advises that it does not have the authority to restore state firearms privileges to federal felons 

under 18-310. 

A permit to carry a concealed weapon6 outside one's home or fixed place of business7 

cannot be obtained by a person "ineligible to own, possess or receive a firearm under the 

provisions of state or federal law"; a person "adjudicated guilty in any court of a crime 

punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one (1) year"; a person who has been 

"adjudicated guilty of or received a withheld judgment or suspended sentence for one (1) or 

more crimes of violence constituting a misdemeanor" (unless three years have passed since 

disposition or pardon); or, a person who has had "entry of a withheld judgment for a criminal 

offense which would disqualify him from obtaining a concealed weapon license. " Idaho Code 

§ 18-3302(1)(a), (c), (h), (0, (7). 

'A concealed weapon includes certain knives, pistols, and revolvers, as well as any other deadly or 

dangerous weapon; it does not include lawfully possessed shotguns and rifles. Idaho Code 5 18-3302(7). 

'A license is not required to carry a concealed weapon outside the city limits while engaged in lawful 

hunting or other outdoor activity. Idaho Code $ 18-3302(12)(d). 

\ /' 
October 1996 	 Page 52 

ILLINOIS 

I. 	 RIGHTSTO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person sentenced to imprisonment loses the right to vote until released from prison. 

Ill. Const. art. XII, 5 2; Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, 5 515-5-5(c). A person convicted of a felony, 

bribery, perjury, or other "infamous crime" loses the right to hold public office until 

completion of sentence. Ill. Const. art. XIII, 5 1;111. Comp. Sbt. ch. 730, 5 515-5-5(b). A 

convicted felon may not serve as an executor of a wil or administrator of an estate. 

Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 755, $8 516-13(a), 519-1,' 

A person convicted of a felony may not do business with the state until one year after 

the date of completion of sentence, Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 30, 5 505110-3, and may be denied 

state employment when the offense involved "infamous or disgraceful conduct. " Ill. Comp. 

Stat. ch. 20, 5 41518B.4. An occupational or professional license may be revoked, denied, or 

suspended because of a felony conviction. b:medicine (Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 225, 

5 60122(A)(3), (B)); real estate (ch. 225, $5 45511 1,4551 18(b)); engineering (ch. 225, 

5 325124); pharmacy (ch. 225, 5 85130(a)(14), (c)). I-- 4' 

Illinois has a registration requirement for sex offenders, Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, k.. ,?I 

5 15011, gt seq., which expressly applies to federal convictions. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, 

1502(A)(l), (C). Special registration provisions apply to child sex offenders, Ill. Comp. 

Stat. ch. 730, 5 1521101, d seq., and to child murderers convicted of first-degree murder 

committed on or after June 1, 1996, against a victim under 18 years old. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 

730, 5 15012(C-5). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is automatically restored upon release from prison. Ill. Const. art. 111, 

5 2; Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, 5 515-5-5(c). The right to hold public office is automatically 

restored upon completion of sentence. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, 5 5/5-5-5(b).' " [A111 license 

rights and privileges" lost as the result of a felony conviction are automatically restored upon 

'Illinois law does not appear specifically to exclude convicted felons from jury service, although it 

requires jurors to be "[Qree from all legal exception, of fair character, of approved integrity, [and] of sound 

judgment." Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 705, § 30512. 

2Persons convicted of mutilation of election materials or perjury in an election matter are disqualified 

from office for a period of five years following completion of sentence. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 10, $8 5129-6, 

5129- 10(b). / 1 
October 19% Page 53 

c': completion of sentence of imprisonment or upon discharge from probation, conditional 

e / discharge, or periodic imprisonment, unless a state licensing board determines that restoration 

would not be in the public interest. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, 5 5/5-5-5(d).3 

The pardon power is vested in the Governor, who is assisted by recommendations of 

the Prisoner Review Board. Ill. Const. art. V, 5 12; Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 730, 5 513-3-13. 

Felons convicted under federal law or the law of another state are ineligible for a gubernatorial 

pardon. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES4 

A person convicted of a felony under the laws of Illinois or any other jurisdiction may 

not possess a firearm5 or ammunition, unless relief from this disability is granted by the 

Department of State Police. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 720, 5 5124- 1.1 (a).6 The State Police 

Department will grant relief if it is established that: (1) the felon has not been convicted of a 

"forcible felony" within the preceding 20 years or that 20 years have passed since release from 

imprisonment for that offense; (2) he is not likely to act in a manner dangerous to public 

safety; and (3) restoration of firearms privileges would not be "contrary to the public interest." 

Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 430, 5 65/10(c). 

'This section does not apply to the suspension or revocation of a driver's license. Ill. Comp. Stat. 

ch. 730, $515-5-5(d). 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Illinois law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Gi~son, 985 F.2d 412 (8th 

Cir.), EeLf. denied,510 U.S. 823 (1993); Unitedv. Erwin, 902 F.2d 510 (7th Cir.), m.denied, 498 U.S. 

859 (1990). 

S"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 430, 5 6511.1. 

6Under state law, a Firearms Owner's Identification Card is generally required to acquire or possess any 

firearm or ammunition. Felons cannot obtain such a card; however, the Director of the Department of State 

Police may grant relief to anyone prohibited from possessing a firearm under Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 720, 5 5/24-1.1. 

Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 430, 88 65/2(a), 6514(a)(2)(ii), 65/10(c). Also excluded from obtaining a Firearms Owner's 

Identification Card is anyone convicted in the past five years of domestic battery, battery, assault, aggravated 

assault, violation of an order of protection, or a substantially similar offense in another jurisdiction in which a 

firearm was used or possessed. Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 430, 4 65/4(a)(2)(viii). 
October 1996 	 Page 54 

INDIANA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person "imprisoned following conviction" of a "crime" may not vote during 

imprisonment. Ind. Code $ 3-7-13-4(a). A person "under a sentence imposed for an offense" 

is disqualified as a juror. Ind. Code $ 33-4-5-7(b)(4). Persons convicted of a felony under 

Indiana law or the law of another jurisdiction is disqualified from holding or being a candidate 

for elected office. Ind. Code 5 3-8-1-5(b)(3).2 This provision has been held to apply to 

federal offenses. Wilson v. Mowry C o u m Bod, 642 N.E.2d 258 (Ind. Ct. 

App. 1994). In addition, persons convicted of certain federal offenses3 lose the right to hold 

public office. Ind. Code $5-8-3-1. Any public officer convicted of a felony during his term 

of office is removed from office at the time of sentencing. Ind. Code § 5-8-1-37(b)(l). State 

judges may be suspended upon plea of guilty or no contest to, or fmding of guilt of, and -

removed upon final conviction of, a state or federal felony. Ind. Const. art. 7, $ 11. Persons 

convicted of misdemeanor violations of the laws prohibiting bribery, official misconduct, and 

conflicts of interest may be ineligible at the direction of the sentencing court to hold an office 

of trust or profit for a fixed term not to exceed 10 years. Ind. Code $ 35-50-5-1.1. kcA professional or occupational license generally may not be revoked, suspended, or 

Y\ ,P 

denied because the holder or applicant has been convicted of an offense, but the offense 

conduct may be taken into account in determining "whether the applicant or holder should be 

entrusted to serve the public in a particular capacity. " Ind. Code 5 25-1-1.1-1. In addition, an 

occupational or professional license may be revoked or suspended for conviction of certain 

drug offenses (generally involving possession of drugs or drug paraphernalia), Ind. Code 

$ 25-1 -1.1-2, and must be revoked or suspended for conviction of other drug offenses 

(generally involving trafficking or manufacture of certain drugs). Ind. Code 5 25-1-1.1-3. 

Rule 13 of the Indiana Rules for Admission to the Bar and the Discipline of Attorneys 

precludes convicted felons from taking the bar examination. 

'& &Q Ind. Const. art. 2, $ 8,which permits the legislature to pass laws disenfranchising persons 


convicted of an "infamous crime." 


2"Felony" is defined as "a conviction, in any jurisdiction at any time, with respect to which the convicted 


person might have been imprisoned for more than one (I)year," but does not include a conviction for which the 


person has been pardoned or certain state misdemeanors. Ind. Code $ 35-50-2-l(b). 


3These offenses are evading the Selective Service Act, conspiring or attempting to defraud the United 


States government, seditious utterances, and any other crime against the laws of the United States when the 


sentence imposed exceeds six months. Ind. Code $5-8-3-1. 

October I996 Page 55 

Indiana has a registration requirement for persons convicted of certain sexual offenses 

involving minors, which applies to certain persons adjudicated delinquent because of the 

commission of a sexual offense involving a minor. Ind. Code $8 5-2-12-4, 5-2-14-5. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is automatically restored to felons upon release from incarceration or 

other lawful detention, Ind. Code $ 3-7-13-4(b), and the right to serve on a jury is 

automatically restored upon completion of sentence, including any period of probation or 

parole. Ind. Code 5 33-4-5-7. Disabilities affecting a felon's right to hold public office are 

removed only by a pardon. 

Except for cases of treason and impeachment, the pardon power is vested in the 

Governor, who is assisted by the recommendations of the Parole Board. Ind. Const. art. 5, 

5 17; Ind.'Code 5 11-9-2-1. A person convicted of a federal crime or a crime under the laws 

of another state is ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. Fifteen years after discharge from 

probation, imprisonment, or parole (whichever is later), a felon may petition the state police 

department to limit access to his criminal history to criminal justice agencies. Ind. Code 

5 35-38-5-5. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES4 

$ \ Under Indiana law, a license is required for a person to carry a handgun5 in his vehicle 

or on his person, except in his dwelling, on his property, or in his fixed place of business. 

Ind. Code 5 35-47-2-1. Among the persons excluded from the category of "proper persons" 

eligible to obtain such a license are: (1) any person who has been convicted of resisting law 

enforcement or of a weapons offense under Indiana law within five years of applying for the 

license; (2) any person convicted of a crime for which he could have been sentenced for more 

than one year; (3) and any person convicted of a "crime involving an inability to safely handle 

a handgun. " Ind. Code $5 35-47-1-7, 35-47-2-3. For offenses committed after June 30, 1994, 

a person convicted of a felony is also specifically prohibited from obtaining a license, pursuant 

to Ind. Code 8 35-47-2-3(f)(1). It is unlawful to sell, give, or deliver a handgun to a person 

with a felony conviction. Ind. Code 5 35-47-2-7(b)(1). 

A full Governor's pardon for a felony other than an offense against the person (such as 

murder, voluntary or involuntary manslaughter, aggravated battery, kidnapping, or rape) or 

4For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Indiana law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see Unitedv. h,72 F.3d 55 (7th Cir. 

1995); United States v. JWhky,23 F.3d 181 (7th Cir. 1994). 

S"Handgun" is defined as any firearm with a barrel length less than 16 inches or an overall length of less 

than 26 inches. Ind. Code 8 35-47-1-6. ji 
October 1996 Page 56 

for a violation of the handgun laws removes any state firearms disability if 15 years have 

elapsed between the time of the offense and the application. 1nd.- Code 8 35-47-2-20(a)(2). 

The Governor may also issue a pardon that conditions removal of firearms disabilities upon a 

determination by the Superintendent of State Police "that circumstances have changed to such 

an extent since the pardoned conviction was entered that the applicant for the permit or license 

is likely to handle handguns in compliance with the law. " Ind. Code 8 11-9-2-4. If such a 

conditional pardon is issued for a felony or for a frrearms violation, the firearms disability is 

removed when the Superintendent makes that determination. Ind. Code $8 11-9-2-4, 

35-47-2-20(b). Indiana law does not provide for restoration of handgun privileges to a federal 

felon. 
October 19% 	 Page 57 

IOWA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE,HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

No person convicted of any "infamous crime" is eligible to vote. Iowa Const. art. 11, 

$ 5. The voter registration of any person "shall be cancelled" upon notification by the clerk of 

the district court, the United States Attorney, or the state registrar to the county commissioner 

of registration of the person's "conviction of a felony as defined in section 701.7 or conviction 

of an offense classified as a felony under federal law. "' Iowa Code $ 48A.30. 

It is grounds for contesting an election that the incumbent had been "duly convicted of 

a felony." Iowa Code 5 57.1(2)(c). Conviction of a felony is also grounds for removal of an 

appointed state officer. Iowa Code 5 66.26(8). The disqualification from holding office has 

been held to apply to federal felons. &&ex rel. Dem v. m,248 Iowa 978, 83 

N.W.2d 451 (1957). A felon is not disqualified from jury service, but may be challenged for 

cause. Iowa Rule Civil Proc. 187(f); Iowa Rule Crim. Proc. 17(5). 

Conviction of a felony "related to the profession or occupation of the licensee" or "that 

would affect the licensee's ability to practice within a profession" is grounds for suspending or 

revoking a professional license in a number of health-related occupations, including medicine, 

podiatry, osteopathy, psychology, chiropractor, physical therapy, nursing, dentistry, dental 

hygiene, optometry, speech pathology, audiology, occupational therapy, pharmacy, 

cosmetology, barbering, dietetics, mortuary science, and social work. Iowa Code 

$5 147.2, 147.55(5). Other fields in which conviction of a felony may be relevant to the 

licensing decision include: accountant (Iowa Code $ 542C.2l(5)); real estate broker 

($ 543B.29(5)); landscape architect ($ 544B. 15(5)). 

Iowa has a registration requirement for persons convicted of a "criminal offense against 

a minor, sexual exploitation, or a sexually violent offense," and for certain persons 

adjudicated delinquent as a result of a "criminal offense against a minor" or a "sexually 

violent offense." Iowa Code 5 692A.2. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The Governor has the authority, except in cases of treason 01 impeachment, to grant a 

pardon and to restore the rights of citizenship, with the advice of the Board of Parole. Iowa 

Const. art. IV, $ 16; Iowa Code $5 914.1 - 914.3. Federal felons may obtain restoration of 

civil rights from the Governor, but not a pardon. ex rel. v. Bubrich, a. 

'Iowa Code $ 701.7 provides that a crime is a felony "when the statute defining the crime declares it to 


be a felony." 

October 1996 Page 58 

Persons convicted under Iowa law and sentenced to probation may, upon discharge, be 

recommended by the sentencing court for restoration of citizenship rights. Iowa Code 

8 907.9. In addition, for certain defendants the court may defer judgment and place the 

defendant on probation, Iowa Code 8 907.3; upon discharge, the "court's criminal record with 

reference to the deferred judgment" is expunged. Iowa Code 5 907.9. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES3 

A person "convicted of a felony in any state or federal court" may not knowingly have 

under his dominion and control, receive, transport, or cause to be transported a "firearm or 

offensive weapon. "4 Iowa Code 5 724.26. In addition, a person "convicted of a felony" or 

"convicted of a crime defined in chapter 708" (involving offenses against the person, but 

excluding assault and harassment) may not obtain or maintain a permit to own a pistol or 

revolver, Iowa Code $ 724.15(1)(b), (e), nor may he obtain a permit to carry weapons. Iowa 

Code 5 724.8(2), (6). For the purposes of 5 724.8 and 5 724.26, "felony" means "any offense 

punishable in the jurisdiction where it occurred by imprisonment for a term exceeding one 

year, but does not include any offense, other than an offense involving a firearm or explosive, 

classified as a misdemeanor under the laws of the state and punishable by a term of 

imprisonment of two years or less." Iowa Code 8 724.25(1). These firearms disabilities do 

not apply to a person "who is eligible to have [his] civil rights regarding firearms restored 

under section 914.7 and who is pardoned or has had [his] civil rights restored by the President 

of the United States or the chief executive of a state and who is expressly authorized by the 

President of the United States or such chief executive to receive, transport, or possess firearms 

or destructive devices. " Iowa Code $ 724.27. 

Iowa Code 5 914.7 provides that, notwithstanding the other code provisions regarding 

pardons and restorations of rights, "a person who has been convicted of a forcible felony, a 

felony violation of chapter 124 [dealing with controlled substances] involving a firearm, or a 

felony violation of chapter 724 [dealing with weapons] shall not have the person's rights of 

citizenship restored to the extent of allowing the person to receive, transport, or possess 

firearms."' 

*This procedure does not apply to forcible felonies (defined in Iowa Code 8 702.11 to include felonious 

child endangerment, assault, murder, many sexual abuse offenses, kidnapping, robbery, arson in the first degree, 

and burglary in the first degree) or to certain recidivists. Iowa Code $ 907.3. 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Iowa law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see W v. United States, 970 F.2d 428 (8th Cir. 

1992). 

'"Offensive weapon" is defined in Iowa Code $ 724.1 to include such objects as a machine gun, bomb, 


and sawed-off shotgun. "Firearm" is not defined, but appears to include both long guns and handguns. 


'Section 914.7 further provides that a person 17 years old or younger "who commits a public offense 


involving a firearm which is an aggravated misdemeanor against a person or a felony shall not have the person's 


rights of citizenship restored to the extent of allowing the person to receive, transport, or possess firearms." 

October 19% Page 59 

KANSAS 

I. RIGHTSTO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONALDISABILITIES 

A. LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted in state or federal court of a crime punishable by imprisonment for 

one year or longer and sentenced to imprisonment forfeits the rights to vote, to hold public 

office, and to serve on a jury until final discharge from parole or conditional release or 

discharge from custody by expiration of the prison sentence. Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 21-4615(1), 

(2) 

A licensing board may consider an applicant's felony conviction, but the conviction is 

not an absolute bar to licensure. Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 74-120. A felony conviction may resuIt in 

suspension or revocation of a license. Eg.: healing arts (Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 65-2836(c)); 

nursing (5 65-1120(a)(2)); pharmacy (5 65-1627(a)(2), (c), (d)); psychology (5 74-5324(a)); 

accounting (5 1-311(a)(5), (6)). 

Kansas has a registration requirement for sex offenders, which expressly applies to 

federal convictions. Kan. Stat. Ann. $22-4902. Persons convicted of, or adjudicated as a 

juvenile offender based on the commission of, certain sexual offenses involving children or 

certain violent offenses under Kansas law are required to submit blood and saliva samples for 

DNA analysis. Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 21-2511. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

When lost by reason of a sentence of imprisonment, a felon's rights to vote, to hold 

public office, and to serve on a jury are automatically restored upon completion of sentence or 

upon a final order of discharge. Kan. Stat. Ann. $8 21-4615(2), 22-3722. One year after 

conditional release or parole (or sooner if the sentence expires sooner), a state offender may 

apply to the parole board for a certificate of discharge, which will restore his civil rights. 

Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 22-3722. 

The pardon power is vested in the Governor, who is assisted by the reports of the 

Kansas Adult Authority. Kan. Const. art. 1, $ 7; Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 22-3701. Felons 

convicted under federal law or the law of another state are not eligible for a state pardon. 

Kan. Stat. Ann. 5 22-3701 (Governor has power to pardon "any person convicted of a crime 

in any court of this state"). 

A procedure for expunging certain state convictions is set out in Kan. Stat. Ann. 

5 21-4619. A waiting period of three or five years is required, depending on the seriousness 

of the offense, and some offenses (certain sexual offenses involving children) may not be 1 

-< 
October 19% Page 60 

expunged. Kan. Stat. Ann. 214619(a), (b), (c). After the order of expungement is entered, 

the person "shall be treated as not having been convicted of the crime" except that the 

conviction may be considered for certain purposes, such as at trial or sentencing for a 

subsequent offense, and must be disclosed in certain circumstances, such as in connection with 

specified licensing decisions. Kan. Stat. Ann. 8 21-4619(f). In addition, "expungement of a 

felony conviction does not relieve an individual of complying with any state or federal law 

relating to the use or possession of firearms by persons convicted of a felony." Kan. Stat. 

Ann. 214619(h). 

11. LOSS AM)RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES1 

A person convicted of a "person felonyw2 or drug violation under Kansas law or 

substantially similar law of another jurisdiction may not possess a firearm if he possessed a 

firearm at the time of the commission of the offense. Kan. Stat. Ann. 5 214204(a)(2). A 

person convicted of an "nonperson felony" under Kansas law or substantially similar law of 

another jurisdiction who possessed a firearm at the time of the offense is prohibited from 

possessing fuearms for a period of 10 years from conviction or release from incarceration. 

Kan. Stat. Ann. 214204(a)(4)(B). These disabilities also apply to persons adjudicated a 

juvenile offender when the adjudication is based on an act that, if done by an adult, would 

trigger application of the disability. Kan. Stat. Ann. 8 2 1 -4204(a)(2), (a)(4)(B). 

Disabilities for shorter periods are also imposed upon persons convicted of certain /) 

offenses who did not possess a firearm at the time of the offense. For certain enumerated \ 

offenses generally involving ~iolence,~ a person who within the past 10 years has been 

convicted under Kansas law or substantially similar law of another jurisdiction or released 

from incarceration may not possess a firearm if he has not had his conviction expunged or 

pardoned. Kan. Stat.§ Ann. 214204(a)(4)(A). Persons convicted of any other felony under 

Kansas law or substantially similar law of another jurisdiction are prohibited from possessing a 

firearm for five years from conviction or release from incarceration. Kan. Stat. Ann. 

5 214204(a)(3). These disabilities also apply to persons adjudicated a juvenile offender when 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Kansas law concerning 


the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see LUgl States v. &,mu, 934 F.2d 1157 (10th 


Cir. 1991), ~c;~t.
 denied, 502 U.S. 1124 (1992). 

'"Person felony" is a state-law classification of offenses for sentencing purposes, sgg Kan. Stat. Ann. 


8 214704, and includes such crimes as murder, manslaughter, aggravated assault, aggravated battery, 


kidnapping, aggravated robbery, rape, and aggravated burglary. &,u,Kan. Stat. Ann. $5 2 1-3401 -3404, 


21-3410, 21-3414, 21-3420, 21-3427, 21-3501, 21-3716. 


'The enumerated offenses are first- and second-degree murder, voluntary and involuntary manslaughter, 


aggravated assault and aggravated assault on a law enforcement officer, aggravated battery, aggravated battery 


against a law enforcement officer, criminal threat, kidnapping, aggravated kidnapping, aggravated robbery, rape, 


aggravated criminal sodomy, aggravated sexual battery, aggravated burglary, and a number of drug offenses. 


Kan. Stat. Ann. $ 214204(a)(4). 


,# 
October 1996 Page 61 

r the adjudication is based on an act that, if done by an adult, would trigger application of the 'I L. - disability. Kan. Stat. Ann. 5 2 1-4204(a)(3), (a)(4)(A). 

The Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit has ruled that a certificate of discharge 

under Kan. Stat. Ann. 5 22-3722 does not operate to restore the right to possess firearms, and 

that the state firearms privileges of a felon who was disabled by statute from possessing pistols 

for five years but who had received a certificate of discharge were not restored until five years 

after his release from prison. wed Sm v. m,934 F.2d 1 157 (10th Cir. 1991), 

denied, 502 U.S.1124 (1992). 
October 1996 	 Page 62 

KENTUCKY 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFF!CE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person who has been convicted "in any court of competent jurisdiction of treason, or 

felony, or bribery in an election, or of such high misdemeanor as the general assembly may 

declare," or who is incarcerated at the time of the election, may not vote. Ky. Const. $ 145. 

A person convicted of a felony loses the rights to serve on a jury and to hold public office. 

Ky . Const. 8 150; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. $29A.O80(2)(e). The disqualification from office has 

been held to apply to federal felons. Brneff v. m,287 Ky . 433, 153 S. W.2d 889 (1941). 

A person may be denied public employment or an occupational or professional license 

on account of a felony conviction. Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. 85 335B.010, 335B.020. &: 

insurance (Ky . Rev. Stat. Ann.$ 304.9-440(1)(f)); dentistry ($ 3 13.130(1)); nursing 

($ 314.091(1)(b)); medicine ($ 311.595(4)). Kentucky has a registration requirement for 

persons convicted of committing or attempting to commit a sex crime. Ky. Rev. Stat. 

8 17.510. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote, to hold public office, and to sit on a jury can be restored by a 

pardon. Ky . Const. $5 145, 150; Ky . Rev. Stat. Ann. $ 29A.O80(2)(e). The power to 

pardon, except in cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor, who may grant either a 

full pardon or a restoration of citizenship, also known as a "partial pardon. " Ky. Const. 

5 77; Arnett v. m,m.While a federal offender is ineligible for a full pardon, he may 

obtain a partial pardon. A partial pardon reinstates the rights to vote, to serve on a jury,and 

to hold public office. &Arnett v. -, (federal felon pardoned by Governor 

eligible to vote and hold elected public office notwithstanding absence of presidential pardon). 

The practice has been to require the consent of the United States Attorney for the district of 

conviction before granting relief to a federal offender. 

II. 	 LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES1 

A person convicted of a state or federal felony after January 1, 1975, is prohibited 


from possessing, manufacturing, or transporting a handgun, and a person convicted of a state 


'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Kentucky law 


concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Warren, 973 F.2d 


1304 (6th Cir. 1992). 

October 1996 Page 63 

or federal felony after July 15, 1994, is prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, or 

transporting any firearm.* Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 527.040(1). This right can be restored by a 

full Governor's pardon expressly restoring firearms privileges or by a presidential pardon. 

Ky.Rev. Stat. 5 527.040(1);3 Op. Att'y Gen. 77-739 (1977). 

'"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Ky. Rev. Stat 5 527.010(4). 

'Section 527.040 also restores state firearms privileges when relief from federal firearms disabilities has 

been granted under 18 U.S.C. 5 925(c). Since Congress has not appropriated funding for the 5 925(c) process 

I since fiscal year 1992, this method of restoring state firearms privileges is not currently available. 
October 1996 	 Page 64 

LOUISIANA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVEON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person "under an order of imprisonment for conviction of a felony" may not vote. 

La. Const. art. I, 5 10; accord, La. Rev. Stat. AM. 5 18: 102. The disqualification from 

voting applies to federal convictions. 1978-79 Op. Att'y Gen.. 103 (No. 79-787) (1980). &g 

i&~La. Const. art. I, 5 20 (providing that rights of citizenship are restored upon termination 

of "state or federal supervision following conviction"). A felon loses the right to serve on a 

jury unless pardoned. La. Rev. Stat. 5 13:3041; La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 401(A)(5). 

The latter provision has been held to embrace federal convictions. v. m,357 So. 2d 

291 (La. App. 1978). 

A person is not eligible to be a candidate in an election if he is under an order of 

imprisonment for a felony. La. Rev. Stat. $5 18:451, 461. Conviction of a federal or state 

felony during a term of office is grounds for removal of the officeholder. La. Rev. Stat. Ann. 

$42: 141 l(A). &g &Q La. Const. art. X, 5 24(A) (dealing with impeachment of state 

officials); La. Rev. Stat. 5 33: 7 13 (commissioners, city managers, department heads forfeit 

office if "convicted of a crime" and sentenced to imprisonment). Judges may be removed 

from office upon conviction of a felony. La. Const. art. V, 5 25(C). A person convicted of a 

federal or state felony may not be confirmed as a testamentary executor or administrator of an 

estate. La. Code Civ. Proc. Ann. art. 3097(A)(3). 

A person may not be denied certain professional or occupational licenses solely because 

of his criminal record unless he was convicted of a felony and the crime directly relates to the 

position or occupation. La. Rev. Stat. AM. 5 37:2950(A). This restriction, however, does 

not apply to many licensing boards, including those for major fields such as law enforcement, 

medicine, law, engineering, pharmacy, and dentistry. &,a,civil engineering (La. Rev. 

Stat. Ann. 5 37:698(A)(3), (4), (5)); dentistry (5 37:776(A)(2)); medicine (5 37: 1285(A)(1), 

(2));psychology (5 37:2359(B)(4), (5)). La. Rev. Stat. AM. 5 37:2950(D). State courts are 

required to notify the appropriate licensing authority when a licensee is convicted of a felony 

drug offense. La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 892.2. Conviction of a felony is grounds for 

removal from classified service. La. Const. art. XIV, 5 15.1(30)(a)(8). Louisiana has a 

registration requirement for sex offenders. La. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 15:540, w. 

'In Crotheu v. w,239 La. 800, 120 So. 2d 248 (1960),however, the Louisiana Supreme Court held 


that former Article VIII, 8 6 of the Louisiana Constitution, disqualifying from voting persons "convicted of any 


crime which may be punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary," did not disenfranchise federal felons, and 


that a former statutory provision specifically disqualifying federal felons from voting violated the state 


Constitution. 

October 1996 Page 65 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

"Full rights of citizenship shall be restored upon termination of state and federal 

supervision following conviction for any offense. " La. Const. art. I, 5 20. This provision 

restores only the "basic rights" of citizenship (u,rights to vote and hold office), not 

privileges h,liquor license). && v. a,355 So. 2d 917 (La. 1978); 1978-79 Op. 

Att'y Gen. 103 (No. 79-787) (1980). In addition, under La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 

401(A)(5), the right to serve on a jury is not restored unless the person is pardoned. Accord, 

&& v. m,357 So. 2d 271 (La. 1978)*; v. m,514 So. 2d 1206 (La. App. 

1987).3 

Upon recommendation of the Board of Pardons, the Governor may pardon "those 

convicted of offenses against the state. " La. Const. art. IV,5 5(E)(1); La. Rev. Stat. Ann. 

8 15:572(A). Although these provisions had been interpreted to permit the Governor to 

pardon federal fel~ns,~ in February 1996 the Board of Pardons resolved to discontinue 

processing applications for federal felons. 

A first offender (defined as a person "convicted within this state of a felony" but never 

previously convicted of a felony under federal law or the law of any state or country, La. Rev. 

Stat. Ann. 5 15:572(C)) "shall be pardoned automatically upon completion of his sentence 

without a recommendation of the Board of Pardons and without action by the governor. " 

La. Const. art. IV, 5 5(E)(1); La. Rev. Stat. Ann. $ 15:572(B). This "first-offender pardon" 

restores "all rights of citizenship and franchise," La. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 15:572@), and applies 

to convictions on or after January 1, 1975. While federal felons had been considered eligible 

for this relief, 1978-79 Op. Att'y Gen. 103 (No. 79-787) (1980) (s&Q av. Baxter, 

357 So. 2d 271 (La. 1978), in February 1996 the Louisiana Board of Pardons discontinued 

processing applications from federal felons for this relief. 

'The relationship between La. Const. art. I, § 20 and La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann.art. 401(A)(5), 


however, is not discussed in m. 


3The court in Havnes held that art. 401(A)(5) is not incompatible with La. Const. an. I, 8 20 because La. 

Const. art. V, § 33 allows the state legislature to set additional qualifications for jurors. 

'Despite the wording of the state's constitutional and statutory provisions, federal felons were regarded as 

eligible for a gubernatorial pardon. &1978-79 Op. Att'y Gen. 103 (No. 79-787) (1980) ("time-honored practice 

. . . has resulted in a contemporaneous construction of the meaning of 'offenses against the state' to include 

federal and extraterritorial convictions"). Bllt &ggSl@ v. m,357 So. 2d 271, 273 (La. 1978), in which the 

court concluded that the disability from jury service arising from conviction of a federal felony could only be 

removed by a presidential pardon, and stated, "The power of the Governor of Louisiana to pardon is limited to 

offenses against the State. " 
October 19% Page 66 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGESS 

A person convicted of a felony -"crime of violence, "6 certain enumerated offenses,' a 

felony violation of the state's Uniform Controlled Dangerous Substances Act, an attempt to 

commit any of these offenses, or an equivalent offense under federal law or the law of any 

state, loses the right to possess firearms and to carry a concealed weap~n.~ La. Rev. Stat. 

Ann. 5 14:95.1(A). This disability terminates 10 years after completion of sentence (including 

probation or parole), provided the offender has not during that period been convicted of any 

felony. La. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 14:95.1(C)(l). The right to possess a firearm may be restored 

at any time after completion of sentence (including probation or parole) if the felon obtains a 

permit from the chief law enforcement officer of the parish in which he resides. La. Rev. 

Stat. An. 5 14:95.1(C)(2). &g Op. Att' y Gen. No. 87-371 (1987). 

A Governor's pardon is effective to restore firearms privileges (so long as it does not 

expressly withhold them) prior to the expiration of the 10-year waiting period, but a firstoffender pardon is not. && v. Wiegins, 432 So. 2d 234 (La. 1983); Op. Att'y Gen. No. 

86-804 (1986), 88-1 1 (1988), 91-607 (1992), 92-654 (1992).9 The Board of Pardons in 

February 1996 discontinued accepting applications from federal felons to restore state firearms 

privileges through a Governor's pardon. 

,"- P i SFor a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Louisiana law 

74 F.3d (<. - Y 

615 (5th Cir. 1996). 

6"Crime of violence" is defined as "an offense that has, as an element, the use, attempted use, or 


threatened use of physical force against the person or property of another, and that, by its very nature, involves a 


substantial risk that physical force against the person or property of another may be used in the course of 


committing the offense or an offense that involves the possession or use of a dangerous weapon." La. Rev. Stat. 


Ann. 5 14.2(13). Specifically enumerated as included in this definition are the following offenses and attempts to 


commit any of them: solicitation for murder; first- and second-degree murder; manslaughter; aggravated and 


second-degree battery; aggravated assault; mingling harmful substances; aggravated, forcible, and simple rape; 


sexual battery; aggravated sexual battery; oral sexual battery; aggravated oral sexual battery; intentional exposure 


to the AIDS virus; aggravated, second-degree, and simple kidnapping; aggravated arson; aggravated criminal 


damage to property; aggravated burglary; armed, first-degree, and simple robbery; purse snatching; extortion; 


assault by drive-by shooting; aggravated crime against nature; carjacking; and illegal use of weapons or dangerous 


instrumentalities. Id. 


'The enumerated offenses are: simple burglary; burglary of a pharmacy; burglary of an inhabited 


dwelling; unauthorized entry of an inhabited dwelling; felony illegal use of weapons or dangerous 


instrumentalities; manufacture or possession of a delayed action incendiary device; and manufacture or possession 


of a bomb. La. Rev. Stat. Ann. 3 14:95.1 (A). 


8Although the terms "firearm" and "concealed weapon" are not defined in the Criminal Code, they 


appear to include all guns. 


9Courts had previously held that a state procedure for setting aside a conviction after satisfactory 1

7 

ir 

conclusion of probation, under La. Code Cr. P. art. 893, did not remove the conviction as a basis for the firearms 

disability under 3 14:95.1, v. w.539 So. 2d 866 (La. Ct. App. 1989); but that another state procedure 

for imposing probation without adjudication followed by discharge and dismissal of the charges, under La. Rev. 

Stat. 3 40:983, removed the discharged offense as a basis for that firearms disability. State v. Randall, 464 So. 

2d 971 (La. Ct. App. 1985). Both procedures have been repealed. 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see united States v. -, 
October 1996 	 Page 67 

MAINE 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Conviction of a felony does not result in the loss of the rights to vote or to sit on a 

jury. A judgment of conviction may include an order removing a person from office. 

Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 17-A, 5 1152(4). 

A licensing agency may take into account criminal history in determining whether to 

grant a professional or occupational license, but the existence of a conviction is not an 

automatic bar to licensure. Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 5, 5 5301(1). Rather, the licensing agency 

must determine whether the licensee or applicant is "sufficiently rehabilitated to warrant the 

public trust." Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 5, $ 5302(1). In addition, there are time limits (three years 

for some professions and 10 years for others) upon considering the conviction itself, rather 

than the offense conduct, in the licensing decision. Me. Rev. Stat. Ann.tit. 5, 5 5303. Maine 

requires persons convicted of gross sexual assault upon a victim less than 16 years old to 

register as a sex offender. Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. $5 1 1002, 1 1003. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The pardon power, except in cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor. 

Me. Const. art. 5, 5 11. A person convicted under federal law or the law of another state is 

ineligible for a Governor's pardon. 

11. 	 LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of a crime punishable by one year or more imprisonment under 

federal law or the law of any state, or of any crime "committed with the use of a dangerous 

weapon or of a firearm against a person,"l may not own, possess, or control any firearm2 

unless he has obtained a permit for it. Me. Rev. Stat. Ann.tit. 15, # 393(1). Such a person is 

eligible to apply for a permit five years after final discharge from sentence, but can never 

obtain a permit to carry a concealed firearm. Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 15, 5 393(2). He may 

also qualify for a hunting permit. Me. Rev. Stat. Ann.tit. 12, 5 7101. A Governor's pardon 

will restore full firearms privileges to state convicts, but as noted is not available to federal 

felons. 

'The statute excepts violations of the state's hunting and trapping laws in Title 12, Chapter 319, 

subchapter I11 (now repealed). 

2"Firearm" is defined in Me. Rev. Stat. Ann.tit. 17-A, $ 2(12-A), to include both long guns and \- -1 

handguns. 
October 1996 	 Page 68 

MARYLAND 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of "theft or other infamous crime" loses the right to vote. 

Md. Ann. Code art. 33, $ 3-4(c). Anyone convicted of such an offense also loses the rights to 

hold public office and to serve on a jury, because these rights are contingent upon being a 

registered voter. Md. Const. art. I, $ 12; Md. Ann. Code art. 33, $ 4A-l(a); Md. Code 

Ann., Cts. & Jud. Proc. $ 8-207(b)(l). In addition, persons convicted of bribery or attempted 

bribery or of buying or selling votes are forever disenfranchised and disqualified from holding 

an office of profit or trust. Md. Const. art I, $ 6; art. 111, $ 50; Md. Ann. Code art. 33, 

5 3-4@)(6). A state elected official or a member of a state board or commission can be 

suspended and removed from office upon a felony conviction. Md. Const. art. XV, $ 2; Md. 

Ann. Code art. 41, 5 1-204(a). A state judge may be removed upon conviction of any crime, 

Md. Const. art. N,8 4, and a state's attorney may be removed upon conviction of bribery. 

Md. Const. art. V, 5 9. 

In addition, a person who has been convicted of a crime punishable by a fine of more 

than $500 or by imprisonment of more than six months or both and who received a sentence of 

a fine of more than $500 or more than six months' imprisonment or both may not serve as a 

juror. Md. Code Ann.,Cts. & Jud. Proc. $ 8-207(b)(5). A person convicted of falsifying a 

juror qualification form may not serve as a juror. Md. Code Ann., Cts. & Jud. Proc. 

$ 8-207(b)(6). Persons convicted of bribing a juror or accepting a bribe as a juror are forever 

disqualified from sitting on a jury. Md. Ann. Code art. 27, $25. 

A felony conviction may be grounds for suspending, revoking, or denying a 

professional or occupational license. I&, : veterinary medicine (Md. Code Ann.,Agric. 

9 2-310(2), (3, (4)); accounting (Md. Code Ann., Bus. Occ. & Prof. $ 2-315(a)(3)); dentistry 

(Md. Code Ann., Health Occ. $4-315(a)(4)); nursing (Md. Code Ann., Health Occ. 

$ 8-3 16(a)(4)); optometry (Md. Code Ann., Health Occ. $ 11-3 13(3)). A person convicted of 

a drug offense committed on or after January 1, 1991, may be required to disclose the 

conviction as a condition of the issuance or renewal of a license, and the license may be 

denied, suspended, or revoked because of the conviction. Md. Ann. Code art. 41, $5 1-502, 

1-503. &&Q Md. Ann. Code art. 27, 5 298A (court to notify licensing authorities of 

certain drug convictions). Maryland has a registration requirement for child sex offenders. 

Md. Ann.Code art. 27, 9 692B (renumbered to 5 792 effective October 1, 1996). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The disability from voting for a first offender lasts only until the sentence is completed, 

including probation or parole, Md. Ann. Code, art. 33, 5 3-4(c) (except for persons convicted 

d' '3 

[ >,r \--, 

\< 

\ / i / 
October 1996 Page 69 

of bribery, attempted bribery, or buying or selling votes, who are permanently disenfranchised 

and disqualified from holding office, Md. Const. art. I, 5 6; art. III, 5 50). As a result, first 

offenders also regain the right to hold office upon completion of ~entence.~ The right to serve 

on a jury is also restored upon completion of sentence, to the extent that the disability flows 

from being ineligible to vote; however, any disability relating to the nature of the offense or 

sentence under Md. Code Ann.Cts. & Jud. Proc. 5 8-207(b)(5), (6), or Md. Ann. Code art. 

27, 9 25, presumably must be removed by a pardon. Recidivists must obtain a pardon in 

order to regain their civil rights. 

The pardon power is vested in the Governor, except in cases of impeachment. Md. 

Const. art. II, 5 20. The Maryland Parole Commission makes a recommendation to the 

Governor about every pardon application. Md. Ann. Code art. 41, 5 4-504(b)(3). According 

to the Maryland Parole Commission, a person convicted under federal law or the law of 

another state is ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

A person who has been convicted of only one state criminal act, which is not a "crime 

of ~iolence,"~ and who has received a full and unconditional pardon from the Governor, may 

petition for expungement of police and court records pertaining to the charge. Md. AM. Code 

art. 27, 5 737(a)(7).5 In addition, a procedure for imposing probation prior to judgment is 

available for state offenses, which provides that upon successful completion of probation the 

person is discharged without judgment of conviction and is not "convicted" for the purposes of 

any disqualification or disability imposed because of conviction of crime. Md. Ann.Code art. 

27, 5 641. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

Effective October 1, 1996, a person convicted of a "crime of violence, " a violation 

classified as a felony in Maryland, a violation classified as a misdemeanor in Maryland that 

carries a statutory penalty of more than two years, or a violation classified as a common-law 

'Md. Ann. Code art. 27, § 562C, however, provides that a state or local officer or employee who is 

convicted of extortion is, "notwithstanding any pardon," permanently barred from employment by state or local 

government. 

'Effective October 1, 1996, "crime of violence" is defined to mean the following crimes or an attempt to 

commit any of them: abduction; arson in the first degree; burglary in the first, second, or third degree; 

carjacking; armed carjacking; escape; kidnapping; voluntary manslaughter; maiming; mayhem; murder in the first 

or second degree; rape in the first or second degree; robbery; robbery with a dangerous or deadly weapon; sexual 

offense in the first, second, or third degree. It also includes assault with intent to commit any of these offenses or 

any other offense punishable by imprisonment for more than one year. Md. Ann. Code art. 27. $ 441(e). 

'Expungement may be denied if the person has since been convicted of another crime (other than a traffic 

offense for which a prison sentence is not possible) or is presently under criminal charges. Md. Ann. Code art. 

27, § 737(f)(1), (2). 
October 1996 Page 70 

offense for which the person received a term of imprisonment of more than two years loses the 

right to buy, rent, transfer, or possess a "regulated firearm,"6 and may not be a licensed dealer 

of regulated firearms. Md. Ann.Code art. 27, 55 442@)(2)(i); 443(d)(4)(iii); 445(b), (d). 

Anyone convicted of a felony drug offense under Maryland law, or under federal law or the 

laws of any state if such conduct would be a felony drug offense under Maryland law, may not 

possess, own, carry, or transport a firearm.' Md. Ann. Code art. 27, 5 291A(b). A person 

convicted of a felony, a misdemeanor for which a sentence of imprisonment for more than one 

year has been imposed (who has not been pardoned or granted relief from federal .firearms 

disabilities), or a misdemeanor drug offense may not obtain or keep a permit to carry a 

handgun. Md. Ann. Code art. 27, 5 36E(a)(2), (4); 36E(f). 

6"Regulated firearm" means a handgun, defined in Md. Ann.Code art. 27, $ 441(n) as a firearm with a 

barrel less than 16 inches long (including signal, starter, and blank pistols), or an assault weapon specified in Md. 

Ann. Code an. 27, $ 441(d). Md. Ann.Code art. 27, $441 (r). 

'"Firearm" is defined to include handguns, rifles, shotguns, assault weapons, and machine guns. Md. 

Ann. Code art. 27, $ 291A(a). 
October 1996 	 Page 7 1 

MASSACHUSETTS 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

The right to vote is not lost because of a conviction. A person sentenced to 

imprisonment for a federal or state felony forfeits any public office he currently holds. Mass. 

Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 279, 8 30. Otherwise, conviction presumably does not affect the right to 

run for and hold future public office. A person who has been convicted of a felony within the 

past seven years or who is in the custody of a correctional institution is disqualified from jury 

service. Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 234A, 5 4(7). In addition, a person convicted of any 

felony or any other offense punishable by imprisonment for more than one year may be 

relieved from sitting on a jury in any case or have his name stricken from the jury list. Mass. 

Gen. Laws Ann.ch. 234, 8 8. 

No person who has been convicted of a felony may be appointed as a peace officer, 

Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 41, 5 96A. No person who has been convicted of a felony or 

convicted of a misdemeanor for which he was confined in any jail or house of correction is 

eligible to be a state correctional officer, unless, in the case of lower-ranking employees, the 

commissioner of the department of correction certifies that the appointment will contribute 

substantially to the work of the department. Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 125, fj 9. No 

convicted felon may be appointed to be an inspector of the Department of Public Safety. 

Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 22, 8 6A. While it is unlawful for private employers in a job 

application or in considering personnel action to request information about certain 

misdemeanor convictions, no such prohibition applies to felony convictions. &g Mass. Gen. 

Laws Ann. ch. 151B, 5 4(9). Likewise, applicants for civil service examination or registration 

need not furnish information about certain misdemeanor convictions, but no such prohibition 

applies to felony convictions. &Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 31, 8 20. Certain convictions 

may be considered by a licensing authority in deciding whether to grant, suspend, or revoke an 

occupational or professional license. &: medicine (Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 112, 8 5); 

dentistry (ch. 112, 8 52D); architecture (ch. 112, $60A, 60G); psychology (ch. 112, $ 128); 

veterinary medicine (ch. 112, 8 55). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

As noted, the rights to vote and to run for and hold future public office are generally 

unaffected by conviction (although, as noted above, an office holder must vacate his office 

upon being sentenced to imprisonment for a state or federal felony). The right to serve on a 

jury is automatically restored seven years after completion of sentence; however, a felon may 

still be challenged on voir dire. Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 234, !$ 8; ch. 234A, !$ 4(7). 

Other disabilities attendant on a felony conviction may be alleviated by a pardon. 
October 1996 Page 72 

The pardon power, except in cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor, who if-Y* --: '

may grant a pardon with the advice and consent of the Governor's Council. Mass. Const. 

pt. 2, ch. 2., 5 1, art. VIII; Mass. Gen. Laws AM. ch. 127, 5 152. The Governor, upon 

granting a pardon, orders the records of a state conviction sealed; thereafter, the existence of 

the conviction is removed for most purposes. Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 127, 152. Federal 

felons may apply for a gubernatorial pardon, but out-of-state felons are ineligible for this 

relief. 

A state misdemeanant may have the record of his conviction sealed 10 years after 

completion of sentence, provided he has no subsequent conviction; a state felon may have his 

record sealed after 15 years, provided he has no subsequent conviction. Anyone who has his 

record of conviction sealed generally may deny the existence of the conviction, Mass. Gen. 

Laws Ann.ch. 276, 5 100A, but the conviction may still be taken into account for the 

purposes of firearms disabilities. &g& v. aim,374 Mass. 475, 373 N .E.2d 

1128 (1978). The records of convictions under the state's statutes regulating firearms, crimes 

against public justice, and the conduct of public officials and employees may not be sealed. 

Mass. Gen. Laws AM. ch. 276, 5 100A. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES' 

In Massachusetts, a Firearm Identification Card is needed to own or possess a rifle or a 

shotgun other than in one's residence or place of business. Mass. Gen. Laws AM. ch. 140, 

(i 129C; ch. 269, 5 10. A Firearm Identification Card is also needed to purchase a rifle, 

shotgun, or ammunition. Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 140, 5s 123, 131E. A person who has 

been convicted of a felony in any state or federal court or of a violation of any state or federal 

drug law may not apply for a Firearm Identification Card until five years after conviction or 

release from confinement, whichever is later. Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 140, 5 129B. In 

addition, a person may not possess a "firearm," which is defined to mean a handgun,2 other 

than in his residence or place of business, without a license to carry, and a person may not 

purchase a "firearm" without a license to carry. Mass. Gen. Laws AM. ch. 140, $5 123, 

129C; ch. 260, 5 10. A "person who has been convicted of a felony or the unlawful use, 

possession or sale of a narcotic or harmful drugs" may not obtain a license to carry. Mass. 

Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 140, 5 131. An unconditional gubernatorial pardon restores eligibility to 

apply for either a Firearm Identification Card or a license to carry. 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Massachusetts law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Caron, 77 F.3d 1 

(1st Cir. 1996) (en banc); United States v. m,961 F.2d 1003 (1st Cir.), m.denied, 506 U.S. 934 (1992), 

sverruled ~n an by Unitedv. m,m. 

'Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 140, $ 121, provides that "firearm" means "a pistol, revolver or other 


weapon of any description loaded or unloaded, from which a shot or bullet can be discharged and of which the 


length of the barrel or barrels is less than sixteen inches or eighteen inches in the case of a shotgun as originally 


manufactured. " 


/ 3 
October 1996 	 Page 73 

MICHIGAN 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 


A person who has been convicted in state or federal court and sentenced to confinement 

is not eligible to vote while confined. Mich. Const. art. 2, $ 2; Mich. Comp. Laws 

$ 168.758b. The right to serve on a jury is forfeited until completion of sentence. 

Mich. Comp. Laws $ 600.1307a(l)(e). 

Upon an office holder's conviction of an "infamous crime" or an offense involving a 

violation of his oath of office, the office becomes vacant. Mich. Comp. Laws $ 201.3(5).' A 

candidate convicted of an election offense, if elected, is not permitted to enter the office to 

which he or she was elected. Mich. Comp. Laws $8 168.932, 168.938. A public officer who 

accepts a bribe forfeits his office and is forever disqualified from holding public office, trust, 

or appointment. Mich. Comp. Laws $ 750.118. A city officer who is convicted of a felony 

may be removed from office, and, if convicted of illegally providing or possessing a copy of a 

civil service examination or answers, is not eligible for elective or appointive city office for 20 

years after conviction. Mich. Comp. Laws $ 168.327. A person who has been convicted of 

subversion or, within the past 20 years, of a felony involving a breach of public trust is not 

eligible for either house of the legislature. Mich. Const. art. 4, $ 7. A judge is guilty of 

misconduct in office if he or she is convicted of conduct that is punishable as a felony under 

the laws of Michigan or federal law, and may be censured, suspended, retired, or removed 

from his office. Mich. Const. art. 6, 5 30(2); MICH. R. DISC.P. 9.205(C)(l), 9.225. &In 

re Calm, 419 Mich. 376, 355 N.W.2d 69 (Mich. 1984). 

Under Mich. Comp. Laws $ 338.42, a "judgment of guilt in a criminal prosecution" 

"shall not be used, in and of itself, by a licensing board or agency as proof of a person's lack 

of good moral character," but it "may be used as evidence in the determination. " If so used, 

the person is permitted to rebut that evidence "by showing that at the current time he or she 

has the ability to, and is likely to, serve the public in a fair, honest, and open manner, that he 

or she is rehabilitated, or that the substance of the former offense is not reasonably related to 

the occupation or profession for which he or she seeks to be licensed." Id. Some licenses for 

which conviction of certain crimes may result in denial, suspension, or revocation include: 

private detective (Mich. Comp. Laws $8 338.830(1)(c), 338.838(1)); private security guard 

($5 338.1056(1)(e); 338.1060(1)(~)); and real estate broker (5 339.2505(2)). Michigan has a 

registration requirement for sex offenders, which expressly applies to federal convictions. 

Mich. Comp. Laws. 5 28.721, ~r;g. 

r '& Attornev General ex rel. Q'Hara v. m,275 Mich. 504. 267 N.W. 550, 552 (1936) ' I 

<--a, 
 ("reason for the rule [declaring vacant an office upon felony conviction of the office holder] applies equally to one 

convicted under the federal law and under the state law" (dictum)). 
October 1996 Page 74 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is restored upon release from incarceration. Mich. Const. art. 2, 5 2; 

Mich. Comp. Laws 5 168.758b. A felon is disqualified from jury service only during the 

period of his sentence, Mich. Comp. Laws 5 600.1307a(l)(e), but he may nonetheless be 

challenged for cause based on his conviction. MICH. CT. R. 2.5 1 1 (D)(2), 6.412(D). & 

United Sw v. lf2risc011, 970 F.2d 1472 (6th Cir. 1992), m.denied, 506 U.S. 1083 (1993); 

United S w v. Metzger, 3 F.3d 756 (4th Cir. 1993), denied, 114 S. Ct. 1374 (1994). 

Froede v. Holland J adder & Mfo CO~, 207 Mich. App. 127, 523 N. W .2d 849, 85 1- 

52 (1994) (disagreeing with Sixth Circuit's conclusion in that right to serve on a jury 

is not automatically restored upon completion of sentence); and People v. J-, 205 Mich. 

App. 77, 517 N.W.2d 270, 272 n. 1, leave to appeal denied, 447 Mich. 1043, 527 N.W .2d 

520 (1994) (raising question whether Mich. Comp. Laws 5 600.1307a(l)(e) takes precedence 

over MICH. CT. R. 2.511). Certain disqualifications from office expire after passage of the 

requisite number of years, others are presumably removed by a pardon. 

The pardon power, except in cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor. 

Mich. Const. art. 5, 5 14. A person convicted under federal law or the law of another state is 

ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. A person convicted under Michigan law may seek a 

court order setting aside his conviction five years after either imposition of sentence or 

completion of any term of imprisonment imposed, whichever is later. Mich. Comp. Laws 

5 780.621. This relief is available only to persons convicted of a single offense, the maximum 

punishment for which was less than life imprisonment. Mich. Comp. Laws 5 780.621(1), (2). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

A person convicted of a felony3 may not possess, use, transport, sell, purchase, carry, 

ship, receive, or distribute a f~earm.~ Mich. Comp. Laws 5 750.224f. The disability is 

removed three years after completion of all the terms of the sentence, including probation or 

parole, except for persons convicted of a "specified felony" (generally including violent and 

2For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Michigan law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see v. Metzger, 3 F.3d 

756 (4th Cir. 1993); United v. m,979 F.2d 436 (6th Cir. 1992), m,m,507 U.S. 1034 (1993); 

United St- v. Driscou, 970 F.2d 1472 (6th Cir. 1992), m.demed,506 U.S. 1083 (1993); Wed Stw v. 

m,938 F.2d 131 (6th Cir. 1991). M: l&&minvolved an earlier version of Michigan law concerning 

firearms privileges different from that set forth in this section. 

3"Felony" is defmed as "a violation of a law of this state, or of another state, or of the VJnited States that 

is punishable by imprisonment for 4 years or more, or an attempt to violate such a law." Mich. Comp. Laws 

8 750.224f(5). 

4"Firearm" is defined in Mich. Comp. Laws $8 28.421(a) and 750.222(b) to include both long guns and 

handguns. 
October 1996 Page 75 

drug offen~es),~ who remain subject to the disability until five years have passed since 

completion of the sentence and their firearms privileges are restored pursuant to the procedure 

set forth in Mich. Comp. Laws $28.424. Mich. Comp. Laws $ 750.224f(l), (2). The 

firearms disability does not apply to convictions that have been expunged, set aside, or 

pardoned, unless the expunction, order, or pardon expressly provides that the person may not 

possess a firearm. Mich. Comp. Laws $ 750.224f(4). In addition, persons who are disabled 

from possessing firearms under § 750.224f are also prohibited from obtaining a permit to 

purchase, carry, or transport a pist01.~ Mich. Comp. Laws $ 28.422(3). 

Under $28.424 firearms privileges may be restored by the concealed weapons 

licensing board for the county of the felon's residence five years after completion of the 

sentence if the board finds by clear and convincing evidence that "[tlhe person's record and 

reputation are such that the person is not likely to act in a manner dangerous to the safety of 

other persons. " Mich. Comp. Laws 5 28.424(3)(c). 

S"Specified felony" means burglary or breaking and entering of an occupied dwelling or arson, or a 

felony of which an element is: (1) the use, attempted or threatened use, or substantial risk of use of physical 

force against a person or property; (2) the unlawful manufacture, possession, importation, exportation, 

distribution, or dispensing of a controlled substance; (3) the unlawful possession or distribution of a firearm; or 

(4) the unlawful use of an explosive. Mich. Comp. Laws 5 750.224f(6). 

'A pistol is defined as "a loaded or unloaded firearm that is 30 inches or less in length, or a loaded or 

unloaded firearm that by its construction and appearance, conceals it as a firearm." Mich. Comp. Laws 

5 28.421(b). \ / \-.' 

i 
October 1996 	 Page 76 

MINNESOTA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony loses the rights to vote, to serve on a jury, and to hold 

public office until his civil rights are restored by discharge from sentence. Minn. Const. an. 

VII, $5 1,6; Minn. Stat. $5 201.014, subd. 2(a); 609.165, subd. 1. Apublic officer 

convicted of bribery forfeits his office and is forever disqualified from holding public office. 

Mim. Stat. $ 609.42, subd. 2. The disqualification from office has been held to encompass 

federal offenses that would be felonies under Minnesota law. && ex rel. AIDagaus v. Todd, 

29 N.W.2d 810 (Minn. 1947). 

A person may not be disqualified from public employment or from obtaining an 

occupational or professional license solely or in part because of a conviction unless the crime 

directly relates to the position. Mim. Stat. $ 364.03, subd. 1. Even then, the person is not 

disqualified if he can show sufficient rehabilitation and present fitness for the position. Minn. 

Stat. 5 364.03, subd. 3. These limitations do not apply to certain professions such as law, law 

enforcement, and teaching. Minn. Stat. $8 364.08, 364.09. Professions or occupations in 

which a conviction may be taken into account in the licensing decision include: insurance 

(Minn. Stat. $ 72B.08, subd. l(f)); medicine ($ 147.091, subd. l(c)); nursing ($ 148.261, 

subd. l(3)); dentistry ($ 150A.08, subd. 1(2), (3)); pharmacy ($ 151.06, subd. 1(7)(ii), (iii)); 

veterinary medicine (8 156.081, subd. 2(2)); law ($ 481.15, subd. l(1)). 

Minnesota has a registration requirement for persons convicted of or adjudicated 

delinquent for certain offenses, such as predatory crimes for which they were sentenced as a 

patterned sex offender; the requirement expressly includes federal convictions. Minn. Stat. 

$243.166. 

B . 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

A discharge from sentence "shall restore the person to all civil rights and to full 

citizenship, with full right to vote and hold office, the same as if such conviction had not taken 

place. " Minn. Stat. $ 609.165, subd. 1. This restoration of civil rights does not include 

firearms privileges for persons convicted of a crime of violence. Minn. Stat. $609.165, 

subd. la. Nor does it apply to forfeiture of and disqualification for public office under Mim. 

kf -1 c 

i I 
October 1996 	 Page 77 

Stat. 8 609.42, subd. 2 (forever disqualifying from public office a public officer convicted of 

%-- -	 bribery). Minn. Stat. $609.165, subd. 3. It has been applied to federal felons. &g Op. 

Att'y Gen. 68-h (1971); mited Stat@ v. -, 946 F.2d 1347, 1349 (8th Cir. 1991).l 

The power to grant a pardon "after conviction for an offense against the state" is vested 

in the Board of Pardons, except in cases of impeachment. Minn. Const. art. V, $7. Accord, 

Minn. Stat. 8 638.01 (pardon may be granted to any person "convicted of any offense against 

the laws of the state"). The Board has the power to grant an absolute or conditional pardon, 

Minn. Stat. 5 638.02, subd. 1, or a "pardon extraordinary," Minn. Stat. $638.02, subd. 2. 

A pardon extraordinary "has the effect of setting aside and nullifying the conviction and of 

purging the person of it, and the person shall never after that be required to disclose the 

conviction at any time or place other than in a judicial proceeding or as part of the licensing 

process for peace officers. " Minn. Stat. fj 638.02, subd. 2.* After a pardon extraordinary is 

granted, a copy of the pardon is filed with the district court in the county of conviction; the 

court then orders the conviction set aside and includes the copy of the pardon in the court file. 

Federal felons and persons convicted under the law of another state are not eligible for a state 

pardon. &g Minn. Const. art. V, $ 7; Minn. Stat. 8 638.01. 

Minnesota law also provides that conviction of a state crime otherwise classified as a 

felony "is deemed to be for a misdemeanor or a gross misdemeanor" if the sentence imposed 

does not exceed that permitted for a misdemeanor or gross misdemeanor, or if imposition of a 

prison sentence is stayed, and the defendant placed on probation and thereafter discharged 

without a prison sentence. Minn. Stat. Q 609.13, subd. 1. 

'Although the specific holding in Edwu -- that the federal firearms disability no longer applied to a 

federal felon whose civil rights were restored under Minnesota law -- was rejected by the Supreme Court in 

united States v. Beecham 51 1 U.S. 368 (1994), the basic observation in Edwards that a federal felon in Minnesota 

may vote, hold state office, and sit on a jury once his rights are restored by state action was not addressed in, and 

therefore would appear to be unaffected by, w. 

2To be eligible for a pardon extraordinary (unless the Board of Pardons expressly and unanimously 

provides otherwise), five years must have passed since discharge of the sentence (10 years for persons convicted 

of a "crime of violence," see footnote 4, m)and the person must not have been convicted of any other crime 

during that period. Minn. Stat. § 638.02, subd. 2. 
October 1996 Page 78 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES3 

A person convicted of a federal or state "crime of vi01ence"~ is forbidden from 

possessing any firearm, including a pistol and semiautomatic military-style assault weapon. 

Minn. Stat. 8 624.713, subd. 1.' With the exception of persons convicted of domestic assault 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Minnesota law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. m,14 F.3d 

1213 (7th Cir. 1994); United State5 v. m,986 F.2d 1248 (8th Cir. 1993); United States v. m,949 F.2d 952 

(8th Cir. 1991); m d St= v. m,936 F.2d 352 (8th Cir. 1991), a.w,503 U.S. 908 (1992); United 

&@ v. m,914 F.2d 119 (8th Cir. 1990). 

'A "crime of violence" is defined to include felony violations of malicious punishment of a child, felony 

violations of neglect or endangerment of a child, felony violations of chapter 152, dealing with prohibited drugs, 

and the following offenses, or an attempt to commit any of them, as they are defined in chapter 609 of the 

Minnesota laws: murder in the first, second, and third degrees; manslaughter in the first and second degrees; 

aiding suicide; aiding attempted suicide; felony violations of assault in the first, second, third, and fourth degrees; . assaults motivated by bias under Minn. Stat. $ 609.2231, subd. 4; terroristic threats; use of drugs to injure or to 

facilitate crime; crimes committed for the benefit of a gang; commission of a crime while wearing or possessing a 

bullet-resistant vest; simple or aggravated robbery; kidnapping; false imprisonment; criminal sexual conduct in the 

first, second, third, and fourth degrees; theft of a firearm; arson in the first and second degrees; riot; burglary in 

the first, second, third, and fourth degrees; harassment and stalking; shooting at a public transit vehicle or facility; 

reckless use of a gun or dangerous weapon; intentionally pointing a gun at or towards a human being; setting a 

spring gun; and unlawfully owning, possessing, or operating a machine gun or shon-barreled shotgun. Minn. 

Stat. § 624.7 12, subd. 5. Crimes committed in other states or jurisdictions that would have been crimes of . violence as defined in $624.712 if they had been committed in Minnesota are also included in the definition. 

Effective August 1, 1996, the definition of "crime of violencen includes in addition the following: drive-by 

shootings; felony theft involving the intentional taking or driving of a motor vehicle without the consent of the 

owner or the authorized agent of the owner; felony theft involving the taking of property from a burning, 

abandoned, or vacant building, or from an area of destruction caused by civil disaster, riot. bombing, or the 

proximity of battle; and felony theft involving the theft of a controlled substance, an explosive, or an incendiary 

device. 

In && v. m,463 N.W.2d 517 (Minn. 1990), the Supreme Coun of Minnesota held that what 

constitutes a felony for the purposes of the firearms disability under $ 624.712 is determined by the elements of 

the offense for which the defendant was originally convicted rather than by the disposition imposed by the court. 

Accordingly, a conviction of a state felony that was "deemed to be for a misdemeanor or a gross misdemeanor" 

under Minn. Stat. 8 609.13, see p. supra, nonetheless qualifies as a felony for the purposes of 624.712. 

SA "pistoln is defined as a firearm designed for use by a single hand and with an overall length less than 

26 inches, or a shotgun with a barrel length less than 18 inches, or a rifle with a barrel length less than 16 inches. 

Minn. Stat. $ 624.712, subd. 2. A list of semiautomatic military-style assault weapons is set forth in Minn Stat. 

$ 624.712, subd. 7. The list includes 17 guns,all but five of which "are the weapons the importation of which 

was barred by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms of the United States Department of the Treasury in 

July 1989. " 

The disability under $ 624.713 originally applied only to pistols, and was expanded first to include 

military-style assault weapons, and then to include all firearms. The ban relating to all firearms under 8 624.713 
\..- , 

/-'\, 

I ; 

\--,' 

-

October 1996 Page 79 

involving the use of a firearm,6 the right to possess firearms is restored to persons convicted of 

a crime of violence 10 years after the restoration of rights or the sentence or disposition has 

expired, whichever occurs first, provided the person has not been convicted of another crime 

of violence in that 10-year period. Minn. Stat. 8 624.713, subd. 1 (b).' 

With the same exception, a person who "has been convicted in any court of a crime 

punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year" other than a crime of violence is 

disabled from possessing firearms until discharge from sentence. Minn Stat. 5 5 624.7 13, 

subd. 10); 609.165, subd. 1 Subject to the same exception, persons convicted on or after 

August 1, 1992, of domestic assault or assault in the fifth degree in which the victim was a 

family or household member are not permitted to possess a pistol unless three years have 

elapsed from the date of conviction and the defendant has not been convicted of a similar 

offense. Minn. Stat. 8 609.2242, subd. 3(e). Likewise, a person convicted of assault in the 

fifth degree after August 1, 1992, is not permitted to possess a pistol if the offense was 

committed within three years of a previous conviction for assault unless three years have 

elapsed from the date of conviction and the defendant has not been convicted of another 

offense of fifth-degree assault. Minn. Stat. 5 609.224, subd. 3(b). 

Persons convicted "in Minnesota or elsewhere of a misdemeanor or gross misdemeanor 

violation of chapter 152" (dealing with prohibited drugs) are also prohibited from possessing 

any firearm. Minn. Stat. 8 624.713, subd. l(d). This disability is removed by discharge from 

sentence. Minn. Stat. $609.165, subd. 1. 

Unless the Board of Pardons "expressly provides otherwise in writing by unanimous 

vote, " a pardon extraordinary will not restore firearms privileges to violent felons until the 

10-year period has expired. Minn. Stat. 5 638.02, subd. 2. 

applies prospectively only as of August 1, 1994, so that persons under a ban as to military weapons and pistols 

before August 1, 1994, are not included in the disability as to all firearms. Minn. Stat. 8 624.713, subd. 1. The 

criminal enforcement mechanism of $ 624.713 for firearms other than pistols and military-style assault weapons is 

effective August 1, 1996. Violent felons, however, are also subject to the firearms disability described in note 7, 

infra, which applies to all firearms and which has had a criminal penalty since 1994. 

6The exception relates to persons convicted of assaulting a family or household member whom the 

sentencing court frnds to have used a firearm for that purpose. In such a case, the court may order that the person 

is prohibited "from possessing any type of firearm for any period longer than three years or for the remainder of 

the person's life," Minn. Stat. $ 609.2242, subd. 3(c), and the disability lasts for the period determined by the 

court. Minn.Stat. § 624.713, subd. l(i). Otherwise, the defendant is prohibited from possessing a pistol for 

three years, provided he has not been convicted in the interim of another fifth-degree assault or domestic assault 

offense. Minn. Stat. 609.2242, subd. 3(d), (e). 

'Minn. Stat. $ 609.165, subd. la and lb, also prohibit violent felons from possessing firearms until 10 

years after restoration of civil rights, and provide that a violent felon is no longer subject to the disability after he 

obtains a discharge from sentence and obtains relief from federal firearms disabilities under 18 U.S.C. § 925(c). 

A criminal enforcement mechanism was added to 609.165 in 1994. Minn.Stat. 9 609.165, subd. lb. 

'Subject to the same exception, a disability is also imposed for persons convicted in other states of certain 

domestic violence offenses. Minn. Stat. § 624.713, subd. l(h). 
October 1996 	 Page 80 

MISSISSIPPI 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Persons convicted of certain felonies1 lose the rights to vote and to be appointed to any 

office of profit, trust, or honor. Miss. Const. art. 12, $ 241; Miss. Code Ann. $ 99-19-35. 

Persons convicted of an "infamous crime, or the unlawful sale of intoxicating liquors within a 

period of five years" lose the right to serve on a jury. Miss. Code Ann. $ 13-5-1.= A person 

convicted after November 3, 1992, of aqy offense that is a felony under Mississippi law or of 

a federal felony is disqualified to hold any state office of profit or trust. Miss. Const. art. 4, 

$ 44(2).3 This disqualification does not apply to persons convicted of manslaughter or of state 

or federal tax offenses, unless the tax offense involved misuse or abuse of office or of money 

that came to the defendant through his office. Miss. Const. art. 4, $ 44(3). In addition, any 

person convicted of bribery to procure an election or appointment to office is disqualified from 

holding office. Miss. Const. art. 4, $ 44(1). 

Professional or occupational licenses may be affected as a result of conviction, ranging 

from automatic denial or mandatory sanction to discrqtionary denial or sanction, depending on 

the occupation and the offense of conviction. Q: alcohol license (Miss. Code Ann. 

$ 67-1-57(a)); apothecary (5 41-29-303); architect ($ 73-1-29(1)(g)); attorney ($ 73-3-41); bail 

agent ($ 83-39-3(2)); retailer of beer and light wine (5 67-3-19); bingo gaming supplies or 

equipment ($ 97-33-201(2)(a), (b)); bingo game operator (g 97-33-57(4)(a), (b)); chiropractor 

(9 73-6-19(1)(e)); dentist ($ 99-19-35); state gaming license ($ 75-76-67(3)); insurance agent 

(5 83-17-123(1)(f)); nurse ($ 73-15-29(1)(b)); optometrist ($ 73-19-23(2)(c), (d)); physician 

($$ 73-25-29(1)(d), (0;99-19-35); psychologist ($73-31-21(1)(b)); speech pathologist, 

'The right to vote is lost upon conviction of murder, rape, bribery, theft, arson, obtaining money or 

goods under false pretenses, perjury, forgery, embezzlement, or bigamy. Miss. Const. art. 12. 8 241. Because 

one must either be a qualified voter or a resident freeholder of the county for one year to serve on a jury, 

conviction of any of these offenses may cause ineligibility for jury service. Person convicted of bribery, burglary, 

theft, arson, obtaining money under false pretewes, perjury, forgery, embezzlement or bribery may not be 

appointed to hold or perform the duties of any office of profit, trust, or honor. Miss. Code Ann. § 99-19-35. 

2"Infarnous crime" is defined as "offenses punished with death or confinement in the penitentiary." 


Miss. Code Ann. 8 1-3-19. 


'For federal convictions on or before November 3, 1992, the Mississippi Supreme Court held that the 

previous version of Miss. Const. art. 4, 8 44, which prohibited persons convicted of bribery, perjury, or other 

"infamous crimes" from holding office, did not apply to federal offenses because they are not "infamous crimes" . . within the meaning of that provision. W ex rel. Mulrhead v. Board of Election_Commlssroners ,259 So. 


2d 698 (Miss.), denied,409 U.S. 851 (1972). The disqualification was also held not to apply to convictions 


under the law of another state. Middleton v. b,515 So. 2d 940 (Miss. 1987). 


[ 

a, ," 

3 
---_-

(---% 

t f 

vk- ,>I 

October 1996 Page 81 

audiologist (8 73-38-27(1)(c)); social worker ($ 73-53-13(d)(iv)); school teacher or 

administrator (8 37-3-2(7)(g), (h); (8)(d), (e)); veterinarian ($ 73-39-19(c)). A felon may not 

serve as a sheriff's deputy ($ 19-25-19), nor as the administrator of an estate ($ 91-7-65). 

Persons convicted of certain crimes, including felony drug offenses or sex offenses, may not 

be employed by or serve as a volunteer for an entity that provides certain counseling services 

for children if they would provide services to children for the entity. Miss. Code AM. 

$43-31-12. 

Mississippi has a registration requirement for sex offenders, Miss. Code Ann. 

8 45-33-1, which includes for state offenders a requirement of providing a blood sample for 

DNA analysis. Miss. Code AM. 6 45-33-15. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to serve on a jury is restored'five years after conviction, provided the person 

is either a qualified elector or a resident freeholder. Miss. Code AM 8 13-5-1. The right to 

hold public office is restored only by a pardon. Miss. Const. art. 4, $ 44; Miss. Code Ann. 

$ 99-19-35. The pardon power is vested in the Governor (except in cases of treason or 

impeachment), Miss. Const. art. 5, 8 124, who may be assisted by the state Parole Board. 

Miss. Code AM. $ 47-7-5(3). While the right to vote is restored by a pardon, the Governor 

may also by executive order restore to any person discharged from probation "any civil rights 

lost by virtue of conviction," Miss. Code Ann. $ 47-7-41, which has been interpreted to refer 

only to the right to vote. Op. Att' y Gen. June 27, 1983 (to Honorable Larry 0.Norris). The 

right to vote may also be restored by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. Miss. Const. art. 12, 

$ 253.4 

Federal and out-of-state felons are not eligible for a state pardon or executive order. 

11. LOSS AND RESTOMTION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

Miss. Code AM. $ 97-37-5(1) prohibits any person convicted of a felony under federal 

law or the law of any state from possessing a firearm, unless he has been pardoned, obtained 

relief from federal firearms disabilities pursuant to 18 U.S.C. $ 925(c), or obtained a 

certificate of rehabilitation. A certificate of rehabilitation is available only to persons 

'A person who, after conviction, sewed in the military during World War I or World War I1 and was 

honorably discharged may have his voting rights restored by an administrative procedure. Miss. Code AM. 

5 99-19-37(1). In order to restore the right to vote in this fashion, the person must record his discharge papers in 

the Office of the Chancery Clerk of the county in which he wishes to vote, and if he is otherwise eligible to vote 

there and the papers appear to establish the grounds for reinstatement of the right to vote, "such person shall have 

the full right of suffrage restored as though an act had been passed by the legislature in accordante with section 

253 of the constitution of the State of Mississippi." Miss. Code 4 99-19-37(3). 

1 
October 1996 Page 82 

convicted of a felony under Mississippi law, and is obtained by applying to the court of 

conviction. The court, in its discretion, may issue the certificate if it finds that the applicant 

"has been rehabilitated," "has led a useful, productive and law-abiding life since the 

completion of his sentence," and "will not be likely to act in a manner dangerous to the public 

safety." Miss. Code Ann. $ 97-37-5(3). 

In addition, Miss. Code Ann. $ 97-37-l(1) prohibits a person from carrying, concealed 

in whole or in part, a pistol, revolver, sawed-off shotgun, short-barrel rifle, or "any fully 

automatic firearm or deadly weaponw5 unless he is licensed to do so.6 A person who has been 

convicted of a felony in the courts of any state or of the United States, without having been 

pardoned, is ineligible to obtain such a license. Miss. Code AM. 8 45-9-101(2)(d). 

Similarly, persons convicted of other crimes may be denied a license. For example, an 

applicant must not "chronically or habitually abuse controlled substances to the extent that his 

normal faculties are impaired"; it is presumed that the applicant chronically or habitually uses 

drugs if he has been found guilty of a crime under federal or state drug laws within the three 

years preceding the filing of the application for a license. Miss. Code Ann. $ 45-9-101(2)(e). 

Likewise, an applicant must not "chronically and habitually use alcoholic beverages to the 

extent that his normal faculties are impaired," and a person who has been convicted of two or 

more offenses related to the use of alcohol under state or federal law within the preceding 

three years is presumed to chronically and habitually use alcohol. Miss. Code Ann. 

8 45-9-101(2)(f). 

The office of the state's Attorney General takes the position that the Governor has the 

power to restore by a pardon the ability to obtain a permit to carry a concealed weapon under 

Miss. Code Ann. $ 97-37-7, but that an executive order under Miss. Code AM. 

$ 47-7-41 restoring civil rights must expressly restore the privilege of applying for such a 

permit before a felon may obtain one. Op. Att' y Gen. November 9, 1990 ("Re: $ 97-37-7(2); 

$47-7-4 1 "). 

>This section does not include a regular rifle or shotgun, as is evidenced by Miss. Code Ann. $ 47-5-191, 

which defines "weapon or deadly weapon" to mean "any weapon or firearm mentioned in Section 97-37-1. jmj 

any rifle or shotgun regardless of barrel length" (emphasis added). &&? Carlson v.SE&, 597 So. 2d 657, 659 

(Miss. 1992) ("Clearly, a [shotlgun with barrel length in excess of 18 inches does not fall within the ambit of 

§ 97-37- 1. "). 

6Among the exclusions from the coverage of this statute is carrying a firearm or deadly weapon if the 

person is in his home or place of business, or on real property associated therewith, is in a motor'vehicle, or is 

engaged in a legitimate weapon-related sports activity (such as hunting, fishing, or target shooting). Miss. Code 

Ann. § 97-37-1(2), (3). 
October I996 	 Page 83 

MISSOURI 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of any crime may not vote while confined under a sentence of 

imprisonment or while on parole or probation, Mo. Rev. Stat. 88 1 15.133(2), 561.026(1), and 

if convicted of an offense connected with the exercise of the right of suffrage is forever 

disqualified from voting. Mo. Rev. Stat. 8 561.026(2). The disqualification from voting has 

been held to extend to federal offenses. && ex rel. Barren v. u,35 1 Mo. 1237, 175 

S.W.2d 787 (1944); Brum v. Murdock, 406 S.W.2d 294 (Mo. App. 1966). A person 

convicted of a felony under Missouri law or convicted under the law of another jurisdiction of 

a crime that would be a felony if committed in Missouri forfeits any office he may then hold, 

and is ineligible to hold office until completion of his sentence or probation. Mo. Rev. Stat. 

5 561.021(1)(1), (2); however, persons convicted of an offense connected with the exercise of 

the right of suffrage are forever disqualified from holding any elected or appointive public 

office. Mo. Rev. Stat. 9 561.021 (3). A convicted felon is ineligible for the office of sheriff. 

Mo. Rev. Stat. 8 57.010. A felony conviction permanently disqualifies a person from jury 

service. Mo. Rev. Stat. 5 561.026(3). 

A state agency may not deny a license to a felon solely on the basis of his conviction, 

although a felony conviction may be considered as a factor in the decision-making process. 

Mo. Rev. Stat. $ 314.200. For example, the State Board of Education may refuse to issue, or 

may revoke, a teacher's certificate upon conviction of a felony. Mo. Rev. Stat. 9 168.071(2). 

Missouri has a registration requirement for felony sex offenders, which expressly applies to 

federal convictions. Mo. Rev. Stat. 59 566.600 - 566.625. A person convicted of a felony or 

crime of moral turpitude may not serve as a superintendent or member of the patrol or radio 

personnel of the state highway patrol. Mo. Rev. Stat. 5 43.060. 

B . 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is automatically restored upon final discharge from sentence, 

including probation or parole (unless the crime was connected to the exercise of the right of 

suffrage). Mo. Rev. Stat. 5 115.133(2). The right to hold office is restored upon completion 

of sentence (unless the crime was connected to the exercise of the right of suffrage). Mo. 

Rev. Stat. 5 561.02 1 (2), (3). Felons are permanently disqualified from jury service, unless 

pardoned. Mo. Rev. Stat. 5 561.026(3). 

The pardon power is vested in the Governor, except in cases of treason or 

impeachment. Mo. Const. art. IV, $ 7. Persons convicted under federal law or the law of 

another state are ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 
October 1996 Page 84 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES1 

A person convicted of any "dangerous felony, "* an attempt to commit a dangerous 

felony, or of a crime under the laws of any state or of the United States which, if committed in 

Missouri, would be a dangerous felony, may not possess a concealable firearm3 for five years 

after conviction or release from confinement for such a conviction, whichever is later. 

Mo. Rev. Stat. 8 571,070.1. A person who has been convicted of a crime punishable by 

imprisonment for a term exceeding one year under the laws of any state or of the United States 

(other than a crime punishable by imprisonment of two years or less, classified as a 

misdemeanor, and not involving an explosive weapon, firearm, silencer, or gas gun) may not 

obtain a permit to acquire a concealable firearm. Mo. Rev. Stat. 8 571.090.1(2). Without 

such a permit, it is illegal to purchase, lease, borrow, exchange, or receive a concealable 

firearm. Mo. Rev. Stat. 8 571.080.1(1). 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Missouri law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see Unitedv. &&, 987 F.2d 

575 (9th Cir. 1993); Presley v. nStates, 851 F.2d 1052 (8th Cir. 1988). 

'"Dangerous felony" is defined as "the felonies of arson in the first degree, assault in the first degree, 

forcible rape, forcible sodomy, hdnapping, murder in the second degree, and robbery in the first degree." 

Mo. Rev. Stat. 8 556.061(8). 

)This term is defined to mean a firearm with a barrel length of less than 16 inches. Mo. Rev. Stat. 


571.010(2). 

October 1996 	 Page 85 

MONTANA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Under Mont. Code Ann. 5 46-18-801(1), a conviction does not result in a loss of civil 

rights except as provided in the Montana Constitution or as specifically enumerated by the 

sentencing judge "as a necessary condition of the sentence directed toward the objectives of 

rehabilitation and the protection of society. " The Montana Constitution disqualifies from 

voting a person serving a sentence in a penal institution for a felony conviction, Mont. Const. 

art. IV, 8 2,' and prevents a person convicted of a felony from holding public office until final 

discharge from state supervision. Mont. Const. art. N,8 4. Although the Montana 

Constitution does not provide for disqualification of jurors based on felony conviction, a 

Montana statute, Mont. Code Ann. 8 3-15-303, does; however, since this disqualification is 

not contained in the Montana Constitution, its effect in light of 8 46-18-801 is unclear. 

A professional or occupational license may not be refused solely because of a previous 

conviction. Mont. Code Ann. 8 37-1-203. A license may be denied, however, if the applicant 

has been convicted of a criminal offense that "relates to the public health, welfare, and safety 

as it applies to the occupation for which the license is sought" and the licensing agency finds 

that the "applicant so convicted has not been sufficiently rehabilitated to warrant the public 

trust." Mont. Code Ann. 8 37-1-203. As a condition of probation, parole, or deferred or 

suspended sentence, a judge shall impose upon a person convicted of a sexual or violent 

offense2 reasonable employment or occupational restrictions designed to protect likely victims. 

Mont. Code Ann. 8 46-18-255. Montana has a registration requirement for sexual and violent 

offenders, which expressly applies to federal convictions. Mont. Code Ann. $8 46-23-501 to 

46-23-507. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

Full rights are automatically restored "by termination of state supervision for any 

offense against the state. " Mont. Const. art. 11, 5 28. Accord, Mont. Code Ann. 

5 46-18-801(2) ("Except as provided in the Montana Constitution, if a person has been 

deprived of a civil or constitutional right by reason of conviction for an offense and the 

'Accord. Mont. Code Ann. 3 13-1-11 l(2). The disqualification of felons from voting under a previous 

Montana statute was held to apply to a federal felon only if his offense would have been a felony under Montana 

law. Melton v. Oleson, 165 Mont. 424, 530 P.2d 466 (1974). 

2The definitions of "sexual offense" and "violent offense" are found in Mont. Code Ann. 

$ 46-23-502(3), (4). 

..-1 
October 19% Page 86 

person's sentence has expired or the person has been pardoned, the person is restored to all 

civil rights and full citizenship the same as if the conviction had not occurred. ").' The 

Montana Attorney General advised that under a similarly worded previous version of 

5 46-18-801 the right to sit on a jury was restored only by a pardon. 

The pardon power is vested in the Governor, who may not grant a pardon to anyone 

the Board of Pardons and Parole does not recommend, except in capital cases. Mont. Code 

Ann. 5 46-23-301; Mont. Code Ann. $8 46-23-301 to 307, 3 15 to 3 16 (governing 

executive clemency process). A person convicted under federal law or the law of another state 

is ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES4 

Prohibited from possessing or purchasing a firearm is any person who has been 

convicted of a felony for which he received a mandatory consecutive sentence, pursuant to 

Mont. Code Ann. 5 46-18-221, for using a firearm or other destructive device in the 

commission of a crime, and any person who has been convicted of an offense under federal 

law or the law of another state that is equivalent to a Montana offense that would qualify for 

such a mandatory consecutive sentence. Mont. Code Ann. 8 45-8-313. A person convicted of 

violating this prohibition after October 1, 1995, "shall, as part of the sentence imposed, be 

sentenced to life supervision by the state for the purpose of restricting the person's right to 

purchase and possess firearms." Mont. Code AM. 5 45-8-314(1). A person may apply to the 

district court in the county in which the person resides for a permit to purchase and possess 

one or more firearms, and the court may grant such relief if the person can "show good cause 

for the possession of each firearm sought to be purchased and possessed." Mont. Code Ann. 

5 45-8-314(2)(a). 

Under Montana law, a permit is generally required to carry a concealed pistol or 

revolver outside one's own home, premises, or place of business. Mont. Code AM. 

5 45-8-316(2).5 Persons who are ineligible under Montana or federal law to possess, own, or 

receive a firearm are also prohibited from obtaining a permit to carry a concealed weapon. 

Mont. Code Ann. 55 45-8-317(1), 45-8-321(1)(a). In addition, persons convicted of a crime 

punishable by more than one year in prison or convicted of certain violent or sexual crimes are 

'Under Mont. Code Ann. § 46-23-301(1)(b), "'[plardon' means a declaration of record that an individual 

is to be relieved of all legal consequences of a prior conviction." 

'For a consideration of the applicability of the previous federal firearms disability under 18 U.S.C.App. 

1202 and Montana law concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United 

v. Enpesser, 788 F.2d 1401 (9th Cir.), m.a,479 U.S. 869 (1986). 

'Among the exceptions to this requirement is carrying a concealed weapon while lawfully engaged in 

hunting, fishing, farming, or other outdoor activity in which weapons are often carried. Mont. Code Ann. 

45-8-3 17(9). 
October 1996 Page 87 

also prohibited from obtaining a permit to carry a concealed weapon. Mont. Code Ann. 

5 45-8-321(1)(~).~Persons convicted in the past five years of carrying a concealed weapon in 

a public place without a permit or of carrying a concealed weapon while under the influence 

may not obtain a permit unless they have been pardoned. Mont. Code Ann. 5 45-8-321(1)(d).' 

For all other persons, the right to possess firearms may be lost upon conviction of an 

offense if the sentencing judge specifically enumerates it as a necessary condition of the 

sentence "directed toward the objectives of rehabilitation and the protection of society. " 

Mont. Code Ann. 5 46-18-801 (1). If lost, firearms privileges are automatically restored upon 

completion of sentence, or may be restored earlier by pardon. Mont. Const. art. 11, 5 28; 

Mont. Code Ann. 5 46-18-801(1). 

%eluded in the prohibition are persons convicted of "a crime that includes as an element of the crime an 

act, attempted act, or threat of intentional homicide, violence, bodily or serious bodily harm, unlawful restraint, 

sexual abuse, or sexual intercourse or contact without consent." Mont. Code Ann. 8 45-8-321(1)(c). 

'Persons 'adjudicated in a criminal or civil proceeding in any state or federal court to be an unlawful user 

of an intoxicating substance" who are under a sentence or supervision are likewise prohibited from obtaining a t permit to carry a concealed weapon. Mont. Code Ann. 8 45-8-321(1)(f). 

-.A 
October 1996 	 Page 88 

NEBRASKA 


,' 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person sentenced to be punished for any felony loses the rights to vote, to serve on a 

jury, and to hold any office of honor, trust, or profit. Neb. Rev. Stat. 5 29-1 12. A person 

who has been imprisoned in the penitentiary of another state for an offense that would be 

punishable in Nebraska by imprisonment is also ineligible to vote, to serve on a jury, or to 

hold an office of honor, trust, or profit. Neb. Rev. Stat. 5 29-1 13. 

Certain convictions may be grounds for denial, suspension, or revocation 

of a professional or occupational license. u:pharmacy (Neb. Rev. Stat. 

5 71-1,147.10(l)(a),(e)); real estate (5 81-885.24(28)); employment agency (5 48-503). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

When a committed prisoner has completed his sentence, he is issued a "certificate of 

discharge" by the Director of Correctional Services, which "shall restore the civil rights of the 

offender." Neb. Rev. Stat. 5 83-1,118(5).' When a person sentenced to probation for a d

k' \ 

felony satisfactorily completes probation or is discharged early from probation, the sentencing hi 

court issues an order releasing the offender from probation "and such order shall in all felony 

cases restore the offender's civil rights." Neb. Rev. Stat. 5 29-2264(1). Furthermore, an 

offender sentenced to probation or to pay a fine only may petition the court to set aside the 

conviction, which has the effect of nullifying the conviction and removing "all civil disabilities 

and disqualifications imposed as a result of the conviction. " Neb. Rev. Stat. 8 29-2264(4)(a), 

(bh2 

The authority to grant pardons is vested in the Board of Pardons, of which the 

Governor is a member. Neb. Const. art. IV, 5 13; Neb. Rev. Stat. $5 83-170, 83-1,126 to 

83-1,135. Many individuals who seek a pardon do so because it is a sign of forgiveness, since 

civil rights can be restored through other procedures. 

'Upon release from prison or satisfaction of sentence when the sentence is other than confinement, a 

person convicted under Nebraska law may obtain from the Nebraska Board of Pardons a "warrant of discharge," 

which restores his civil rights and privileges. Neb. Rev. Stat. §§ 29-1 12, 29-1 12.01. According to the Board of 

Pardons, a warrant of discharge is equivalent to a cenificate of discharge, and is provided only when a cenificate 

of discharge is not otherwise available u, ' 

for persons incarcerated at a jail, rather than a correctional facility). 

A person convicted under federal law or the law of another state is ineligible for a warrant of discharge. 

2Despite the nullification of the conviction, it nonetheless may be relied upon in a number of contexts, , 

such as to enhance a sentence upon a subsequent conviction. Neb. Rev. Stat. $29-2264(5). k 
October 19% Page 89 

(-\, 

$t-* ' 

Persons convicted under federal law or the laws of another state are ineligible for a 

gubernatorial pardon or a discharge, and thus may not regain their civil rights unless pardoned 

in the jurisdiction of conviction. Neb. Rev. Stat. 5 29- 1 13. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES3 

A person convicted of a felony in any state or federal court may not possess a firearm.4 

Neb. Rev. Stat. § 28-1206(1), (2). A state felon may regain state firearms privileges by a 

state pardon only if the Board of Pardons empowers the Governor to expressly authorize the 

individual to receive, possess, or transport in commerce a firearm. Neb. Rev. Stat. 

$ 83-1,130(2). It is not clear whether a felon convicted in another state regains state firearms 

privileges in Nebraska if he receives a pardon from the state of conviction. 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the current and previous federal firearms disabilities and 

Nebraska law concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see v. United 

w,972 F.2d 227 (8th Cir. 1992), m.W,507 U.S. 950 (1993). 

'"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Neb. Rev. Stat. 3 28-1201(1). ,' 
October 1996 	 Page 90 

NEVADA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of "treason or felony in any state" may not vote in Nevada unless 

restored to civil rights. Nev. Const. art. 2, 8 1. Since no person is eligible for public office 

unless he is a qualified elector, Nev. Const. art. 15, 8 3, a person who is disqualified from 

voting because of a conviction is also ineligible for office. If a public officer is convicted of 

any felony or malfeasance in office, he forfeits his office and is disqualified from ever holding 

public office. Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 197.230. No person convicted of treason, felony, or other 

infamous crime is qualified to serve on a jury. Nev. Rev. Stat. 5 6.010. 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, suspended, or revoked because 

of a conviction. Eg: gaming employee (Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 463.335(8)(~),(d)); nurse 

(8 632.320(2)); employment agent (8 611.045(1)(a)); contractor (8 624.265(3)); physician 

(8 630.301(1)). Nevada has a registration requirement for sex offenders. Nev. Rev. Stat. 

$5 207.151 to 207.157. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

Except in cases of treason or impeachment, the pardon power is vested in the Board of 

Pardons Commissioners, which consists of the Governor, the Justices of the State Supreme 

Court, and the State Attorney General; a majority of the Board can grant a pardon, but the 

Governor must be among the majority. Nev. Const. art. 5, 8 14. A pardon may or may not 

restore civil rights, as the pardon document specifies. Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 213.090(1). A 

pardon may not restore the right to hold public office lost by reason of Nev. Rev. Stat. 

5 197.230 to a person convicted of a felony or malfeasance in office. 1965 Op. Att'y Gen. 67 

(NO. 65-274) (1965). 

There are other procedures for obtaining restoration of civil rights, depending upon the 

sentence imposed. Generally, the person must apply to a specified agency (the Board of 

Parole Commissioners, the Board of Pardons Commissioners, or the Division of Parole and 

Probation of the Department of Motor Vehicles and Public Safety) for restoration of his civil 

rights and release from penalties and disabilities resulting from conviction. In some cases, the 

agency may restore rights directly, in others it must petition the court of conviction. If the 

agency declines to do so, the person may petition the court in which he was convicted. Nev. 

Rev. Stat. $8 176.227, 213.090(2), 213.155, 213.157. A person who has been honorably 

discharged from probation may apply to the court for restoration of civil rights. Nev. Rev. 

Stat. 8 176.225(3). Restoration of civil rights does not absolve a felon of professional 

licensing restrictions. 1983 Op. Att'y Gen. 46 (No. 83-13) (1983). The Board of Pardons 

[ - 1, , 
October I996 Page 91 

Commissioners has been advised by the state's Attorney General that it cannot restore the civil 

rights of persons convicted of federal offenses. 

There is also a procedure for sealing the records of a Nevada conviction. Nev. Rev. 

Stat. 5 179.245. Fifteen years after the date of conviction or release from actual custody 

(whichever is later), a felon may petition the court in which he was convicted to seal all 

records relating to the conviction. Nev. Rev. Stat. § 179.245(1)(a). This relief is available 

only if the person has not been arrested during that 15-year period. Nev. Rev. Stat. 

5 179.245(3).' If the court seals the records, "all proceedings recounted in the record are 

deemed never to have occurred" (with certain exceptions), and the person "may properly 

answer accordingly to any inquiry concerning the arrest, conviction or acquittal and the events 

and proceedings relating to the arrest, conviction or acquittal." Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 179.285.2 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of a felony under federal law or the law of any state may not own, 

possess, or have in his custody or control any f~earm.~ Nev. Rev. Stat. § 202.360(1). This

disability is removed by a pardon in which the right to bear arms is specifically restored. 

Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 202.360(1). It is not removed by obtaining a restoration of civil rights. .Six 

Op. Att' y Gen. 83-13 (1983) (interpreting predecessor of Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 202.360); Nev. 

Rev. Stat. 5 176.225(5). Nor is it removed by an honorable discharge from probation 

followed by setting aside of a guilty plea, under the procedure formerly available under the 

predecessor to Nev. Rev. Stat. 8 176.225. Hand v. &&, 107 Nev. 577, 816 P.2d 468 

(1991); Baker v. F~#~&QQ, 825 F. Supp. 798 (D. Nev. 1993). In addition, a person who 

has had the records of his conviction sealed is free from state firearms disabilities. 1983 Op. 

Att'y Gen. 46 (No. 83-13) (1983). 

'This method is the exclusive statutory procedure for sealing records of a person who has been convicted, 

even if he has been honorably discharged from probation and had the verdict set aside pursuant to the procedure 

formerly available under the predecessor to Nev. Rev. Stat. § 176.225. &&v. Haves, 94 Nev. 366, 580 P.2d 

122 (1978). 

2Nev. Rev. Stat. $ 179.301 nonetheless authorizes access to sealed records relating to gaming for the 

purpose of determining suitability for gaming licenses and work permits, and to sealed records pertaining to 

sexual offenses. 

3"Firearm" is defined to include both handguns and long guns. Nev. Rev. Stat. $8 202.253, 202.360(2). 

.-, 
October 1996 	 Page 92 

NEW HAMPSHIRE 

I. 	 RIGHTSTO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person sentenced for a state or federal felony loses the right to seek or hold public 

office from the time of sentencing until final discharge, and loses the right to vote while 

actually incarcerated. N .H. Rev. Stat. Ann. $ 607-A:2(I)(a), (b). No disqualification from 

jury service is imposed upon conviction. 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, suspended, or revoked because 

of a conviction of certain crimes. u:nursing (N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 326-B:12(II)(b)); 

pharmacy (5 318:29(V)(d)); real estate appraisal (5 310-B:18(IV)); land surveying 

(5 310-A:70(lI)(h)); accounting (5 309-B:6(I)(h)). A license may be summarily suspended, 

limited, or revoked for conviction of a state drug offense. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 3 18-B: 18. 

New Hampshire has registration requirement for sexual offenders, which expressly applies to 

federal convictions. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann.$8 65 1-B: 1to 65 1-B:9. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES i 

\\ *; 

The right to vote is automatically restored upon release from incarceration. N.H. Rev. 

Stat. Ann. 3 607-A:2(I)(a). The right to seek and hold public office is automatically restored 

upon final discharge. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 607-A:2(I)(b). 

The pardon power (except in cases of impeachment) is vested in the Governor, by and 

with the advice of the Council for Pardon. N.H. Const. pt. 2, art. 52. Persons convicted 

under federal law or the law of another state are ineligible for gubernatorial pardons. 

With certain exceptions, persons convicted under New Hampshire law may seek 

annulment of their convictions. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 6515.' Upon entry of an order of 

annulment, the person "shall be treated in all respects as if he had never been arrested, 

convicted, or sentenced," except that, upon conviction of any later crime, the annulled 

'With certain exceptions, "any person convicted of an offense may petition for annulment of the record of 

arrest, conviction and sentence when the petitioner has completed all the terms and conditions of the sentence and 

has thereafter been convicted of no other crime" for a specified period of time ranging from one to 10 years 

depending on the severity and nanue of the offense. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann.5 651:5(III). A person convicted of 

any violent crime, obstruction of justice, or an offense for which he was sentenced to an extended term of 

imprisonment under N .H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 651 :6 is barred from seeking or receiving an annulment. N.H. Rev. \

Stat. Ann. 4 651:5(V). 
October 1996 Page 93 

conviction may be taken into account for sentencing purposes and may be counted toward 

habitual offender status. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 9 651:5(X)(a). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted under federal law or the law of any state of a "felony against the 

person or property of another" or a felony drug offense2 may not own or have in his 

possession or under his control a pistol, revolver, or any other firearm3 or dangerous weapon. 

N .H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 5 159:3.4 According to the United States Attorney, an annulment of a 

state conviction would operate to restore state firearms privileges, but it is not settled whether 

a state pardon restores state firearms privileges. 

2Under N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann $ 159:3(III), it is "an affirmative defense to a charge under this section that 

a felony of which a defendant has been convicted in another jurisdiction would not have constituted a felony in the 

state of New Hampshire at the time such felony was committed." 

3Although "firearm" is not defined in the statute, the New Hampshire Supreme Court has held that it is to 

be given its dictionary meaning of a weapon from which a shot is discharged by gunpowder. &a& v. Beaudette, 

124 N.H. 579,474 A.2d 1012 (N.H. 1984). 

4While firearms disabilities attach upon the conviction of drug offenses and felonies against the person or 

property of another, an individual convicted of felony may not possess an electronic defense weapon 

(commonly lcnown as a stun gun or taser) outside of his home. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann.$8 159:20, 159:21. In 

addition, it is illegal to sell, deliver, or otherwise transfer a pistol, revolver, or any other firearm to any person 

who has been convicted in any jurisdiction of a felony. N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. 8 159:7. 
October 1996 	 Page 94 

NEW JERSEY 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person serving a sentence for, or on parole or probation as a result of, a conviction 

of any indictable offense under the laws of any state or the United States forfeits the right to 

vote, N.J. Stat. Ann. $8 2C:51-3(a), 19:4-1(8),' and to sit on a jury. N.J. Stat. Ann. 

fj 2B:20-l(e). A person holding public office or employment at the time of conviction of an 

offense involving dishonesty or a third or higher degree crime under New Jersey law (or its 

equivalent under federal law or the law of another state) forfeits his position. N.J. Stat. Ann. 

5 2C:51-2(a). A person holding public office or employment forfeits his office or position if 

convicted of an "offense involving or touching on his public office, position, or employment," 

and is "forever disqualified from holding any office or position of honor, trust or profit under 

this State or any of its administrative or political subdivisions." N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2C:51-2(d). 

The state appellate court has determined that this disqualification applies to all government 

employment. Pastore v. County of Essex, 237 N.J. Super. 371, 568 A.2d 81 (N.J. App. Div. 

1989), denied, 122 N.J. 129,584 A.2d 205 (1990). 

A state licensing authority may not disqualify an applicant solely because he has been 

convicted of a crime, unless the crime relates adversely to the profession or occupation for 

which licensure is sought. N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2A: 168A-2. Anyone convicted of a specified 

offense (generally involving public corruption) and any business in which he has at least five 

percent controlling interest are ineligible to conduct business with any board, agency, 

authority, department, commission, public corporation, or other body of the state for 10 years 

if convicted of a second-degree crime or for five years if convicted of a third-degree crime. 

N.J. Stat. AM. 5 2C:51-2(f).2 A person convicted of an offense involving dishonesty or a 

crime of the second or higher degree may not serve as a notary public; however, this 

limitation does not supersede 8 2A: 168A-2. N. J. Stat. Ann. 5 52:7-20. 

New Jersey has a registration requirement for persons convicted of or adjudicated 

delinquent for a sex offense, which expressly applies to federal convictions. N.J. Stat. Ann. 

5 2C:7-2. 

'Persons convicted of election-law crimes for which disenfranchisement was imposed as part of the 

sentence are also ineligible to vote unless "pardoned or restored by law to the right of suffrage." N.J. Stat. Ann. 

§ 19:4-1(6), (7). 

*The Attorney General may order otherwise "as the public need may require." N.J. Stat. Ann. 

§ 2C:51-2(f). 

{'. ?! 
r 


""., 

,r -_ 

( 'i \\ -+ /'

October I996 Page 95 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to register to vote is automatically restored upon completion of the service of 

sentence, probation, or parole, whichever last occurs. N. J. Stat. Ann. 5s 2C:5 1-3, 19:4-l(8). 

&&Q N.J. Const. art. 2, 5 7. Other rights (except in cases of impeachment) are restored by 

pardon, or by order of the Governor under N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2A:167-5.3 The power to 

pardon, except in cases of impeachment or treason, is vested in the Governor, N. J. Const. art. 

5, 5 2, cl. 1, who is assisted by the New Jersey State Parole Board. Federal offenders are not 

eligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

A person convicted of certain offenses under New Jersey law4 may seek expungement 

of his criminal record 10 years after conviction, payment of fine, or satisfactory completion of 

probation or parole, whichever is later, provided he has no prior or subsequent criminal 

conviction, N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2C:52-2(a), and has not previously had a criminal conviction 

expunged, or has ever been granted dismissal of criminal charges following completion of a 

supervisory treatment or diversion program. N.J. Stat. Ann. 8 2C:52-14(e), (f). If 

expungement is granted, the conviction and related proceedings are "deemed not to have 

occurred, and the [person] may answer any questions relating to their occurrence 

accordingly," with certain exceptions, such as when applying for a job in the judicial branch 

or in law enforcement. N. J. Stat. Ann. 2C:52-27. A special expungement procedure is 

provided for youthful drug offenders. N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2C:52-5. 

A convicted state felon may also obtain a certificate from the New Jersey Parole Board 

"that the applicant has achieved a degree of rehabilitation indicating that his engaging in the 

proposed employment would not be incompatible with the welfare of society." N.J. Stat. Ann. 

5 2A: 168A-3. This "certificate of good conduct" precludes a licensing authority from 

disqualifying or discriminating against an applicant because of conviction. N.J. Stat. Ann. 

8 2A: 168A-3.5 However, it does not operate to restore civil rights or firearms privileges. & 

United States v. Breckenridye, 899 F.2d 540 (6th Cir.), m.denied, 498 U.S. 891 (1990). 

3&g v. Gre~orjp, 246 N.J. Super. 634, 588 A.2d 453 (1990) (gubernatorial pardon restores 

right to hold public office even for one "forever disqualified" under 8 2C:51-2; however, pardon is different from 

"executive clemency" under 9 2A: 167-5). 

4Among the many examples of offenses for which expungement may not be ordered are many violent and 

sexual offenses, most drug offenses, and offenses committed by an office holder that relate to the office. N.J. 

Stat. Ann. $ 2C:52-2(b), (c). Persons who have more than two disorderly or petty disorderly persons offenses 

may also be denied relief "if they or either of them constitute a continuation of the type of unlawful activity 

embodied in the criminal conviction for which expungement is sought." N .J. Stat. Ann. $ 2C:52-2(a). 

'A federal felon may obtain a similar "certificate of good conductn from a federal parole board, or the 


chief probation officer of a federal court who has supervised the applicant's probation. N.J. Stat. Ann. 


8 2A: 168A-3. 

October 1996 Page 96 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES6 

Anyone convicted in New Jersey or elsewhere of aggravated assault, arson, burglary, 

escape, extortion, homicide, kidnapping, robbery, aggravated sexual assault, sexual assault, 

endangering the welfare of a child, certain gun offenses,' or "of other than a disorderly 

persons or petty disorderly persons offense for the unlawful use, possession or saleM8 of drugs 

may not own, purchase, possess, or control a "weapon" (defined to include a handgun, rifle, 

and shotgun, N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2C:39-l(r)). N.J. Stat. Ann. 5 2C:39-7(a). No person 

convicted of a crime may obtain a permit to receive or purchase a handgun, nor may such a 

person obtain a firearms purchaser identification card to receive, acquire, purchase, or sell a 

rifle or shotgun. N.J. Stat. Ann. $5 2C:39-5(b), (c); 2C:58-3(a), (b), (c).~ 

A Governor's pardon restores state firearms privileges, but a certificate of good 

conduct issued by the New Jersey Parole Commission does not. United States v. 

Breckenndge*suDra. 

6For a consideration of the interaction between the federal fireanns disability and New Jersey law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see Unitedv. mBrec

899 

F.2d 540 (6th Cir. 1990). 

7Those offenses are: possession of a prohibited weapon (such as a sawed-off shotgun) under N.J. Stat. 

Ann.$2C:39-3; possession of a weapon for an unlawful purpose under N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:39-4; and the 

unlawful manufacture or defacement of weapons under N.J. Stat. Ann. $ 2C:39-9. 

'A "disorderly persons offense" and a "petty disorderly persons offense" are not "crimes" under New 

Jersey law. N.J. Stat. Ann. 8 2C: 1-4(b). 

9Under state law a permit is necessary to purchase a handgun, and a firearms purchaser identification 

card is necessary to purchase a rifle or shotgun. N.J. Stat. Ann 8 2C:58-3. 
October 1996 	 Page 97 

NEW MEXICO 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony or infamous crime forfeits the rights to vote and to hold 

public office. N.M. Const. art. VII; $5 1, 2; N.M. Stat. Ann. $8 10-1-2, 31-13-l(A). The 

disqualifications from voting and holding office have been held to arise Erom federal offenses 

as well as state crimes. ex rel. Chavea v. Fdyans, 79 N.M. 578,446 P.2d 445 (1968). 

A convicted felon is ineligible for jury service. N.M. Stat. Ann. $ 38-5-1. 

Conviction of a felony or a misdemeanor involving moral turpitude may be considered 

by a state agency or licensing authority, but a conviction generally may not be an automatic or 

permanent bar to obtaining public employment or a professional or occupational license if the 

person has become "rehabilitated. " N.M. Stat. Ann. $8 28-2-1 to 28-2-4. &g Garcia v. State 

Bd. of Edu~, 102 N.M. 306,694 P.2d 1371 (Ct. App. 1984), demed, 102 N.M. 293, 

694 P.2d 1358 (1985). This limitation, however, does not apply to employment with law 

enforcement agencies, N.M. Stat. Ann. § 28-2-5, or when a person convicted of a drugtrafficking offense or certain sexual offenses is seeking issuance of a teaching certificate. 

N.M. Stat. Ann. $ 28-2-4(A)(3). New Mexico has a registration requirement for sex 

offenders. N.M. Stat. Ann. $8 29-llA-1 to 29-11-8. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

A person convicted under New Mexico law may regain his civil rights by presenting 

the certificate of discharge he receives upon completion of sentence to the Governor, who has 

the power to pardon (except in cases involving treason or impeachment) or to issue a 

certificate restoring the person to full rights of citizenship. N.M. Const. art. V, § 6; 

N.M. Stat. Ann. 5 3 1-13-l(C). The Governor may issue a partial pardon, which restores 

some rights, such as the right to vote, but restricts others, such as firearms privileges. Sx 

Op. Att'y Gen. No. 92-09 (1992). 

The Governor may restore to federal felons "political rights," including the rights to 

vote and to hold public office, by issuing a certificate of restoration of civil rights. &Op. 

Att'y Gen. No. 70-85 (1970). A person convicted in another state is ineligible for 

gubernatorial relief. 

New Mexico law also permits a state court to defer the imposition of sentence for 

certain crimes and to place the defendant on probation. N.M. Stat. AM. $$ 31-20-3; 31-20-5. 

When the period of deferment is concluded, the court dismisses the charges against the 

defendant. N.M. Stat. AM. § 31-20-9. The defendant's rights to vote and to hold office are L. 
October 1996 Page 98 

automatically 

1983-86 Op. Att'y 

restored 

Gen. 

upon 

483 

dismissal 

(Advisory 

of 

Letter 

the charges. 

No. 85-29) 

&x

(1985). 

Op. Att'y Gen. No. 88-03 (1988); C

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

Unless "pardoned of the conviction by the appropriate authority," a state or federal 

"felon" may not receive, transport, or possess any firearm1 or destructive device for 10 years 

following conviction. N.M. Stat. Ann. 5 30-7-16(A). Because "felon" is defined as a person 

"convicted in the preceding 10 years* in a federal or state court "to a sentence of death or one 

or more years' imprisonment," N.M. Stat. Ann. 5 30-7-16(B)(2), persons who received a 

deferred sentence are not subject to the firearms disability under 5 30-7-16(A). Op. Att'y 

Gen. No. 88-03 (1988); 1983-86 Op. Att'y Gen. 483 (Advisory Letter No. 85-29) (1985). 

When a pardon is intended to restore firearms privileges, the Governor so informs the 

applicant. 

'"Firearm" is defined to include both handguns and long guns. N.M. Stat. Ann 8 30-7- 16(C)(3). 

'A partial pardon that does not restore firearms privileges may be granted to state felons. Op. Att'y Gen. 

No. 92-09 (1992). The Governor's authority with respect to federal offenders is limited to restoration of the 

rights to vote and to hold public office. Op. Att'y Gen, No. 70-85 (1970). 

-1' 
October 1996 	 Page 99 

NEW YORK 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony under federal law or the law of any state loses the right 

to vote if he is sentenced to imprisonment and execution of the sentence is not suspended. 

N.Y. Elec. Law 8 5-106. A person convicted of a felony may not serve on a jury. N.Y. Jud. 

Law $ 5 lO(3). A person convicted of a felony (including a federal offense that would 

constitute a felony under New York law) or a crime that involves a violation of the oath of 

office, forfeits his office. N.Y. Pub. Off. Law 30(l)(e). New York does not generally 

disqualify felons from holding future office, Op. Att'y Gen. 83-60 (1983), although an 

office holder who forfeits his office is ineligible for the remainder of the term of his office. 

See In= A h v. Strohm, 74 N.Y.2d 801, 544 N.E.2d 608 (1989). Specific 

disqualifications, however, are imposed in certain circumstances. u:persons convicted of 

Selective Service violations ineligible for civil office (N.Y. Pub. Off. Law 8 3(1)); judges 

removed from office disqualified from future judicial office (N.Y. Const. art. VI, 8 22(h)). 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, revoked, or suspended because 

of a conviction. &: trafficking in alcoholic beverages (N.Y. Alco. Bev. Cont. Law 

$ 126(1), (1-a)); attorney (N.Y. Jud. Law 8 90(4)). New York has a registration requirement 

for sex offenders. N.Y. Correct. Law $$ 168 to 168-t. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

For all state and federal felons, the right to vote is automatically restored upon 

expiration of the maximum period of imprisonment or upon discharge from parole. 

N.Y. Elec. Law § 5-106. The right to vote may also be restored if the person is pardoned or 

"restored to rights of citizenship. " N.Y. Elec. Law § 5-106. 

A Certificate of Relief from Disabilities (N.Y. Correct. Law §$ 700 - 705), or a 

Certificate of Good Conduct (N.Y. Correct. Law $5 703-a, 703-b) may be obtained to restore 

certain rights, and may be limited to one or more specific rights. A Certificate of Relief from 

Disabilities may be obtained from the Board of Parole (for persons sentenced to imprisonment 

under New York law or who reside in New York but were convicted in another jurisdiction), 

N.Y. Correct. Law § 703(1), or from the sentencing court (for non-prison state sentences), 

N.Y. Correct. Law § 702(1), provided in either case the applicant has not been convicted 

more than once of a felony. N.Y. Correct. Law 8 700(l)(a). This relief is available to federal 

felons who reside in New York. 

In addition, a Certificate of Good Conduct may be obtained from the Board of Parole 


after one to five years of good conduct, depending upon the seriousness of the offense. N.Y. 

October 19% Page 100 

Correct. Law 8 703-b(3).' A Certificate of Good Conduct is available to persons convicted 

either in or outside New York. N.Y. Correct. Law § 703-b(2). It is granted only if the 

person has demonstrated good conduct for the requisite period and if granting relief would be 

consistent with the person's rehabilitation and the public interest. N.Y. Correct. Law 

703-b(1). Persons convicted outside New York must also demonstrate a specific disability 

resulting from New York law that would warrant granting relief in New York. N.Y. Correct. 

Law 8 703-b(2). 

The certificates, with certain exceptions, preclude reliance on the conviction as an 

automatic bar or disability, but do not preclude agencies from considering the conviction as a 

factor in licensing or other decisions. N.Y. Correct. Law 55 701, 703-a; Op. Att'y Gen. 

91-F10 (1991) (concerning right to serve on a jury). A Certificate of Relief from Disabilities 

shall not "apply, or be construed so as to apply, to the right . . . to retain or to be eligible for 

public office. "2 N.Y. Correct. Law 701(1). 

The pardon power is vested in the Governor (except in cases of treason or 

impeachment). N.Y. Const. art. 4, 8 4. A pardon addresses unusual circumstances when 

adequate relief cannot be obtained by issuance of a Certificate of Relief from Disabilities or a 

Certificate of Good Conduct. In addition to relieving disabilities imposed by the conviction, a 

gubernatorial pardon operates to set aside a state judgment of conviction when given on the 

basis of innocence. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES3 

A person convicted of a felony or "serious offense" may not possess a rifle or shotgun. 

N.Y. Penal Law 8 265.01(4).4 A person who has been "convicted anywhere of a felony or a 

serious offense" may not obtain or keep a license to possess or carry concealed a pistol or 

revolver. N. Y. Penal Law $400.00(l)(b), (1 1). 

'The period of good conduct is measured "either from the date of the payment of any fine imposed . . . or the suspension of sentence, or from the date of his unrevoked release from custody by parole, commutation or 

termination of his sentence." N .Y. Penal Law $ 703-b(3). 

*Because a conviction does not generally result in disqualification from future office holding, this 

provision apparently is designed to prevent a former office holder who was removed upon conviction of a felony 

from regaining that office on the basis of having received a Certificate of Relief from Disabilities. 

3Although the word "firearmn in New York has a technical meaning that includes only concealable guns, 

the word is used in section headings here and elsewhere in its colloquial, non-technical sense to mean any gun. 

4"Felony" is defined in N.Y. Penal Law $ 10.00(5) to mean an offense for which a sentence to a term of 

imprisonment in excess of one year may be imposed. "Serious offense" is defined in N.Y. Penal Law 

fj265.00(17) to include a wide variety of offenses, such as: illegally using, carrying, or possessing a pistol or 

other dangerous weapon; possession of burglar's tools; criminal possession of stolen property in the third degree; 

escape in the third degree; and endangering the welfare of a child. 
October 19% 	 Page 101 

State offenders may obtain a Certificate of Relief from Disabilities from a couit or the <" . 	 New York State Board of Parole that specifically and expressly restores state privileges 

regarding the possession of long guns and handguns, but a person convicted more than once of 

a felony is not eligible for this relief. N.Y. Correct. Law 00 700(l)(a), 702, 703(1)(a).' An 

offender who resides in New York but was convicted in "any other jurisdiction" may also 

receive a certificate from the Board of Parole, but not if convicted more than once of a felony. 

N.Y. Correct. Law $5 700(l)(a), 703(l)(b). A gubernatorial pardon will also restore state gun 

privileges. The right to possess handguns, however, is reportedly rarely restored to felons. 

'A Certificate of Good Conduct, issued by the state Board of Parole, also is an avenue by which firearms 

privileges may be restored. N.Y. Correct. Law $8 703-a, 703-b; N.Y. Penal Law 5 265.20(a)(5). As a matter of 

practice, however, such certificates typically are limited to the restoration of rights and privileges other than those 

involving the possession of guns. \.-, 
October 1996 	 Page 102 

NORTH CAROLINA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person "adjudged guilty"' of a state or federal felony or of a felony in another state 

that would be a felony in North Carolina forfeits the rights to vote and to hold public office. 

N.C. Const. art. VI, $5 2(3), 8. A person "convicted of a felony" is disqualified from jury 

service. N.C. Gen. Stat. 5 9-3. 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, suspended, or revoked because 

of certain convictions. &: architect (N.C. Gen. Stat. 8 83A-15(a)(3)(d)); attorney 

(8 84-28(b)(l)); physician (8 90-14(a)(7), (c)); nurse (8 90-17 1.37(2)); public accountant 

(8 93-12(9)(a)); real estate broker (5 93A-6(b)(2)); alcohol permit (8 18B-900(a)(3)). North 

Carolina has a registration requirement for sex offenders. N.C. Gen. Stat. $8 14-208.5 to 

14-208.12. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

Civil rights (other than firearms privileges) are automatically restored to state and 

federal felons upon receipt of a pardon or an unconditional discharge of sentence. N.C. Gen. 

Stat. 8 13-1. A certificate evidencing unconditional discharge and restoration of the rights of 

citizenship must be filed with the court in the county of conviction (for North Carolina state 

offenses) or the county of residence (for offenses under federal law or the law of another 

state). N.C. Gen. Stat. 8 13-2. 

The pardon power (except in cases of impeachment) is vested in the Governor. 

N.C. Const. art. 111, 8 5(6). Persons convicted under federal law or the law of another state 

are not eligible to apply for a gubernatorial pardon. 

11. 	 LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FmEARMS PRIVILEGES2 

A person convicted of a felony in North Carolina, or of an offense under federal law or 

the law of another state that is substantially similar to a felony under North Carolina law and 

'A person who pleads nolo contendere to a Nonh Carolina felony is not considered to have been 

"adjudged guilty" within the meaning of Article VI, 8 2 of the Nonh Carolina constitution, and therefore is not 

subject to these disabilities. 49 Op. Att'y Gen. 134 (1980). 

2For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and North Carolina law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see, u,Ynited v. Ihnbs!nTomlinson, 

67 F.3d 508 (4th Cir. 1995); Mted St- v. tho^, 52 F.3d 82 (4th Cir. 1995); United States v. Shoemaker, 2 

F.3d 53 (4th Cir. 1993); united States v. Ckd~,993 F.2d 402 (4th Cir. 1993). 

(

/ 

'-2 

?\ "-

/ 
October 19% Page 103 

that is punishable where committed by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year, may not 

purchase, own, possess, or have in his custody, care, or control any handgun or other firearm 

with a barrel length of less than 18 inches or an overall length of less than 26 inches, or a 

"weapon of mass death or destruction. "3 N.C.Gen. Stat. $ 14-415. l(a).4 This provision does 

not prohibit possession of a firearm within one's home or on one's lawful place of business. 

N.C. Gen. Stat. $ 14-415.1(a). 

'This term is defined in N.C. Gen. Stat. $ 14-288.8(c) to include such things as bombs, sawed-off 

shotguns, and fully automatic weapons. It does not include a rifle or shotgun suitable for sporting purposes. U. 

' 

\ 

-' 

41n addition, N.C.Gen. Stat. Q 14-404 prohibits anyone convicted of a state or federal felony (excluding 

an offense pertaining to antitrust violations, unfair trade practices, or restraints of trade) from obtaining a permit 

to purchase or receive a pistol. It further provides. however. that anyone who has been pardoned may obtain a 

permit if the purchase or receipt does not violate a condition of the pardon. 
October 19% 	 Page 104 

NORTH DAKOTA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person sentenced to imprisonment for a state or federal felony loses the rights to vote 

and to hold or seek public office while incarcerated. N .D. Cent. Code $§ 12.1-33-01, 

12.1-33-03. A person may not serve on a jury while he is disqualified from voting due to a 

conviction or if has been convicted of a criminal offense that by special provision of law 

disqualifies him from jury service. N.D. Cent. Code 8 27-09.1-08(2)(e). 

A professional or occupational license may not be denied solely because of a 

conviction; however, a person may be denied a license if it is determined that he has not been 

sufficiently rehabilitated, or that the offense has a direct bearing upon his ability to serve the 

public in that job. N.D. Cent. Code 12.1-33-02.1. North Dakota has a registration 

requirement for sexual offenders and persons convicted of a "crime against a child," which 

expressly applies to federal convictions. N.D. Cent. Code $ 12.1-32-15. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

f 14 

The rights to vote and to hold public office are automatically restored to state and i ,J" 

federal offenders upon release from incarceration. N .D. Cent. Code 5s 12.1-33-01; 

12.1-33-03'; 27-09.1-08(2)(e). Presumably, release from incarceration also restores the right 

to sit on a jury at least to the extent a person is ineligible to be a juror because he is 

disqualified from voting. The state constitution vests the pardon power (except in cases of 

treason or impeachment) in the Governor, "in conjunction with" the North Dakota Board of 

Pardons, of which the Governor is an ex officio member. N.D. Const. art. 5, $ 6.2 Persons 

convicted under federal law or the laws of another state are ineligible for a state pardon. 

North Dakota law also provides procedures for reducing a state felony conviction to a 

misdemeanor or for vacating a state felony conviction after service of sentence. Under N.D. 

Cent. Code 5 12.1-32-02(9), a person convicted of a felony (other than certain drug offenses) 

and sentenced to imprisonment for not more than one year "is deemed to have been convicted 

of a misdemeanor upon successful completion of the term of probation imposed as part of the 

'This statute provides: "Any person who has been sentenced in another state or in a federal court to a 


term of imprisonment and who is present in this state shall be presumed to have had such rights restored." 


*Despite this language and the further provision that the legislative assembly "may regulate the manner in 


which [clemency] is applied for," N.D. Cent. Code 8 12-55-05 states that the Board of Pardons has "sole and 


exclusive" power to grant pardons. 

October 1996 Page 105 

sentence." Under N.D. Cent. Code § 12.1-32-07.1, a person placed on probation when 

imposition of sentence is deferred may, in the court's discretion, be permitted to withdraw his 

guilty plea after completion of probation or discharge from probation, and the court may set 

aside the verdict of guilty and dismiss the information or indictment. Before dismissing the 

charge, the court may also reduce a felony conviction to a misdemeanor, which has the effect 

of releasing the defendant from all penalties and disabilities resulting from the offense, except 

for firearms disabilities. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES3 

A person "convicted anywhere for a felony involving violence or intimidation, as 

defined in chapters 12.1-16 through 12.1-25, "4 may not own, possess, or have under his 

control a firearm5 for 10 years from the date of conviction or release from incarceration or 

probation, whichever is later. N.D. Cent. Code $62.1-02-Ol(1). A person convicted of any 

other felony or of a Class A misdemeanor involving violence or intimidation while using or 

possessing a fvearm or dangerous weapon may not own or have in his possession or control a 

firearm for five years from the date of conviction or release from incarceration or probation, 

whichever is later. N.D. Cent. Code $ 62.1-02-Ol(2). 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and North Dakota law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Decotw, 932 F.2d 

1205 (7th Cir. 1991). NB: Decoteaq involved a previous version of state law regarding restoration of rights 

different from that discussed in this summary. &.g &Q Wed States v. J2aSm,31 F.3d 789 (9th Cir. 1994). 

4The designated chapters cover such offenses as homicide, assault, offenses against unborn children. 

kidnapping, sex offenses, damaging property, robbery, breaking and entering, theft, forgery, and riot. 

i.,/ S"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. N.D. Cent. Code 4 62.1-01-Ol(3). 
October 1996 	 Page 106 

OHIO 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. LOSS OF RIGHTS UPON FELONY CONVICTION 

A state or federal felon loses the rights to hold an office of honor, trust, or profit, and 

to serve on a jury. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. $ 2961.01. During any period of incarceration, he 

also loses the right to vote. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2961.01. These disqualifications do not 

apply to persons convicted of federal felonies before January 1, 1974 (the effective date of the 

statute imposing the disability). Sk& ex rel. Comb v. m,3 Ohio App. 3d 40, 443 

N.E.2d 1034 (1982). Public servants convicted of bribery or theft in office are prohibited 

from ever holding any public office, employment, or position of trust. Ohio Rev. Code AM. 

$8 2921.02(F), 2921.41(C)(l). A public servant convicted of soliciting or receiving improper 

compensation is disqualified from holding any public office, employment, or position of trust 

in the State of Ohio for seven years from the date of conviction. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 

5 2921.43(E). 

In general, a felony conviction may be a bar to obtaining or maintaining a professional 

or occupational license. &: insurance agent (Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 5 3905.49(A)(7)); 

physician (8 473 1.22(B)(9)); pharmacist (5 4729.16(A)(l)). If a person who holds a 

professional or occupational license is convicted of certain drug offenses, his conviction must 

be reported to the licensing agency. Ohio Rev. Code Ann.$2925.38. A pawnbroker or junk 

dealer loses his license upon conviction of receiving stolen property, and regains his right to 

engage in such a business only if "pardoned by the governor." Ohio Rev. Code $ 2961.03. 

Conviction of a drug-trafficking offense results in revocation or suspension of a driver's 

license for a period of six months to five years. Ohio Rev. Code 5 2925.03(D)(2), (G). 

Ohio adopted a registration requirement for persons who are convicted of sexually 

oriented offenses. Ohio Rev. Code $8 2950.01 to 2950.14; 2950.99 (effective July 1, 1997). 

Certain sexual offenders must submit to a DNA specimen collection procedure. Ohio Rev. 

Code 5 2901.07. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

Because a felon's right to vote is only suspended during incarceration, he is qualified to 

vote during any period of probation or parole and thereafter. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 

§ 2961.01. The disqualification from office or employment for persons convicted of soliciting 

or receiving improper compensation terminates seven years after the date of conviction. Ohio 

Rev. Code Ann. § 2921.43(E). 

Effective July 1, 1996, under Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 5 2967.16, a person sentenced to 

incarceration may obtain a restoration of other rights by serving his sentence of confinement ,. 
October 19% Page 107 

not followed by post-release control, or by obtaining a final release from parole or post-release 

control from the adult parole authority. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2967.16(C)(l), (2). A final 

release is not available earlier than one year after release on parole or post-release control, and 

in the case of a person serving a minimum sentence of life, not earlier than five years after 

release on parole or post-release control. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 5 2929.16(A). A person 

sentenced to a "community control sanctionw2 (including probation or a fine) regains his or her 

rights upon completion of the sanction. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2967.16(C)(3).' 

For first offender^,^ a state procedure for sealing the records of certain convictions also 

results in the restoration of rights. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. $8 2953.31 to 2953.53.' Certain 

first offenders, three years after final discharge for a felony, may petition a state court for an 

order sealing the records of a conviction. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. $8 2953.32(A)(l); 2953.36. 

The court shall order the records sealed if it determines that: (1) the applicant is a first 

offender; (2) the applicant has no charges pending against him or her; (3) "the interests of the 

applicant in having the records pertaining to his conviction . . . sealed are not outweighed by 

any legitimate governmental needs to maintain such records"; and (4) "the rehabilitation of an 

applicant . . . has been attained to the satisfaction of the court." Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 

8 2953.32(C)(2). 

Although sealing results in restoration of most rights lost under state law as a result of 

con~iction,~it does not restore the right to hold public office to a public servant convicted of 

bribery in office. && v. B&jn&, 40 Ohio St. 3d 112, 532 N.E.2d 126 (1988). Sealed 

records may nonetheless be used to charge a person with an offense when the nature and 

'Because this and other language in the statute appears to contemplate incarceration in a state facility, it is 

not clear whether this statute applies to federal convicts. The version of the statute in effect until July 1, 1996, is 

similarly worded. 

2This term is defined in Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 9 2929.01(F) to mean the non-prison sanctions available 

under Ohio Rev. Code Ann. $8 2929.16-2929.18, which include residential sanctions, nonresidential sanctions. 

and financial sanctions. 

provision is effective July 1, 1996, and replaces the former Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 4 2951.09, 


which restored rights to persons sentenced to probation upon completion of probation. 


'First offender is defined in Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2953.3 1. 

'There are numerous exceptions to the sealing provision, both as to the type of conviction for which 

sealing may be granted, Ohio Rev. Code § 2953.36, and as to the purposes for which subsequent access to sealed 

records may be granted. Ohio Rev. Code 8 2953.32(D), (E). For example, a person convicted of an offense for 

which the offender is ineligible for probation may not be granted the remedy of sealing, and sealing may not be 

ordered for many sexual offenses. Ohio Rev. Code Ann.8 2953.36. 

6"[A]n order to seal the record of a person's conviction restores the person who is the subject of the order 

to all rights and privileges not otherwise restored by termination of sentence or probation or by final release on 

parole. " Ohio Rev. Code Ann. fj 2953.33. 
October 19% Page 108 

character of the offense would be affected by the sealed information, Ohio Rev. Code AM. 

5 2953.32(D), in sentencing for another offense, and in determining whether to seal records of 

a conviction. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2953.32(C)(2). Notwithstanding a sealing order, proof 

of an otherwise admissible prior conviction may nonetheless be offered in a criminal 

proceeding. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. $2953.32(E). 

The sealing statute, by its terms, applies to federal and out-of-state convictions as well 

as Ohio convictions. *,u,Ohio Rev. Code Ann. $ 2953.32(A)(l). The statute, 

however, requires only expungement of Ohio state records containing information about a 

federal or out-of-state conviction.' Presumably, that limited action would be sufficient to 

restore the right to hold office and to sit on a jury to the same extent that it would for an Ohio 

offender whose record is expunged pursuant to 3 2953.32. 

Rights may also be restored by a pardon. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 5 2961.01. The 

pardon power, except for treason and cases of impeachment, is vested in the Governor, 

"subject . . . to such regulations as to the manner of applying for commutations and pardons, 

as may be prescribed by law." Ohio Const. art. III, § 11. Accord, Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 

5 2967.04. According to the United States Attorney for the Northern District of Ohio, 

gubernatorial pardons are not available for federal felons. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES8 

A person "convicted of any felony offense of violence" or a person "convicted of any 

offense involving the illegal possession, use, sale, administration, distribution, or trafficking in 

any drug of abuse" may not "knowingly acquire, have, carry, or use any firearm or dangerous 

ordnance." Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2923.13(A)(2), (3).9 Enhanced penalties are provided for 

persons who have been convicted of a felony of the first or second degree when the violation 

of this prohibition occurs within five years after release from imprisonment or post-release 

'The statute does not create a right to seek expungement of records of a federal conviction held by federal 

agencies. Schwab v. 724 F. Supp. 509 (N.D. Ohio 1989). The court in Schwah, however, remanded the 

case to state court, from which the application for expungement had been removed to federal court in the first 

place, for further proceedings, noting "the lack of a substantial federal interest in the records held by the State of 

Ohio or its agencies." 724 F. Supp. at 51 1. In Barker v. &&, 62 Ohio St. 2d 35, 35,402 N.E.2d 550, 551 

(1980), the Supreme Court of Ohio affirmed a holding that, "notwithstanding the inability of Ohio courts to order 

extraterritorial authorities to physically expunge such records of conviction located without this state, Ohio 

sentencing courts have jurisdiction to 'expunge convictions from other states as they apply to their use in Ohio. "' 

8For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Ohio law concerning 


the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see !JD&$ States v. :assldv, 899 F.2d 543 (6th 


Cir. 1990). 


me terms "firearm" includes both long guns and handguns. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2923.1 l(B). The 


term "dangerous ordnance" includes such items as automatic weapons, sawed-off firearms, explosive and 


incendiary devices, and military artillery. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2923.1 1(K), (L). 

... , 

-/ 

October 1996 Page 109 

control imposed for the commission of a felony of the first or second degree. Ohio Rev. Code 

Ann. 5 2923.13(B), (C). lo Although the statute does not expressly mention federal 

convictions, as does the general disability statute cited in Section I, above, it is likely that -

federal convictions also would trigger the application of the statute. 

A procedure for removing the state disability relating to firearms (but not those relating 

to "dangerous ordnances") is provided under Ohio Rev. Code AM. 5 2923.14, and involves 

petitioning a state court for restoration of firearms privileges. The applicant must be "fully 

discharged from imprisonment, probation, and parole," have "led a law-abiding life since his 

discharge or release" and "appear[] likely to continue to do so," and not be "otherwise 

prohibited by law from acquiring, having, or using firearms."ll Ohio Rev. Code AM. 

5 2923.14(D)(l), (2), (3).12 Because the statutes governing sealing of conviction records, 

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 8 2953.31, sea., permit use of a sealed conviction in charging a 

person with an offense and in any criminal proceeding, Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 5 2953.32 (D), 

(E), it would appear that a person whose conviction records are sealed is not on that account 

relieved from firearms disabilities under Ohio Rev. Code AM. 5 2923.13. 

"Persons convicted of a felony of the first or second degree are also subject to enhanced penalties for 

otherwise violating § 2923.13(A) within five years of release from imprisonment or post-release control, such as 

by acquiring, having, carrying, or using a firearm or dangerous ordnance while being a fugitive from justice, or 

after being indicted for a felony offense of violence or a drug offense. being drug dependent or a chronic 

alcoholic, or being adjudicated a mental incompetent. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2923.13(A)(1)-(5). 

"Since felons are subject to firearms disabilities arising under federal law, it would appear that this state 

remedy would not be fully effective unless the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms granted relief from 

federal firearms disabilities. It is possible, however, that this provision simply means that a person must not be 

disabled from owning firearms under state law for reasons other than conviction of a crime. &, g&, Ohio Rev. 

Code Ann. § 2923.13(A)(l), (4). and (5) (prohibiting possession of firearms by fugitives, drug addicts, chronic 

alcoholics, and persons adjudicated mentally incompetent). 

I2This procedure is presumably available to federal felons to remove state-law firearms disabilities, but it 

cannot remove federal firearms disabilities, which under v. mBeecham

5 11 U .S. 368 (1994), must be 

removed by a federal procedure. 

I 
October 1996 	 Page 110 

OKLAHOMA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS UPON FELONY CONVICTION 

A person "convicted of a felony" may not register to vote, Okla. Stat. tit. 26, 

5 4-10 1 (I), and a voter's registration may be canceled upon "conviction of a felony. " Okla. 

Stat. tit. 26, 5 4-120. The right to hold public office is forfeited upon conviction of a state or 

federal misdemeanor involving embezzlement or felony, or of a crime in another state that 

would have been a misdemeanor involving embezzlement or a felony under Oklahoma law. 

Okla. Stat. tit. 26, 5 5-105a. A state office is declared vacant upon the office holder's 

conviction of a state or federal felony, or of any offense involving a violation of his official 

oath, and any elected or appointed state or county officer or employee is automatically 

suspended from employment upon a state or federal felony conviction. Okla. Const. art. VIII, 

5 1;Okla. Stat. tit. 5 1, $5 8, 24.1(A). In addition, a member of the legislature who is 

convicted of certain offenses forfeits his office and is forever disqualified from serving in the 

state legislature. Okla. Const. art. V, 5 18; Okla. Stat. tit. 21, 5 312. The right to serve on a 

jury is denied to anyone who has been "convicted of any felony or served a term of 

imprisonment in any penitentiary, state or federal, for the commission of a felony. " Okla. 

Stat. tit. 38, 5 28(B)(6). 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, revoked, or suspended because 

of certain convictions. Eg: accounting (Okla. Stat. tit. 59, 5 15.14B(3)); architecture (tit. 

59, 5 46.14(1)); pharmacy (tit. 59, 5 353.26(A)(l)(c)); medicine (tit. 59, 55 509(6), 513); 

podiatry medicine (tit. 59, 5 148(A)(2)); psychology (tit. 59, 5 1370(A)(4)); insurance (tit. 36, 

5 1428(A)(7)); law enforcement (tit. 70, 5 3311(D)(2)(a)); liquor license (tit. 37, 5 527(3)). 

While conviction of a crime is not an absolute bar to employment in a child care facility 

(unless the person is required to register as a sex offender), it "shall be considered in relation 

to specific employment duties and responsibilities." Okla. Stat. tit. 10, 5 404.1(C). 

Oklahoma has a registration requirement for sex offenders. Okla. Stat. tit. 57, 5 581, 

a a.It is unlawful for any person required to register as a sex offender to work with or 

provide services to children or to reside in a child care facility, and for any employer who 

offers or provides services to children to employ or continue to employ such a person. Okla. 

Stat. tit. 10, 5 404(E)(2). 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

A felon may not vote for a period of time equal to his sentence. (For example, an 

individual given a two-year sentence on January 1, 1992, may not vote until January 1, 1994.) 

Okla. Stat. tit. 26, 5 4-101. Disqualification from office lasts for 15 years after completion of 
October 19% Page 1 1 1 

sentence, or until the person is pardoned. Okla. Stat. tit. 26, 5 5-105a. (Presumably, this 

15-year limitation on disqualification does not override the specific, permanent disqualification 

relating to legislative office.) The right to serve on a jury is restored upon being "fully 

restored to his civil rights," Okla. Stat. tit. 38, 8 28(B)(6), which for Oklahoma felons would 

be by a pardon. 

Except in cases of impeachment, the Governor may grant a pardon after favorable 

recommendation by a majority vote of the Pardon and Parole Board. Okla. Const. art. VI, 

5 10. According to the Board, a pardon does not restore the right to vote. A person convicted 

under federal law or the law of another state is ineligible for a Governor's pardon. 

For a person convicted of an Oklahoma crime (other than a sex offense) who has not 

previously been convicted of a felony, the court may without entering a judgment of guilt 

defer further proceedings on specific conditions. Okla. Stat. tit. 22, 5 991c(F), (G). If the 

person successfully completes the conditions of the deferred judgment and pays all fines, fees, 

and monetary assessments, the court discharges him without a court judgment of guilt and 

dismisses the case without prejudice; the records of the verdict or plea of guilty or plea of nolo 

contendere are then expunged. Okla. Stat. tit. 22, 8 991c(C). A person who was under 18 

years old at the time his or her offense was committed and who has received a full pardon may 

also seek expungement. Okla. Stat. tit. 22, 5 18(4). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A state or federal felon may not possess or have under his immediate control, or in any 

vehicle he is operating or in which he is riding as a passenger, any pistol, imitation or 

homemade pistol, machine gun, sawed-off shotgun or rifle, or any other dangerous or deadly 

firearm that could easily be concealed on the person, in personal effects, or in an automobile. 

Okla. Stat. tit. 21, 5 1283(A). It is also unlawful "to knowingly sell, trade, give, transmit or 

otherwise cause the transfer" of a rifle, shotgun, or pistol to any convicted felon or 

adjudicated delinquent. Okla. Stat. tit. 21, 5 1289.12. 

No procedure exists at the state level for restoring firearms privileges. Not even a 

Governor's pardon will restore firearms privilege^.^ 16 Op. Att'y Gen. 180 (No. 84-101) 

(1984); 13 Op. Att'y Gen. 480 (No. 81-283) (1981). A person convicted and pardoned by 

another state is still subject to firearms disabilities in Oklahoma. 17 Op. Att'y Gen. 60 (No. 

85-26) (1985). 

'A "pistol" is defined as a firearm with a barrel of less than 16 inches, Okla. Stat. tit. 21, 8 1289.3, and 

"sawed-off shotgun or rifle" means any shotgun or rifle that has been shortened to any length. Okla. Stat. tit. 21, 

8 1283(H). The prohibition on possessing sawed-off shotguns and rifles does not include ordinary rifles. Marr v. 

&&, 513 P.2d 324 (Okla. Crim. App. 1973). pverruled on other prounds, William v. &&, 794 P.2d 759 

\ (Okla. Crim. App. 1990). &&Q EEiEe v. a.532 P.2d. 851 (Okla. Crim. App. 1975). 

\ ,--,i *Effective September 1, 1992, however, a person who was convicted in Oklahoma of a nonviolent felony 

and who has received a full pardon may possess weapons specified in tit. 21, 8 1283 in pursuit of the occupation 

of gun smithing or firearm repair. Okla. Stat. tit. 21, 8 1283(B). 
October I996 	 Page 112 

OREGON i

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS UPON FELONY CONVICTION 

When a person is sentenced in Oregon to imprisonment for a felony, he loses the rights 

to vote, to hold or seek public office, and to serve on a jury while incarcerated. Or. Rev. 

Stat. 5 137.281. An office is declared vacant upon the office holder's conviction of an 

infamous crime or an offense involving a violation of the oath of office. Or. Rev. Stat. 

$ 236.010(1)(~). No person may be a state senator or representative who has been convicted 

of a felony after being elected to the office of senator or representative or during his term of 

office as senator or representative, nor is a person eligible to be elected to the office of state 

senator or representative if he has been convicted of a felony and has not completed his 

sentence, including any period of probation or post-prison supervision and payment of a 

monetary obligation imposed as part of the sentence, prior to entry upon ofice. Or. Const. 

art. IV, $ 8. 

A licensing board or agency may not deny, suspend, or revoke an occupational or 

professional license solely because the licensee or applicant "has been convicted of a crime." 

It may, however, "consider the relationship of the facts which support the conviction and all 

intervening circumstances to the specific occupational or professional standards in determining 

the fitness of the person to receive or hold" the license. Or. Rev. Stat. 5 670.280. This 

statute, however, does not apply to all licensing decisions, eg.,In re Gortm, 308 Or. 

482, 782 P.2d 421 (1989) (Or. Rev. Stat. 8 670.280 does not apply in proceeding to reinstate 

an attorney suspended upon conviction of a felony), and may not preclude adverse licensing 

decisions based upon specific, designated criminal convictions. Occupations in which 

conviction of certain crimes may be relevant to a licensing decision include: accountant 

(Or. Rev. Stat. 3 673.170(2)(h)); tax consultant ($ 673.700(4)(a), (b)); social worker 

(5 675.540(1)(a), (b)); physician (5 677.190(6)). 

Oregon has a registration requirement for persons convicted of a sex crime. Or. Rev. 

Stat. $ 181.594, g u. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote, to serve on a jury, and to run for state office are automatically 


restored upon release from imprisonment, except as to the disability relating to legislative 


office. Or. Rev. Stat. 5 137.281(5). The right to run for state senator or representative is 


restored upon completion of the sentence, at least for persons who were not convicted after 


being elected or during their term of office as state senator or representative. Or. Const. art. 


IV, 5 8. The pardon power is vested in the Governor, except in cases of treason. Or. Const. 

p^i 

(-. 


\.-,/ 

October I996 Page 1 13 

art. V, 5 14. It is not clear whether the Governor has the power to grant clemency to a federal 

convict, although Or. Rev. Stat. 5 144.640 states that the Governor "may grant . . . pardons, 

after convictions, for all crimes. "I 

II. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

A person convicted of a felony under federal law or the law of any state is prohibited 

from owning, possessing, or having under his custody or control firearms3 and certain other 

weapon^.^ Or. Rev. Stat. 5 166.270(1), (2).5 Firearms privileges are automatically restored 

15 years after discharge from imprisonment, parole, or probation, unless the conviction 

involved "criminal homicide, as defined in ORS 163.005, or the possession or use of a firearm 

or switchblade knife," or the person was convicted of more than one state or federal felony. 

Or. Rev. Stat. 5 166.270(4)(a).'j 

Persons "convicted of a felony" or found guilty of a felony may not obtain a permit to 

carry a concealed handgun. Or. Rev. Stat. 5 166.291(1)(g).? It is also unlawful to sell, 

deliver, or transfer a firearm to a felon. Or. Rev. Stat. Ij 166.470(1). These disabilities do 

not apply to anyone whose record has been expunged or who has had his federal firearms 

'Since civil rights are automatically restored upon release from prison, there would appear to be little 

need for a federal felon to obtain state clemency. 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Oregon law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. W,7 F.3d 1444 (9th Cir. 

1993); United States v. Bell, 983 F.2d 910 (9th Cir. 1993); Wed States v. Cardwel, 967 F.2d 1349 (9th Cir. 

1992). 

'"~irearh" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Or. Rev. Stat. $ 166.210(2). 

'The statute prohibits possession of weapons such as switchblades and blackjacks. Or. Rev. Stat. 

$ 166.270(2). Another prohibition on the possession of firearms by felons is also contained in Or. Rev. Stat. 

$ 166.250(1)(c)(C), but since that statute expressly states that it applies "[elxcept as otherwise provided in . . . $ 166.270" (among other statutes), it is not clear what, if any, independent significance the disability under 

$ 166.250 has. 

SThe prohibition also does not apply if the conviction was prior to January 1, 1972, for possession of 

marijuana. Or. Rev. Stat. $ 166.270(3)@). 

%ection 166.270(4)@) excepts anyone whose record has been expunged under Oregon law or equivalent 

law of another state, or who has been granted relief from federal firearms disabilities under 18 U.S.C. $ 925(c). 

'Misdemeanants also may not obtain a concealed handgun permit for four years following conviction. 

Or. Rev. Stat. $ 166.291(1)(h). 
October 1996 Page 114 

privileges restored under 18 U.S.C. § 925(c). Or. Rev. Stat. $8 166.291(2); 166.470. No 

statutory procedure for removing these disabilities is available.* 

'Both Or. Rev. Stat. 4 166.291(2) and 4 166.470(1) except anyone granted relief under Or. Rev. Stat. 

$ 166.274, which permits a justice of the court in the county of residence to grant relief upon presentation of 

"clear and convincing evidence that the petitioner does not pose a threat to the safety of the public or the 

petitioner." Or. Rev. Stat. 4 166.274(6). However, persons banned from possessing firearms under Or. Rev. 

Stat. 4 166.270(l)(c)(C) or under 4 166.250(l)(c)(C) are omitted from the description of the classes of persons, 

who may seek relief under 9 166.274. Or. Rev. Stat. 4 166.274(1). The procedure therefore applies only to 

disabilities imposed for reasons other than conviction of a felony. 
October 1996 	 Page 115 

PENNSYLVANIA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS UPON FELONY CONVICTION 

No person "confined in a penal institution" is eligible to be an absentee voter. 25 Pa. 

Cons. Stat. 55 2602(w); 3146.1 .l Because there are no other restrictions on voting related to 

convictions, it appears that a person is disqualified from voting only during a period of 

incarceration in a penal institution (presumably state or federal). & United States v. Esig, 

10 F.3d 968 (3d Cir. 1993); Owem v. Barnes, 71 1 F.2d 25 (3d Cir.), denied, 464 U.S. 

963 (1983). 

No person convicted of "embezzlement of public moneys, bribery, perjury or other 

infamous crime, shall be eligible to the General Assembly, or capable of holding any office of 

trust or profit" in Pennsylvania. Pa. Const. art. 2, 5 7. Civil officers shall be removed upon 

conviction of "misbehavior in office or of any infamous crime. " Pa. Const. art. 6, $5 6, 7. 

This term has been held to include federal crimes. In -, 516 Pa. 90, 532 A.2d 298 

(1987). A justice, judge, or justice of the peace may be suspended, removed from office, or 

otherwise disciplined upon conviction of a felony. Pa. Const. art. 5, 5 18(d)(l). A justice, 

judge, or justice of the peace so removed from office or convicted by a court of misbehavior in 

office "shall forfeit automatically his judicial office and thereafter be ineligible for judicial 

office." Pa. Const. art. 5, 5 18(d)(3). A person convicted of "a crime punishable by 

imprisonment for more than one year" is not eligible to serve as a juror. 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. 

5 4502(3). 

Employers may consider felony and misdemeanor convictions only to the extent they 

relate to the applicant's suitability for employment in that position. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 

5 9125(b). A professional or occupational license may be denied, suspended, or revoked 

because of conviction of a felony or misdemeanor related to the occupation. 18 Pa. Cons. 

Stat. 5 9124(c). Occupations in which conviction of certain crimes may affect licensure 

include: architect (63 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 34.19(a)(8) (felony or crime of moral turpitude)); 

psychologist (63 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 1208(a)(6) (federal or state felony or equivalent foreign 

crime, or misdemeanor involving psychology)); pharmacist (63 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 390-5(a)(2) 

(felony, offense involving moral turpitude, or offense in connection with the practice of 

pharmacy)); social worker (63 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 1911(a)(l) (felony or crime of moral 

turpitude)). Pennsylvania has a registration requirement for sex offenders, 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. 

$5 9791-9798, which expressly applies to federal convictions. 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 9793(d). 

'This phrase has been interpreted to refer only to persons serving a sentence for a felony conviction, not 

convicted misdemeanants or pretrial detainees. 1974 Op. Att'y Gen. 186 (No. 47) (1974). \./' 
- - 

October 1996 Page 116 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is regained upon release from prison. 25 Pa. Cons. Stat. §§ 2602(w); 

3146.1. The rights to hold pubiic office and to serve on a jury may be restored to state felons 

only through a pardon. 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 4502(3). The power to pardon (except in cases 

of impeachment) rests in the Governor, and he may grant a pardon only if a majority of the 

Board of Pardons recommends it.2 Pa. Const. art. 4, § 9(a); 71 Pa. Cons. Stat 5 299. A 

gubernatorial pardon entitles the recipient to judicial expungement of his conviction. 

Commonwealth v. m,534 A.2d 1053 (Pa. 1987) .3 Pardoned or expunged convictions may 

not be used in a licensing decision. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 8 9124(b). According to state 

authorities, a person convicted under federal law is ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES4 

A person who has been convicted in Pennsylvania or elsewhere of an enumerated 

offense, generally involving violen~e,~ or an offense under the Pennsylvania drug laws 

punishable by more than two years' irnpri~onrnent,~ may not possess, use, control, sell, 

transfer, manufacture, or obtain a license to possess, use, control, sell, transfer, or 

2Aunanimous recommendation is required in the case of a sentence of death or life imprisonment. 

3Expungement is also available to a person who has reached 70 years old and has not been arrested or 

prosecuted for 10 years following final release from confinement or supervision. 18 Pa. Con. Stat. $9122@)(1). 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Pennsylvania law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. &&, 10 F.3d 968 

(3d Cir. 1993). 

'The enumerated offenses are described by section number of the Pennsylvania criminal statute, or "[alny 

offense equivalent to any of the . . . enumerated offenses under the prior laws of [Pennsylvania] or any offense 

equivalent to any of the . . . enumerated offenses under the statutes of any other state or of the United States." 

18 Pa. Const. Stat. $6105(b). The subject matter of the listed crimes is described as follows: prohibited 

offensive weapons; corrupt organizations; possession of a weapon on school property; murder; voluntary 

manslaughter; involuntary manslaughter when based on the reckless use of a firearm; aggravated assault; assault 

by a prisoner; assault by a life prisoner; stalking; kidnapping; unlawful restraint; luring a child into a motor 

vehicle; rape; involuntary deviate sexual intercourse; aggravated indecent assault; arson; causing or risking 

catastrophe; burglary; criminal trespass if a second-degree or higher felony; robbery; robbery of a motor vehicle; 

theft by unlawful taking or disposition if convicted of the second felony offense; theft by extortion when 

accompanied by threats of violence; receiving stolen property if convicted of the second felony offense; 

impersonating a law enforcement officer; intimidation of witnesses or victims; retaliation against a witness or 

victim; escape; weapons or implements for escape; riot; prohibited paramilitary training; possession of a firearm 

by a minor; corruption of minors; and sale or lease of weapons or explosives. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 8 6105tb). 

'18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6105(c)(2). This provision, unlike the prohibition relating to enumerated offenses, 


does not expressly refer to equivalent convictions under federal law or the law of another state. 


, 
%, i --./ 

\/' 

October 19% Page 1 17 

manufacture a firearm. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 6 6105(a).' Exempted from this disability is 

anyone who has obtained relief from the court of common pleas of the county where he lives. 

18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 3 6105(d). Relief may be granted if: the conviction has been vacated and 

appellate relief has been exhausted or the time for appeal is expired; the person has obtained 

"a fuIl pardon by the Governor"; or the person has obtained relief from federal firearms 

disabilities from the Secretary of the Treasury8 and 10years has elapsed since the conviction, 

excluding any time spent in incarceration. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6105(d). 

A person convicted of an offense enumerated under 5 6105 also cannot obtain a license 

to carry a concealed "firearm," which for this purpose is defined as essentially a handgun, 

sawed-off shotgun, or short-barreled rifle.9 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6109(e)(l)(iii). Without such 

a license a person may not carry a "firearm" in a vehicle or concealed on or about his person, 

except in his place of abode or fixed place of business, 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6106(a), nor may 

he "carry a firearm, rifle, or shotgun at any time upon the public streets or upon public 

property in a city of the first class." 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6108.1° Persons convicted of an 

offense under the state drug laws, and persons "convicted of a crime punishable by 

imprisonment for a term exceeding one year"ll are also prohibited from obtaining a license to 

carry a concealed "firearm. " 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6109(e)(l)(ii), (viii). In contrast to the 

disabilities imposed upon possession of all guns by persons convicted of an offense enumerated 

under § 6105, licensing disabilities are removed by a full gubernatorial pardon, by relief from 

federal firearms disabilities, or by overturning of the conviction. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6123.12 

'For the purposes of 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. $6105, "firearm" is defied to include both long guns and 

handguns. Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6105(i). 

'This requirement may be waived "if the court determines that the Congress of the United States has not 

appropriated sufficient funds to enable the Secretary of the Treasury to grant relief to applicants eligible for the 

relief. " 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. $ 6105(d)(3)(i). See note 12, &a. 

918 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6102. 

"The statute is entitled, "Carrying firearms on public streets or public property in Philadelphia." "City 

of the first classn is defined as a city with a population of one million or more. 53 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 101. Among 

the exceptions to the license requirement are exceptions for "[plersons licensed to hunt, take furbearers or fish" in 

Pennsylvania "if such persons are actually hunting, taking furbearers or fishing or are going to the places where 

they desire to hunt, take furbearers or fish or returning from such places," and for persons engaged in dog 

training. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6106(b)(9), (10). The exceptions, however, are contingent upon the person's 

obtaining a sportsman's firearms permit, which is valid for five years and revocable upon written notice. 18 Pa. 

Cons. Stat. 5 6106(c), (d). 

"The term "crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year" excludes "[flederal . . . 
 offenses pertaining to antitrust, unfair trade practices, restraints of trade or regulation of business," and 


misdemeanors under state law punishable by no more than two years' imprisonment. 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. 5 6102. 


I2Although5 6123 allows for restoration of firearms licensing privileges to anyone who has been granted 

relief from federal firearms disabilities under 18 U.S.C. 5 925(c), Congress has not appropriated funding for this 

restoration process since fiscal year 1992, making this means of restoring licensing privileges under Pennsylvania 

law currently unavailable. 
October 1996 	 Page 118 

RHODE ISLAND 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

"No felon shall be permitted to vote until completion of such felon's sentence, served 

or suspended, and of parole or probation." R.I. Const. art. 2, jj 1. A prior disqualification 

provision has been interpreted to embrace federal felonies. Bailev v. Baroniu, 394 A.2d 

1338 (R.I. 1978) (dicta; interpreting R.I. Const. amend. 38); Violet v. Voccoh, 497 A.2d 709 

(R.I. 1985) (interpreting R.I. Const. amend. 38 and amend. 39). No person "convicted of a 

felony" is permitted to serve as a juror until he has completed his sentence, including parole or 

probation. R.I. Gen. Laws jj 9-9-1.1. 

A person is disqualified from seeking or holding elective or appointive state or local 

ofice if he is not a qualified elector, R.I. Const. art. 3, jj 1, or if he has been convicted of or 

pleaded nolo contendere to a felony or to a misdemeanor resulting in a jail sentence of six 

months or more, either suspended or to be served. R.I. Const. art. 3, jj 2. A person may not 

become eligible to hold public office until three years have passed following completion of 

sentence, including probation or parole. R.I. Const. art. 3, jj 2. 

Conviction of a felony may be grounds for revoking or refusing to issue a professional 

license. I&: private investigator (R.I. Gen. Laws jj 5-5-3(2)); private security guard 

business ($ 5-5.1-8(a)(3)); pharmacist (jj 5-19-18); veterinarian (jj 5-25-14(1)). Rhode Island 

has a registration requirement for sex offenders. R.I. Gen. Laws jj 11-37-16. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote and to serve on a jury are restored upon completion of the sentence, 

including any period of probation or parole. R.I. Const. art. 2, jj 1; R.I. Gen. Laws 

$ 9-9-1.1. The right to hold oflice is restored after three years have passed following 

completion of the sentence, including probation or parole. R.I. Const. art. 3, jj 2; && ex 

rel. Webb v. m,591 A.2d 1193 (R.I. 1993). The power to pardon (except in cases of 

impeachment) is vested in the Governor, "by and with the advice and consent of the senate." 

R.I. Const. art. 9, jj 13. Whether federal felons are eligible for a gubernatorial pardon has not 

been settled in Rhode Island. 

Rhode Island has an expungement procedure that is available to first offenders 10 years 

after completion of sentence for a state felony and five years for a state misdemeanor. R.I. 

Gen. Laws jj 12-1.3-2. Expungement is unavailable for a conviction of a "crime of 

( *: 

k_ .) 
Page 119 

violence."l R.I. Gen. Laws § 12-1.3-2(a). Expungement releases the person "from all 

penalties and disabilities resulting from the crime," except that the conviction may be 

considered in determining sentence "upon conviction of any subsequent crime. " R.I. Gen. 

Laws 8 12-1.3-4(a). In addition, the expunged conviction may be disclosed for the purposes 

of certain licensing decisions, such as bar admission, or when the nature and character of the 

offense with which a person is to be charged would be affected by the prior conviction. R.I. 

Gen. Laws 8 12-1.34~). Although generally expungement allows the person to state that he 

or she has not been convicted of the expunged crime, the person is required to disclose the 

conviction when applying for certain jobs, such as teaching or law enforcement. R.I. Gen. 

Laws 8 12-1.3-4(b). 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

No person "convicted in this state or elsewhere of a crime of violencew2 may 

"purchase, own, carry, transport or have in his or her possession any firearm. "3 R.I. Gen. 

Laws 5 11-47-5(2). No provision for restoration of firearms privileges, other than pardon, is 

made under state law. 

'"Crime of violence" is defined to include: murder; manslaughter; firstdegree arson; kidnapping with 

intent to extort; robbery; larceny from the person; first- and second-degree sexual assault; first- and second-degree 

child molestation; assault with intent to murder, to rob, or to commit first-degree sexual assault; burglary; and 

entering a dwelling house with intent to commit murder, robbery, sexual assault, or larceny. R.I. Gen. Laws 

g 12-1.3-l(1). 

'For the purpose of the firearms disability, a "crime of violence" is defined to include any of the 

following crimes or an attempt to commit any of them: murder; manslaughter; rape; first or second degree sexual 

assault; first or second degree child molestation; kidnapping; first or second degree arson; mayhem; robbery; 

burglary; breaking and entering; any felony violation involving the illegal manufacture, sale, or delivery of, or 

possession with intent to manufacture, sell, or deliver. a controlled substance classified under schedules I or I1 of 

Rhode Island laws; a violation of R.I. Gen. Laws 5 21-28-4.01.1 or 21-28-4.01.2 (involving drug trafficking), or 

a conspiracy to violate those statutes; assault with a dangerous weapon; assault or battery involving grave bodily 

injury; and assault with intent to commit any offense punishable as a felony. R.I. Gen. Laws 

$ 11-47-2(2). 

._ 'A "firearm" includes both long guns and handguns. R.I.Gen. Laws 5 11-47-2(3). 
October 1996 

SOUTH CAROLINA 

Page 120 

I. RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. LOSS OF RIGHTS 

The right to vote is lost upon conviction of a felony or an election crime until 

completion of sentence, including probation and parole. S.C. Code Ann. 5 7-5-120(B)(3). It 

is the opinion of the State Attorney General that the disqualification from voting extends to 

those convicted of federal offenses. &,g 1984 Op. Att'y Gen. 222 (No. 84-94) (1984). 

Because eligibility for public office is contingent upon being a qualified voter, S.C. Const. art. 

XVII, 5 1, a person who is disqualified from voting by reason of a conviction is also 

disqualified from public office. A person convicted of felony embezzlement of public funds is 

also disqualified from holding any office of honor or emolument in the state; this disability 

may be removed by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly upon payment in full of the 

principal and interest of the sum embezzled. S.C. Code Ann. 5 16-13-210. A state or federal 

felon loses the right to serve on a jury. S.C. Code Ann. 5 14-7-810(1). 

Persons convicted of certain crimes may be disqualified from obtaining or maintaining a':

., 

a professional or occupational license. u:bail bondsman (S.C. Code Ann. 

9 38-53-150(a)(6)); optometrist (5 40-37-220(2)); physician (5 4047-200(F)(2)); social worker 

($ 40-63-1lO(2)); bingo promoter (5 12-21-3350(A)(4)); law enforcement officer 

(5 23-6-440(B)(4)) 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote and, derivatively, to hold public office are restored after completion 

of sentence, including probation and parole. S.C. Code Ann. 5 7-5-120(B)(3). The right to 

hold public office after conviction of felony embezzlement of public funds may be restored by 

two-thirds vote of the General Assembly upon payment in full of the principal and interest of 

the sum embezzled. S.C. Code Ann. 5 16-13-210. The right to serve on a jury may be 

restored only by pardon. S.C. Code Ann. 5 24-21-990. The power to grant a pardon is 

vested in the Probation, Parole and Pardon Board. S.C. Code Ann. 5 24-21-920. Federal 

felons are not eligible for a state pardon. 

II. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

No person who has been convicted of a crime of violence1in a court of any state or in 

federal court may "knowingly sell, offer to sell, deliver, lease, rent, barter, exchange or 

'"Crime of violence" is defined to include: murder; manslaughter (except negligent manslaughter arising 

from traffic accidents); rape; mayhem; kidnapping; burglary; robbery; housebreaking; assault with intent to kill, 

commit rape, or rob; assault with a dangerous weapon; and assault with intent to commit any offense punishable 

by imprisonment for more than one year. S.C. Code Ann. 3 16-23-10(C). 
October 1996 Page 121 

transport for sale" into South Carolina a pistol, or possess or acquire pistols within the state. 

S.C. Code Ann. 5 16-23-30(a), (e). No procedure other than pardon exists under state law to 

restore firearms privileges. 
October 1996 Page 122 

SOUTH DAKOTA 

I. RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. LOSS OF RIGHTS 

"A sentence of imprisonment in the state penitentiary for any term suspends the right of 

the person so sentenced to vote, to hold public office, to become a candidate for public office 

and to serve on a jury, and forfeits all public offices and private trusts, authority or power 

during the term of such imprisonment." S.D. Codified Laws Ann. $ 23A-27-35. A person 

serving a suspended sentence is prohibited from voting, holding public office, and sitting on a 

jury during the period of the original sentence or the time extended by order of the court. 

S.D. Codified Laws Ann. 5 23A-27-35. &Q S.D. Const. art. 111, $ 3 (disqualifying from 

legislative office a person who is disqualified from voting); art. VII, $ 2 (prescribing 

qualifications for votes and excluding those "disqualified by law for . . . conviction of a 

felony"); S.D. Codified Laws Ann. 5 15-13-10 (convicted felons are not qualified to be jurors 

"unless restored to their civil rights"). The office of the State Attorney General has advised 

that the disabilities imposed by $ 23A-27-35 extend to federal felons. 

Certain convictions may result in the denial, suspension, or revocation of a professional 

license, including: nurse (S. D . Codified Laws Ann. 8 36-9-49(2)); pharmacist ($ 36- 1 1-20); 

bail bondsman ($ 58-22-21(5)); hearing aid dispenser (5 36-24-40(1)). South Dakota has a 

registration requirement for sex offenders. S.D. Codified Laws AM. $5 22-22-30 to 

22-22-39. 

(/ \ 

i 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The period of disqualification from voting, serving on a jury, or holding public office 

lasts only during the period of imprisonment "in the state penitentiary. " S .D. Codified Laws 

Ann. § 23A-27-35. At the time of discharge, the convicted person is to be "considered as 

restored to the full rights of citizenship" at the time of discharge. S.D. Codified Laws Ann. 

$§ 24-5-2; 24-15A-7.' The convicted person receives from the Secretary of Corrections a 

certificate stating that he has been restored to the full rights of a citizen, and the Secretary files 

a copy of the certificate with the sentencing court. S.D. Codified Laws Ann. $$ 24-5-2; 

24-15A-7. When execution of the sentence is suspended, the defendant's rights are restored 

"upon the termination of the time of the original sentence or the time extended by order of the 

court." S.D. Codified Laws Ann. § 23A-27-35. A federal court has held that the restoration 

procedure applies only to convictions under South Dakota law and does not apply to 

'Section 24-5-2 does not apply to persons sentenced to prison for a crime committed after the effective 

date of S.D.Codified Laws Ann. § 24-15A-7, July 1, 1996. Persons convicted of crimes committed after July 1, 

1996, are subject to S.D.Codified Laws Ann. 4 24-15A-7 instead, but that law contains a similarly worded 

restoration provision. 
1.. -

-_ / 

October 1996 Page 123 

convictions under the law of another state. United v. CiguQ,992 F.2d 218 (8th Cir. 

1993); Thorn~sm v. United States, 989 F.2d 269 (8th Cir. 1993). 

South Dakota law also permits a court to suspend imposition of sentence for a person 

who has no prior felony conviction and place him on probation. S.D. Codified Laws AM. 

8 23A-27-13. Upon successful completion of probation, the defendant is discharged by the 

court without an adjudication of guilt if he has not previously received a discharge without 

adjudication. S.D. Codified Laws Ann.8 23A-27-14. The proceeding "shall not be deemed a 

conviction for purposes of disqualifications or disabilities imposed by law upon conviction of a 

crime," S.D. Codified Laws Ann. 8 23A-27-14, except that persons who receive probation 

without adjudication for certain sexual offenses involving minors and who are licensed or who 

seek to be licensed as a certified teacher may have their applications refused or licenses 

revoked. S.D. Codified Laws Ann. 823A-27-14.1. The proceeding may also be considered 

in determining whether a person qualifies for treatment under 5 23A-27-14 or in imposing 

sentence for a subsequent offense. S.D. Codified Laws Ann. § 23A-27-16. After a discharge 

is granted, the court seals the court records concerning the offense. S.D. Codified Laws AM. 

5 23A-27-17. 

The pardon power (except in cases of impeachment) is vested in the Governor. S.D. 

Const. art. IV, 8 3. A pardon removes any additional disabilities for a state felon, and seals 

the record of conviction. S.D. Codified Laws Ann. 8 24-14-1 1. It is not clear whether 

federal felons are eligible for a state pardon. 

II. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person "convicted in [South Dakota] or elsewhere of a crime of violence" may not 

possess a firearm3 for 15 years after final discharge. S.D. Codified Laws AM. 3 22-14-15. A 

gubernatorial pardon will not remove the disability imposed by 8 22-14-15 unless the 

Governor so specifies in the order granting pardon. S.D. Codified Laws AM. 5 24-14- 12. It 

therefore appears that a restoration of civil rights will not restore firearms privileges lost under 

8 22-14-15. In addition, persons who have been convicted of a felony or a crime of violence, 

or who have had a violation of the state firearms, weapons, or drug laws in the past two years, 

are also prohibited from obtaining a permit to carry a concealed pistol. S.D. Codified Laws 

AM. $ 23-7-7.1 .4 

Z"Crime of violence" is defined as'any of the following crimes, or an attempt or conspiracy to commit 

any of them: murder, manslaughter, rape, aggravated assault, riot, robbery, burglary, arson, kidnapping, felony 

sexual contact, and any other felony in the commission of which the perpetrator used force, or was armed with a 

dangerous weapon, or used any explosive or destructive device. S. D. Codified Laws Ann. 8 22-1-2(9). 

3"Firearm" is defined in S.D. Codified Laws Ann. $22-1-2(16)to include both long guns and handguns. 

41t is a crime under South Dakota law for a person to carry a pistol concealed on or about his person, or 

concealed in a vehicle operated by him, without a permit, S.D. Codified Laws 8 22-14-9, except in his own 

dwelling house or place of business or on land owned or rented by him or a member of his household. S.D. 

Codified Laws 8 22-14-11. 
October 1996 	 Page 124 

TENNESSEE 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of "an infamous crimeN1 or "convicted in federal or another state 

court of a crime or offense which would constitute an infamous crime under the laws of this 

state, regardless of the sentence imposed," may not register to vote or vote. Tenn. Const. art. 

I, $ 5; Tenn. Code Ann. $3 2-19-143, 40-20-1 12.* Certain felons3 are precluded from acting 

as a juror, Tenn. Code AM. 5 22-1-102, and a sentence of "imprisonment in the penitentiary" 

disquaIifies a person from serving as an executor, administrator, or guardian. Tern. Code 

Ann. 5 40-20-115. 

A person convicted of "a felony or an infamous crime and sentenced to the 

penitentiary, either on the state or federal level" loses the right to seek or hold public office. 

Tern. Code Ann. 5 40-20-1 14. Also disqualified from holding office until their rights are 

restored are persons convicted of bribery, larceny, or any infamous offense. Tenn. Code Ann. 

$ 8-18-lOl(1). 

A felony conviction may be an impediment to receiving or maintaining various 

professional or occupational licenses. Eg: real estate broker (Tern. Code Ann. 

$ 62-13-312(b)(12)); attorney (5 23-3-201(1)); private investigator ($ 62-26-217(a)(4)). 

Tennessee has a registration requirement for sex offenders. Tern. Code Ann. $3 40-39-101 to 

40-39-109. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSfREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The power to pardon (except in cases of impeachment) is vested in the Governor. 

Tenn. Const. art. 111, $ 6; Tenn. Code Ann. 8 40-27-101. A gubernatorial pardon relieves an 

individual of punishment for the crime, but not collateral disabilities expressly imposed by 

statute that serve a purpose apart from punishment, such as ineligibility for employment as a 

police officer. Op. Att'y Gen. No. 84-063 (1984). 

'The law provides that "[ulpon conviction for any felony, it shall be the judgment of the court that the 


defendant be infamous and be immediately disqualified from exercising the right of suffrage. " Tern. Code AM. 


8 40-20-1 12. 

2This statute, by its terms, applies to persons convicted of crimes declared infamous either before or after 

the effective date of the law, May 18, 1981. Tenn. Code Ann. § 2-19-143(4).The statute, however, was held to 

violate the state constitution to the extent that it purports to disenfranchise anyone convicted of an offense that was 

not declared infamous until after the conviction. Gaskin v. Collins, 661 S.W.2d 865 (Tenn. 1983). 

3The disqualification from jury service applies to persons "convicted of certain infamous offenses, 

specially designated in this code," persons "convicted of any offense involving the theft of property or services or 

any offense punishable as theft as graded by 8 39-14-105,"and persons "convicted of perjury or subornation of 

perjury." Tern. Code Ann.$22-1-102(a)(l),(2), (3). 
/" 

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October 19% Page 125 

A person convicted of an infamous crime prior to July 1, 1986, may petition a circuit 

court for restoration of rights upon the expiration of the maximum sentence imposed by law 

for the crime. Tenn. Code Ann. $8 40-29-101(a), (c); 40-29-105(a). Restoration of civil 

rights requires "satisfactory proof that ever since the judgment of disqualification, the 

petitioner has sustained the character of a person of honesty, respectability and veracity, and 

that he is generally esteemed as such by his neighbors." Tenn. Code Ann. $40-29-102. 

Immediately after pardon for a conviction prior to July 1, 1986, a pardoned person may 

petition the circuit court in the county of his residence or conviction for restoration of full 

rights of citizenship if not already restored by the pardon; however, this relief may not 

supersede any restriction on suffrage placed in the pardon. Tenn. Code Ann. $8 40-29-101(b), 

40-29-102, 40-29-105.4 "Persons rendered infamous or deprived of the rights of citizenship by 

the judgment of any state or federal court" after July 1, 1986, are restored to their civil rights 

upon pardon, service or expiration of the maximum sentence, or final release from 

incarceration. Tenn. Code Ann. $ 40-29-105(b)(1). Persons convicted after July 1, 1986, of 

first-degree murder, aggravated rape, treason, or voter fraud are forever disqualified from 

voting. Tenn. Code Ann. $ 40-29-105(b)(2). 

Federal felons are ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon, but they may seek restoration 

of their civil rights. 

Tennessee law also provides for "exoneration," a form of relief granted by the 

Governor when he finds that the person "did not commit the crime for which the person was 

convicted." Tenn. Code Ann. $ 40-27-109(a). An exoneration expunges all records of arrest, 

indictment, and conviction, and automatically restores all rights ofcitizenship. Tenn. Code 

Ann. $ 40-27-109(b). Because of the nature of the remedy, it would appear that federal felons 

are not eligible for this relief. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person "convicted of a felony involving the use or attempted use of force, violence, 

or a deadly weapon," or a person "convicted of a felony drug offense" may not possess a 

handgun. Tenn. Code Ann. § 39-17-1307(b)(1).5 No specific state procedure exists for 

restoring the rights lost as a result of this provi~ion.~ 

4A pardon for manslaughter operates to restore rights of citizenship. Tern. Code Ann. 8 40-27-108. 

SAlthough the term "felony involving the use or attempted use of force [or] violence" is not defined under 

state law, "crime of violence" is defined to include murder, voluntary manslaughter, aggravated rape, rape, 

especially aggravated robbery, aggravated robbery, burglary, aggravated assault, or aggravated kidnapping. 

Tenn. Code AM. 8 39-17-1301(2). 

6Because a gubernatorial pardon does not relieve collateral disabilities, it would appear that a pardon does 

not remove the firearms disability of 8 39-17-1307. Op. Att'y Gen. No. 84-063 (1984). An exoneration, 

however, may have that effect. Responses to our survey indicate that some state judges believe they have the 

authority to restore firearms privileges by means of a certificate of restoration of citizenship. 

1 
October 19% 	 Page 126 

TEXAS 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Persons convicted of "any felony" are ineligible to vote, subject to exceptions imposed 

by the legislature. Texas Const. art. 6, § 1. This disqualification applies to federal and state 

felons. SheDherd v. Trevino, 575 F.2d 1110 (5th Cir. 1978), denied, 439 U.S. 1129 

(1979); Haves v. Williams, 341 F. Supp. 182 (S.D. Tex. 1972). ' A person convicted of a 

felony is disqualified from sitting on petit and grand juries. Tex. Gov't Code § 62.102(7); 

Tex. Crim. Proc. Code art. 19.08(4). A prospective petit juror may be challenged for cause if 

convicted of "theft or any felony. " Tex. Crim. Proc. Code art. 35.16(a)(2). 

Any person who has been convicted of paying or offering a bribe to procure his 

election or appointment to office is disqualified from holding any office of profit or trust. 

Texas Const. art. 16, 5 5. Individuals convicted of certain other crimes may be required to 

forfeit public office or may be ineligible for public office. &,u,Tex. Local Gov't Code 

§$ 87.031 (removal of county officer), 252.063 (removal and ineligibility of municipal officers 

and employees); Tex. Gov't Code 406.018 (removal of notary public upon conviction of 

willful neglect of duty or official misconduct). 

Persons convicted of a felony or misdemeanor that "directly relates to the duties and 

responsibilities of the licensed occupation" are subject to license revocation, suspension, or 

denial. Texas Rev. Civ. Stat. art. 6252-13c, 4(a). A person convicted of a felony or "crime 

involving moral turpitude" may not receive a Texas tuition assistance grant (unless he has 

received a pardon or two years have passed since discharge, as described below, or completion 

of probation). Tex. Educ. Code 56.103(b)(2). A convicted federal or state felon may not 

serve as the executor or administrator of an estate, unless he is pardoned or has had his civil 

rights restored. Tex. Prob. Code $ 78(b). An individual is not eligible for a license to 

operate a currency exchange business, or must surrender an existing license, if he has been 

convicted under federal or state law within the previous 10 years of a felony, a crime 

involving moral turpitude, an offense relating to currency exchange or transmission or 

monetary reporting requirements, a drug offense, or an offense involving money laundering, 

immigration, or a reporting requirement under the Bank Secrecy Act. Tex. Rev. Civ. Stat. 

art. 350, § 8(c)(l)(A), 0,(c)(2). 

Texas has a registration requirement for persons convicted of or adjudicated delinquent 

based on the commission of a sex offense. Tex. Rev. Civ. Stat. art. 6252-13c. 1. 

'The Texas Constitution further mandates that laws be made "to exclude from office, serving on juries, 

and the right of suffrage, those who may have been or shall hereafter be convicted of bribery, perjury, forgery, or 

other high crimes." Texas Const. art. 16, § 2. 
p


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' 

October 1996 Page 127 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

A convicted felon's right to vote is restored two years after completion of probation 

ordered by any court or two years after discharge papers have been issued either by the Texas 

Department of Criminal Justice "or by a federal or other state correctional institution or parole 

board," Tex. Elec. Code 5 11.002(4)(a), or by pardon. The power to grant a pardon (except 

in cases of treason or impeachment) is vested in the Governor, on the written signed 

recommendation and advice of a majority of the Board of Pardons and Paroles. Tex. Const. 

art. 4, 5 ll(b). It appears that gubernatorial pardons are not available to federal felons, xg 

Shepw V. Trevin~, suDra, but statutes provide for administrative procedures to restore 

federal felons ' rights. 

The Governor is empowered to restore to certain federal felons "any civil rights 

forfeited under the laws of this state as a result of conviction." Tex. Crirn. Proc. Code art. 

48.05(a). Federal felons who were convicted of a drug or firearm offense or an offense 

involving violence or the threat of violence, who have any other state or federal convictions, 

who have not completed serving their sentence, or who were convicted less than three years 

before the date of the application are ineligible for this relief. Tex. Crim. Proc. Code art. 

48.05(b). An eligible felon must submit an application either to a sheriff or to the Board of 

Pardons and Paroles. Tex. Crim. Proc. Code art. 48.05(c). According to the Board of 

Pardons and Paroles, this provision supplements other state statutes relating to restoration of 

rights for federal felons (such as Tex. Elec. Code 5 11.002). 

Certain state offenders, after pleading or being found guilty, may have adjudication of 

guilt deferred and be placed on community supervision. Tex. Crim. Proc. Code art. 42.12, 

5 5(a). After successful completion of supervision, the charges are dismissed and the offender 

is discharged. A dismissal and discharge may generally not be deemed a conviction for the 

purposes of disqualifications or disabilities imposed by law for conviction of an offense. Tex. 

Crim. Proc. Code art. 42.12, 5 5(c). Similarly, a person who has been discharged from 

probation for certain state offenses may be permitted to withdraw a plea of guilty or have a 

verdict of guilt set aside, and have the charges dismissed. The offender is then generally free 

from all penalties and disabilities resulting from the offense. Tex. Crim. Proc. Code art, 

42.12, 5 20(a). Texas law also provides for expungement of certain convictions. &Tex. 

Crirn. Proc. art. 55.01; Tex. Alcoholic Beverage Code 55 101.73; 106.12. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

A person convicted of a felony may not possess a firearm3 for five years following his 


release from confinement or from supervision under community supervision, parole, or 


ZFor a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Texas law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Maines, 20 F.3d 1102 (10th 

Cir. 1994); United States v. m,991 F.2d 206 (5th Cir. 1993). m:These cases involved an earlier version 

of Texas law concerning firearms privileges, different from that discussed in this section. 

3"Firearm" is defined in Tex. Penal Code Ann. § 46.01(3) to include both long guns and handguns. 

i__ 
October 1996 Page 128 e

mandatory supervision, whichever is later. Tex. Penal Code Ann. $ 46.04(a)(l). Following 

the five-year period, a convicted felon may not possess a firearm "at any location other than 

the premises at which the person lives. " Tex. Penal Code Ann. $ 46.04(a)(2). In Run8 v. 

Texas, 556 S.W.2d 808 (Tex. Crim. App. 1977), it was held that unless the pardon was based 

upon a finding of innocence, a person convicted of a violent felony but subsequently pardoned 

for it could be prosecuted under the predecessor of $46.04. See als~ 1980 Op. Att 'y Gen. 24 
October 1996 	 Page 129 

UTAH 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Persons convicted of treason or election crimes are ineligible to vote or to hold office 

unless restored to civil rights. Utah Const. art. IV, 5 6. &Utah Code Ann. 5 20A-1-705. 

Otherwise, felons are permitted to vote in their county of residence before incarceration. Utah 

Code Ann. 5 20A-2-101. &&Q l&&g v. Evans,716 P.2d 270 (Utah 1985). Certain 

public office holders who are not liable to impeachment are subject to removal for high crimes 

and misdemeanors or malfeasance in office. Utah Code Ann. 5 77-6-1. "A person who has 

been convicted of a felony that has not been expunged is not competent to serve as a juror. " 

Utah Code Ann. 5 78-46-7(2). 

A professional or occupational license may be denied, suspended, revoked, or 

restricted because the applicant or license holder has engaged in "unprofessional conduct, " 

Utah Code Ann. 5 58-1-401(2)(a), which is defined to include conviction of a "crime of moral 

turpitude or any other crime that, when considered with the functions and duties of the 

occupation or profession for which the license was issued or is to be 'issued, bears a reasonable 

relationship to the licensee's or applicant's ability to safely or competently practice the 

occupation or profession." Utah Code Ann. 5 58-1-501(2)(c). A person whose license has 

been suspended, revoked, or restricted may apply for reinstatement upon compliance with the 

conditions imposed upon him by statute, rule, or the terms of the license suspension, 

revocation, or restriction, but no license may be reinstated before 90 days unless other 

conditions are imposed. Utah Code Ann. $8 58-1-401(3); 58-1403. 

Utah has a registration requirement for sex offenders, Utah Code Ann. 5 77-27-21.5, 

which expressly applies to federal convictions. Utah Code Ann. 5 77-27-21.5(1)(e). 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The only methods of restoring civil rights in Utah are pardon and expungement. The 

power to grant a pardon (except in cases of treason or impeachment) is vested in a majority of 

the Board of Pardons. Utah Const. art. VII, 5 12; Utah Code Ann. 5 77-27-5(1)(a). 

Persons convicted of certain Utah offenses may seek expungement of their record of 

conviction by petitioning the court of conviction after the passage of seven years for a felony, 

or five years for a Class A misdemeanor. Utah Code Ann. $5 77-18-11(1), (11); 

77-18-12(2)(a), (c). A certificate of eligibility for expungement must be obtained before a 

court may order expungement. Utah Code Ann. $ 77-18-1 l(3). Among the persons ineligible 

for expungement are: anyone convicted of a capital felony, a first-degree felony, a second- 
October 1996 Page 130 

degree forcible felony, or an offense involving a sexual act against a minor; anyone convicted 

more than once of a crime that would be classified as a felony under Utah law; anyone whose 

record has previously been expunged for an offense that would be a felony under Utah law, or 

for two or more offenses that would be misdemeanors under Utah law; and anyone with a 

pending criminal charge.' Utah Code Ann. 8 77-18-12(1)(a), (b), (c), (d), (g). Any person 

who is prohibited from applying for expungement because he has been convicted more than 

once of a felony, or because he has previously had his criminal record expunged, is still 

eligible for expungement 20 years after completion of his sentence for his most recent 

conviction. Utah Code Ann. 5 77-18-12(3). 

If the applicant is found eligible for expungement, the court "shall issue" a certificate 

"unless there is clear and convincing evidence to persuade the court that it would be contrary 

to the interest of the public to grant a requested expungement." Utah Code Ann. 

8 77-18-13(2). Once the expungement is granted, the recipient "may respond to any inquiry as 

though the conviction did not occur," "[elxcept as otherwise provided by law." Utah Code 

AM. $77-18-13(3). However, expunged records may nonetheless be used for various 

purposes, including in sentencing and in determining whether to issue a permit to carry a 

concealed firearm. Utah Code Ann. 77-18-15(4), (7). &g Utah Code Ann. 8 77-18-14(7). 

Neither a state pardon nor expungement is available to a federal felon or a person 

convicted under the laws of another state. Accordingly, civil rights may be restored to such 

persons only by a pardon from the jurisdiction of conviction. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

A person convicted of "any crime of violencen3 under federal law or the law of any 

state may not own, possess, or have under his custody or control any dangerous ~eapon.~ 

'Also ineligible are persons with a total of three or more convictions if one of them is for a felony or a 

class A or B misdemeanor, and persons with a subsequent conviction within seven years if seeking etpungement 

of a felony, six years if seeking expungement of a traffic offense involving the use of alcohol, five years if seeking 

expungement of a misdemeanor, and four years if seeking expungement of any other offense. Utah Code AM. 

p 77-18-12(e), (f). 

2For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Utah law concerning 

the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see united States v. Flower, 29 F.3d 530 (10th Cir. 

1994). 

3"'Crime of violence'" means aggravated murder, murder, manslaughter, rape, mayhem, kidnapping, 

robbery, burglary, housebreaking, extortion, or blackmail accompanied by threats of violence, assault with a 

dangerous weapon, assault with intent to commit any offense punishable by imprisonment for more than one year, 

arson punishable by imprisonment for more than one year, or an attempt to commit any of these offenses." Utah 

Code Ann. 8 76-10-501(2)(b). 

4"Dangerous weapon" is defined to include any item capable of causing death or serious bodily injury. 


Utah Code AM. 5 76-10-501(2)(d). 

October 1996 Page 13 1 

Utah Code Ann. 8 76-10-503(1)(a).5 A person on parole or probation for a felony may not 

possess or have under his custody or control any dangerous weapon. Utah Code AM. 

8 76-10-503(2)(a). A person who has been convicted of a felony under federal law or the law 

of any state may not purchase, possess, or transfer any handgun. Utah Code Ann. 

$ 76-10-503(3)(a)(i). Persons convicted of a felony, a crime of violence, an offense involving 

the use of alcohol, an offense involving the unlawful use of drugs, an offense involving moral 

turpitude, or an offense involving domestic violence may not obtain a permit to carry a 

concealed weapon. Utah Code Ann. $53-5-704(2). Although it is unsettled whether 

expungement removes all state weapons disabilities, it appears that most, if not all, "crimes of 

violence" would be excluded from the remedy of expungement in any event, and, as noted, 

records of an expunged conviction may be used in determining whether to issue a permit to 

carry a concealed firearm. Utah Code Ann. $8 77-18-15(4); 53-5-704(3)(b)(i). The practice 

of the Utah Board of Pardons is to state specifically whether a pardon restores firearms 

privileges. 

-

t 'This provision does not apply to "[alny resident or nonresident hunters with a valid hunting license or 

-___, other persons who are lawfully engaged in hunting." Utah Code Ann. 8 76-10-512(6). State law does not appear 

to prohibit a felon from obtaining a hunting license. 
October 19% 	 Page 132 

VERMONT 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

Felons are permitted to vote by absentee ballot even during the period of incarceration. 

Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 28, 8 807. "A person who has served a term of imprisonment in this state 

after conviction of a felony" is disqualified from serving as a grand or petit juror. Vt. Stat. 

AM. tit. 4, 5 962(a)(5); tit. 12, 8 64. A felony conviction may be grounds for revoking, 

suspending, or refusing to issue a professional or business license. u:insurance agent or 

broker (Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 8, 8 4804(a)(7)); nurse (tit. 26, 5 1582(a)(2)); license to sell lottery 

tickets (tit. 31, 3 661(1)).' 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The pardon power (except in cases of treason or impeachment) is vested in the 

Governor. Vt. Const. chap. 11, 8 20. The question whether federal felons are eligible to 

apply for a gubernatorial pardon has not been settled in Vermont. 

Upon the filing of a written agreement between the state's attorney and the defendant, 

the court may defer sentencing of a person adjudged guilty of a state offense and place him on 

probation. Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 13, 8 7041(a). If the person successfully completes the terms of 

probation and the agreement, the court strikes the adjudication of guilt, discharges the 

defendant, and expunges the record. Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 13, 7041(b). 

11. 	 LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES2 

Vermont law does not prohibit felons from possessing firearm^.^ 

'There is a state registry for persons who engage in child sex abuse, although conviction is not a 

prerequisite for its application. Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 33, 8 4916. The statute is discussed in In re Selivonik, 670 

A.2d 831 (Vt. 1995). 

*For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Vermont law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see McGrath v. United States, 60 F.3d 

1005 (2d Cir. 1995). 

3A person may,however, be prohibited by a court from possessing firearms as a condition of probation. 

& v. m.1.52 Vt. 435, 566 A.2d 982 (1989). 
October 19% 	 Page 133 

VIRGINIA 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony loses the rights to vote and to serve on a jury. 

Va. Const. art. 11, $8 1, 2; Va. Code Ann. § 8.01-338. Because the right to hold office is 

contingent upon being qualified to vote, a person convicted of a felony also loses the right to 

hold public office. Va. Const. art. 11, 8 5. A public office holder forfeits his office upon 

conviction of a felony and the office is not restored by a grant of pardon. Va. Code Ann. 

8 24.2-231. 

A professional or occupational license may not be denied solely because of a prior 

criminal conviction unless it directly relates to the occupation. A licensing board may, 

however, deny a license if it finds, in light of all information available, that the applicant is 

unfit or unsuited to engage in that occupation. Va. Code Ann. 8 54.1-204. u:optometry 

(8 54.1-3215(2)); nursing (8 54.1-3007(4)); dentistry (8 54.1-2706(2)); accounting 

(8 54.1-2006(2)); funeral director (8 54.1-2806(1)); pharmacy (8 54.1-33 16(9)). State driver's 

licenses are revoked or suspended upon conviction of certain state or federal offenses relating 

to motor vehicles, or state or federal drug offenses. Eg.,Va. Code Ann. $8 46.2-389 to 

46.2-390.1. 

Virginia has a registration requirement for sex offenders. Va. Code Ann. 

8 19.2-298.1. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The power to grant pardons (except in cases of impeachment) and "to remove political 

disabilities consequent upon conviction" is vested in the Governor. Va. Const. art. V, 5 12. 

According to the office of the Secretary of the Commonwealth of Virginia, a person may apply 

for "removal of political disabilities" five years after completion of sentence, if all court costs 

and restitution have been satisfied. After a felon's civil rights have been restored through this 

procedure, he may apply for a "simple pardon," which constitutes official forgiveness, but 

does not erase the conviction. An "absolute pardon" is granted only in cases of innocence. A 

person convicted under federal law or the law of another state is eligible to apply for removal 

of political disabilities, but ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 
October 1996 Page 134 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FWARMS PRIVILEGES1 

A person convicted of a felony under the laws of Virginia or any other state or under 

federal law may not possess or transport any firearm,* or carry a concealed "weapon" (defined 

to include both handguns and long guns, Va. Code Ann. 5 18.2-308(A)). Va. Code Ann. 

5 18.2-308.2(A).' To regain state firearms privileges, a convicted felon may apply to the 

circuit court of his residence for a permit to possess or carry a firearm. Va. Code Ann. 

5 18.2-308.2(C). The court "in its discretion and for good cause shown" may grant the 

petition. This restoration procedure is available to federal and out-of-state felons. While the 

Governor has the authority to restore state firearms privileges expressly by a pardon or 

through restoration of political rights, he does not customarily do so. 

'For a consideration of the interaction of federal firearms laws and Virginia law regarding the loss and 

restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see !h&&&&s v. l&dgcEthendee. 932 F.2d 318 (4th Cir.), s& 

w,502 U.S.917 (1991). The Office of the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia 

advises that obtaining a state firearms permit, as described in this section, does not constitute a restoration of civil 

rights sufficient to remove the federal firearms disability for state felons. 

Z"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Va. Code Ann. $ 18.2-308.2:2(G). 

'Also prohibited from possessing a firearm is any person less than 29 years old who was found guilty as a 

juvenile of an offense that was committed when the person was aged 14 or older and that would be a felony if 

committed by an adult. Va. Code Ann. $ 18.2-302(A). 
October 19% 	 Page 135 

WASHINGTON 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of an "infamous crime"4 is ineligible to vote, Wash. Const. art. VI, 

$8 1, 3, and his voter's registration is canceled upon notice of conviction. Wash. Rev. Code. 

8 29.01.080. Because the right to seek and hold elective public office is contingent upon 

being a qualified elector, a person convicted of an infamous crime also loses the right to hold 

such an office. Wash. Const. art. 111, 8 25, art. 11, 5 7; Wash. Rev. Code 8 42.04.020. A 

person convicted of a felony cannot serve on a jury. Wash. Rev. Code 8 2.36.070(5). 

Convicted felons also are prohibited from serving as a personal representative in a probate 

matter, Wash. Rev. Code $ 11.36.010, or from serving as a trustee. Wash. Rev. Code 

$ 11.36.021(2)(a). 

Except for certain sexual offenses involving children, neither public employment nor a 

professional or occupational license may be denied solely because of a felony conviction unless 

the offense is directly related to the position sought and less than 10 years has elapsed since 

conviction, although the fact of a prior conviction of a crime may be considered. Wash. Rev. 

Code 5 9.96A.020(1), (2). This limitation on considering a felony conviction in hiring does 

not apply to law enforcement agencies. Wash. Rev. Code fS 9.96A.030. 

Persons who have been convicted of certain sexual offenses are disqualified from 

receiving an educational certificate and from employment by school districts, educational 

service districts, and contractors hiring employees who will have regularly scheduled 

unsupervised access to children. Wash. Rev. Code 8 9.96A.020(3), (4). Persons convicted of 

certain offenses may be disqualified from certain occupations: &.: driver training school 

instructor (Wash. Rev. Code 8 48.102.015(l)(d)). Furthermore, employers and prospective 

employers may obtain information about an applicant's convictions under certain 

circumstances, such as when a bond is required for employment. Wash. Rev. Code 

$ 43.43.815(1). 

Washington has a registration requirement for sex offenders, Wash. Rev. Code 

$5 9A.44.130 to 9A.44.140, which expressly applies to federal convictions. Wash. Rev. 

Code §$ 9A.44.130(3)(a)(iii), 9.94A.O30(33)(c). 

\, . 4&g Wash. Rev. Code 8 29.01.080 (infamous crime is a "crime punishable by death in the state 

penitentiary or imprisonment in a state correctional facility"). 
October 1996 Page 136 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

A state offender may regain his rights to vote, to hold public office, and to sit on a jury 

by a pardon or by having his civil rights restored. The pardon power is vested in the 

Governor, Wash. Const. art. 111, $9; Wash. Rev. Code $ 10.01.120; who is aided by the 

recommendations of the Clemency and Pardons Board. Wash. Rev. Code $5 9.94A.250, 

9.94A.260. A person convicted under federal law or the law of another state is ineligible for a 

gubernatorial pardon; but the Clemency and Pardons Board has authority to restore the rights 

to vote and to seek political office to anyone convicted under federal law or the law of another 

state. Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.94A.260. Such certificates of restoration must be filed with the 

Secretary of State to be effective. Wash. Rev. Code 8 9.94A.260. 

A federal felon may regain his right to serve on a jury only by a presidential pardon; a 

felon convicted under the laws of another state must receive a pardon from the jurisdiction of 

conviction to regain this right. 

For Washington offenses committed after July 1, 1984, civil rights are restored by the 

issuance of a final discharge by the sentencing court. Wash. Rev. Code 5 9.94A.220(3). After 

discharge, certain offenders are eligible to have their record of conviction vacated, which 

permits the offender to state in an employment application that he has not been convicted of 

that crime. Wash. Rev. Code 5 9.94A.230(1), (3).5 l(' 

K *- ,j 

For state crimes committed prior to July 1, 1984, the following rules apply: (1) a 

person released on parole may obtain a certificate of discharge from the Indeterminate 

Sentence Review Board, which has the effect of restoring his civil rights (Wash. Rev. Code 

5 9.96.050); (2) a person given probation or a suspended sentence may have his civil rights 

restored by the sentencing court (Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.92.066); (3) a person who has 

successfully completed probation may also, before the expiration of the maximum possible 

period of punishment for the offense, request the sentencing court to withdraw a plea or 

verdict of guilty and dismiss the charges, which has the effect of releasing the person from all 

penalties and disabilities resulting from the conviction (Wash. Rev. Code § 9.95 240). 

In addition, upon application to the Clemency and Pardons Board, a state felon, 

whether convicted before or after July 1, 1984, may have his civil rights restored by the 

Governor by the express restoration of the felon's civil rights without a pardon. Wash. Rev. 

Code $5 9.96.010, 9.96.020. 

'The record of conviction may not be vacated under any of the following circumstances: (1) the offender 

has charges pending against him; (2) the offense is a violent offense or a crime against persons (as defmed under 

Washington law); (3) the offender was convicted again after discharge; (4) the offense is a Class B felony and it is 

less than 10years since discharge; or (5) the offense is a Class C felony and it is less than five years since 

discharge. Wash. Rev. Code 5 9.94A.230(2). 

/ 
October 1996 Page 137 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRMLEGES6 

A person may not own, possess, or control any firearm7 if he has been convicted in 

Washington or elsewhere of a "serious ~ffense,"~ any felony, or certain offenses involving 

domestic vi~lence.~ For certain offenses,1° a person who has received a probationary sentence 

(under Wash. Rev. Code 5 9.95.200) and a dismissal of the charges (under Wash. Rev. Code 

5 9.95.240) is not prohibited from possessing a firearm. Wash. Rev. Code 5 9.41.040(4). 

A convicted felon otherwise subject to the disability imposed by 5 9.41.040 is not 

prohibited from possessing a fiream "if the conviction has been the subject of a pardon, 

annulment, certificate of rehabilitation, or other equivalent procedure based on a finding of the 

rehabilitation of the person convicted or . . . based on a finding of innocence. " Wash. Rev. 

Code 5 9.41.040(3). Most methods of restoring civil rights under Washington law do not 

remove state firearms disabilities because they do not require "a finding of rehabilitation" or 

"of innocence" within the meaning of § 9.41.040(3). EQ, Wash. Rev. Code §§ 9.94A.220 

("certificate of discharge is not based on a finding of rehabilitation"); 9.96.050 (certificate of 

discharge issued to a parolee does not restore firearms privileges). &&1988 Op. Att'y 

6For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and Washington law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see United States v. Herron, 45 F.3d 

340 (9th Cir. 1995). M: This case involves an earlier version of Washington law concerning firearms privileges 

different from that set forth in this section. 

7"Firearm" is defined to include both long guns and handguns. Wash. Rev. Code 9 9.41.010(1). 

'"Serious offense" includes any of the following offenses or an attempt to commit any of them: any 

crime of violence; second-degree child molestation; controlled substance homicide; incest with a child under age 

14; indecent liberties; leading organized crime; first-degree promoting prostitution; third-degree rape; sexual 

exploitation; vehicular assault; vehicular homicide when proximately caused by the driving of a vehicle by any 

person recklessly or while under the influence of intoxicating liquor or any drug; any other Class B felony with a 

finding of sexual motivation; any other felony with a deadly weapon verdict; or any federal or out-of-state 

conviction for an offense that would be a "serious offense" under Washington law. Wash. Rev. Code 

8 9.41.010(12). "Crime of violence" is defined to include: offenses classified as Class A felonies under 

Washington law; an attempt, conspiracy, or solicitation to commit a Class A felony; first- and second-degree 

manslaughter; indecent liberties committed by forcible compulsion; second-degree rape, second-degree 

kidnapping; second-degree arson; second-degree assault; second-degree assault of a child; second-degree burglary; 

residential burglary; second-degree robbery; and federal or out-of-state offenses comparable to a "crime of 

violence" under Washington law. Wash. Rev. Code 9.41.010(11). 

gThe penalties differ depending on the nature of the offense that forms the basis for the firearms 

disability. 

'"That is, offenses other than murder, manslaughter, robbery, rape, indecent liberties, arson, assault, 

kidnapping, extortion, burglary, or any drug offense under Wash. Rev. Code §§ 69.50.401(a) or 69.50.410 

(dealing with the sale, manufacture, delivery, or possession with intent to manufacture or deliver of a controlled 

substance). Wash. Rev. Code 9.41.040(4). 
October 1996 Page 138 

Gen. No. 10 (1988); && v. Tho=, 35 Wash. App. 161, 665 P.2d 914 (1983) (holding that 

discharge and restoration procedure under Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.92.066 does not remove ban 

of predecessor to Wash. Rev. Code $9.41.040). 

A person prohibited from possessing a firearm under $ 9.41.040 who has no previous 

convictions for a sex offense that results in a firearm disability or any felony designated 

"under any law" as a Class A felony or having a maximum penalty of at least 20 years may 

petition a court of record to have his right to possess a firearm restored under Wash. Rev. 

Code 8 9.41 -047. Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.41.040(4)(a). Alternatively, after five consecutive 

years in the community without being convicted or currently charged with another offense, 

such a person may petition a court of record to restore his firearms privileges, provided he has 

"no prior felony convictions that prohibit the possession of a firearm counted as part of the 

offender score" under Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.94A.360. Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.41.040(4)(b).11 

Felons subject to the prohibitions of $ 9.41.040 are also ineligible for a concealed 

pistol permit. Wash. Rev. Code $ 9.41.070(1)(a). No one convicted of a "serious offense" 

may have his or her ability to obtain a concealed pistol permit restored unless he has obtained 

relief from federal firearms disabilities under 18 U.S.C. § 925(c)12 or unless his state firearms 

privileges have been restored under $9.41.040(3) or (4), described above. Wash. Rev. Code 

$ 9.41.070(1)(h)(iii). 

"Wash. Rev. Code 8 9.41.047 sets forth no procedures, criteria, or eligibility requirements for restoring 

firearms privileges to a person disabled from possessing guns based on a conviction, except for persons disabled 

from possessing firearms based on having three convictions in five years for alcohol- or drug-related offenses. 

Accordingly, unless restoration under 8 9.41.047 is limited to persons convicted three times in five years of 

alcohol- or drug-related offenses, it is not clear what, if any, differences there are between the restoration 

provision of $ 9.41.040(4)(a) and of 8 9.41.040(4)(b). 

\ 12Congresshas not appropriated funding for the restoration process under 8 925(c) since fiscal year 1992, 

making this means of restoring licensing privileges under Washington law currently unavailable. 
October 19% 	 Page 139 

WEST VIRGINIA 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

No person "under conviction of treason, felony, or bribery in an election . . . shall be 

permitted to vote while such disability continues." W. Va. Const. art. 4, § 1; W. Va. Code 

§ 3-1-3. No person "convicted of treason, felony, or bribery in an election, before any court 

in or out of this state," shall hold elected or appointed office "while such conviction remains 

umeversed." W. Va. Code 6-5-5. Anyone convicted of bribery of an executive, legislative, 

or judicial officer is forever disqualified from holding any office or position of honor, trust, or 

profit. W. Va. Const. art. 6, 45; W. Va. Code §rj 61-5-4, 61-5-5. No person "convicted of 

bribery, perjury, or other infamous crimesi' is eligible to serve in the legislature. W. Va. 

Const. art. 6, $ 14. This provision applies to offenses under West Virginia law, and does not 

include federal offenses. Isaacsv. v,12 S.E.2d 5 10 (W. Va. 1940); 

54 Op. Att'y Gen. W. Va. 128 (1972). A person is disqualified from serving on a jury if he 

"has lost the right to vote because of criminal conviction," or if he has been convicted of 

"perjury, false swearing or other infamous offense. " W. Va. Code 5 52-1-8(b)(5), (6). A 

felony is an "infamous offense. " &&v. u,378 S.E.2d 449 (W. Va. 1989) 

(interpreting predecessor of 6 52- 1-8). 

A felony conviction may be grounds for suspension or annulment of a professional 

license. u:attorney (W. Va. Code 30-2-6); registered professional nurse (5 30-7- 1 1 (b)): 

veterinarian (8 30-10-1 l(e)). A felony conviction for illegal conduct relating to public office 

disqualifies a public employee from receiving a pension. W. Va. Code 5-10A-1, ct seq. 

West Virginia has a registration requirement for sex offenders. W. Va. Code $9 61-8F-1 to 

6 1 -8F-9. 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The right to vote is restored automatically upon service of the sentence, including any 

period of parole, as is the right to hold public office, unless the conviction was for bribery of a 

state officer. Webb v. County Court of &&gh Coune, 113 W. Va. 474, 168 S.E. 760 

(1933); 51 Op. Att'y Gen. W. Va. 182 (1965). The right to serve on a jury is not restored 

upon completion of sentence, according to federal courts interpreting state law, which 

disagreed with the opposite conclusion reached in 51 Op. Att'y Gen. W. Va. 182 (1965). 

United States v. Morrell, 61 F.3d 279 (4th Cir. 1995); Berger v. United States, 867 F. Supp. 

424 (S.D. W. Va. 1994). 

The Governor has the power to grant pardons after conviction (except when 

._,' prosecution has been carried on by the House of Delegates). W. Va. Const. art. 7, § 11. 

Federal felons are ineligible for a gubernatorial pardon. 

i 
October 19% Page 140 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES' 

No person who "[hlas been convicted of a felony in this state or in any other 

jurisdiction . . . shall have in his or her possession any firearm or other deadly weapon. " 

W. Va. Code § 61-7-7.2 A person disqualified under this section, however, may petition the 

circuit court of the county of his residence for relief from the disability, and such relief may be 

granted if (1) clear and convincing evidence demonstrates that the person is "competent and 

capable of exercising the responsibility concomitant with the possession of a firearm or other 

deadly weapon, " and (2) such possession would not violate federal law. W. Va. Code 

8 61-7-7. A person "convicted of a felony or of an act of violence involving the misuse of 

such deadly weapon" may not be issued a license to carry a concealed deadly weapon, W. Va. 

Code $8 61-7-4(a)(5), other than on his own premises. W. Va. Code 5 61-7-6(1). A Class 

A-1 small arms hunting license "shall never be issued to a person who has been convicted of a 

misdemeanor in any way associated with the use of firearms or dangerous weapons or who has 

been convicted of any felony. " W. Va. Code 8 20-2-40b. 

'For a consideration of the interaction between the federal firearms disability and West Virginia law 

concerning the loss and restoration of civil rights and firearms privileges, see Y e s v. Morrell, 61 F.3d 

279 (4th Cir. 1995); United States v. -, 38 F.3d 115 (4th Cir. 1994); United States v. Haynes, 961 F.2d 50 

(4th Cir. 1992); Bereer v. United States, 867 F. Supp. 424 (S.D. W. Va. 1994). 

'As defined in W. Va. Code $61-7-2(1 I), "firearm" includes both long guns and handguns. 
. October 1996 	 Page 141 

WISCONSIN 


I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AND SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of "treason, felony or bribery" loses the right to vote. Wis. Stat. 

$ 6.03(l)(b). Since eligibility for jury service depends on being a qualified elector, such 

persons also lose the right to be a juror. Wis. Stat. $ 756.01(1). A person convicted of an 

"infamous" crime in any "court within the United States" is ineligible for any office of trust, 

profit, or honor. Wis. Const. art. XIII, 5 3. 

No state or private employer or licensing agency may deny or terminate employment or 

a license because of a person's conviction record unless the circumstances of the offense 

substantially relate to the particular position or the conviction would preclude obtaining a 

required bond. Wis. Stat. $5 111.321; 11 1.322; 111.32(6); 11 1.335(c). A person engaged in 

the business of installing burglar alarms, however, may not employ a convicted felon as an 

installer of burglar alarms unless the felon has received a pardon. Wis. Stat. 

$$ 1 1 1.335(l)(cm); 134.59(1). Further, a person's license or permit relating to alcoholic 

beverages may be revoked, suspended, or not renewed based solely on his conviction for 

certain drug offenses under Wis. Stat. 5 161.41 or under federal law or the law of another 

state that is substantially similar. Wis. Stat. $$ 11 1.335(l)(cs); 125.04(5)(1), (5)(b). 

Effective July 1, 1997, convicted felons who have not been pardoned are ineligible to be 

licensed as private detectives or private security persons, Wis. Stat. $440.26(2)(~)(1), and the 

license of a private detective or private security person who has been convicted of a felony in 

Wisconsin or elsewhere but has not been pardoned is to be revoked. Wis. Stat. 

$440.26(6)@). Examples of other fields in which a conviction may be relevant in the 

licensing decision include medical practices (Wis. Stat. $ 448.05(1)(a)), and optometry 

(8 449.07(1)(d)). 

Wisconsin has a registration requirement for persons convicted of or adjudicated 

delinquent based on the commission of a sex offense. Wis. Stat. $ 175.45 (renumbered 

301.45, effective June 1, 1997). Persons convicted of a sex offense may be required to submit 

a biological specimen for DNA testing. Wis. Stat. $ 973.047(1)(b). A person convicted under 

federal or state law of a serious child sex offense may not be employed or volunteer in a 

position that requires work or interaction primarily or directly with children under 16. Wis. 

Stat. $ 948.13(1).' 

'Indeed, it is a felony for the convicted person to do so. Wis. Stat. P 948.13(2). 
October 1996 Page 142 

B. RESTORATION OF RIGHTS/REMOVAL OF DISABILITIES k 

The rights to vote and to serve on a jury are automatically restored upon completion of 

sentence. Wis. Stat. 5 304.078. In order to regain the right to hold public office, a felon 

must be granted a pardon. The pardon power (except in the cases of treason or impeachment) 

is vested in the Governor. Wis. Const. art. V, $6. State authorities advise that the Governor 

can pardon a person convicted under federal law or the law of another state. 

11. LOSS AND RESTORATION OF STATEFIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of a felony in Wisconsin, or of a crime elsewhere that would be a 

felony if committed in Wisconsin, loses the right to possess a firearm or pepper~pray.~ Wis. 

Stat. 55 941.29(1)(a), (b); 941.29(2). This prohibition does not apply to anyone who has 

received a pardon and has been expressly authorized to possess a firearm under 18 U.S.C. 

App. 5 1203 (now re~ealed),~ or has obtained relief from federal firearms disabilities under 

18 U.S.C. 5 925(~).~Wis. Stat. 5 941.29(S)(a), (b). 

2Although the term "firearm" is not specifically defined in this section, from the context and the wording 

of related statutes, it would appear to include both long guns and handguns. &g &Wis. Stat. 8 167.31(1)(c) (so 

defining "firearm" for purposes of certain prohibitions on transporting guns in vehicles). 

This section exempted from the scope of 18 U.S.C. App. § 1202, which criminalized possession, 

receipt, or transportation of a firearm by a convicted felon, any person who had been pardoned or expressly 

authorized by the President or chief executive of a state to receive, possess, or transport firearms. These statutes 

were repealed in 1986, part of their substance being incorporated in 18 U.S .C. $5 92 1 - 925. The Attorney 

General of Wisconsin concluded that under 18 U.S.C. 921(a)(20), a state offender who receives a state pardon 

is not subject to the federal felon-in-possession statute, 18 U.S.C. 5 922, unless the pardon expressly restricts 

firearms privileges. 78 Op. Att'y Gen. 22 (No. 6-89) (1989). 

'Since Congress has not appropriated funding for the restoration process under $ 925(c) since fiscal year 

1992, this method of restoring state firearms privileges under Wisconsin law is not currently available. 
[-': 8 


\..-,I 

-L~' 

October 1996 	 Page 143 

WYOMING 

I. 	 RIGHTS TO VOTE, HOLD STATE OFFICE, AMD SERVE ON A STATE JURY; 

SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL DISABILITIES 

A. 	 LOSS OF RIGHTS 

A person convicted of a felony forfeits the rights to vote, to serve on a jury, and to 

hold "any office of honor, trust or profit within this state. " Wyo. Stat. $5 6-10-106(a), 

1-11-102. 

An occupational or professional license may be denied, revoked, or suspended because 

of certain convictions. u:barber school operator (Wyo. Stat. 5 33-7-31 l(a)(iii)); insurance 

agent (5 26-9-136(a)(vi)); outfitter ($5 23-2-41 l(c)(ii), 412(e)(ii), 416(a)(iii)); dental hygienist 

(5 33-15-12 l(a)(i)); radiologic technologist (5 33-37-1 1 l(a)(i)); title agent (5 26-23-32 I@)); 

cosmetologist ($ 33-12-135(b)). Wyoming has a registration requirement for sex offenders. 

WYO. Stat. $5 7-19-301 to 7-9-306. 

B. 	 RESTORATION OF RIGHTSIREMOVAL OF DISABILITIES 

The rights to vote, to serve on a jury, and to hold public office may be regained either 

by a pardon or by a restoration of civil rights. Wyo. Stat. 5 6-10-106(a). The Governor has 

the power both to pardon (except in cases of treason or impeachment), Wyo. Const. art. 4, 

5 5, and to restore rights upon satisfactory completion of probation or expiration of the term of 

the sentence. Wyo. Stat. 5 7-13-105(a). A person convicted under federal law or the law of 

another state is ineligible for a state pardon, but is eligible for a certificate of restoration of 

rights. Wyo. Stat. 5 7-13-105(a). 

11. 	 LOSS AND BESTOKUTION OF STATE FIREARMS PRIVILEGES 

A person convicted of a "violent felony,"' or an attempt to commit a violent felony or a 

felony under Wyo. Stat. 5 6-5-204(b) (which prohibits causing or attempting to cause bodily 

injury to a peace officer) who has not been pardoned, may not use or knowingly possess a 

firearm (including both handguns and long guns). Wyo. Stat. 5 6-8-102. Persons disabled 

from possessing firearms under 5 6-8-102 and persons disabled from possessing firearms 

under federal law, 18 U.S.C. 5 922(g), are also prohibited from obtaining a permit to carry a 

concealed firearm (defined for these purposes as a handgun, Wyo. Stat. 5 6-8-104(y)(ii)). 

Wyo. Stat. 5 6-8-104(b)(iv). A permit may also be denied if the applicant has been found 

guilty or pleaded nolo contendere to one or more crimes of violence constituting a 

'Violent felonies include murder, manslaughter, kidnapping, sexual assault in the first or second degree, 

robbery, aggravated assault, aircraft hijacking, arson in the first or second degree, and aggravated burglary. 

Wyo. Stat. $ 6-1-104(xii). 
October 1996 Page 144 

misdemeanor offense within three years before submitting the application. Wyo. Stat. 

$ 6-8-104(c). A permit must be revoked if the permit holder becomes ineligible by reason of 

conviction or if the holder is convicted of or pleads nolo contendere to any crime of violence, 

or any offense involving a controlled substance or alcohol abuse while carrying a concealed 

weapon. Wyo Stat. 5 6-8-104(q). 
APPENDIX A 

C' LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTS TO VOTE, TO HOLD STATE OFFICE,* 


AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of 


Columbia 


October 1996 

Rights Lost 

vote, jury (for crime 

of moral turpitude), 

office 

vote (for felony 

involving moral 

turpitude), jury 

vote, jury, office 

vote, jury, office 

vote, jury, office 

vote, office 

vote, jury, office 

vote, jury, office 

vote, jury, office 

How Rights Are Restored 

Rights restored by pardon only. Federal felons eligible for state 

pardon. 

Rights restored automatically upon unconditional discharge or by 

pardon. Federal felons ineligible for state pardon. Set-aside 

procedure available for certain state convictions. 

Rights automatically restored upon completion of sentence for first 

offenders; recidivists must apply to court upon discharge from 

probation or two years after discharge from imprisonment, or 

obtain pardon. Set-aside procedure available for certain state 

offenders. Federal offenders ineligible for state pardon, but may 

obtain automatic restoration or court relief. 

Right to vote automatically restored upon completion of sentence; 

right to serve on jury restored by pardon; right to hold office not 

restored. even by a pardon, but may be restored by expungement. 

Federal felons eligible for state pardon. Deferred adjudication and 

expungement procedures available to some state offenders. 

Right to vote lost only if imprisoned, and restored automatically 

upon completion of sentence, including parole. Other rights 

restored by pardon only. Federal offenders ineligible for state 

pardon. Set-aside procedure available for state offenders sentenced 

to probation. 

Right to vote lost only if incarcerated, and automatically restored 

upon completion of sentence, including parole. For certain 

offenses, right to hold office lost only if incarcerated and restored 

upon completion of sentence or while on release from actual 

confinement on conditions of probation; for other offenses, right 

restored by pardon. Federal felons ineiigible for state pardon. 

Rights to vote and hold office restored upon proof of discharge 

from sentence, including parole or probation and payment of fine. 

Right to serve on jury automatically restored seven years after 

conviction (unless defendant is then incarcerated). Federal felons 

ineligible for state pardon. 

Rights to vote and serve on a jury restored by pardon; right to hold 

office not restored. Federal felons ineligible for state pardon. 

Right to vote and to hold many offices lost only during 

incarceration, and restored automatically upon release from 

incarceration. Right to serve on jury restored automatically one 

year after completion of sentence upon certification under jury 

plan. Right to hold certain offices restored by pardon, which only 

President may grant for both federal and D.C.offenders. 

A- 1 
LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTS TO VOTE, TO HOLD STATE OFFICE,* 

AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION 

LState 

Florida 

Georgia 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Rights Lost How Rights Are Restored 

vote, jury, office Rights restored by pardon or restoration of rights. Federal felon 

may obtain restoration of rights, but not state pardon. 

vote, jury 

(disqualification 

from grand jury 

service applies only 

to state felons 

convicted after 

1976). office (for 

felony involving 

moral turpinlde) 

Right to vote automatically restored upon completion of sentence. 

Right to hold office restored if civil rights restored and 10 years 

have passed since completion of sentence and no further conviction 

of felony involving moral turpitude. Right to sit on jury restored 

by pardon or restoration of rights. Restoration of rights but not 

state pardon available to federal offenders. Sentence without 

adjudication available for certain state first offenders. 

vote, jury, office Right to vote lost only if incarcerated, and automatically restored 

upon release from confinement. Right to hold office (except for 

certain crimes) restored upon final discharge. Right to serve on 

jury restored by pardon. Federal offenders ineligible for state 

pardon. Conditional discharge and deferred adjudication 

procedures available to certain state offenders. 

vote, jury, office Rights lost only if imprisoned, and restored automatically upon 

final discharge. Federal felons ineligible for state pardon. 

Withheld judgment and probation procedure available to most state 

offenders; amendment of conviction from felony to misdemeanor 

available for many state offenses when prison sentence is imposed 

but suspended. 

vote, office Right to vote lost only if imprisoned, and automatically restored 

upon release from incarceration. Right to hold public office 

automatically restored upon completion of sentence (except for 

certain election-related offenses). Federal offenders ineligible for 

state pardon. 

vote, jury, office Right to vote lost only if imprisoned, and automatically restored 

upon release from incarceration. Right to serve on jury restored 

upon completion of sentence. Right to hold office restored only by 

pardon (court-imposed disqualification for certain misdemeanors 

cannot exceed 10 years). Federal offenders ineligible for state 

pardon. 

vote, felons may be 

challenged for cause 

as jurors, office 

Rights restored by pardon or restoration of rights, both by 

Governor. Federal offenders eligible for restoration of rights, but 

ineligible for state pardon. Deferred judgment procedure available 

to some state offenders. 

vote, jury, office Rights lost only if imprisoned, and automatically restored upon 

completion of sentence or final discharge. ~ederai offenders 

ineligible for state pardon. Expungement procedure available for 

many state convictions. 

October 1996 A-2 
LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTS TO VOTE,TO HOLD STATE OFFICE,* 

AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION 

State Rights Lost 

vote, jury, office 

Kentucky 

vote, jury, 

forfeiture of office 

Louisiana 

Maine court may order 

forfeiture of office 

vote, jury, office 

Maryland 

jury, forfeiture of 

Massachusetts office 

vote, jury, 

forfeiture of office 

and disqualification 

for certain offenses 

vote, jury, office 

Minnesota 

vote (for specified 

offenses), jury, 

Mississippi office 

vote, jury, office 

Missouri 

How Rights Are Restored 

Rights restored by gubernatorial pardon or restoration of rights 

("partial pardon"). Federal offenders eligible for restoration of 

rights, but not full state pardon. 

Rights to vote and to hold office lost only if under an order of 

imprisonment and automatically restored upon termination of 

supervision. Right to serve on a jury apparently restored by 

pardon. "First-offender pardon" available for state offenders; 

Board of Pardons has discontinued processing requests for "firstoffender pardonn for federal offenders. Regular state pardon not 

available to federal offenders. 

Pardon presumably does not restore forfeited office. Federal 

felons ineligible for state pardon. 

For first offenders, rights automatically restored upon completion 

of sentence, except, as to right to hold office and right to serve on 

jury, for certain offenses. Otherwise and for other offenders, 

rights restored by pardon. Federal offenders ineligible for state 

pardon. Probation without adjudication procedure available to 

certain state offenders. 

Right to serve on jury automatically restored seven years after 

completion of sentence. Federal felons eligible for state pardon. 

Sealing of records procedure available to certain state offenders. 

Right to vote lost only if incarcerated, and automatically restored 

upon release from confinement. Rights to hold public office 

(except for certain offenses) restored upon completion of sentence; 

although felons not ineligible for jury service after completion of 

sentence, may still be challenged for cause. Federal offenders 

ineligible for state pardon. Certain state offenders eligible for setaside procedure. 

Rights automatically restored upon discharge from sentence. 

Federal offenders ineligible for state pardon. Set-aside procedure 

available for certain state offenders. 

Right to vote may be restored by legislature. by administrative 

procedure for certain veterans, by pardon, or by executive order 

for certain probationers. Right to serve on jury automatically 

restored five years after conviction. Right to hold office restored 

only by pardon. Federal offenders ineligible for executive order or 

state pardon. 

Right to vote automatically restored upon final discharge (except 

for election crimes); right to hold office restored upon completion 

of sentence. Right to serve on jury restored by pardon. Federal 

offenders ineligible for state pardon. 

October 1996 
LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTSTO VOTE, TO HOLD STATE OFFICE,* 

AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION !.-/ 

. Federal offenders ineligible for certificate or warrant of 

or state pardon. Set-aside procedure available for state 

pardon. Expungement procedure available to certain state 

certain offenses offenders. Certificate of good conduct available to state offenders 

on a jury and to hold office (if lost) restored by pardon or by 

North Carolina 

Federal offenders ineligible for state pardon, but eligible for 

October 1996 
State Rights Lost 1 

vote, jury, office 

North Dakota 

vote, jury, office 

(for federal 

offenses, these 

rights lost only for 

Ohio convictions after 

1973) 

vote, jury, office 

Oklahoma 

vote, jury, office 

Oregon 

vote, jury, office 

Pennsylvania 

vote, jury, office 

Rhode Island 

vote, jury, office 

South Carolina 

October 1996 

How Rights Are Restored 

Rights to vote and hold office lost only if imprisoned, and 

automatically restored upon release from incarceration. Right to 

sit on a jury lost during period of ineligibility to vote (unless 

special provision of law renders offender ineligible). Federal 

offenders ineligible for state pardon. Reduction of conviction from 

felony to misdemeanor or procedure for vacating conviction 

available to certain state offenders. 

Right to vote lost only if incarcerated and automatically restored 

upon release from incarceration. Rights to hold office and to serve 

on jury restored by serving sentence of community control sanction 

or of confinement not followed by post-release control or by final 

release by parole authority. (Some disqualifications terminate after 

seven years.) Not clear whether restoration procedures apply to 

federal offenders. Federal offenders ineligible for state pardon. 

Sealing procedure for state records only available to certain state 

and federal offenders, which restores rights. 

Right to vote automatically restored after period of time equal to 

sentence. Right to hold office restored 15 years after completion 

of sentence unless specific permanent bar applies. Right to serve 

on a jury restored by pardon. Federal offenders ineligible for state 

pardon. Deferred judgment and expungement procedures available 

to certain state offenders. 

Rights lost only if incarcerated, and automatically restored upon 

release from confinement, except for disqualification relating to 

state legislative office, which is restored upon completion of 

sentence. Not clear whether federal offenders eligible for state 

pardon. 

Right to vote lost only if incarcerated, and automatically restored 

upon release from confinement. Rights to hold public office and to 

serve on a jury restored through pardon. Federal offenders 

ineligible for state pardon. 

Rights to vote and to serve on jury automatically restored upon 

completion of sentence. Right to hold office restored three years 

after completion of sentence. Not settled whether federal offenders 

eligible for state pardon. Expungement available to certain state 

offenders. 

Rights to vote and to hold public office restored upon completion 

of sentence (except for conviction of felony embezzlement of 

public funds, which disqualifies felon from holding office unless 

disability is removed by 213 vote of legislature upon payment of 

sum embezzled and interest). Right to serve on jury restored only 

by pardon. Federal offenders ineligible for state pardon. 
I 

f=== LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTS TO VOTE, TO HOLD STATE OFFICE,* 

AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION (--

State Rights Lost 	 How Rights Are Restored 

vote, jury, office 	 Rights lost only if sentenced to imprisonment, and automatically 

restored upon release from confinement (or, when execution of 

South Dakota 	 sentence suspended, upon termination of sentence). Not clear 

whether federal offenders eligible for state pardon. Probation 

without adjudication procedure available to state offenders. 

vote, jury (for Right to hold office for certain offenses lasts until civil rights are 

certain offenses), restored; otherwise, rights lost only if incarcerated and restored by 

office court action for convictions before July 1, 1986; rights restored by 

Tennessee 	 pardon, service or expiration of maximum sentence, or final 

release from incarceration for convictions after July 1, 1986, 

except right to vote not restored to certain felons. Federal felons 

eligible for automatic and court restoration, but not for state 

pardon. 

vote, jury, ofice 	 Right to vote restored two years after receiving certificate of 

(for certain 	 discharge, two years after completing probation, or by pardon. 

offenses) 	 Other rights restored by restoration of civil rights granted by 

Texas 	 Governor to certain felons after completion of sentence, and at 

least three years after conviction. Federal felons are ineligible for 

state pardon, but certain federal felons may have rights restored by 

Governor. Deferred adjudication, set-aside, and expungement 

procedures available for certain state offenders. 

Rights restbred by pardon. State pardon unavailable to federal 

offenders. Expungement procedure available for certain state 

forfeiture of certain Utah 

disqualification for 

treason and election 

jury Right lost only if sentenced to imprisonment, and restored only by 

Vennont pardon. Not settled whether federal offenders are eligible for state 

pardon. 

vote, jury, office Rights restored by removal of political disabilities, or pardon, both 

Virginia by Governor. Federal offenders eligible for removal of political 

disabilities, but not for state pardon. 

vote, jury, office 	 Rights restored by pardon or by restoration of civil rights from 

Governor without a pardon. Federal offenders may obtain 

restoration of right to vote and to hold office from Clemency and 

Pardons Boards, but ineligible for state pardon. For state offenses 

Washington 	 after July 1, 1984, rights restored by fmal discharge from court; 

for earlier state offenses, restoration of rights by sentencing court 

or administrative agency, depending on sentence. Right to serve -, 	 on jury for federal offenders must be restored by presidential 


pardon. 


October 1996 
I-LOSS AND RESTORATION OF RIGHTS TO VOTE, TO HOLD STATE OFFICE,* x. .,> 

AND TO SERVE ON A JURY AS A RESULT OF FELONY CONVICTION 


State Rights Lost How Rights Are Restored 

vote, jury, office Right to vote and to hold office (except for bribery of state officer, 

West Virginia which is permanently lost) restored upon completion of sentence. 

Right to serve on a jury presumably restored by pardon. Federal 

felons ineligible for state pardon. 

vote, jury, office Rights to vote and to serve on a jury automatically restored upon 

Wisconsin completion of sentence. Right to hold office restored only by 

pardon. Federal offenders eligible for state pardon. 

vote, jury, office Rights restored by pardon or by restoration of rights upon 

Wyoming expiration of sentence, both by Governor. Federal offenders 

eligible for restoration of rights, but ineligible for state pardon. 

*"Officen generally refers to both elective and appointive office, but may apply only to elective office depending 

on the state. 

October 19% 
APPENDIX B 

SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 

The reader should be aware that federal firearms laws independently prohibit convicted felons from possessing any firearm. For federal offenders, this disability is 

removed by a full presidential pardon or by obtaining relieffrom the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Fiream (BATF) pursuant to 18 U.S.C. $ 925(c); the latter remedy. 

however, has not been funded by Congress since fiscal year 1992. Accordingly, federal felons currently must obtain a full presidential pardon in order to have their federal 

firearm disability removed. A presidential pardon (unless restricted in effect by its terms) will also remove state firearms disabilities arising from the conviction of the 

pardoned offense; accordingly, the state restoration methods summarized below are not currently meaningful for federal offenders. If, however, the restoration procedure under 

18 U.S. C. $ 925(c) is funded in the future, methods for removing the state firearms disabilities of federal offenders will be of interest. 

For state offenders, the federal firearm disability may be removed by restoration of civil rights provided the restoration does not expressly restrict firearms privileges. 

These charts do not purport to answer the complex legal question of the extent to which a state offender in each of these states remains subject to the federal firearms disability 

for convicted felons. Rather, the chart only describes the state law pertaining to the loss and restoration offirearms privileges upon conviction. Please consult Section 111 of 

the summary of Federal Law in the survey for further details. States marked with an asterisk permit restoration of state firearms privileges when the offender obtains relief 

under 18 U.S.C. 5 925(c); however, as noted. that remedy is not currently funded. 

This chart highlights some of the more detailed information set forth in the firearms section of each state's entry in the survey, solely to facilitate comparison of various 

state laws. The terms "felonies, " "violent crimes, " "drug crimes, "and "handguns" are all used in their colloquial, non-technical sense for the purposes of summarization. me 

exact scope of each state's disability is determined by technical definitions, which are discussed in more detail in each state's summary. While a state pardon in many states 

will remove state firearms disabilities, the column marked "Only By State Pardon" is meant to signify those circumstances in which a state pardon is the only method for 

removing state firearms disabilities. For the reader's convenience, the symbol $ denotes those states in which a state pardon is available to federal offenders. 

All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Only By State 

Pardon 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Guns Procedure 

Alabama X X 

X 

X (10yrs from X 

Alaska (concealable discharge for 

felonies not 

(for felonies 

against the 

firearms) against the person) 

person) 

October 1996 B- 1 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Rme (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Procedure 

Only By State 

Pardon 

X 

(except for 

"dangerous 

Arizona X 

offenses,* 

10 yrs after 

discharge 

for 

userious" 

X 

(for 

"dangerous 

offensesn 

offenses, 2 

yrs for other 

offenses) 

X 

(8 yrs for 

Arkansas X offenses 

involving 

XS 

(otherwise) 

use of a 

weapon) 

X 

California X X (non-weapons 

offenses only) 

Colorado X X 

X 

Connecticut (except 

certain X 

felonies) 

Delaware X X X 

Exceptions1 


Explanations 


* 

No restoration for offenses 

involving use of dangerous 

weapon 

Felons also lose the right to 

obtain permit to carry a 

handgun or to purchase 

firearms 

Apparently no restoration 

procedure under state law 

October 1996 B-2 
- - 

SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Procedure 

Only By State 

Pardon 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

District of 

Columbia X X X Restoration only by 

presidential pardon 

Florida X 

X 

(8 yrs after 

completion 

of sentence) 

Felons also prohibited from 

obtaining license to carry a 

concealed weapon 

Georgia X 

X 

(for antitrust 

and trade 

offenses, 

and persons 

granted 

relief under 

18 U.S.C. 

0 925(c)) 

X 

First offender discharged 

without adjudication 

relieved of disability upon 

discharge; felons prohibited 

from obtaining license to 

carry handguns. 

-

Hawaii X X X X 

Idaho 

X 

(if 

sentence 

of 

custody) 

X 

(enumerated 

crimes) 

X 

(enumerated 

crimes) 

X 

(except 

enumerated 

crimes, upon 

final 

discharge) 

X 

(5 yrs for 

enumerated 

crimes) 

Restoration not available for 

first- or second-degree 

murder and certain felonies 

involving use of firearms. 

Felons and violent 

misdemeanants barred from 

carrying a concealed 

weapon outside the home or 

fixed place of business. 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


All Felonies 

State Bans Bans 

All Guns Handguns 

Illinois X 

Indiana X 

Iowa X 

Violent Crimes Drug Crimes 

Bans Bans Bans Bans 


All Guns Handguns All Handguns 


Guns 


Restoration Methods 

By Passage By Admin./ Only By State 

of Time (Yrs) Judicial Pardon 

Exceptions1 


Explanations 


Procedure 

X 


(20 yrs for 


forcible 


felony; 5 yrs 


for certain 


assault 


crimes) 


Ban applies to possession of 

X handgun outside home, 

property, or fixed place of 

business 

Restoration not available for 

forcible felony, felony drug 

X 	 crime involving firearm, or 

certain weapons offenses. 

Felons also banned from 

obtaining a pistol permit. 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 

All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans Bans Bans Bans Bans Bans By Passage By Admin./ Only By State Exceptions1 


All Guns Handguns Ail Guns Handguns All Handguns of Time (Yrs) Judicial Pardon Explanations 


Guns Procedure 


X "Person felony" is state 

(5 yrs for sentencing classification 

non-person 

felony not 

involving 

firearm; X 

X X X 10 yrs for ("person 

Kansas ("person person felonyn 


felony") felony not involving 


involving firearm) 


firearm, and 

non-person 

felony 

involving 

firearm) 

Kentucky X X Xt * 

X Ban applies to persons X X convicted of certain 

Louisiana (if (if X (after enumerated offenses, and to 

felony) felony) (10 yrs) completion 

of sentence) carrying a concealed 

weapon 

X Also bans felons from 

Maine X X (5 yrs after obtaining permit to carry a 

discharge) concealed weapon; right 

restored only by pardon. 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


All Felonies Violent Crimes 

State Bans Bans Bans Bans 

All Guns Handguns All Guns Handguns 

X X 

(and (and Maryland assault assault 

weapons) weapons) 

Massachusetts X 

Michigan X 

Minnesota X X 

Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

Bans 

A11 

Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Procedure 

Only By State 

Pardon 

X 

(for 

felony) 

X 

X 

X 

(5 yrs for 

long guns) 

X 

(handguns) 

X 

(3 yrs after 

completion 

of sentence 

for nondrug, nonviolent 

crimes) 

X 

(5 yrs after 

completion 

of sentence 

for most 

drug and 

violent 

crimes) 

X 

crimes; upon 

discharge of 

sentence for 

other 

felonies and 

drug crimes) 

X 

(10 yrs after 

expiration of 

sentence or 

restoration 

of rights for 

violent 

Exceptions1 


Explanations 


Felons also denied permit to 

carry a handgun 

Bans apply outside home or 

business 

"Felony" defined as crime 

punishable by imprisonment 

for 4 or more yrs. Felons 

also denied permit to 

purchase, carry, or 

transport pistol. 

Persons convicted of certain 

assault offenses prohibited 

from having pistols for 3 

Yrs 

October 1996 B-6 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


State 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 


Nevada 


New 


Hampshire 


All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

Bans Bans Bans Bans Bans Bans By Passage By Admin./ Only By State 

All Guns Handguns All Guns Handguns All 

Guns 

Handguns of Time (Yrs) Judicial 

Procedure 

Pardon 

X 

X (except 

license to 

carry) 

X 

("dangerX 

(5 yrs after 

conviction or 

OUS 

felony") release from 

confinement) 

X 

(if 

firearm 

used to 

X 

commit 

crime) 

X X 

X X 

X X 

(if (if X 

felony) felony) 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Felons also banned from 

carrying a concealed 

handgun or fully automatic 

firearm outside home or 

place of business; right 

restored by pardon.* 

Indefinitely bans all felons 

from obtaining permit to 

acquire concealable 

firearms 

Court may impose firearms 

restrictions for other 

felonies, with restoration 

upon completion of 

sentence. Felon also 

banned from obtaining 

permit to carry concealed 

weapon. 

Unsettled whether state 

pardon restores state 

firearms privileges 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Only By State 

Pardon 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Guns Procedure 

Also bans acquisition or 

New Jersey X X X transfer of all firearms for 

all felonies 

X 

(10 yrs. 

except for 

New Mexico X deferred 

sentence 

UP'"' 

completion 

of sentence ) 

New York X 

X 

(firstoffenders 

only) 

X 

(for other 

offenders) 

X Ban applies outside home or 

North Carolina (and fully 

automatic X business 

weapons) 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans Bans Bans Bans Bans Bans By Passage By Admin./ Only By State 

All Guns Handguns All Guns Handguns All Handguns of Time (Yrs) Judicial Pardon 

Guns Procedure 

X 

(10 yrs from 

conviction or 

release from 

prison or 

North Dakota X probation for 

violent 

felony; 5 yrs 

for nonviolent 

felony) 

X 

Ohio (if X X 

felony) 

X 

(and 

concealOklahoma able 

firearms 

and 

machineguns) 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Ban also applies to violent 

class A misdemeanors with 

automatic restoration after 5 

Yrs 

No existing state procedure 

for removing firearms 

disability 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


-


All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Only By State 

Pardon 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Guns Procedure 

X 

(15 yrs after 

Felons cannot obtain permit 

to carry concealed handgun 

discharge, 

Oregon X 

except for 

homicide, 

crime 

involving a 

gun, and 

recidivists) 

Pennsylvania X 

X 

(if 

punishable by 

more 

than 2 

Yrs) 

X 

(10 yrs and 

relief 

granted 

under 

0 92%~)) 

Felons and violent and drug 

offenders also banned from 

obtaining license to carry 

concealed handgun outside 

home or fixed place of 

business; restoration by 

pardon.* 

Rhode Island X X X 

Unsettled whether federal 

offenders eligible for state 

pardon 

South Carolina X X 

South Dakota X 

X 

(15 yrs after 

discharge) 

Felons, violent offenders, 

and drug offenders in past 2 

yrs, banned from obtaining 

permit to carry concealed 

pistol 

Tennessee X X 

(if felony) Apparently no restoration 

procedure under state law 

October 1996 

8-10 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


- -- 

All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Only By State 

Pardon 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Guns Procedure 

X Unless based on innocence, 

(5 yrs after pardon will not remove 

release from firearms disability 

Texas X prison or 

supervision; 

restores right 

to possess in 

home only) 

Exception for hunting (state 

X law appears not to prohibit 

(while felon from obtaining 

Utah on prob- X X X hunting license). Felons 

ation or also banned from obtaining 

parole) permit to carry concealed 

weapon. 

Firearms restrictions may 

Vermont be imposed as condition of 

probation 

Virginia X X 

Felons also banned from 

obtaining permit to carry 

concealed weapon unless 

X restoration by state 

Washington X X (except 

certain 

procedure or 8 925(c) 

relief. Ban does not apply 

offenders) to certain non-violent, nondrug offenses for which 

probation and dismissal of 

charges granted. 

October 1996 
SUMMARY OF STATE-LAW FIREARMS DISABILITIES IMPOSED UPON CONVICTION 


-- -- 

All Felonies Violent Crimes Drug Crimes Restoration Methods 

State Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All Guns 

Bans 

Handguns 

Bans 

All 

Bans 

Handguns 

By Passage 

of Time (Yrs) 

By Admin./ 

Judicial 

Only By State 

Pardon 

Exceptions1 

Explanations 

Guns Procedure 

Persons convicted of crime 

involving use of a deadly 

West Virginia X X weapon banned from 

obtaining permit to carry 

concealed deadly weapon 

other than on own premises 

Wisconsin X Xt * 

Felons also banned from 

Wyon~ing X X obtaining permit to carry 

concealed handgun 

October 1996