CHAD

N'Djamena

CHAD

• Moundou

Expeditionary Culture 

Field Guide 
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the decisive cultural dimension of your assigned 

location and gain skills necessary 

for success (Photo: US Army flag 

officer tours Chadian hospital with 

the facility commander). 

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 introduces “Culture 

General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate

effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2 presents “Culture Specific” Chad, focusing on unique 

cultural features of Chadian society

and is designed to complement other 

pre-deployment training. It applies 

culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment location (Photo: 

Traditionally, Chadian girls start 

covering their heads at a young age, 

courtesy of CultureGrams, ProQuest).

For further information, visit the Air 

Force Culture and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at 

http://culture.af.mil/ or contact AFCLC’s Region Team at 

AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil. 

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

ECFG 

Chad

About this Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story – 

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture. 

Social Behaviors Across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For 

example, all societies obtain 

food for survival, although

agrarian societies generally 

produce their own food for 

limited consumption using 

very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

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market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing most 

of what was traditional 

and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form of 

bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers. 

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life. 

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual. 

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection and 

widespread poverty caused 

by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions. 

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as civil 

war, disease, poverty, 

and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Chadian society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

A vast, land-locked republic in Central Africa, Chad is diverse 

as are most all African countries. Its geographic location along 

ancient trans-Saharan trade routes served to incorporate it 

early into the regional economy. Chad’s history since its 1960 

independence has been characterized by political instability,

civil war, and extreme poverty. Nor has democracy taken root: 

Chad has yet to experience a free and fair transfer of power 

through elections. It has, however, become an important 

partner in the fight against terrorism. 

Early History

While Chad possesses some of Africa’s richest archaeological 

sites, scientists still have an incomplete picture of the country’s 

pre-history. The 2001 discovery of a 7 million-year-old humanlike skull in central Chad prompted some scientists to claim the 

region as a potential cradle for humankind, though other 

researchers disputed the claim. Nevertheless, scientists agree 

that early humans 

inhabited the region at 

least 300,000 years ago.

While much of the northern 

1/3 of Chad is desert 

today, the area was lush 

and fertile when modern 

humans settled around 

Chad’s northwestern

Tibesti Mountains (pictured) some 12,000 years ago. There, 

these ancient inhabitants produced rock art depicting the 

region’s wild animals, including elephants, giraffes, ostriches, 

and panthers. Over the millennia, residents continued to 

produce rock art around Tibesti and on Chad’s northeastern

Ennedi Plateau, eventually depicting humans as well as 

domesticated animals such as cattle, camels, and horses.

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

The climate of northern Chad began to grow hotter and drier 

around 4000 BC. As the Sahara Desert expanded, many 

inhabitants migrated southward into areas that were still fertile 

and began growing crops. Other people remained in the arid 

regions and began herding livestock.

By the 5th century BC, trade caravans dealing in beads, ivory, 

metals, salt, and slaves began passing through what is now 

Chad. Over the next centuries, small kingdoms rose and fell, 

though few details are known about these events. Around the 

9th century AD, Arab travelers and traders began recording the 

region’s history.

The Age of Empires

From the end of the first millennium AD until the end of the 19th 

century, the region was home to a succession of empires that 

overlapped in both time and space. Although none of those 

empires ever controlled the entirety of present-day Chad, they 

all contributed to the culture, customs, and ethnic composition 

of the modern state. Most of these empires were founded by 

indigenous Africans but were also heavily influenced by Arabicspeaking, predominately Muslim immigrants (see p. 1 of 

Language and Communication). 

None of these states was ever able to expand far into southern 

Chad, where forests and disease effectively halted their 

cavalries. Instead, these empires regularly raided the southern 

regions, capturing slaves for the North African slave trade. 

Eventually, an ethnic, linguistic, and 

religious division arose that aligned 

with Chad’s geographic divisions.

The Kanem-Bornu Empire: One of 

the earliest states was the Kanem 

Empire, founded on the northeast 

shore of Lake Chad in the 9th 

century. Ruled for most of its history 

by the Sefuwa dynasty, Kanem 

became an Islamic state at the end of 

the 11th century. Kanem reached its height in the 13th century, 

when it extended into the present-day states of Cameroon, 

Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Libya (Illustration: Muhammad alAmin al-Kanemi, the first non-Sefuwa Sheikh of Bornu).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Kanem fell in the late 14th century due to economic difficulties, 

internal political divisions, and an invasion from the East. The 

Sefuwa dynasty then regrouped at Bornu (in present-day 

northeastern Nigeria) and gave birth to the Kanem-Bornu 

Empire, which extended its rule across much of the former 

Kanem Empire during the 16th century.

The Kanem-Bornu Empire drew its strength from its control of 

the southern end of the trans-Saharan trade route to Tripoli, 

modern-day Libya’s capital on the Mediterranean coast. The 

Empire traded slaves, ivory, animal hides, cotton, kola nuts, 

and ostrich feathers for salt, horses, silk, glass, muskets, and 

other manufactured goods from North Africa. The Empire 

reached its height at the beginning of the 17th century under 

mai (king) Idris Alawna, whose successful military tactics 

included armored horses and riders along with iron-helmeted 

musketeers trained by Turkish military advisors. An observant 

Muslim, Alawna built numerous mosques and introduced 

significant legal and administrative reforms based on sharia

(Islamic law). In the ensuing 

decades, Kanem-Bornu entered a 

long, slow decline before dissolving

completely in 1893 after Rabih 

Fadlallah, a Sudanese warlord, 

invaded the territory.

The Bagirmi Empire: The kingdom 

of Bagirmi emerged to the southeast 

of Kanem-Bornu in the 16th century. 

Following its adoption of Islam, it 

became a sultanate. Over its 300 

year history, it experienced periods 

of strength and weakness. When 

strong, it expanded, taking over smaller regional kingdoms and 

allying with several nomadic groups as a significant rival to 

Kanem-Bornu. During periods of weakness and instability, 

neighboring states, including the Kanem-Bornu, subjugated or 

absorbed it. By the 19th century, internal dissent and external 

threats had significantly weakened the Bagirmi. Faced with 

Rabih Fadlallah’s 1893 invasion, Bagirmi leaders turned to the 

French for help (Illustration: 19th-century depiction of a Bagirmi 

horseman).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Wadai Empire: The non-Muslim Wadai Empire first 

emerged in the 16th century as an offshoot of the state of 

Darfur, a region bordering Chad in present-day Sudan. Early in 

the 17th century, Islamic leader Abd al Karim united several 

local Muslim groups and overthrew the non-Muslim Wadai 

leaders. Abd al Karim subsequently established a dynasty that 

ruled the sultanate until the late 19th-century arrival of the 

French. 

Besides successfully resisting reincorporation into Darfur, 

Wadai’s leaders conquered substantial new territory. Wadai’s 

most famous ruler, Muhammad Sharif, subjugated Bagirmi and 

brought the Sanusiyya Islamic brotherhood to Chad in the mid19th century (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality). This

movement became an important source of resistance to French 

colonization well into the 20th century.

The Arrival of Europeans

Heinrich Barth, a German explorer who worked for the British 

government, became one of the first Europeans to enter the 

territory of modern-day Chad when he explored the Sahara 

Desert in the early 1850s. In 1870, German explorer Gustav 

Nachtigal led an expedition from Libya to Lake Chad, visiting 

the Kanem-Bornu, 

Wadai, and Bagirmi 

empires (Illustration: 

Nachtigal presents gifts 

from Prussian King 

Wilhelm I to Bornu leader

Umar in 1870).

The writings of these 

early explorers prompted 

French interest in the region. From their settlements on Africa’s 

west coast, the French moved inland, first claiming the territory 

of Ubangi-Chari (present-day Central African Republic – CAR) 

then occupying what is now southern Chad in 1889. 

Meanwhile, Sudanese warlord Rabih Fadlallah conducted

slave raids throughout the region in the 1890s, sacking BornuKanem, Bagirmi, and Wadai settlements. French military 

expeditions engaged Rabih’s troops numerous times before

defeating them in 1900.
HISTORY &

MYTH

French Equatorial Africa

In the first years of the 20th century, the French implemented 

colonial rule, outlawing slave raiding by the northern groups 

and establishing a rudimentary administrative structure. In 

1905, France’s Chadian territories joined with other French 

colonial possessions to form French Equatorial Africa (FEA), a 

colonial federation consisting of present-day countries of Chad, 

Republic of the Congo, CAR, Cameroon, and Gabon. 

Administration of FEA took place from Brazzaville (in presentday Republic of the Congo). In Chad, French colonial presence 

was largely confined to the South, where the French opened 

some schools (see p. 1-2 of Learning and Knowledge) and 

started a few development projects. By contrast, French 

presence in Chad’s central and northern areas was minimal. 

Indeed, resistance against the French continued in some of 

these regions for 

decades.

Eventually, the French 

came to rely on indirect 

rule through individual 

Islamic sultanates in 

Chad’s central and 

northern areas. In the 

South, where the French 

did have direct control, the 

colonial administration introduced large-scale cotton farming. 

The small advancements brought by the colonial system in the 

South, such as improved roads, some income, and new 

schools, did not outweigh its burdens. These included the 

dislocation of villages, significant hardship for farmers facing 

mandatory cotton production quotas, and forced labor (see p. 

11-12 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: A horseman in 

Chad in the 1910s).

As with their other African possessions, the French never tried 

to unify Chad or prepare its residents for service in the colonial 

administration. Instead, the French viewed Chad primarily as a 

source of raw cotton and untrained labor for use in other FEA 

regions. In fact, many areas of Chad remained ungoverned for 

much of the colonial period. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

During World War II, FEA’s governor-general advocated 

support of the Free French instead of the Vichy French 

government because of the latter’s collaboration with Nazi 

Germany. In 1946, the postwar French government – which

was controlled by the Free French – rewarded FEA’s loyalty by 

granting its residents French citizenship and giving them the 

right to elect representatives to France’s National Assembly. A 

decade later, France’s loicadre (Reform Act) of 

1956 transferred new 

powers of self-government 

to the FEA states (Photo: 

A Free French infantryman 

from Chad in 1942).

Independence

These changes inspired 

local political activity. 

Generally, political 

groupings followed Chad’s 

historic geographic, ethnic, and religious lines: Non-Muslim 

southerners tended to oppose politically the Muslim residents 

of the old Islamic sultanates of the northern and central 

regions. In 1958, voters approved a referendum making Chad

an autonomous republic within the French community. 

Although portions of the North remained under French military 

administration until 1963, Chad achieved independence in 

1960 with François Tombalbaye, a teacher and trade union 

leader from the South, as its first President.

The Tombalbaye Era

Although Tombalbaye initially made some effort at integrating 

Chad’s political factions, Chad’s central and northern groups 

resented the southerners’ political dominance. To neutralize his 

opponents and ensure his hold on power, Tombalbaye allowed 

only government-approved candidates in the 1963 elections, 

ushering in a one-party state. 

Within a few years, Tombalbaye’s authoritarianism had 

alienated large segments of the population. Further, economic 

conditions worsened, corruption increased, and government 

services and programs declined in quality and quantity. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 1966, several rebel groups in the northern regions joined 

together to form an anti-government coalition, the National 

Liberation Front of Chad (Front de Libération Nationale du 

Chad—FROLINAT). Meanwhile, a smaller rebel group formed 

in the east-central region. Both groups aimed to overthrow

Tombalbaye’s government, reduce French influence in Chad, 

and forge a stronger relationship with North Africa’s Arab 

states. In the late 1960s, home-grown anti-government 

violence occurred across central and northern Chad as groups 

in Sudan and Libya provided vocal support to the rebels.

When governmental forces were unable to crush the rebellions, 

Tombalbaye turned to the French to contain most rebellious 

activities in 1970-71. A subsequent reduction in violence, 

combined with the government’s 

release of political prisoners plus 

Tombalbaye’s promise to work

toward national reconciliation, 

compelled the French to withdraw 

(Photo: President Tombalbaye in 

1959).

Tombalbaye abruptly ended his 

reform efforts in 1971 when he 

claimed to have uncovered a 

coup attempt supported by Libyan 

leader Muammar Gaddafi. In 

retaliation, Tombalbaye invited 

anti-Gaddafi Libyan rebel forces to establish bases in Chad. 

Gaddafi responded by offering FROLINAT an operational base 

in Tripoli. 

In 1971-72, the Tombalbaye regime faced student 

demonstrations, a serious financial crisis, drought, and civil 

unrest. When authorities captured Libyan-trained rebels 

attempting to smuggle guns and explosives into the capital, 

Tombalbaye abandoned all attempts at national reconciliation, 

jailing thousands, including former southern political allies. 

Over the next 3 years, Tombalbaye gradually lost the support 

of his southern base and the loyalty of the military. He tried to 

deflect mounting criticism in various ways, such as requiring 

new African names for French place names (for example, the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

capital Fort Lamy was renamed N’Djamena). After Tombalbaye 

ordered the arrest of senior military officers suspected of 

plotting against him in 

1975, several military 

units mutinied, killing him 

during a coup d’état 

(Photo: Tombalbaye in a 

1970 parade celebrating 

10 years of 

independence).

The Malloum Era

Southern military officer 

Félix Malloum then 

assumed power as head 

of a Supreme Military Council. Malloum’s military government 

overturned some of Tombalbaye’s most hated policies but was 

largely ineffective. While Malloum managed to stay in office, 

surviving a violent coup attempt in 1977, the balance of power 

gradually shifted to the rebels when Libya began to provide

them more weaponry and logistical support.

This increase in Libyan support helped the rebels but also 

intensified rivalries within the rebel groups. A few years earlier, 

the northern rebels had split into several factions, including one 

led by Hissène Habré, an ex-member of Tombalbaye’s 

government, and another by Goukouni Oueddei (known as 

Goukouni). In 1977, Malloum met with Habré to negotiate a 

ceasefire. With international support, the parties reached a 

peace agreement and formed a government in 1978 with 

Malloum as President and Habré as Prime Minister.

The Hissène Habré Era

Despite the integration of rebel leader Habré into the Chadian 

government, the rebel groups continued their violent activities. 

By 1979, FROLINAT controlled about 1/2 of Chad’s territory. 

Meanwhile, Goukouni announced he had united 3 other rebel 

groups and continued to seek the government’s overthrow. As 

rebels advanced on the capital, much of its population fled, 

including President Malloum. With new factions forming and reforming, the civil war became predominantly a struggle among 

northern rebel groups.
HISTORY &

MYTH

As the violence across the country intensified, Chad’s 

neighbors organized 4 conferences to devise a power-sharing 

agreement acceptable to all parties. Negotiations were 

severely hampered by neighboring Nigeria’s and Libya’s efforts 

to influence the results. Nevertheless, 11 Chadian factions 

agreed in 1979 to a new government, the Transitional 

Government of National Unity (Gouvernement d’Union 

Nationale de Transition – GUNT), with Goukouni as President 

and Habré as a cabinet minister. While the other cabinet

positions were assigned to representatives from Chad’s 

different regions, the factions remained distrustful of each 

other. The rivalry between Goukouni and Habré grew.

Habré is Forced Out: In mid-1980, President Goukouni signed 

a military cooperation treaty with Libya then requested direct 

military assistance from Libyan leader Gaddafi (pictured in 

2009). By December, Libyan forces 

allied with Goukouni occupied the 

capital. Habré fled to Sudan, vowing 

to continue his fight for supremacy.

The international community strongly 

condemned Libya’s presence in 

Chad, calling for Libya to withdraw 

and sending in a peacekeeping unit, 

the Inter-African Force (IAF). 

Eventually, President Goukouni’s 

relations with Libya deteriorated, likely 

due to Gaddafi’s support to a rivalrous 

rebel group having ethnic and cultural 

ties to Libya. Because of this rift, 

Goukouni asked the Libyan troops to withdraw, which they did 

by the end of 1981. Taking advantage of their departure, 

Habré’s rebel troops invaded, winning key territories in eastern 

Chad. IAF troops eventually stopped their advance.

Habré Returns: When peace negotiations with President 

Goukouni collapsed in 1982, Habré resumed his march. This 

time, the IAF did not engage his troops, allowing Habré to take

the capital. As Habré seized power as head of state, Goukouni 

fled, establishing an opposition government supported by Libya 

in Chad’s North.
HISTORY &

MYTH

With massive Libyan military aid, Goukouni’s troops attacked

Habré’s in mid-1983. Concerned about Libyan leader Gaddafi’s 

intentions, the French soon intervened on President Habré’s 

behalf, dispatching troops and advisers while airlifting supplies 

to his troops. After heavy fighting in 1983-84, Habré’s troops 

prevailed. Although subsequent peace negotiations required 

the withdrawal of both French and Libyan troops, Libya refused 

to do so. Instead, it reinforced its presence in Chad, especially 

in the northern Aouzou Strip, a territory it historically claimed. 

In response to Goukouni’s and the Libyans’ continuing 

incursions, the French re-deployed to Chad in 1986. With 

French on-the-ground support enabled by US weaponry, 

President Habré launched successful offensives against the 

Libyans. Chad and Libya honored a ceasefire in 1987-88, then 

entered into peace negotiations. In 1994, the International 

Court of Justice returned the Aouzou Strip to Chad, effectively 

ending the Libyan occupation.

Habré Flees: Despite success against Libya, President Habré 

continued to face internal 

challenges. In 1989, 3 former 

Habré advisors were accused of 

planning a coup against him. One 

plotter was former commander-inchief of the armed forces, Idriss

Déby (pictured). Evading capture, 

Déby escaped to neighboring 

Sudan’s Darfur region. From there, 

his forces attacked Habré’s troops. 

In late 1990, Habré fled to Senegal 

as Déby’s forces seized the capital and Déby assumed power. 

The Déby Era

Déby’s government enjoyed support from both Sudan and 

Libya but soon faced significant internal opposition, including 

several attacks and coup attempts in 1991-92. Nevertheless, 

Déby implemented a series of reforms that opened the system

to multiple political parties. Officially designated interim 

President in 1993, Déby was elected President in 1996 in 

Chad’s first multiparty presidential elections. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Periodic skirmishes with rebels continued to occur in the late 

1990s. Despite accusations of corruption and mismanagement, 

Déby was re-elected in 2001 amidst a re-escalating northern 

insurgency. Following protests against the jailing of opposition 

leaders, the government announced a ceasefire with rebel 

leaders in 2002.

For the next few years, it appeared that Chad was finally on a 

progressive course to stability. There was little fighting, and 

with Chad’s new status as an oil-producing country, citizens 

hoped revenues would transform the country’s economy (see 

p. 2 of Economics and Resources). This optimism quickly 

waned as the Déby regime remained corrupt and repressive, 

with Chad’s security forces regularly committing serious human 

rights abuses. Following a 2005 referendum and constitutional 

amendment abolishing 

presidential term limits, 

Déby was re-elected for 

a 3rd term in 2006. 

Rebel offensives soon 

resumed. Although Déby 

(with the help of French 

troops) successfully 

defused 2 coup attempts, 

rebels reached the

capital in 2006 and 2008 before they were forced to retreat. 

Instead of using oil revenues to develop the country, the Déby 

government bought weaponry to combat the rebels (Photo: US 

Secretary of State Kerry greets Déby in 2014).

Spillover from Sudan: Besides these internal challenges, 

regional conflicts impacted Chad significantly. Beginning in 

2003, fighting in Sudan’s Darfur region resulted in hundreds of 

thousands of Sudanese refugees fleeing to Chad. Soon, the 

Chadian and Sudanese governments were accusing each 

other of supporting rebels. While the presence of international 

peacekeeping forces in Chad beginning in 2008 somewhat 

calmed the conflict, it was 2010 before the 2 countries signed a 

peace agreement. Despite normalized relations, most 

Sudanese refugees remain in Chad (see p. 9 and 12 of Political 

and Social Relations). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Chad’s 2011 presidential elections were initially postponed so 

that the government could respond to complaints regarding the 

voter registration process. When the issues remained 

unresolved, the opposition parties boycotted the election. Déby 

won his 4th presidential term with almost 89% of the vote.

The Fight against Terrorism: Meanwhile, increased militant 

violence in neighboring lands prompted Chad’s substantial 

support to counterterrorism efforts in the region (see p. 8-10 of 

Political and Social Relations). In 2013, Chadian soldiers 

fought alongside the French to halt the advance of al-Qaedalinked extremists in northern Mali, then participated in efforts

against the Nigeria-based terrorist organization Boko Haram. 

While these and other efforts earned Chad praise in the 

international arena, they were not without controversy. 

Following accusations of human rights abuses by Chadian 

soldiers in the CAR, 

Déby ordered a full 

withdrawal of his 

peacekeepers there 

(Photo: In a USsponsored program, 

Chadian actors 

present a sketch on 

Boko Haram 

recruitment tactics).

Contemporary Chad

Now in his 3rd decade in power, Déby has been largely

successful in controlling dissent within his own faction. By 

allowing his own Zaghawa ethnic group to dominate politically 

and economically, Déby has engendered some resentment 

among members of Chad’s other 200 ethnic and linguistic 

groups (see p. 11-12 of Political and Social Relations). The fact 

that Christians continue to be largely excluded from political 

power also occasionally causes tensions (see p. 7 of Religion 

and Spirituality). 

Chad’s precarious economic situation continues to cause 

significant hardship. In late 2014, crowds demonstrated in 3 

cities, protesting commodity shortages, increased fuel prices, 

and nonpayment of public workers’ salaries. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Throughout 2015, Boko Haram continued to attack Chadian 

territory from its bases in Nigeria, killing and abducting civilians, 

looting and destroying property, and displacing some 70,000 

Chadians. In response, Chad’s National Assembly adopted 

stringent new anti-terrorism measures that increased the 

number of arbitrary arrests and detentions. They further

banned veils fully covering the face, legalized the use of 

excessive force to disperse demonstrations, and allowed the 

execution of suspected Boko Haram members.

In addition to societal tensions, economic hardship, and the 

continual threat of violence, Chadians continue to suffer under 

the Déby regime’s poor governance and corruption. Chad 

remains one of the world’s poorest countries where 87% of 

rural residents live below the poverty 

line and suffer persistent food 

insecurity (see p. 3 of Sustenance and 

Health). Further, Chad houses some 

450,000 refugees and internally 

displaced persons (pictured) further 

stressing its already inadequate 

infrastructure and education, health, 

and social services. 

Collectively, these sources of instability 

make Chad very fragile. Protests are 

increasingly common: a 2015 law 

requiring motorcyclists to wear helmets 

sparked demonstrations that closed schools and universities,

while the gang-rape of a young woman in 2016 generated 

significant public outrage at the government. Further, protests 

in advance of the 2016 presidential election included 

demonstrations and a general strike. Meanwhile, some rebel 

groups continue their violent anti-government activities. 

Through political opposition, civil society organizations tried to 

deny Déby another term in the 2016 election but were 

unsuccessful. During the voting, the government shut down the 

Internet and text messaging services, acts widely condemned 

by international observers as attempts to influence the election. 

Amid accusations of voting fraud, the government announced 

that Déby had won a 5th term with almost 62% of the vote.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Habré Tried and Sentenced: In a May 2016 landmark ruling, 

former President Habré was convicted of crimes against 

humanity and sentenced to life in prison. He was accused of 

ordering the killing of about 40,000 Chadians while President

and torturing 100s of 1000s. Habré remained in Senegal when 

victims successfully pressed for a special court under the

authority of the African Union for his trial.

Su, the Trickster Spider 

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an 

objective record of the past based on verifiable facts, 

myths embody a culture’s values and often explain 

the origins of humans and the natural world. Myths 

are important because they provide a sense of 

unique heritage and identity. A common character 

in folktales across Africa is the animal trickster who 

behaves in unexpected and amusing ways. Through 

his quick wits or unique skills, the trickster often 

fools a more important or powerful being. Many 

societies use such trickster tales to reaffirm social 

norms and proper behaviors.

The Sara people of Chad’s southern regions relate 

the adventures of Su, a large, red, hairy spider. In 

one story, the beautiful daughter of a powerful chief

chose not to speak, although she was physically 

able to do so. By refusing to speak, the daughter 

avoided a planned marriage to a political ally. 

Devastated, her father promised his daughter’s hand 

to anyone who could compel her to speak. 

Although everyone doubted his abilities, Su 

announced he would try. He entered the daughter’s 

house carrying a bundle of straw and proceeded to 

repair her thatched roof. The daughter was so 

amused by the comical site that she burst out 

laughing and called Su a fool. Su and the young 

woman were subsequently married.
Official Name

Republic of Chad

Jumhūrīyat Tshād (Arabic)

République du Tchad (French) 

Political Borders

Libya: 652 mi

Sudan: 872 mi

Central African Republic: 967 mi

Cameroon: 693 mi

Nigeria: 53 mi

Niger: 743 mi

Capital

N'Djamena 

Demographics

Chad’s population of about 11.6 million 

is growing at a rate of 1.9% per year. 

Significantly, Chad has one the Sahara region’s smallest

population growth rates, lower than the rates of all 6 

neighboring countries. Like many African states, Chad is a 

young nation – about 65% of the population is under age 24. 

Chad is primarily rural: only 23% of the population lives in 

metropolitan areas, predominantly in N’Djamena. 

Approximately 1/2 of 

Chadians live in the South 

and 1/3rd in the center. 

Chad’s North remains 

sparsely populated. 

Flag

Combining colonial French 

blue and red with the PanAfrican colors of yellow and red, the Chadian flag’s 3 equal 

vertical color bands have several different meanings. The blue 

band symbolizes hope, the sky, and Chad’s fertile South; 

yellow represents the sun and the desert in the North; red 

denotes unity, progress, and sacrifice. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Situated in Central Africa, Chad is a landlocked country sharing 

borders with Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central 

African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the 

southwest, and Niger to the west. Chad’s total land area is 

about 495,755 sq mi, making it slightly larger than 3 times the 

size of California.

The hot and dry Saharan 

Desert (pictured) 

extends along Chad’s 

northern 1/3. A large 

basin comprises the 

majority of the remaining 

territory, bounded by 

mountains to the north, 

east, and south. The towering and volcanic Tibesti Mountains 

lie in the Northwest, where Chad’s highest peak, Emi Koussi, 

rises to 11,204 ft. Broad, semiarid plains characterize Chad’s 

center. Known as the Sahel, this zone extends across Central 

Africa and divides the Sahara Desert from the southern 

savannas. The Sahelian plains eventually transform into fertile, 

flat lowlands in the South. The Chari and Logone are Chad’s 

longest rivers, flowing from Chad’s Southeast into Lake Chad, 

which borders Cameroon, Nigeria, and Niger in Chad’s West. 

Of note, Lake Chad has shrunk substantially since the mid-20th 

century. Today, its exact size varies depending on annual 

rainfall and evaporation caused by high temperatures during 

the dry season. Consequently, the lake’s size ranges from 

about 3,800 sq mi to 11,000 sq mi from year-to-year.

Climate

Chad’s climate and temperatures vary across its 3 zones: 

desert in the North, Sahelian in the center, and subtropical in 

the South. Accordingly, the northern and central regions are 

hot and dry, while the South experiences a more humid and 

rainy climate. December-February constitute the cool and dry 

season, with temperatures averaging 80°F, but dropping as low 

as 55°F at night. Chad’s hot season runs March-May, bringing 

harmattan trade winds off the desert, with daytime 

temperatures averaging 100°F. In the South, rainfall is heaviest 

June-October. The North receives little-to-no rain each year.

POLITICAL &

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Chad is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, 

including harmattan winds, locust plagues, and periodic 

droughts. Most prevalent November-March, harmattan winds

intermittently blanket portions of Chad with a thick haze of dust, 

disrupting air and road traffic and causing various health 

complications, including asthma and bronchial illnesses. In 

addition, swarms of 

locusts periodically 

sweep across Chad, 

destroying crops. 

Finally, a lack of 

significant rainfall 

occasionally leads to 

drought, which in turn 

results in food shortages 

and contributes to desertification. In 2012, a severe drought 

prompted a national food and humanitarian crisis, eventually 

alleviated with the help of international disaster relief 

organizations (Photo: A desert water well).

Environmental Issues

Desertification caused by recurrent drought, rampant 

deforestation, and harmful farming techniques affects over 60% 

of Chad’s territory and leads to shortages in potable water. 

Notably, only about 30% of rural residents have access to safe 

drinking water. In addition, Chad’s primary source of water, 

Lake Chad, is only 5% of its original size and continues to 

shrink each year. 

Further, just 1% of rural Chadians have access to basic 

sanitation. As a result, improper waste disposal in rural regions 

creates pervasive water and soil pollution. Finally, because 

only about 2-6% of Chadians have access to electricity, the 

burning of wood and charcoal results in household air pollution. 

In N'Djamena, air pollution caused by automobile and industrial 

emissions is an additional concern.

Government

Chad is a presidential republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 23 administrative regions, 

each presided by a presidentially-appointed governor. Regions 

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subdivide into 61 departments. Within each department,

villages are grouped into counties led by local traditional chiefs. 

Since gaining independence from France in 1960 (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth), Chad has had several constitutions, the 

latest of which was adopted in 1996 and revised most recently 

in 2007 and 2013. Chad’s constitution separates power among 

the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Executive Branch

Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected by 

popular vote and serves as chief-of-state. The President 

appoints both the 21-member Council of Ministers, which 

supports the President, and the Prime Minister, who is head-ofgovernment. The President also has considerable influence 

over the appointments 

of judges, military 

leaders, and provincial 

officials and over both 

the legislative and 

judicial branches.

Current President

Idriss Déby first came 

to power in 1990 and 

began his 5th 

continuous Presidential term in April 2016 (see p. 13 of History 

and Myth). Although a 2005 Constitutional amendment allows 

the President to serve unlimited 5-year terms, Déby has

indicated that he seeks to reinstate a 2-term limit during his 

current incumbency (Photo: President Idriss Déby with wife 

Hinda Déby, US President Barack Obama, and First Lady 

Michelle Obama in 2014).

Legislative Branch

Chad’s legislature is a 1-chamber National Assembly (NA) 

composed of 188 members serving 4-year terms. While 118 

members are elected in multi-seat constituencies by 

proportional representation, the remaining 70 are directly 

elected in single-seat constituencies by popular vote. The NA 

controls all legislative powers, including amending the 

constitution, appointing positions in government, and approving 

declarations of war.

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Judicial Branch

Chad’s legal system is a mix of formal law and informal, 

customary law based on traditional, unwritten practices of the 

indigenous population. The civil judiciary includes a Supreme 

Court, a Constitutional Court, a High Court of Justice, and 

Courts of Appeal. As the highest court, the Supreme Court is 

the final court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases. For 

the Supreme Court, the President appoints the Chief Justice 

and 8 judges, while the speaker of the NA appoints the 

remaining 7, all serving life-long terms. Historically, judicial 

power has been weak and justices are often criticized for being 

corrupt and vulnerable to political influence. 

Local, customary courts adjudicate disputes pertaining to 

family, inheritance, and property. In some cases, village chiefs 

consult diviners (see p. 2

of Religion and 

Spirituality) to assess guilt 

and may assign public 

shaming or beatings as 

punishment. 

Political Climate

Chad has had numerous 

active political parties 

since Déby’s introduction of a multi-party system in the 1990s 

(see p. 10 of History and Myth). Most parties are fractionalized, 

underfunded, and politically weak. Déby’s Patriotic Salvation 

Movement (MPS) has been Chad’s ruling party since 1990 and 

currently holds the majority (62%) of NA seats (Photo: US 

Deputy Secretary of State Anthony Blinken greets Chadian 

Foreign Minister Moussa Faki).

The NA’s remaining 71 seats are distributed among 29 other 

parties, including the National Union for Democracy and 

Renewal (UNDR), Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), 

Union for Renewal and Democracy (URD), National Rally for 

Development and Progress (Viva-RNDP), and Front of Action 

Forces for the Republic (FAR), among others. Of note, political 

parties sometimes form along ethnic and rarely along religious 

lines (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality). 

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The government faces several challenges in maintaining the 

democratic process. Although the Constitution guarantees 

freedom of assembly, expression, and press, Déby’s regime 

regularly jails, harasses, and intimidates political opponents, 

journalists, and activists. In addition, opposition groups

repeatedly report voting irregularities (see p. 11-13 of History 

and Myth) despite international observers deeming elections 

generally free and fair. Discouraged by the election fraud, 

voters turn out in low numbers. Finally, corruption permeates 

all levels of government and significantly hinders the political 

process.

Defense

The Chadian Armed Forces (CAF) are a unified military force 

consisting of ground, air, and paramilitary branches, with a joint 

strength of 25,350 active duty troops. It is charged with 

defending against foreign and domestic threats and supporting 

disaster relief efforts. Due to Chad’s history of internal 

instability (see History and Myth) and emerging threats from 

radical Islamist groups, 

domestic counterinsurgency and counterterrorism efforts dominate 

operations. 

Army: The Chadian 

Army is a well-equipped, 

well-trained force of 

approximately 20,000 

active-duty troops, consisting of 8 maneuver battalions 

(including armored and light), 3 combat support battalions, and 

1 combat service support unit (Photo: CAF Chief of the General 

Staff greets his soldiers during Exercise Flintlock in 2015). 

Air Force: The smallest of the 3 military branches, the Chadian 

Air Force consists of 350 active-duty personnel and has 1 each

ground attack unit, transport squadron, Presidential transport 

unit, and attack helicopter squadron, with 14 combat capable 

aircraft.

Paramilitary: The Chadian Paramilitary divides into 5,000 

active-duty Republic Guard members and 4,400 active-duty 

Gendarmerie personnel. 

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Security Issues

Chad’s security environment is dominated by a variety of both 

internal and external threats.

Internal Violence: Violence stemming from rebel groups 

seeking to overthrow the government has plagued Chad for 

several decades, leaving more than 170,000 Chadians 

displaced (see p. 7-10 and 13 of History and Myth). Despite 

intermittent periods of stability, rebel groups remain active 

along Chad’s border regions. Of note, the ongoing violence has 

hampered international efforts to deliver aid to Chad’s 

displaced and vulnerable populations.

Boko Haram: Boko Haram is a Nigeria-based violent Islamist 

insurgent movement that first emerged in the 1990s. Today, it 

also operates from parts of Chad, Niger, and Cameroon while 

seeking to purge the region of Western influence. Notorious for 

its brutality, Boko 

Haram has conducted

several terrorist attacks 

in Chad, primarily in the 

Lake Chad region and 

in the capital city of 

N’Djamena. These 

attacks have destroyed 

entire villages and 

killed scores of 

Chadians. In total, about 2.8 million people have been 

displaced as a result of Boko Haram activities in the Lake Chad 

Basin region as a whole. An additional 5.6 million require 

emergency food aid (Photo: Chadian soldiers unload boxes of 

meals from a C-130). 

In 2015, Boko Haram publicly pledged its allegiance to the 

Islamic State Organization (IS, also known as Daesh, ISIS, and 

ISIL), a militant Islamist group currently controlling large swaths 

of territory in Iraq and Syria. Although Chad and its regional 

allies successfully reversed Boko Haram’s recent territorial 

advances, the new alliance with IS fuels the concern that Boko 

Haram may gain more regional influence.

Regional Insecurity: Porous borders and ongoing internal 

conflicts in neighboring Libya, Sudan, the Central African 

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Republic (CAR), Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria result in 

regional tensions. The continuing movement of weapons, 

drugs, and rebel forces across the borders results in 

intermittently heightened tensions. Regional tensions escalated 

most recently in 2014, when Chad temporarily closed its border 

with CAR following intensified violence, later reopening a 

corridor to allow refugees to pass. 

As of 2016, over 450,000 refugees have entered Chad, 

primarily from Sudan, the CAR, and Nigeria. Although Chad 

cooperates with international organizations to administer aid to 

these displaced populations, the efforts are severely 

underfunded. Refugee camps stress Chad’s already limited 

public resources and are fraught with violence and criminal 

activity. Consequently, the majority of residents live in dire 

conditions.

Foreign Relations 

Chad’s desire to secure its borders and counter regional 

Islamist militant groups significantly influences its foreign 

relations. Thus, Chad generally seeks friendly relations with 

neighboring countries, participates in multiple regional counterterrorism operations, and actively encourages other African 

nations to take 

ownership of regional 

security. In addition, 

Chad is a member of 

global institutions like 

the United Nations, the 

International Monetary 

Fund, World Bank, 

and the World Trade 

Organization (Photo: US and Chadian forces board a C-130 

during a multinational training exercise). 

Regional Security Cooperation: Chad participates in the 

French-led Operation Barkhane, an anti-insurgent operation 

formed in 2014 together with Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, 

and Niger. Collectively known as the “G5 du Sahel,” the group 

addresses common security concerns and seeks to promote 

economic development of the Sahel region, including 

investment in local infrastructure, agriculture, and pastoralism. 

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Chad is also a founding member of the Multi-National Joint 

Task Force (MNJTF), a 5-country security force (with Benin, 

Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria) established in 2015 to fight 

Boko Haram and other Islamist militant groups. The MNJTF is 

headquartered in N’Djamena.

Relations with the US: The US and Chad have strong political 

and military ties, first established in 1960 following Chad’s 

independence from France. Most notably, the US partners with 

Chad in numerous counter-terrorism and internal security 

operations, such as the Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism 

Partnership (TSCTP), first established in 2005. Under the 

TSCTP, the US provides training to counterparts in 11 

countries (Algeria, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Mali, 

Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tunisia) on 

regional security and stability practices. 

The main objectives of the TSCTP are to deny terrorists the 

ability to move freely in the sparsely populated Sahara, 

promote knowledge-sharing among member nations, and 

develop regional interoperability. The TSCTP also seeks to 

protect vulnerable groups living in isolated areas that are most 

susceptible to extremist ideologies by supporting social 

services, youth employment, and improving health and 

education infrastructure. Chad hosted the annual TSCTP 

counterterrorism exercises known as Exercise Flintlock in 2015 

(Photo: Soldiers from 

multiple nations line up 

for the opening 

ceremony of Exercise 

Flintlock).

In addition to military 

support, the US 

provides Chad with 

bilateral assistance to 

develop Chadian civil 

society, human rights institutions, and other socio-economic 

stabilizing agencies. The US also provides Chad with financial 

aid to support various humanitarian efforts, including food 

security and medical assistance programs for displaced 

Chadian and international refugee populations. 

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Ethnic Groups

While the government neither officially recognizes ethnic 

groups nor collects census information regarding their 

membership, scholars estimate Chad is home to over 200 

separate ethnic 

groups. (Photo: A 

Chadian community 

group). 

Historically, Chadian 

ethnic groups 

divided into 3 

groups: nomadic pastoralists, semi-nomadic pastoralists, and 

sedentary agriculturalists. Historically, these different 

settlement patterns aligned with Chad’s distinctive geographic 

regions and generally still hold today. The southern 1/5 of the 

country is home to Chad’s sedentary agriculturalists, while the 

northern Sahara Desert region is populated by nomadic 

groups. By contrast, the country’s central Sahelian region hosts 

a few of both types plus semi-nomadic groups. Of note, 

Chadians of all ethnicities now inhabit the country’s urban 

areas. Further, many of these peoples also reside in

neighboring Libya, Sudan, the CAR, Cameroon, Nigeria, and 

Niger (Photo: 

Chadian students 

examine new 

textbooks).

Sara: The Sara and 

its numerous subgroups comprise 

Chad’s largest ethnic 

group, around 30% of 

the population. The 

Sara peoples live primarily in the South and are usually 

Christians or followers of traditional religion, though some Sara 

living in urban areas are Muslim. Primarily farmers, many Sara 

also raise livestock. Of all Chad’s ethnic groups, the Sara had 

the most contact with the French during the colonial period. 

The Sara suffered under French forced labor and displacement 

policies yet benefited from French educational opportunities. 

Consequently, they were better positioned to assume 

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governing responsibilities upon Chad’s independence. Chad’s 

first President, François Tombalbaye, belonged to a Sara subgroup. 

Toubou and Gorane: The Toubou of Chad’s far northern 

regions also divide into several sub-groups. Primarily Muslim 

and historically nomads, some Toubou today follow a semisedentary lifestyle, 

guiding their herds 

from pasture-topasture in the dry 

season and returning 

to permanent villages 

in the rainy season. 

While rebel leader 

Goukouni was a

member of a Toubou

sub-group called the 

Teda, President Habré was a member of one called the Daza. 

Another prominent northern group, the Gorane, also includes 

several sub-groups (Photo: Traditional leaders attend a US 

Embassy event in the northern community of Faya-Largeau).

Kanembu, Baguirmi, and Maba: These primarily Muslim 

groups are notable because their ancestors were the core 

ethnic groups of the Kanem-Bornu, Bagirmi, and Wadai 

empires, respectively (see p. 2-4 of History and Myth). 

Arabs: Chad is also home to Muslim Arabs who divide into 3 

major tribes. While the Juhayna began arriving from Sudan in 

the 14th century, the Hassun and Awlad Sulayman trace their 

history to Libya. Primarily living in Chad’s central Sahelian 

zone, the Arabs traditionally are semi-nomadic animal herders.

Other Groups: Other notable groups include the Fulani, 

Hadjerai, Kotoko, Moundang, and Zaghawa, among many 

others. Current President Déby is a member of a Zaghawa 

sub-group. As noted earlier, Chad also houses refugees from

several neighboring countries. Further, Chad’s urban areas are 

home to Libyans, Cameroonians, Sudanese, Nigerians, and 

Yemenis who are mostly merchants and tradespeople. Finally, 

many of Chad’s missionaries and aid workers are European or 

North American.

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Social Relations

Some of Chad’s ethnic groups traditionally recognized several 

low prestige occupational groups and classes, such as hunters, 

tanners, potters, and blacksmiths. These classes or groupings

often dictated potential 

marriage partners and 

were associated with 

particular types of 

speech or behavior. 

While these class 

distinctions may still 

have some meaning in a 

few rural areas, they 

largely have eroded in most parts of the country, mostly due to 

significant societal changes since independence. Specifically, 

improved access to education and the mobilization of armed 

movements have led to new societal divisions based on 

economic class and politics (Photo: Chadian women receive 

medical supplies in Faya-Largeau).

Chad’s ethnic groups traditionally have their own distinctive 

social systems based on their lifestyles. Among Saharan 

nomads like the Daza, the basic societal unit is the family. 

Several families together form a clan, which typically has a 

name and symbol. Clans control their own palm groves, 

farmland, springs, and 

pastures. 

By contrast, the basic 

social unit of the seminomadic Arab tribes is the 

kashimbet, a lineage of 

several generations of 

men, their wives, and 

children or grandchildren. 

Each kashimbet is headed 

by an elder male or sheikh. Among the sedentary Sara, the 

basic social unit is traditionally the village. Within the 

community, residents trace their identity and rights to land 

through their patrilineage, or male side of the family (Photo: US 

Embassy press attaché meets with members of Chad’s media).

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Overview 

According to a 2009 government census, about 58% of 

Chadians are Muslim and about 34% Christian. The remainder 

follow traditional beliefs and practices or claim no religious 

affiliation. Chad’s constitution stipulates the separation of 

church and state and recognizes no national religion (Photo: 

Chad’s Grand Imam 

greets US Ambassador

Knight).

Traditional Beliefs

Before Islam and 

Christianity were 

introduced, Chadians 

followed a variety of

traditional religious 

beliefs and practices. 

Many Chadian groups 

practiced animism, the 

belief that the spirit of life or consciousness resides in all 

objects, both animate and inanimate. Animism promotes the 

notion that all natural objects – for example, trees and animals 

– are sacred, and this conviction establishes a close 

connection between animists and their environment. For 

example, the Mbaye, a Sara subgroup residing in the South, 

traditionally believed in water, lightening, and sun spirits, 

among others. 

Many groups also recognized a supreme being, a creator god 

who was good, merciful, and unknowable. Because the 

supreme god did not intervene in daily life, practitioners rarely 

made appeals directly to him. Instead, they petitioned a host of 

lesser spirits. Some Chadian groups also believed that the 

spirits of their ancestors intervened in daily life to guide or 

obstruct human behavior. To influence or understand the 

spirits’ actions and intention, they held special ceremonies or 

performed certain rites. For example, offerings to ancestors 

were an important part of the Sara people’s rituals marking the 

new year, the first new moon following the harvest.

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religious beliefs and practices also played an important role in 

some groups’ political structures. Among such groups, the 

political leader was also a religious leader who was responsible 

for maintaining good relations with the spirit world. For 

example, one duty of the leader of the Moundang ethnic group 

was intervention with the sky spirits in order to maintain the 

community’s appropriate social order.

Most Chadian groups had various ways to ensure that 

specialized religious knowledge was passed through the 

generations. For example, some groups supported secret 

societies whose members educated children and young adults

in religious beliefs. Traditionally, each ethnic group also held 

ritual ceremonies to mark birth and death, celebrate initiation, 

promote healing, and dispel evil spirits. Celebrants typically

offered food and drink to the ancestor and other spirits during 

the ceremonies, which also included making music, drumming, 

singing, and dancing.

Some Chadians today still adhere to traditional beliefs, 

including practicing certain ritual ceremonies and initiation rites

(see p. 3-4 of Family and Kinship). Many Chadians who claim a 

Christian or Muslim identity also incorporate particular aspects 

of traditional religion into their devotional practices. Some 

Chadians experiencing misfortune seek counsel from diviners – 

ritual specialists who identify the source of the hardship and 

offer solutions to mediate it. Of note, Chadians rarely accuse 

one another of witchcraft, an act that can result in significant 

mistreatment of the 

accused in other 

countries in the region. 

Islam

Origins of Islam

Muhammad, who 

Muslims consider God’s 

final Prophet, was born in 

Mecca in 570 in what is today Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe 

that while Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the 

Archangel Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing 

the Qur’an, or “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday lives and 

shape their values (Photo: Late 7th-century Arabian Qur’an).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam 

There are 5 basic 

principles of the Islamic 

faith. 

• Profession of Faith 

(Shahada): “There is 

no god but God, and 

Muhammad is His 

Messenger.” 

• Prayer (Salat): Pray 5 times a day while facing the Ka’aba in 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka’aba (pictured) is considered 

the center of the Muslim world and a unifying focal point for 

Islamic worship. 

• Charity (Zakat): Donate a percentage of one’s income to 

the poor or needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia once in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in one God. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace their 

descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael.

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments, and Muslims view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God. 

Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for 

the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as a prophet 

but do not acknowledge his divinity or the Christian Trinity. 

View of Death: Muslims believe that God determines the time 

of death and birth. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven 

(Photo: US officials meet 

with members of Chad’s 

High Islamic Council).

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or 

inner striving, is a 

fundamental element within 

Islam. Traditionally, it is the 

principled and moral pursuit of God’s command to lead a 

virtuous life. It should not be confused with the publicized 

violence often associated with jihad. Most Muslims are strongly 

opposed to terrorism and consider it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Observed during the 9th month of the Islamic lunar calendar 

(see p. 2 of Time and Space), Ramadan is a month-long time 

for inner reflection, self-control, and focus on God. During this 

time, Muslims who are physically able fast from dawn to 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their hunger helps

them to learn self-control, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, 

and gain spiritual renewal – by fasting, a Muslim learns to 

appreciate the good in life. Chadian Muslims typically break 

their daily fast at sunset with a meal known as iftar. Ramadan 

includes several holidays:

• Lailat al-Qadr: This “Night of Power” marks Muhammad’s 

receipt of the first verses of the Qur’an.

• Eid al-Fitr: Also called Korité in Chad, this “Festival of FastBreaking” celebrates Ramadan’s end and is a national 

holiday in Chad.

The largest of the 3 holidays is celebrated when the Hajj ends, 

about 70 days following the end of Ramadan.

• Eid al-Adha: Also known as Tabaski in Chad, this “Festival 

of Sacrifice” commemorates Abraham’s willingness to 

sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, according to Christians), 

as proof of his loyalty to God. It is also a national holiday.

The Arrival of Islam in Chad

Islam penetrated northern and central Chad in a series of 

waves. Although Arab traders may have brought Islam to the 

region as early as the 10th 

century, Islam’s initial 

impact was minimal. The 

situation changed with the 

rise of 3 powerful empires 

that adopted Islam between 

the 11th and 17th centuries 

(see p. 2-3 of History and 

Myth). Over time, several

inhabitants adopted the new religion (Photo: US Ambassador 

Knight with a local Muslim leader in Sahr).

Sufi Tradition: Characterized by mysticism and ritualistic 

prayer, the Sufi tradition of Islam has been influential in Chad. 

The first Sufi movements emerged in the Middle East in the 

13th century, when charismatic Islamic leaders sought to 

complement Qur’anic study with direct religious experience 

through prayer and contemplation. Followers of these leaders

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
formed brotherhoods to promote their versions of Islam. West 

African Muslim traders brought the Tijaniyyah order to Chad in 

the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Founded in mid-19th 

century Libya, the Sanusiyya brotherhood enjoyed substantial 

influence in Chad around the turn of the 20th century. Its

followers promoted Islam as a way to reject French cultural 

influences and colonialism (see p. 5 of History and Myth). 

Christianity

Christianity first arrived in Chad in the early 20th century, 

shortly after the French took control of the region (see p. 5 of 

History and Myth). In contrast to colonialists in other African 

colonies, the French did not support the early efforts of 

Christian missionaries. Instead, the 

French adapted the structures of the old 

Islamic states to colonial needs. 

Following World War I, the colonial 

government’s opposition to 

Christianity’s introduction softened 

somewhat with the government 

eventually tolerating the presence of 

Christian missionaries. In the 1920s, 

American Baptists were among the first

Christian missionaries to arrive, quickly 

followed by other Protestant 

denominations. The Roman Catholic 

Holy Ghost Fathers founded their first mission in 1929. 

Following World War II, both Protestant and Catholic missions

began offering medical services and opening schools (see p. 2

of Learning and Knowledge). These efforts were concentrated 

in the South among Chad’s animist populations. Few Christian 

missionaries attempted to proselytize among Chad’s Muslim 

population (Photo: Roman Catholic Cathedral in N’Djamena).

Religion Today

Religious ceremonies are popular social occasions for 

Chadians. While most urban areas are home to Chadians of all 

traditions, Muslims remain concentrated in the northern and 

central regions with Christians mainly in the South. Some 

predominantly Muslim groups include the Fulani, Toubou, 

Kotoko, Kanembu, Baguirmi, and Zaghawa, as well as the Arab 

tribes (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Generally, religious relations between Christians and Muslims 

are marked by mutual tolerance and cooperation. Religious 

tension was not a contributing factor to the decades of civil 

unrest resulting from geographic and ethnic divisions.

Islam

Most Chadian Muslims identify with the Tijaniyyah or 

Sanusiyya Sufi traditions and adhere to the Maliki school of 

Sunni Islam, a generally tolerant school of thought emphasizing 

community consensus and the primacy of the Qur’an over later 

Islamic teachings. A very small percentage of Chad’s Muslims 

hold fundamentalist beliefs popular in Saudi Arabia known as 

Wahhabism or Salafism. Many Muslim children attend Qur’anic 

schools either in addition to or instead of attending public 

schools where they learn the practices and morals of Islam and 

memorize Qur’anic verses in Arabic (see p. 6 of Learning and 

Knowledge). 

Christianity 

Some 18% of Chadians identify as Roman Catholic while about 

16% are Protestant. Most Protestants are evangelical 

Christians. Chad’s Christian churches remain an important 

source of social, medical, and educational services for their

members (Photo: US 

embassy personnel visit 

a Christian school).

Religion and Politics

While Christians and 

Muslims generally get 

along, some Christians 

resent their current lack 

of representation within 

the government. Chad’s 

first President, François Tombalbaye, was a southerner who 

staffed most governmental positions with other southerners, 

thus giving northern Muslims a political disadvantage. Since 

about 1980, Muslims from Chad’s North have held the 

Presidency (see p. 8-12 of History and Myth). Although many 

southerners have served as Prime Minister, northern leaders

have generally given Muslims preferential treatment in hiring 

and promotion for civil and military positions. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview 

The family is the center of Chadian life, often serving as a 

mutual support network for its members. Chadians typically 

respect their elders highly, care for their less fortunate 

relatives, and generally prioritize the desires and needs of their 

families over their own. 

Residence

Housing structures in Chad 

vary depending on location, 

family composition, and 

income. Some 72% of 

Chadians live in rural areas

where electricity and

sanitation services are 

unavailable (see p. 6 of 

Sustenance and Health). 

While these services are 

more readily available in urban areas, only Chad’s wealthiest 

urban residents have running water and electrical power 

(Photo: Chadian women receive medical care during Exercise 

Flintlock).

Urban: Housing in Chad’s urban areas is varied. A few wealthy 

Chadians construct single-family, multi-room homes from

modern materials like brick and cement often incorporating

Western or Arabic architectural styles. Surrounded by high 

walls, these homes typically consist of multiple bedrooms, 

several bathrooms, a kitchen, living room, and an outdoor 

terrace. Chad’s small middle class as well as most foreign 

nationals typically live in apartment complexes.

Chad’s poorest urban residents construct small huts from

straw, wood, and mud bricks. Families often gather in small 

compounds comprised of multiple huts, typically sharing an 

outdoor kitchen and latrine. Most urban residents collect water 

from wells or purchase it from vendors. Some residents may 

use generators to power air conditioners, televisions, and 

lights, while others rely on oil lamps to light their homes. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Interiors are generally sparsely decorated, though some 

families paint their walls, use curtains, and hang pictures. 

Rural: Similar to poor urban dwellers, rural families tend to live 

in compounds of 5-6 

single-room huts 

surrounded by a mud 

brick wall. Mud floors are 

common, although some 

families can afford to 

cover their floors with 

cement. In the North, 

nomadic populations live 

in easily transportable, 

temporary shelters (Photo: Residences in southern Chad).

Family Structure

Most residential compounds house multiple generations, 

including a man, his wife or wives (see “Polygyny” below), his 

parents, unmarried children, and other extended relatives. 

Urban and more Westernized Chadians may live as nuclear 

families, consisting of 2 parents and their children. As head of 

the household, the father makes all key decisions in 

consultation with family elders and other male relatives. The

mother is typically responsible for the majority of domestic 

tasks, including childcare, housecleaning, collecting water and 

firewood, shopping, and food preparation. 

Polygyny: Refers to the practice of a man having multiple 

wives simultaneously. Polygyny is legal and relatively common

among Muslims and traditional religious practitioners (see p. 2 

and 7 of Religion and Spirituality). In 2011, about 1/3 of married 

Chadians were part of a polygynous household. Generally, 

polygyny is less common among younger and educated 

Chadians as well as urban dwellers. By contrast, Christian 

families tend to be monogamous. 

In a polygynous family, the male head of household lives in his 

own residence within the family compound, while each wife 

lives with her daughters and young sons in a separate 

accommodation. Adolescent sons typically have their own 

quarters. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
In non-polygynous families, a husband and wife may share a 

residence. Aging parents generally live with or near their eldest 

son, who physically and financially cares for them. Extended 

families play an important role in daily life, gathering frequently 

for meals, birthdays, religious ceremonies, and other special 

occasions.

Children 

Non-polygynous Chadian couples typically have 2-3 children, 

while polygynous families may have as many as 12 (see p. 4 of 

Sex and Gender). Chadians consider children of their fathers’ 

co-wives as their brothers and sisters, though siblings of the 

same mother share the strongest bonds. Children usually live 

at home until they marry. An exception is young men who 

move away for education or employment opportunities. 

Chadians expect children to respect and obey their older family 

members while helping younger siblings in daily chores. 

Children in poorer families often must work to supplement the 

family’s income. By contrast, children from wealthy, urban 

families have fewer responsibilities and greater access to 

education (Photo: 

Chadian children interact 

with a US Army 

chaplain).

Rites of Passage

Chadians observe ritesof-passage ceremonies 

to mark the various 

stages of life, including 

birth, puberty, marriage, and death. Rituals may vary 

considerably based on the celebrant’s ethnic and religious 

heritage.

Birth: Chadians have a particular fondness for babies and view 

children as a sign of vitality, good fortune, and wealth. While 

southern Chadians publicly announce and celebrate 

pregnancies, people from northern regions tend to be more 

private about an expectant mother’s condition. 

Following a birth, the newborn’s grandmother and other female 

relatives help care for the mother and child. Muslim families 

typically hold a naming ceremony 7 days following a child’s 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
birth. During the festivities, an imam (Islamic religious leader) 

offers prayers while the father presents the child to family and 

friends who bring gifts of money, clothes, and toys. Christians 

typically baptize their children. 

Circumcision: About 80% of Chadian males, mostly Muslims

but some traditional religions practitioners (see p. 1-2 of 

Religion and Spirituality) and a few Christians, have undergone 

circumcision. In the North, Muslims typically circumcise boys by 

age 4, while other Chadian groups perform the procedure at 

varying ages. Some southern communities practice female 

circumcision (see p. 4 of Sex and 

Gender).

Coming-of-Age: Many Chadian 

ethnic groups traditionally celebrate

the passage of their youth into 

adulthood with special rituals and 

ceremonies. In some communities, 

all adolescents are segregated from 

their families by gender and undergo 

a series of initiation rites designed to 

teach them traditional customs and 

enforce gender roles. Once they 

successfully complete certain tasks, 

some lasting several weeks, the 

youth are acknowledged as adults and may return home. They 

may then participate in celebrations held in their honor, adopt

new names, and become eligible for marriage (Photo: A young 

Chadian child with a US army member).

Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically socialize from a young age at school, 

markets, dances, or work. Chadians typically consider the 

Western style of courtship inappropriate, although some urban 

dwellers and residents of the South may date with their 

parent’s permission. For the most part, few Chadians engage 

in courtship or pursue romantic relationships with partners of 

their own choosing. 

Instead, most Chadians view marriage as a way to improve

social status and economic opportunity for both spouses, while 

strengthening and extending ties between families and ethnic 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
groups. Consequently, most Chadians enter into arranged 

marriages. Although the legal marriage age is 18, some rural 

Chadians marry at age 15 or younger (see p. 5 of Sex and 

Gender). By contrast, urbanites generally strive to finish their 

educations and achieve financial stability before marrying in 

their mid-20s. 

Bridewealth: Refers to a sum paid by the groom’s family to the 

bride’s as compensation for the loss of her presence and labor. 

Once a union is 

arranged, the families 

negotiate a mutuallyagreeable bridewealth 

prior to making

wedding preparations. 

Typically consisting of 

items such as jewelry, 

clothing, livestock, 

and money, the 

bridewealth may be 

paid before or after the wedding (Photo: Chadians receive

library materials from the US). 

Weddings: While specific practices vary by ethnic group and 

region, weddings are generally joyous events celebrated by the 

community. Muslim couples typically sign an Islamic marriage 

contract in the presence of close friends and family. By 

contrast, Christian weddings are typically performed by a 

minister and occur in a church. Among followers of traditional 

religions (see p. 1-2 of Religion and Spirituality), family 

members gather at the bride’s home to escort her to the 

groom’s residence. Once she arrives, the couple is declared 

married. Alternatively, some couples of all faiths choose to 

marry in a civil ceremony held at a city hall, where the bride 

and groom recite vows, exchange rings, and sign a marriage 

contract. 

During a marriage ceremony, some Chadians choose to wear 

traditional clothing (see p. 1-2 of Aesthetics and Recreation),

while others wear Western-style white dresses and dark suits. 

Following most ceremonies, family and friends gather for 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
celebrations that sometimes extend for several days and 

include lavish meals, dancing, and singing. 

Divorce: Divorce is uncommon in most rural areas where it 

carries significant social stigma for both men and women. 

Chadians generally view divorced women as failed wives, 

housekeepers, and cooks while assuming divorced men are

irresponsible and 

unable to provide 

for their families. 

Village leaders or 

family elders often 

try to help couples 

resolve marital 

disputes in order to 

avoid divorce. By 

contrast, divorce in 

urban areas is 

more common and 

carries little social stigma (Photo: Chadian women during a 

discussion at the US Embassy in N’Djamena). 

Death

In line with Islamic tradition, Muslim Chadians bury their loved 

ones as soon as possible after death, usually within 24 hours. 

The deceased’s body is washed, wrapped in a white shroud, 

and transported by male family members to a mosque where a 

cleric offers prayers. Relatives then transport the deceased for

burial in a cemetery or within the family compound. Mourners 

typically gather at the family home to honor the deceased. 

Some families may ceremoniously slaughter a lamb or goat to 

serve their guests. 

Following a death, Christian Chadians usually hold a memorial 

service for mourners to view the deceased and offer prayers. 

Afterwards, mourners attend a burial service led by a religious 

leader. Following the burial, family and friends gather for a 

meal to honor the deceased. Followers of traditional religions 

(see p. 1-2 of Religion and Spirituality) may engage in rituals to

honor ancestral spirits and ease the deceased’s transition into 

the spirit world.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Although Chadian women and men have equal rights before 

the law, patriarchal traditions continue to grant men most social 

power and authority. Further, many ethnic, religious, and 

cultural norms reinforce female subordination and traditional 

gender roles. Consequently, women face significant 

discrimination in educational, economic, political, and social 

spheres.

Gender Roles and Work

There is a distinct division of labor between the genders in 

Chadian society. Women are responsible for the majority of 

household chores such as preparing meals, cleaning, and 

caring for children and elders. Rural women perform additional

physically demanding tasks around the home. These include

collecting water and firewood, building and tending fires, and 

working the fields alongside their husbands. In addition, some

rural women operate small businesses, such as selling spices, 

produce, charcoal, oil, and clothing to supplement the family 

income. Meanwhile, as household heads, men make the 

majority of family decisions, although both parents collectively 

are financial providers. Men are also typically responsible for 

some domestic tasks, such as repairing the home and taking 

their children to school 

(Photo: A man tends 

his cattle).

Labor Force: In 2014, 

about 64% of women 

worked outside the 

home, similar to the 

rates of neighboring 

Cameroon and the Central African Republic yet higher than the 

US rate of 56%. Chadian women work in many sectors, 

including agriculture, healthcare, education, and finance. 

Women holding office jobs typically work in administrative and 

clerical positions, though some women have attained high level 

positions in government, business, and politics. Despite their 

significant workforce participation, women typically receive 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
lower wages and fewer promotions than their male colleagues. 

Moreover, they face discrimination in hiring and are vulnerable 

to sexual harassment in the workplace.

Gender and the Law

While the constitution guarantees women equal rights in 

education, employment, and social welfare, gender 

discrimination persists. It is particularly evident in rural regions 

and among conservative religious communities where certain 

cultural and religious traditions are biased against women or 

restrict their rights. Notably, many rural Chadian communities

follow customary law (traditional and unwritten laws of the 

indigenous population), 

while some conservative 

Muslim Chadians follow 

sharia (Islamic law) 

(Photo: US Ambassador 

Knight speaks with 

Chadian journalists). 

It is not uncommon for 

constitutional rights to be 

overruled by these customary and religious laws. For example, 

while the constitution grants both men and women equal rights 

in property ownership and family life, some customary laws 

prohibit women from owning or inheriting land. According to 

Islamic law, widows may only inherit a portion of the family 

property, while daughters are entitled to just 1/2 the share 

granted to sons. 

Moreover, traditional family codes require wives to obey their 

husbands. In some Muslim communities, women may only 

leave the home with their husband’s permission or when 

escorted by a male guardian. By contrast, Christian women 

and those women residing in urban areas generally enjoy more 

autonomy, more easily acquire property, and are more likely to 

be financially independent. 

Gender and Politics

Rates of women’s participation in Chad’s political process have 

been historically low at both the national and local levels. In 

2013, just 15% of National Assembly members (see p. 4 of 

Political and Social Relations) were women, compared to 20% 

SEX &

GENDER
in the US Congress and 31% in neighboring Cameroon. Even 

Chadian women 

supporting local political 

movements and 

governance as office 

workers and assistants 

rarely assume more 

significant positions. 

There is currently no law 

or quota to promote 

female participation in 

the political process

groups (Photo: A US Congressional delegation visits Chadian 

leaders in N’Djamena).

Gender Based Violence (GBV) 

Approximately 57% of Chadian women experience physical or 

sexual violence in their lifetime. There is no law criminalizing 

domestic violence, and GBV by husbands, fathers, and other 

male family members is both common and socially acceptable. 

Although rape is a criminal offense punishable by 

imprisonment, it often goes unreported. When victims do come 

forward, indictment and prosecution of perpetrators is rare. In 

some cases, authorities actively discourage victims from 

seeking justice, instead advocating internal resolution. In some 

rural or conservatively religious areas, victims may even marry 

their attackers to avoid an accusation of adultery or family 

shame.

GBV is particularly prevalent along Chad’s borders and in 

humanitarian aid camps populated by displaced Chadians and 

refugees fleeing regional conflict (see p. 8-9 of Political and 

Social Relations). In 2012, authorities documented over 1,000 

rape cases committed in refugee camps by other camp 

residents, Chadian military personnel, and members of rebel. 

Finally, studies have found that more than half of Chadian 

women marry before the legal age of 18, and some 28% before 

the age of 15. Many are forced or unwanted marriages are

common within poor and less educated communities, where

families may encourage their daughter’s under-age marriage to 

secure her economic future. 

SEX &

GENDER
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): FGM, also known as 

female genital cutting and female circumcision, is a procedure 

whereby a woman’s sex organ is modified in a way that 

reduces her ability to experience sexual pleasure. Proponents 

believe FGM transforms girls into women, and by 

enclosing/protecting the womb, makes them suitable wives and 

mothers. Although FGM is illegal in Chad and decreasing 

among urbanites, the procedure is widespread among rural 

dwellers in eastern and southern Chad. As of 2010, about 44% 

of Chadian women have experienced some form of FGM.

Sex and Procreation

In line with Islamic teachings, many Chadians traditionally view 

sexual intimacy as a private matter appropriate only within 

marriage. While attitudes in urban areas and among nonMuslim communities have liberalized somewhat in recent 

years, Chadians typically do not discuss sex openly and highly 

value virginity and fidelity in women. 

Chadians also prize fertility, considering children a reflection of 

their parents’ physical strength, health, and wealth. Due in part 

to these traditional values, Chad’s birthrate of 6.1 children per 

woman is higher than all neighboring countries except Niger 

and significantly higher than the US rate of 1.9. Abortion is 

legal only in the case of risk of death to the mother or 

malformation of the fetus. 

The government 

criminalizes and strictly 

prosecutes all other uses

of the procedure (Photo: 

Chadian students).

Homosexuality

Although homosexuality is 

not illegal, the law does 

not recognize same-sex marriage nor civil unions of same-sex 

couples. Notably in 2014, lawmakers attempted to pass 

legislation to ban and criminalize homosexual relations. 

Generally, homosexuality is socially unacceptable, so most 

LGBT Chadians choose to conceal their sexual orientation. 

Discrimination, harassment, violence, and social stigmatization 

against homosexuals and their advocates is common. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

While French and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are the

official languages of Chad, most Chadians speak one of 131 

indigenous languages as their primary language. This diversity 

of native languages encompasses 10 language groups 

representing 3 of the 4 African language families. No more than 

15% of the population has the same first language. Chadians in 

central and northern parts of the country having different 

primary languages often interact using a modified form of 

Arabic. By contrast, French and the indigenous Ngambay are 

shared languages among Southerners. 

Arabic

Nomadic Arab traders 

first introduced Arabic to 

the region around the 

10th century (see p. 2 of 

History and Myth). Today,

MSA is used across the 

Arab world for education, 

media, government, and 

religious purposes. Among Chadians, however, MSA is used 

primarily for writing, formal speech, and Qur’anic education 

(see p. 6 of Learning and Knowledge). It is also the dialect 

commonly used in the urban marketplace. During daily oral 

communication, Chadian Arabic speakers prefer an Arabic 

dialect, and of the dozens spoken in Chad, about 1/2 the 

population prefers Chadian Arabic (Photo: Community leaders 

at a workshop with signs in Arabic and French). 

Chadian Arabic is primarily an oral language combining Arabic, 

French, and other local languages. It is most similar to 

Sudanese Arabic and sometimes called Shuwa Arabic.

Speakers of Chadian dialects are usually able to communicate 

with Arabic speakers from other North African countries such 

as Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. Nevertheless, Arabic speakers

from beyond North Africa typically find Chadian Arabic difficult 

to understand.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
French

A remnant of the colonial era that ended in 1960 (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth), French is the primary language of 

instruction in most schools. Only a few thousand Chadians 

speak French as their first language. While some 1.6 million 

Chadians speak it as a 

2nd language, their 

command of the language 

is often poor, primarily 

because of inadequate 

French instruction (see p. 

4-5 of Learning and 

Knowledge). French is 

most commonly spoken in 

N’Djamena and other 

urban areas. Further, it is 

more widespread in the South than in the North and is typically 

the preferred language of the government, media, and 

business elite (Photo: An aid worker visits a refugee camp in 

eastern Chad).

Indigenous Languages

Chad’s 131 indigenous languages exhibit substantial variety 

and are generally not mutually intelligible. Indigenous

languages do not always correspond with ethnicity or religious 

affiliation, nor are they typically taught in public schools.

Nilo-Saharan: Chad’s most commonly spoken indigenous 

languages belong to the Nilo-Saharan language family. 

Speakers of these languages comprise some 60 million people 

across north-central Africa. Notable Nilo-Saharan languages in 

Chad include Bagirmi, Dazaga, Fula, Kanembu, Maba, Naba,

Zaghawa, and Ngambay.

Chad’s most prevalent indigenous language is Ngambay, 

spoken by over 1.4 million Chadians, mainly of the Sara ethnic 

group in the Southwest. Also spoken in Cameroon, Ngambay is 

a Central Sudanic tonal language. 

Afro-Asiatic: More than a dozen Afro-Asiatic languages are 

spoken in Chad, including Semitic forms like Arabic and Chadic 

versions like Hausa – West Africa’s most widely-spoken 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
language and shared by about 100,000 Chadians. Other 

prominent Afro-Asiatic languages include Marba, Masana, and 

Musey, each spoken by over 200,000 people, primarily in

southern Chad.

Niger-Congo: Chad is home to a few Niger-Congo languages, 

most commonly Kanuri (also prominent in northeastern 

Nigeria), Mundang, and Tupuri, each having over 100,000 

speakers. Most NigerCongo-speakers live in 

southwestern Chad.

English

Few Chadians speak 

English, though some 

businessmen and 

Chadians with higher 

education may have 

some knowledge of the language. While English instruction is 

available in public secondary and private schools (see p. 5 of 

Learning and Knowledge), the instruction is often poor. Despite 

an increasing interest in the language, young Chadians 

typically only know a few English words, often as a part of 

slang used when speaking other languages (Photo: Members 

of Al-Mouna Center English Club celebrate Earth Day). 

Communication Overview

Effective communication in Chad requires not only knowledge 

of French or Chadian Arabic but also the ability to interact 

effectively using language. This broad notion of competence 

includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction management (conversation initiation, turntaking, and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends. 

Communication Style

While communication patterns vary due to Chad’s religious and 

ethnic diversity, they generally reflect Chadians’ common 

respect for community elders and preference for moderation. 

Typically friendly and relaxed, many Chadians believe people 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
should ideally remain calm, reserved, and quiet, denying their 

personal needs for the greater needs of others and enduring 

hardship and pain 

without complaint.

During conversation, 

most Chadians consider

attentive listening and 

limited eye contact as

signs of respect. They

prefer to gaze past the 

speaker, stare at the 

floor, cross arms, or lean back, all with concentrated facial 

expressions (Photo: A US Congressional delegation talks with 

President Déby). 

Chadians typically avoid appearing selfish or arrogant, instead 

striving to appear modest and unassuming. When discussing 

problems or serious matters, Chadians seldom laugh or joke to 

ease the tension. Instead, they prefer to demonstrate their 

concern and seriousness by remaining calm and focused on 

the discussion. 

Greetings

Chadians typically extend greetings with great care and 

respect. While verbal greetings vary by language, the most 

common greeting is the Chadian Arabic Lalê (hello). Most 

Muslims and some 

Arabic-speakers may 

also say as-salam 

alekum (peace be 

upon you), to which 

the response is was 

alekum as-salam 

(and upon you be 

peace). Almost every

greeting involves 

inquiries about the 

conversation partner’s health, family, and property (Photo: US 

Deputy Secretary of State Blinken greets Chadian Foreign 

Minister Moussa Faki Mahamat).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Following this verbal exchange, Chadian men often shake right 

hands, typically avoiding the use of the unsanitary left hand 

during social interactions (see p. 4 of Time and Space). When

greeting a group, raising both palms while saying lalê to the 

group as a whole is sufficient. While shaking an elder's hand, 

Chadians typically kneel or bow, sometimes supporting the 

right elbow with the left hand to signify the weight of respect for 

the elder. In predominantly Muslim and northern areas, 

Chadian men may place the right hand to the heart after 

shaking hands to convey deep respect and sincerity.

Chadian women typically greet each other verbally, although 

close friends may also hug. Greetings between men and 

women are often nonphysical, consisting of a nod, a brief 

verbal exchange, or greeters may clasp their own hands 

together to symbolize a physical handshake. While some 

Chadian women may shake 

hands, foreign nationals 

should wait for members of 

the opposite sex to initiate a 

handshake. 

Forms of Address

Chadians use distinct forms 

of address to demonstrate 

respect based on the nature 

of the relationship. Chadians may address their superiors or 

first-time acquaintances with the appropriate rank or title, such 

as the French monsieur, madame, or mademoiselle and 

asayid or asayeda in Arabic (Photo: US Department of State 

Deputy Assistant Secretary Gilmore talks with Chad’s Foreign 

Minister Moussa Faki Mahamat).

Most Chadians address elders as “mother” or “father” in their 

native language. They may address others as the mother or 

father of their eldest child. For example, the mother of Djoua 

might be called Am-djoua. Male friends may call each other 

chef (chief, in French) to signal a close relationship.

Conversational Topics 

After the initial greetings, Chadians typically participate in brief 

light conversation before progressing to more serious topics. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Topics such as sports, movies, art, travel, and work are 

generally acceptable when conversing with Chadians of both 

genders. To further establish rapport, foreign nationals should 

show an appreciation for common interests, such as soccer 

(see p. 3 of Aesthetics and Recreation). It is noteworthy that 

despite their modesty, some 

Chadians are more direct in 

their comments and opinions 

than most Westerners

(Photo: The US Civil-Military 

Support Element Team

presents donated books to 

the mayor of Bardaï).

Chadians tend to avoid 

potentially sensitive topics 

such as sex, religion, and politics that could cause 

disagreement or embarrassment. Of note, Chadian men

typically do not inquire about another man’s female relations or 

family members, and neither should foreign nationals.

Gestures

Chadians often use gestures to emphasize or replace spoken 

words. For example, clicking the tongue on the roof of the 

mouth and thrusting the chin upward means “I agree.” To

beckon, Chadians typically retract all fingers into the right hand, 

held with the palm facing down. Chadians often raise their 

eyebrows to indicate interest. They communicate “just a 

moment” by joining all fingertips of 1 hand with the palm facing 

up, then lowering the hand in that position. Instead of knocking 

on the door to see if someone is home, Chadians typically clap 

loudly outside of the house.

Foreign nationals should avoid certain offensive gestures, such 

as showing the soles of feet or shoes, both considered 

unsanitary, or walking in front of a praying person. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. 

Click on Menu tab in upper right then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Arabic Pronunciation and Transliteration

Transliteration is the process of spelling out Arabic words using 

the Roman (Latin) alphabet. Although Arabic dialects generally 

are consistent in the way words are spelled and pronounced 

using Arabic script, there are many different ways of converting 

Arabic sounds into the Roman alphabet. Countries like Chad

that were under French rule often spell words differently. Some

common consonant differences are summarized below. 

Common English 

Transliteration

Common French 

Transliteration Romanized Arabic

S or ss C Said vs. Caid (name 

pronounced Sī-eed)

Sh Ch

Sheikh vs. Cheikh (an 

honorific title, often for 

the ruler of a tribe)

J Dj

N’Jamena vs. 

N’Djamena (the 

capital of Chad) 

Some Arabic words often include sounds or letters having no 

equivalent in the Roman alphabet. The following symbols and 

letters are used to represent those sounds and letters when 

they are transliterated into the Roman alphabet.

Letters or Symbol Description Example

gh Like the guttural 

French “r”

Paris (as 

pronounced by a 

French person)

Kh or x Strong “h”

loch (as 

pronounced by a 

Scottish person)

H Whispered “h” hoot

dH Soft “th” this

‘ or ɂ Glottal stop Pause in the middle 

of “uh-oh”

q 

“k” sound from the 

throat; “g”; or glottal 

stop

cough; golf; pause 

in the middle of “uhoh”

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English French Romanized 

Chadian Arabic

Hello Bonjour Lalê

Are you well? Êtes-vous bien? Inta (m) / inti (f) âfé?

I am well Je suis bien Anâ âfé

Yes Oui Aye

No Non La

Please S’il vous plaît Samini

Thank you Merci Shukran

You are welcome De rien Afwân

What is your name? Quel est votre nom? Usumak shunu?

Where are you 

from? D'où venez-vous? Wên inta?

Goodbye Au revoir

Agod(u) âfé [s (p)]

(if speaker leaves) / 

amshi/u âfé (s/p)

(if speaker stays)

What does ___ 

mean? Que veut dire ___? Ma' anata ___?

What is this? Qu'est-ce que c'est 

que ça? Da shunu?

How do you say 

___?

Comment dit-on 

___? Kikef tigul ___?

...in English? ...en anglais? ...be inglezi?

...in French? ...en français? ...be fransawi?

What do you want? Qu’est-ce que tu 

veux? Inta tidoor shunu?

What time is it? Quelle heure est-il? Al-saa’a kam? 

Where is the 

doctor? Où est le médecin? Wên al daktor?

Who? Qui? Yaatu?

When? Quand? Mata?

Which? Quel? Ween/weenu?

Why? Pourquoi? Mâla?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population aged 15 and older who can read and write

French or Arabic: 40.2% 

• Male: 48.5% 

• Female: 31.9% (2015 estimate)

Traditional Education

Although the delivery of education varied across time and 

ethnic groups, the most common Chadian teaching approach 

was informal, experience-based, and oral. This style was used

to transmit values, skills, 

historical knowledge, a 

sense of community, and

religious beliefs and 

practices to younger 

generations (see p. 2 of 

Religion and Spirituality). 

In some Chadian families 

today, elder family and 

community members still

tell stories, sing songs, recite poems, and use coming-of-age 

rituals to pass on knowledge and skills (see p. 4 of Family and 

Kinship) (Photo: A Chadian student reads aloud to a US CivilMilitary Support Element Team Commander in Bardaï). 

Early Islamic Education: Arab traders brought Islam to the 

region as early as the 10th century (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). As Islam began to gain popularity, scholars 

founded some masik (religious schools) to educate students in 

basic Arabic and Qur’anic verse. Students seeking advanced 

studies typically traveled to well-known sites of Islamic learning

in Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, or the Middle East.

Formal Education in Colonial Chad

After colonizing Chad in the early 20th century (see p. 4 of 

History and Myth), France introduced formal primary education, 

mandating French as the language of instruction. The intent of 

this education system was to immerse Chadians in French 

ideals and assimilate them into French culture, but the project 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
largely failed because the French devoted far too few 

resources to the colony’s development (see p. 5 of History and 

Knowledge). 

When the French began allowing Christian missionaries into 

Chad (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality) in the 1920s, both 

the Protestants and Catholics opened schools primarily in 

N’Djamena and the South with the intent of promoting their

missionary activities through education. Of note, Chad’s first 

secondary schools only opened in 1942. Until then, Chadians 

seeking an education beyond primary school were forced to 

travel to Brazzaville 

(present-day Republic 

of Congo) (Photo: 

Students at Bessada 

Christian School 

receive a gift of English 

books).

The colonial 

government mandated

French as the language 

of instruction for most subjects but permitted religion classes to 

be taught in local languages (see p. 2-3 of Language and 

Communication). Due to a lack of local-language resources, 

qualified teachers, supplies, and school buildings, among other 

reasons, only about 8% of Chadian children aged 6-8 attended 

formal schools in the mid-1950s.

Education after Independence

Upon gaining independence in 1960 (see p. 6 of History and 

Myth), Chad’s new government established a goal of achieving 

universal primary education. While short of fully achieving that 

goal, Chad’s education system has slowly improved over the

decades, including the opening of new schools, enhanced 

teacher training programs, and increasing enrollment. 

Seeking to reform the educational system it inherited from 

France, Chad revised the curriculum to focus more on practical 

and technical skills. Further, it introduced remedial instruction 

in French, since few primary students spoke French before 

arriving at primary school (see p. 2 of Language and 

Communication). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Despite these and other changes, political instability and civil 

war limited significant improvement. Most schools were forced 

to close for an extended period in the early 1980s due to civil 

unrest (see p. 8-9 of History and Myth). Although enrollment 

has increased since then, Chad’s education system remains 

underfunded and of poor quality. Despite a constitutional 

guarantee of free universal primary education, no level of 

education in Chad is presently free or universal.

Modern Education System

Based on the French model, the Chadian education system 

consists of primary and secondary programs. While the primary 

language of instruction 

is French, some schools 

also deliver some 

subjects in Arabic, local 

languages, or a 

combination of each. 

Classes often consist of 

lectures with lessons 

emphasizing

memorization. Most 

classes meet 6 days 

weekly for a 1/2 day in the morning or afternoon (Photo: 

Teachers and students celebrate the arrival of new books).

Government spending on education as a percentage of total 

expenditure rose to 12.5% in 2013. Despite this increase, Chad 

still spends less on education than neighboring countries like 

Cameroon (13.8%) and Niger (21.7%), as well as the US 

(13.1%). Consequently, the Chadian government relies heavily 

on international aid to finance education. Even with this 

assistance, schools remain underfunded, frequently requiring

families to pay fees for supplies and to supplement teacher 

salaries. These costs prohibit many students from attending 

school. 

The Chadian education system faces other challenges such as

a chronic teacher shortage, causing class sizes to reach as 

large as 65 students in rural areas and 100 in cities. Further, 

many teachers are underqualified: in 2013 only 65% of 

teachers held the proper training credentials. Many schools 

LEARNING &

KNOWLEDGE
lack basic supplies, such as blackboards, desks, and toilets. 

Insecurity and the threat of civil unrest are constant (see p. 12

of History and Myth), and as a result, school attendance is 

often low. Finally, since many families do not recognize the 

value of formal education, they may prohibit education after 

primary school or keep their children at home altogether.

The Chadian education system reflects significant regional, 

socio-economic, rural-urban, and gender disparities. While 

primary school enrollment is nearly 100% among wealthy 

Chadians and in some 

southern urban areas, 

poor Chadians and 

residents of northern 

and rural areas are 

much less likely to 

attend school. 

Chadian girls are also 

less educated than 

boys. In 2013, the 

youth literacy rate was 

54% for males and 

46% for females, and only 30% of girls of the appropriate age 

completed primary education compared to 46% of boys (Photo: 

Secondary school students in N’Djamena display their new 

civics education textbooks).

In recent years, Chad has improved aspects of its educational 

system such as offering instruction in languages other than 

French. Likewise, students receive instruction in technical and 

practical skills beginning in primary school, while improved 

vocational programs are available at the secondary level. New 

university and other post-secondary programs now offer 

expanded studies. Despite these improvements, education 

standards in Chad remain some of the world’s lowest.

Pre-Primary: Pre-primary education is optional and 

uncommon. In 2013, about 1% of children of the appropriate 

age attended private preschools available only in large cities.

Primary: Chad’s primary education program consists of 6 

grades, typically starting at age 6 in cities and age 7 in rural 

areas. Primary education is compulsory, with 84% of students 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
of the appropriate age enrolled in 2013. The curriculum 

includes math, French, history, geography, natural sciences, 

animal husbandry, civics, and other subjects. Most schools 

provide instruction in

French, though some

also teach Arabic or are 

trying to incorporate 

other local languages. 

Although most 

attendees enroll in

public primary schools, 

some attend private 

schools offering 1-2 

hours of English instruction per week. (Photo: Members of the 

US Embassy delegation meet parents of Dozanga community 

school children).

Secondary: Chad’s second level of education comprises lower 

(grades 7-10) and upper (grades 11-13) schools. In 2008, only 

about 22% of boys and 12% of girls of the appropriate age 

were enrolled in lower secondary schools, both public and 

private. Academic lower secondary schools called lycées or 

collèges typically offer 

courses in French and/or 

Arabic, math, history, 

social and natural 

sciences, English, art, and 

physical education. 

After completing 4 years, 

students who pass the 

Brevet d'Études du 

Premier Cycle (First 

Round Studies Exam) may advance to upper secondary 

school. There, students may choose between humanities and

sciences tracks. Some students attend specialized public 

secondary schools for business (lycée technique 

commercial) or technology (lycée technique industriel). To 

complete upper secondary school and proceed to a higher 

education institution, students must pass the Baccalaureat de 

l’Enseignement Supérieur (Bachelor of Higher Education) 

exam (Photo: Chadian science teachers visiting Chicago).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Vocational Schools: Chad offers a 6-year vocational studies 

program for students who do not receive the necessary exam 

scores to attend lycées or collèges. Vocational schools provide

students instruction in technical and practical skills for careers

as brick masons, carpenters, mechanics, and other similar 

professions. Upon completion of a vocational curriculum, 

students receive a Certificat d'Aptitude Professionelle

(Certificate of Professional Competence) (Photo: Vocational 

school students

pose during 

training). 

Post-Secondary:

For decades after 

its founding in 

1971, the 

University of 

N’Djamena was 

Chad’s only 

institution of higher 

learning. Modeled on the French university system, this public 

university offers 3-year bachelor’s degrees as well as master’s 

and doctoral academic programs taught in French or Arabic. 

Other notable specialized institutions of higher education now 

include King Faisal University and the Institut Supérior de 

Gestion, among a few others, mostly located in N’Djamena. 

Due to limited offerings, many Chadians pursue postsecondary programs abroad.

Islamic Education

As an alternative or complement to the public school system, 

some Chadian children attend Islamic Qur’anic schools, where 

they learn Arabic and study the Qur’an (see p. 4 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Many of these masik have no specific 

curriculum, structure, or trained marabout (Muslim religious 

teachers). By contrast, Chad’s so-called “Arabic schools” follow

the Chadian public school curriculum in addition to providing 

Islamic religious instruction and receive some state support. 

Islamic schools remain most common in Chad’s northern and 

eastern regions, although enrollment at Qur’anic schools 

across the country has risen in recent years. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Chadians consider respect, honor, and modesty as vital to 

building strong personal and professional relationships. While 

customs often vary by context or ethnic group, most Chadians 

tend to exhibit a casual attitude towards time and punctuality.

Time and Work

Chad’s work week runs 

Monday-Thursday from 

7:00am-3:30pm and 

Friday from 7:00am12:00pm. Chadians in 

some industries also work 

on Saturdays. While 

hours vary greatly, many 

shops and markets open Tuesday-Saturday from 9:00am12:00pm and 4:00pm-7:30pm, with a break for lunch. Although 

most businesses close on Sundays, some food shops open on

Sunday mornings. Chadian Muslims typically do not work on 

Friday (Islamic holy day) afternoons, while almost all Chadians 

take Sundays off (Photo: N’Djamena street).

Many banks are open Monday-Thursday and Saturday from 

7:00am-1:00pm and on Friday from 7:30am-10:30am. Post 

office hours are typically Monday-Friday from 7:00am-11:30am 

and 3:30pm-6:30pm, with reduced hours on Saturday. 

Generally, businesses in urban areas are more likely to adhere 

to fixed schedules than rural ones. While most businesses 

close on public holidays, food shops, stalls, and some markets

may open for reduced hours.

Working Conditions: The legal work week in Chad is 39 

hours or 46 hours for agricultural work. In practice, Chadians 

employed informally in the agricultural sector (see p. 3-4 of 

Economics and Resources) often exceed the legal limit. While 

Chad has many labor laws to protect workers, lax enforcement 

and a large informal sector enable violations like overtime 

without pay, workplace discrimination, deficient work safety 

standards, and even forced labor. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Chad adheres to West Africa Time (WAT), which 

is 1 hour ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 6 hours 

ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Chad does not 

observe daylight savings time. 

Date Notation: Like the US, Chad uses the Western

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Chadians often write 

the day first, followed by the month and year. 

Lunar Calendar: Chadians use the Islamic calendar to track 

Muslim holidays. Since it is based on lunar phases, dates fall 

11 days earlier each year in relation to the Western calendar. 

The Islamic calendar’s 12 months each have 30 days or fewer. 

Days begin at sunset on what the Western calendar would 

show as the previous day. For example, each new week begins 

at sunset on Saturday, and the Muslim holy day of Friday 

begins on Thursday evening.

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• March / April: Easter Monday (dates vary)

• April 23: National Day

• May 1: Labor Day

• August 11: Independence Day

• November 1: All Saints Day

• November 28: Republic Proclamation Day

• December 1: Freedom and Democracy Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

These holidays occur on variable dates according 

to the lunar calendar:

• Korité (Eid al-Fitr): End of Ramadan

• Tabaski (Eid al-Adha): Festival of Sacrifice

• Maouloud-Al-Nebi: Prophet Muhammad’s 

birthday

SPACE

TIME &
Time and Business

Business in Chad typically moves much slower than in the US.

While Chadians may expect foreign nationals to be punctual, 

few consider significant tardiness as rude. Most Chadians 

prefer to build trust and develop personal relations both before 

and during business, which typically requires extra time and 

communication. Consequently, meetings often run long. While 

some business occurs during scheduled office meetings, the 

development of a good business relationship often requires 

frequent informal 

meetings in the

place of work, in 

other community 

settings, and over 

meals (Photo: US 

officials meet with 

President Déby).

Business meetings 

typically begin with 

inquiries about 

health, family, 

property, and other light conversation. Chadians generally are 

relaxed and friendly while conducting business, though

moderate and reserved in their behavior (see p. 3-4 of 

Language and Communication). 

Chadians respect of age and authority often necessitates a 

hierarchical work place, where upper management tends to run 

meetings and make most decisions. Conducting business in 

Chad is often difficult due to ongoing political instability, 

insecurity, and corruption. Developing good relations with a 

particular family, community, or ethnic group is often vital for 

maintaining successful business operations. 

Personal Space

As in most societies, personal space in Chad depends on the 

nature of the relationship. Chadians of the same sex typically

maintain less than a distance of an arm’s length when 

conversing with strangers, although the space is often greater 

between unrelated Chadians of the opposite gender. 

SPACE

TIME &
Touch

Chadians of the same sex often engage in more conversational 

touching than Americans. Same-sex friends, particularly men, 

often touch each other on the arm or shoulder to emphasize a 

point or to demonstrate their close platonic relationship. 

Unrelated Chadian men and women typically do have physical 

contact. Public display of affection is rare and socially 

discouraged.

Left Hand Taboo

As in other cultures across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, 

Chadians use the left hand for personal hygiene and consider it 

unclean. Foreign nationals should avoid using the left hand 

when eating, gesturing, accepting items, or greeting another 

person, as these actions may offend some Chadians.

Eye Contact

While Chadians typically consider extended eye contact 

offensive or aggressive, intermittent eye contact is common

during greetings and business meetings. Women typically

avoid eye contact with men, so do Chadians of lower social 

status among people of a higher social status, particularly in 

religious and rural settings.

Photographs

Photographers must acquire a permit from the Ministry of 

Communications before taking photos. Government and 

military sites, airports, parks, wildlife reserves, and religious 

buildings generally prohibit photography. Foreign nationals 

should always acquire a Chadian’s consent before taking his 

photo. Some Chadians may expect compensation in return.

Driving

Traffic law enforcement 

suffers from corruption –

soldiers, police, and 

citizens commonly set

up roadblocks to solicit 

bribes. In 2013, Chad’s 

rate of traffic-related 

deaths was 24 per 100,000 people, more than double the US 

rate of 11. Vehicles are also subject to attack by armed bandits 

in many areas (Photo: An armored car of the Chadian Army).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Chad’s dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect the country’s 

multi-ethnic and multi-cultural past. They exhibit Central African 

traditions, French and 

Arab influences, modern 

global trends, and

Chadians’ adaptations to 

a harsh climate and 

prolonged civil conflicts.

Dress and Appearance 

Many Chadians wear 

traditional attire on a daily 

basis. Influenced by local climate and customs, traditional

clothing is typically loose and covers most of the body to 

protect it from heat, insects, and dust. Most Chadians wear 

sandals made from foam, plastic, or leather (Photo: Chadians 

in traditional attire). Shorts are uncommon in Chad.

Chadians value a neat appearance, typically maintaining clean 

and mended clothing. Clothing style and design sometimes 

indicate social identity or status. For example, ornamentation 

such as patterned embroidery on necklines, sleeves, and cuffs 

often represent social class or the wearer’s affiliation with a 

particular ethnic group (see p. 11-13 of Political and Social 

Relations).

In professional settings in N’Djamena and other urban areas, 

Chadians tend to wear formal, dark-colored, and modest 

Western-style clothing. Some men may prefer more casual 

attire consisting of a collared shirt with traditional designs 

paired with black or khaki pants. Chadian youth and urban 

dwellers commonly wear more casual Western-style clothing, 

sometimes in combination with traditional fashions.

Men: Men from the South typically wear a light cotton complet

(long-sleeved tunic) over loose, tapered pants, usually paired 

with a hat. Men from northern, central, and eastern Chad prefer

a white cotton boubou (ankle-length, long-sleeved robe) worn 

over baggy cotton pants. Residents of these areas as well as 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Muslims may wear jalabiyas (long loose-fitting robes) 

combined with a white or red-and-white tagiya (turban) used to 

cover much of the face. Wearers typically complete the outfit 

with an ornate dagger tucked into one sleeve.

Women: They typically wear a pagne (a large piece of 

colorfully patterned cotton fabric wrapped around the body and 

tucked in at the side) worn over a short-sleeved shirt with a 

wide neckline and matching head wrap. Some women prefer to 

wrap a lafai (15-foot-long scarf) around their bodies in various 

styles, while married women typically wear a second pagne as 

an apron. Other women wear long skirts, calf or ankle length.

Many women from the South style their hair in elaborate braids. 

Generally, attire in the South tends to be more colorful and less 

modest than women’s wear in northern, central, and eastern 

Chad. In those areas, Muslim and conservative women prefer

loose robes that cover the entire body except the face.

Recreation 

Chadians typically spend their 

leisure time with family members 

and friends. Popular pastimes 

include socializing, walking to 

markets, playing soccer or other 

games, dancing, and participating 

in community events. Men often 

gather to tell stories, play cards, 

and drink tea or bili-bili (local 

millet beer – see p. 3 of 

Sustenance and Health). 

Women normally socialize at the market or home, where they

knit, crochet, and braid hair. Many Chadians enjoy fundraising 

parties called pari-vente, where organizers collect money for 

local students’ school fees, transportation, and other basic 

needs (see p. 3 of Learning and Knowledge). Wealthy 

Chadians may travel for vacation in the United Arab Emirates, 

Ethiopia, and Cameroon (Photo: Chadian children dance to 

jazz music with US Air Force “Wings of Dixie” performers).

Festivals: Chadians commemorate many national and 

religious holidays with festivals incorporating traditional music, 

singing, and dancing. Popular festival activities in northern, 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
central, and eastern Chad include camel and horse races, 

archery, and wrestling. Inhabitants of southern Chad enjoy

harvest celebrations, horseback riding, and boating 

competitions. During the well-known Guérewol festival, men of 

the semi-nomadic Mbororo group of the South decorate 

themselves with vibrant paint and jewelry then run races, feast, 

and dance in a quest to find a potential marriage partner.

Chad’s most popular festivals align with Christian or Muslim

holidays (see p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality). During Eid alAdha, also known as Tabaski, Muslim families sacrifice a 

sheep or goat then host a feast featuring the meat. During the 

3-day Eid al-Fitr, Chadian Muslims celebrate the end of 

Ramadan by feasting, singing, and dancing. To celebrate 

Christmas and Easter, Christians typically decorate their 

homes, attend church 

services, sing, visit, and 

share meals.

Sports: Football (soccer) 

is Chad’s most popular 

sport. Most boys, men, 

and some girls play in 

community games, often 

with improvised materials. 

The national football team, nicknamed Sao, has a loyal 

following. Although Chad has never qualified for the Africa Cup 

finals or the World Cup, many Chadian footballers have played 

for French professional teams (Photo: Chadians play soccer 

outside of N’Djamena).

Other popular sports include 

basketball, track and field events, 

martial arts, handball, rugby, and

traditional forms of wrestling. 

Horse racing is popular in the 

country’s central Sahelian region. 

While courts, fields, and athletic 

gear are usually available in cities, 

they tend to be scarce in rural 

areas (Photo: The winner of a 

100m dash receives a prize from a local police official in Ati).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Games: Chadians enjoy an array of traditional games that 

often include cards or strategy. Mancala is a popular 2-person 

strategic game in which players try to capture an opponent’s

game pieces. During the rainy season, men and boys often 

play a game translated as “war” in the local languages (see p. 

2-3 of Language and Communication). During this game, 2 

opposing players or groups of players attempt to move sticks 

assembled in “weapon” formations across a 25-space board 

drawn in the sand. Popular children’s games include rhyming, 

clapping, dancing, singing, and jumping. Girls especially enjoy

tokolé, a game similar to jacks as well as a version of 

hopscotch that requires 

players to pick up and 

hold a stone with their 

toes while hopping.

Music and Dance

Chadians enjoy distinct 

musical varieties that 

often correspond with 

particular ethnic or 

cultural groups (see p. 

11-12 of Political and Social Relations). Many traditional songs 

teach prescribed duties for boys and girls or play an important

role during rites of passage (see p. 3 of Family and Kinship). A 

valuable member of many communities, the griot (historically, 

a traveling poet, musician, and storyteller) is a repository of 

Chad’s traditional songs (Photo: Kanembu men from a fishing 

village by Lake Chad play 

traditional flutes and drums).

Chadians from many 

different ethnic groups play 

the kinde (bow harp), kakaki 

(long tin horn), hu hu

(stringed instrument with 

gourds as loudspeakers), 

and tam-tams (drums). 

Instruments common to the Sara people include whistles,

balafons (large xylophones with wooden bars), harps, and 

kodjo drums (Photo: The US Ambassador receives a 

traditional instrument for a gift from the Baguirmi sultan). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
The Kanembu often pair drums with flute-like instruments, 

while the Fulani prefer single-reed flutes and horns. The 

Baguirmi play drums and zithers, and the Teda, a subgroup of 

the Toubou people, and others from the Tibesti region typically 

play lutes, fiddles, and keleli (chordophones). 

In some ethnic groups, men and women play separate roles in 

music and dance performances. For example, Teda women 

typically sing while men accompany them on string 

instruments. Among the Baguirmi, only men perform a dance 

featuring a mock battle, 

while in other dances men 

and women perform

together (Photo: A 

traditional Baguirmi dance 

featuring both male and 

female performers).

Modern Chadian 

musicians often mix 

traditional instruments 

and styles with other 

African and international 

genres, such as Western pop music. Several Chadian 

musicians, including Clément Masdongar, a ballad artist

popular in francophone Africa, and Tibesti, an acclaimed 

dance-music group, regularly perform at international festivals.

African Melody and International Challal are also popular 

Chadian musical groups.

Cinema and Theater 

Some 3 decades after Chad’s only cinema closed due to civil 

war violence (see p. 7-11 of History and Myth), the Normandie 

Theater in N’Djamena reopened in 2011 with government 

support. Despite this historical lack of local cinema access, 

Chad has produced 2 important filmmakers. From their bases 

in France, Chadian directors Mahamat Saleh Haroun and Issa 

Serge Coelo have won international recognition for their films 

on Chad’s civil instability and African social issues. Haroun’s 

most well-known films include Bye Bye Africa, A Screaming 

Man, and Grisgris, the latter nominated for a Cannes Film 

Festival award in 2013.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Theater groups in urban areas offer live performances that are 

often satirical of public figures. In rural areas, community 

members often gather for religious or cultural rituals and 

performances. Of note, foreign aid organizations have used 

theater as a means to reintegrate communities following civil 

unrest and to combat recruitment to violent extremist causes

(see p. 12-13 of History and Myth).

Literature 

Chad has a rich tradition of oral literature that includes 

histories, family information, folklore, legends, proverbs, 

poems, and stories passed down through the generations. Due 

to low literacy rates (see p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge), 

production of written literature in Chad has been limited. 

Moreover, most Chadian authors write from exile as a result of 

ongoing political turmoil, civil unrest, and political repression 

(see p. 11-13 of History and Myth). Notable authors include 

playwright Baba Moustapha and autobiographer Joseph 

Brahim Seïd, who produced works in French critical of life in 

Chad, social issues, military dictatorships, and political 

oppression.

Folk Arts and Handicrafts

Traditional Chadian folk artists typically make pottery, textiles, 

tools, and instruments from metal, leather, wood, or clay. While 

traditional handicrafts 

vary by region and 

ethnic group, most 

Chadian folk art and 

handicrafts have 

practical uses that 

generate income at 

local markets. Straw is 

a common material 

used to make woven 

baskets, mats, and 

fans, among other 

objects. Other traditional items include jewelry, bronze 

figurines, masks, and paper products like stationary and 

greeting cards, often colored with natural violet and green dyes 

(Photo: Refugees in eastern Chad sitting among their handmade handicrafts and folk art). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Chadian cuisine varies by region and reflects the nation’s 

distinctive geographic characteristics. Depending on climate 

and location, Chadian dishes primarily incorporate seasonally 

available, local ingredients.

Dining Customs

Chadians eat 2-3 daily meals, snacking throughout the day. 

Typically, women prepare all meals. While Muslim women 

usually greet and serve guests water, tea, or warm milk upon 

their arrival, they rarely join a meal when unrelated male guests 

are present. In more conservative Muslim households, even 

female and male family members may eat separately. 

In some ethnic groups, guests and male family members eat 

first, followed by children and then women. Rural communities

typically reserve meat for men and the animal delicacies (the 

head, neck, heart, and intestines) for guests. 

Although some Chadians use Western-style tables and chairs, 

most Chadians traditionally sit on floor mats when dining. 

Families eat from large, centrally-placed, shared dishes, using 

their fingers and 

thumb to scoop food 

into their mouths. Of 

note, Chadians eat 

only with their right 

hand, reserving the 

left hand for personal 

hygiene (see p. 4 of 

Time and Space). Of 

note, Chadians 

consider it rude to 

consume food without also offering it to others in the vicinity. 

Chadians also find it rude to refuse food, so guests are typically 

expected to sample some of each dish offered by a host. When 

guests depart, hosts may escort them a short distance beyond 

the home as a sign of respect (Photo: A local shopkeeper in 

Goz Beida, Chad). 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet

Chad’s main staples include millet, sorghum, and cassava and

are served in various forms with almost every meal. Wealthier

Chadians enjoy the more expensive rice and pasta dishes, 

particularly on holidays and on special occasions. Fish is an 

important dietary component for northern Chadians and in 

communities situated along Lake Chad and the Logone and 

Chari rivers. Common varieties include carp, tilapia, eel, and 

perch, typically

served smoked, 

fried, boiled, or 

sautéed alongside a 

grain and seasonal 

vegetable. 

Other common 

sources of protein 

include peanuts, 

dried fish, goat, 

mutton, chicken, and beef. Popular vegetables include squash, 

beans, tomatoes, okra, and cucumbers. Southern Chadians 

also consume various fruits, including guavas (pictured), 

mangos, papayas, bananas, and avocados. In the North, the 

most prevalent fruits are figs and limes. While not popular 

among Chadians living in the South, dairy products comprise a 

large part of the diets of northern nomadic communities. 

Some of Chad’s ethnic groups adhere to certain dietary 

restrictions. Observant Muslims (see p. 2-5 of Religion and 

Spirituality) consume neither pork nor alcohol. In addition, they 

follow particular rules of animal slaughter and meat preparation 

to ensure that food is halal, allowed by Islamic law.

Popular Dishes and Meals

Popular dishes include boule (a thick dough made from corn, 

sorghum, cassava (starchy tuberous root), rice or ground 

peanuts, formed into balls and served with various sauces, 

dried fish, meats, tomatoes, and onions); bouillie (a peanut 

and millet porridge flavored with sugar and lemon); nashif

(chopped beef or goat cooked with a spicy tomato sauce and 

served with a light sourdough crepe); daraba (okra soup); and 

jarret de boeuf (strips of beef served with a vegetable soup). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Breakfast is usually a light serving of tea and bread. Lunch is 

the largest and main meal of the day, while dinner is usually 

smaller. Most lunch and dinner dishes incorporate a protein, 

starch, and vegetable, served alongside a sauce. Although the 

exact preparation of sauces varies by region, the most 

common components include 

okra, garlic, piment (red 

pepper powder), and dried 

tomato. 

Northern sauces tend to be 

spicier and incorporate more 

meat, while those in the 

South are more lightly 

seasoned. Peanut paste and 

dried fish sometimes substitute for the more expensive and 

occasionally unavailable fresh fish and meat. For dessert, 

Chadians may enjoy beignets souffles (pictured), fluffy, fried 

dough balls or jus de fruit, a mixture of fresh fruit juices. 

Eating Out

Located mostly in urban areas, restaurants are popular among 

wealthy Chadians and foreign nationals. The average Chadian

cannot afford to eat out. While Chadians generally consider 

eating or snacking in public rude, markets and small vendors in 

urban areas sell a variety of street foods, such as bread, 

peanuts, porridge, and fresh 

juice (Photo: A platter of 

nashif). 

Beverages 

Chadians enjoy green or red 

rooibos tea (an herbal blend 

also known as redbush) 

throughout the day and also 

regularly consume freshly 

squeezed juices from

papaya, guava, pineapple, and mango. In the North, Chadians 

may enjoy warmed milk spiced with sugar and cardamom. 

Across the country, popular beverages include bili-bili, a sour 

drink made from fermented millet, and carcaje, a sweet 

beverage made from stewed hibiscus leaves. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Although the government has made modest improvements to 

Chad’s healthcare infrastructure in recent years, the 

population’s overall health remains poor. Generally, the 

healthcare system suffers from a lack of funding and a severe 

shortage of medical professionals, particularly in rural areas 

where modern healthcare is inaccessible. With 856 deaths per 

100,000 live births, Chad’s maternal mortality rate is the world’s 

2nd highest behind South Sudan. Meanwhile, infant mortality 

(the proportion of infants who die before age 1) is the world’s 

6th highest, at 89 deaths per 1,000 live births. Significantly, 

trained medical personnel or midwives attended only 23% of 

births in 2010. 

Close to 1/3 of Chadian children under age 5 are underweight, 

the world’s 13th highest rate of child malnutrition. Although life 

expectancy at birth increased from 46 to 52 years between 

1981 and 2015, it remains lower than the Sub-Saharan African 

average of 59 and significantly lower than the global average of 

72. Finally, almost 50% of the total population (87% of rural 

dwellers) lives below the poverty line, with persistent famine 

affecting 44% of Chadians (Photo: US Army personnel train 

Chadian combat medics 

during a multinational 

military exercise). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine 

consists of the 

knowledge, practices, 

and skills derived from a 

native population’s 

beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Chadian medicine centers use herbal 

remedies, not surgical procedures, to identify and treat illness. 

With modern medicine unavailable in rural and remote regions, 

many Chadians rely on traditional healers and remedies to 

treat diseases and other ailments. Traditional healers such as 

Muslim marabouts (see p. 6 of Learning and Knowledge) often 

incorporate a spiritual component in their treatments, helping to 

cleanse the body of illness, ward off spirits who bring sickness, 

and restore physical and mental wholeness. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

As noted earlier, Chad’s severely underfunded healthcare 

system is unable to provide preventative, long-term, and 

emergency care for the majority of the population. Since 

facilities are concentrated in cities, rural dwellers generally 

must travel long 

distances on inadequate, 

unpaved roads to receive 

treatment. Consequently, 

modern healthcare is 

completely unavailable

for many. Further, rural 

clinics often lack the 

resources and medical 

expertise to treat serious 

illnesses (Photo: 

Chadian students display civics education and English 

language textbooks). 

While there are a number of modern and well-equipped 

hospitals in the capital city of N’Djamena, the majority of 

Chad’s medical facilities are dilapidated, ill-equipped, and 

severely understaffed. In fact, some facilities operate without 

electricity, running water, or sanitation. As of 2006, Chad had 

just 3.7 physicians per 100,000 people, well below the World 

Health Organization’s recommendation of 20 physicians per 

100,000 people and significantly below the US rate of 250. 

With the goal of 

improving its 

healthcare system, 

in 2012, Chad’s 

government pledged 

to increase the 

number of health 

care workers and 

raise health sector 

spending from 3.6% 

to 15% of its total 

budget by 2022 (Photo: US Army personnel provide dental 

procedural instruction to Chadian nurses during Exercise 

Flintlock) . 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Water and Sanitation Shortages

The Chadian government struggles to provide clean 

drinking water and sanitation to the population. As of 

2015, about 72% of urban dwellers and just 45% of 

rural residents had access to clean drinking water 

while just 31% of urban and 7% of rural dwellers had 

access to sanitation facilities. This lack of potable 

water and sanitation contributes to Chad’s high rates 

of communicable disease and places Chadians at risk 

of infection from parasites and bacteria. In addition, 

intermittent drought-related water shortages further 

strain Chad’s limited water supplies and occasionally 

result in widespread humanitarian crises (see p. 3 of 

Political and Social Relations).

Health Challenges

As is common in developing countries, the leading causes of 

illness and death in Chad include communicable, infectious, 

and parasitic diseases, accounting for 72% of all deaths in 

2012. The most prevalent diseases include bacterial diarrhea, 

hepatitis, typhoid fever, malaria, dengue fever, and meningitis. 

In addition, widespread poverty, cyclical droughts, and a lack of 

pre-natal, maternal, and child health services results in 

rampant, nation-wide malnutrition – the leading cause of death 

for children below age 5. Notably, Chad’s child mortality rate is

significantly higher than the Sub-Saharan average and higher 

than the rates of all its neighbors.

Nearly 215,000 Chadians live with HIV/AIDS, a relatively high 

prevalence rate of 2.5% of the population but lower than the 

rates of other West and Central African countries. Of note,

women in particular tend to be more susceptible to HIV, yet

only 1 of 10 women ages 15-25 has comprehensive knowledge 

of HIV prevention. Non-communicable diseases such as heart 

disease, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and digestive 

diseases accounted for about 1/5th of all deaths in 2012. 

Meanwhile, preventable “external causes” such as car 

accidents, suicides, and other injuries caused about 7% of all 

deaths. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most regional residents subsisted as small 

farmers or animal herders. Until the end of the 19th century, 

the empires that ruled vast areas of Chad maintained their 

influence through control of trans-Saharan trade routes (see p. 

1-3 of History and Myth).

After colonizing Chad in the early 20th century, France focused 

most of its development efforts in other African holdings (see p. 

5 of History and Myth). What appeared to be Chad’s chance for 

economic development began in the 1920s with France’s 

promotion of large-scale cotton production. In 1928, Cotonfran, 

a private company, 

acquired the rights to 

manage all Chadian cotton 

production and export. 

Nevertheless, this new 

export industry benefited 

few Chadians. Viewing

Chad solely as a source of 

raw cotton (pictured), 

France prohibited cotton processing and textile production in 

the colony. Thus, France neither invested in industrialization 

nor developed a services economy that could have enabled 

economic growth and diversification. Instead, Chad’s economy 

was vulnerable to unstable global cotton prices. 

When Chad gained independence in 1960, it was ill-prepared 

to develop its own advanced economy. Besides failing to 

pursue economic development, the French had neglected 

Chadians’ education (see p. 1-2 of Learning and Knowledge). 

In the early 1970s, the Chadian government nationalized 

Cotonfran, renaming it Cotontchad. To further develop its 

cotton industry and to explore exploitation of its proven oil 

reserves, Chad encouraged foreign direct investment (FDI). 

Nevertheless, civil war violence, insecurity, political instability, 

and chronic droughts caused the economy and standard of 

living to remain stagnant for decades. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
When President Déby took office in 1990 (see p. 10 of History 

and Myth), Chad was one of the world’s poorest countries, with 

a per capita GDP of just $290 (the US per capita GDP that year 

was almost $24,000). While encouraging some liberal freemarket economic policies, Déby also promoted the creation of 

new “parastatal” enterprises, private firms with some 

government control and investment. In the end, poor state 

oversight and corruption often led to inefficiency and 

mismanagement in these firms. Despite some attempts to 

reform and diversify the economy, persistent conflict and 

instability continued to impede development. By 2000, 

continuing corruption, a lack of long-term investment, poor 

infrastructure, and dependence on cotton exports in a volatile 

market caused Chad’s per capita GDP to shrink to $160. 

In the early 21st century, proceeds from an emerging oil 

industry began to fuel some economic growth. In 2003, an 

alliance consisting of Exxon Mobil, Shell, Elf, and other large 

international firms began developing oil fields in southern 

Chad. By 2004, the group was pumping over 200,000 barrels 

per day. While production levels have since declined, a decade 

of high oil prices combined with a surge in cotton prices

allowed GDP per capita to reach $1,025 in 2014. Even so, few 

Chadians have benefited from these oil profits (see p. 13 of 

History and Myth). Instead, 

most remain subsistence

farmers reliant on small 

farm plots and good rains

(Photo: A small vegetable 

garden in Moundou).

Chad has natural 

resources, including land 

suitable for agriculture, 

gold, uranium, and bauxite. Primarily due to the country’s 

extended conflict and insecurity, there has been little 

exploitation of these resources. Many challenges continue to 

impede Chad’s economic development, including long 

distances to global markets, poor infrastructure (see p. 1-3 of 

Technology and Resources), a poorly-educated workforce, 

endemic corruption, and an ongoing loss of farmland due to 

desertification. In recent years, violence and instability in 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
bordering countries, declining oil production, and low 

commodity prices have also negatively impacted the economy. 

Chad continues to rely heavily on foreign aid, which has 

accounted for nearly 25% of GDP in some years.

Despite limited improvements and an average annual growth 

rate of 3.3% from 2010-15, most Chadians remain poor, with 

few prospects for upward mobility. In 2011, over 39% of

Chadians lived on less than $2/day and 65% on less than 

$3/day. Meanwhile, about 1/3 of children aged 7-14 had to 

work to help support their families. In 2015, economic growth 

slowed to 1.8% as oil prices fell and as inflation increased to 

3.6%. Without major economic, fiscal, and labor-market 

reforms, Chad could remain one of the world’s poorest 

countries for years to come.

Agriculture

The agricultural sector consists of farming, livestock, fishing, 

and forestry and is the largest component of the Chadian 

economy, accounting for about 55% of GDP and 83% of 

employment. Despite the central role of agriculture in Chad’s 

economy, productivity is limited by lack of water and

technology and the threat from natural hazards like locust 

swarms and desertification (see p. 3 of 

Political and Social Relations). 

Some 75% of cultivated land is in the 

southern savanna region. By contrast,

most livestock herding and limited 

farming occurs in the semi-arid central 

Sahel. In the northern Sahara desert

region, agricultural production is limited 

to dates and legumes, along with camel 

herding (Photo: Camels in the Sahara).

Farming: Almost 40% of Chad’s land is 

suitable for agricultural purposes, 

though only a small portion is used for farming. Most Chadian 

farmers use traditional slash-and-burn and crop rotation 

techniques. Some Chadians residing along the riverbeds and 

lakeshores employ some irrigation. Typical crops include millet, 

sorghum, sesame, corn, rice, cassava (starchy tuberous root), 

yams, potatoes, and onions. While cotton is cultivated on a 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
large scale for export, most Chadian farmers work on small 

plots for their own subsistence.

Livestock: Many Chadians in the central Sahel region raise

cattle, goats, and chickens, while camel-herding is common in 

the northern desert. Although these activities are important 

sources of income for many Chadians, much of these profits is 

not reflected in the national economy because most 

transactions are informal. Nonetheless, livestock and derived 

products account for almost 10% of all registered exports.

Fishing: Fishing in Lake Chad and the Chari and Logone 

rivers is traditionally a major component of the Chadian 

economy. In the 1970s, Chad was among Africa’s largest 

freshwater fish producers, 

with production peaking at 

120,000 tons per year. 

Largely due to the rapid 

disappearance of Lake 

Chad (see p. 3 of Political 

and Social Relations), the 

fishing industry has been 

declining since the 1980s. 

While Chadians consume much of their catch, some fish are 

salted and dried for export, primarily to neighboring countries 

(Photo: View of Lake Chad from space). 

Forestry: Chad’s forests have shrunk considerably in recent 

decades due to desertification, traditional herding practices that 

damage the environment, and the clearing of forests for

farming and firewood. In 2015, only about 4% of Chad’s total 

land area was covered by forests. Important forestry export 

products include gum arabic (made from the sap of the acacia 

tree and used in the food industry) and shea butter (extracted 

from the nut of the shea tree and used in cosmetics). 

Services

Accounting for about 31% of GDP and 10% of employment, 

services is the 2nd largest sector consisting mainly of public 

sector jobs and retail trade. While Chad has some 

telecommunications and banking services, they are primarily 

limited to N’Djamena and other urban areas.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Tourism: While the annual number of tourists doubled 

between 2006 and 2013 to almost 100,000, Chad attracts

relatively few visitors, primarily due to a lack of infrastructure, 

ongoing political unrest, and the threat of violence and disease. 

Nevertheless, Chad has several notable sites including

Zakouma National Park, 

the Sahara’s Tibesti 

Mountains, and the Ouara 

ancient ruins (pictured). 

Industry

The industrial sector 

accounts for about 14% of 

GDP and 7% of the labor 

force. The most significant 

subsectors of this smallest economic component include oil 

and manufacturing.

Oil: The dominant industrial activity in Chad is oil extraction, 

accounting for about 60% of export earnings. In 2015 Chad 

had about 1.5 billion barrels of proven oil reserves located 

primarily in southern fields near Doba and by Lake Chad. To 

reach global markets, Chad transports its oil via the 665-milelong Chad-Cameroon pipeline. Africa’s 12th-largest oil 

producer, Chad exports most of its oil to the US. Oil production 

has decreased in recent years primarily due to corruption and 

mismanagement. In 2015, Chad exported just 103,000 barrels 

per day, less than 1/2 its 2004 peak. 

Chad’s national oil company, Société des Hydrocarbures du 

Tchad (SHT) lacks the technology needed to develop its own 

fields. Consequently, Chad relies on international investors to 

expand the industry. While the US’s Exxon Mobile now has the 

largest stake in the association begun in 2003, the China 

National Petroleum Corporation opened Chad’s only refinery 

near N’Djamena in 2011. 

Manufacturing: Cotontchad’s cotton ginning and textile 

production activities comprise Chad’s primary manufacturing 

pursuits, accounting for about 30% of export earnings. Other 

industries include food processing, sugar refining, cigarettes, 

cement, beverages, natron (sodium carbonate), soap, and

construction materials. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

Chad uses the Central African CFA Franc, issued in 5 

banknotes (500, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000 CFA) and 8 coins 

(1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 500 CFA). While the CFA subdivides 

into 100 centimes, no centime currency is currently in use. 

CFA Francs are pegged to the Euro at a rate of €1=656 CFA 

and are backed by the French treasury. In recent years, $1 has 

been worth between 450-625 CFA. Regulated by the Bank of 

Central African States, the CFA franc serves as the official 

currency of the Central African Financial Community comprised 

of Chad, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Republic 

of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon (Photo: 10,000 

CFA franc note).

Foreign Trade

Chad’s exports, totaling

$4.1 billion in 2015, 

primarily consisted of 

oil, livestock, cotton, 

gum arabic, sesame, 

and shea butter sold to 

the US (78%), Japan (10%), Taiwan (5%), and China (4%). In 

the same year, Chad imported $3.3 billion of machinery and

transportation equipment, industrial goods, foodstuffs, and 

textiles from France (21%), China (11%), the US (11%), 

Cameroon (11%), Portugal (6%), Germany (5%), and Belgium 

(5%). A large portion of Chad’s trade goes unrecorded by 

customs officials due to traditional and informal cross-border 

trading practices. If informal trade were formalized, data would 

likely show Cameroon and Nigeria among Chad’s most 

significant import and export partners.

Foreign Aid

The European Union is Chad’s largest donor, giving over €246 

million in humanitarian aid in 2012 to assist malnourished 

children, refugees, and displaced people and improve food, 

water, and sanitation services. In 2012, the US gave Chad 

nearly $158 million of aid in the form of food assistance (55%), 

refugee and migration assistance (27%), security (1% but on 

the rise recently), and other aid programs (17%). The World 

Bank, International Monetary Fund, and other multilateral aid 

agencies are also substantial annual contributors. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Chad’s ongoing civil conflicts and political instability have 

resulted in some of Africa’s most underdeveloped physical 

infrastructure. Most Chadians lack access to modern

telecommunications. The government often arbitrarily limits free 

speech. 

Transportation

Few Chadians can afford 

a privately-owned vehicle 

(POV), instead making 

local trips primarily by

walking. Travel via

bicycle, oxcart, donkey, 

and camel is also 

common. N’Djamena, Moundou, and a few other towns offer 

public transportation such as minibuses, clandos (motorcycle 

taxis), and trucks, often sharing the road with pedestrians, bikes, 

and domesticated animals. For inter-town travel, Chadians rely 

on buses and small pickup trucks called “bush taxis” or taxi 

brousse. Most travel beyond major towns requires POVs or 

4WD vehicles due to the poor road conditions (Photo: The paved 

road ending near N’Djamena).

Roadways: In 2015, only about 2% of Chad’s 24,900 mi of roads 

were paved. Beyond N’Djamena, most of Chad’s roads are 

unpaved dirt. Due to erosion during the rainy season, many 

roads are impassible for much of the year. While roads account 

for 95% of the transport of people and goods, poor conditions 

induce substantial extra fuel and vehicle maintenance costs. A 

paved road runs from Massakory near Lake Chad through 

N’Djamena, Bongor, and Kélo to Moundou in the far southwest, 

while another connects N’Djamena to Abéché in the east.

Railways: While Chad presently has no railways, there are 

plans to link Chad with regional rail systems. In 2014, the China 

Civil Engineering Construction Corporation agreed to construct 

2 lines together totaling 848 miles of standard gauge rail for $5.6 

billion. The proposed 520-mi east line will transport passengers 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
and cargo from Nyala in Sudan to Adré, Abéché, and N’Djamena

in Chad. The 328-mi south line will connect the east line in 

N’Djamena to Moundou before continuing to Cameroon. 

Presently, most of Chad’s rail cargo is transported to

Ngaoundéré, Cameroon by road before it is sent by rail to the 

seaport in Douala on Cameroon’s coast.

Ports and Waterways: As a landlocked country, Chad has no 

ports, although the Chari River, Logone River, and Lake Chad 

are major waterways. While total waterways cover about 3,000 

mi, less than 1,200 mi are 

navigable year-round

(Photo: A bridge across the 

Logone River between 

N’Djamena and 

Cameroon).

Airways: Chad has 53 

airports, 9 with paved 

runways. The primary air 

transit hub is N’Djamena 

International Airport, which serves global carriers with flights to 

many cities in Africa, as well as Paris and Istanbul. In 2012, 

authorities suspended the operations of Chad’s national carrier,

Toumaï Air Tchad, due to safety concerns. 

Energy

Since the development of its oil industry in 2003 (see p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources), Chad relies mostly on oil to meet

its energy needs. In 2015, Chad consumed less than 2,000 

barrels/day (b/d), while it exported around 103,000 b/d (see p. 6

of Economics and Resources). A single power station uses oil to 

generate electricity for Chad’s inadequate electric grid.

Chad has one of the world’s lowest energy consumption rates. 

Various estimates suggest that only 2-6% of Chadians have 

access to electricity. Even this statistic does not tell the whole 

story: while the urban electrification rate is about 16%, most rural 

inhabitants have no access to the electric grid at all. Even 

Chadians with electricity spend an average of 75 days/year

without power. To meet their energy needs, most Chadians burn 

manure or wood, though some wealthy Chadians utilize private 

diesel generators. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

The Chadian constitution protects freedom of expression and 

the press, however, the government arbitrarily censors 

journalists and has arrested the directors of several private 

newspapers. While the government permits some criticisms, its

High Council of Communication exerts particular control over the 

dissemination of media content related to security and political 

issues. The government rarely jails journalists for extended 

periods. Instead, governmental pressure and the threat of 

reprisal results in journalists’ self-censorship.

Print Media: Chad has a variety of local and national 

periodicals. State-owned newspapers L’Info and Horizons 

Nouveaux appear in both French and Standard Arabic versions. 

Popular private newspapers include Abba Garde, Le Progrès, 

La Voix, and L’Observateur in 

French and N’Djamena AlDjadida in Arabic.

Radio and TV: Due to its low cost, 

radio is most Chadians’ primary 

source of information. The public 

station Radiodiffusion Nationale 

Tchadienne (RNT) broadcasts 

programs in French, Arabic, and 8 

other languages. Television 

viewing in Chad is limited to just 3 

channels, including the public TeleTchad and 2 private stations 

launched in 2011 and 2013 (Photo: Chadian officials speak

under the radio tower in N’Djamena). 

Telecommunications

Chad has some of Africa’s lowest telecommunication

penetration rates, with less than 1 landline and 46 mobile 

phones (growing) per 100 people. Chad’s limited 

telecommunications network is expensive and its unreliable 

connections are often completely unavailable in rural areas.

Internet: Chad has one of the world’s lowest rates of Internet

use, with just 2.7% of Chadians using the Internet in 2016. The 

government occasionally blocks content or limits access, most 

recently in the run-up to the 2016 election (see p. 13 of History 

and Myth).

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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October 2016

CULTURE GUIDE