Special

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

J

A

National Institute of Justice

N. 0

6

REPORT 

Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Rape Victimization: 

Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

810 Seventh Street N.W.

Washington, DC 20531

Alberto R. Gonzales

Attorney General

Regina B. Schofield

Assistant Attorney General

Glenn R. Schmitt

Acting Director, National Institute of Justice

This and other publications and products of the National Institute

of Justice can be found at:

National Institute of Justice

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

Office of Justice Programs

Partnerships for Safer Communities

www.ojp.usdoj.gov
E x te n t , N a tu re , and Consequences of 

Rape Vi c t i m i z a t i o n : Findings From the 

National Violence Against Women Survey 

Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes 

NCJ 210346 
Glenn R. Schmitt 

Acting Director 

Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the author(s) and d

necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U. S. Department of Ju s t i c e . 

This research was sponsored by the U. S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Ju 

and the Centers for Disease Control and Pr evention, under NIJ grant number 93–IJ–CX

The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which 

includes the Bureau of Justice As s i s tance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of 

Justice and Delinquency Pr evention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. 
against women. This nationally representative telephone survey asked 8,000 women 

and 8,000 men about their experiences as 

rape victims. 

Despite an increase in research on rape in 

the past 30 years, gaps remain in the 

understanding of rape victimization. The 

survey elicited information on the prevalence of rape victimization by gender, age, 

and race/ethnicity; characteristics of rape 

victims, rapists, and rape incidents; the 

relationship between rape victimization as 

a minor and as an adult; physical, social, 

and psychological consequences of rape 

victimization; and satisfaction with the justice system. 

What did the researchers 

find? 

Almost 18 million women and almost 3 

million men in the United States have 

been raped. One of every six women has 

been raped at some time. In a single year, 

more than 300,000 women and almost 

93,000 men are estimated to have been 

raped. Rape prevalence rates were the 

same for minority and nonminority 

women, but differences were found by 

specific racial and ethnic group. Younger 

women were significantly more likely to 

report being raped at some time in their 

lives than older women. More than half 

of the female victims and nearly threequarters of the male victims were raped 

before their 18th birthday. Women who 

reported being raped as minors were 

twice as likely to report being raped as 

adults. 

Although the word “ r a p e” is gender neutral, 

most rape victims are female (almost 86 

py 

or former intimate partner and to s

an injury during a rape. Many rape 

suffer serious mental health conse

quences. Only one in five adult wo

report their rape to the police. Abo

of the women raped as adults who 

contact with police and about half 

had contact with the courts were 

with their treatment. 

What were the study’s 

limitations? 

Because only 24 women and 8 me

reported during their interviews th

had been raped in the 12 months 

ing the survey, the annual estimat

should be viewed with caution. NV

most likely underestimates the ac

number of annual rapes because i

excludes rapes of children and ado

cents and those who are homeles

live in institutions, group facilities, 

dences without telephones. Becau

the small number of Asian/Pacific 

women identified by the survey w

been raped and the small number 

identified for several indicators (e.

eral race/ethnicity categories, relat

between early and subsequent rap

timization, injuries sustained durin

rape), NVAWS could not develop r

rape prevalence estimates or cond

tistical tests. 

Who should read this st

Criminal justice and public health 

researchers and practitioners; legi

policymakers, and intervention pla

all levels of government. 
What Is the National Violence Against Women Survey? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Prevalence and Incidence of Rape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Rape Prevalence Among Minority Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Rape Prevalence by Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Characteristics of Rape Victims, Rapists, and Rape Incidents . . . . . . . . . 

Injury and Health Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Victims’ Involvement in the Justice System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Questions for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
About the Authors 

Patricia Tjaden, Ph.D., is 

Director of Tjaden 

Research Corporation. 

Nancy Thoennes, Ph.D., 

is Associate Director 

of the Center for 

Policy Research. 

I n t r o d u c t i o n 

Rape is a significant social and health 

problem in the United States. Results 

from the National Violence Against Women 

Survey (NVAWS) revealed that 17.7 million 

women and 2.8 million men in the United 

States were forcibly raped at some time in 

their lives, with 302,091 women and 

92,748 men forcibly raped in the year preceding the survey. NVAWS found that lifetime rape prevalence varies significantly by 

race and ethnicity. American Indian/Alaska 

Native women reported significantly higher rates of rape victimization over their lifetime than did women from all other racial 

and ethnic backgrounds (except Asian/ 

Pacific Islander, of whom too few victims 

were in the study to reliably estimate rape 

prevalence). Mixed-race women reported 

significantly higher rates of rape victimization over their lifetimes than did Hispanic 

women and slightly higher rates than nonHispanic white and African-American 

women. 

Information from NVAWS confirms previous reports that rape occurs at an early 

age for many rape victims. More than 50 

percent of the female victims and 70 percent of the male victims said they were 

raped before their 18th birthday. These 

findings are noteworthy because women 

who were raped before age 18 were twice 

as likely to report being raped as adults. 

Given these findings, it is evident that 

rape prevention strategies should focus 

on rapes committed against minors as 

well as adults. 

Although rape is a gender-neutral c

the NVAWS findings indicate that 

rape victims are women and mos

are men. Th ey also show that vict

p e rpetrator relationship patterns v

across the lifespan for women but 

men. Women who were raped as 

(before age 12) tended to be victim

relatives; as adolescents (between 

12 and 17) women tended to be ra

intimate partners and acquaintanc

as adults (after their 18th birthday) 

tended to be raped by intimate pa

In comparison, male victims tende

raped by acquaintances regardless 

age at the time of victimization. 

The survey also produced compel

dence of the physical, social, and p

logical consequences of rape victi

About 32 percent of the women a

percent of the men were injured d

their most recent rape as an adult

women who were injured, more t

percent received medical treatme

addition, 33 percent of the women 

almost 25 percent of the men rape

adults received counseling from a 

health professional as a result of t

most recent rape. Almost 20 perce

the women and 10 percent of the 

said they lost time from work. 

Despite a steep increase in rape re

and public education in the past 30 

rape continues to be largely under

ed. Only one in five women who w
2 
Many gaps in knowledge about rape victimization remain.1 Estimates of the prevalence and incidence of rape vary widely 

from study to study.2 Information about 

minority women’s experiences with rape 

victimization is limited,3 as is information 

about men’s experiences as rape victims. 

Information on the social, physical, and 

psychological consequences of rape victimization also is insufficient.4 

To help deepen understanding of rape as 

well as the broader issue of violence 

against women, the National Institute of 

Justice (NIJ) and the Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention (CDC) jointly 

DE F I N I T I O N S A N D SU R V E Y QU E S T I O N S 

In the National Violence Against Women Survey 

( N VAWS), rape was defined as an event that 

occurred without the victim’s consent that 

involved the use or threat of force in vaginal, anal, 

or oral intercourse. This definition closely resembles that used in the National Wo m e n ’s Study 

( N W S ) .a H o w e v e r, unlike NWS, NVAWS includes 

both attempted and completed rape. Thus, unless 

otherwise noted in this report, “rape” refers to 

both attempted and completed rape. 

The survey included five behaviorally specific 

questions to screen for rape victimization. The 

first four questions are identical to those used in 

NWS and respectively screen for forced vaginal, 

oral, or anal penetration.b To collect information 

about attempted rape, NVAWS included a fifth 

question that screened for attempted forced penetration of the vagina, mouth, or anus. To minimize doubt in the respondent’s mind about what 

sponsored—through a grant to the 

for Policy Research—a national te

survey on violence against wome

ducted in 1995–96. Respondents 

National Violence Against Women 

(NVAWS) were queried about thei

ences as victims of various forms 

lence, including rape. (See “Defin

and Survey Questions.”) To provid

text for understanding women’s e

ences, the survey sampled both w

and men. Thus, the survey provide

parable data on women’s and men

riences as rape victims (see “Surv

Methodology”). 

was being measured, the questions incorp

ed explicit language. (See “Rape Screenin

Questions,” page 10.) 

Respondents who replied “yes” to one or m

of the screening questions were asked wh

their rapist was a spouse, ex-spouse, male 

cohabiting partner, female cohabiting part

relative, someone else they knew, or a stra

To further delineate the victim-perpetrator 

tionship, interviewers asked respondents w

disclosed rape victimization to specify whi

spouse/partner raped them (e.g., first exhusband, current male cohabiting partner)

which relative raped them (e.g., father, bro

g r a n d f a t h e r, mother, sister, aunt); or, in cas

involving acquaintances, to specify the rel

ship they had with the rapist (e.g., date, 

boyfriend, girlfriend, boss, coworker, teach

n e i g h b o r ) . Continued on p
consequences of their rape, including the


following:


grandfather) identified by the victim. Victim

were raped more than once by the same ty

■ Where the rape occurred. offender were asked to use their most rece

r a p e as a reference point.

■ Whether they or their rapist were using drugs


or alcohol at the time of the incident. N VAWS generated information on both the

■ Whether their rapist used a gun, knife, or other prevalence and incidence of rape. P r e v a l e 

weapon. refers to the number of people within a dem

■ Whether their rapist verbally threatened them. graphic group (e.g., women or men) who a

timized during a specific time period, such 

■ Whether their rapist physically assaulted them. p e r s o n ’s lifetime or the previous 12 months

■ Whether they thought they or someone close I n c i d e n c e refers to the number of separate 

to them would be seriously harmed or killed by timizations, or incidents, perpetrated again

their rapist. people within a demographic group during 

■ Whether they were physically injured and, if cific time period. Incidence expressed as a 

so, the types of injuries incurred. timization rate is obtained by dividing the n

■ Whether they received medical services. of victimizations perpetrated against peopl

the demographic group by the number of p

■ Whether they received counseling from a men- in the group and setting the rate to a stand

tal health professional. population base, such as 1,000 people.c ■ Whether they lost time from routine activities


such as school, work, volunteer endeavors, N o te s

recreational activities, and household chores. 
 a. National Victim Center and Crime Victims Research a

■ Whether they reported their rape to the police. Treatment Center, Rape in America: A Report to the N

Arlington, VA: National Victim Center and Charleston, 

■ Whether they obtained a restraining order Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, 1992.

against their rapist and, if so, whether it was


b. Ibid. violated. 

■ Whether their rapist was criminally prosecuted. c. Koss, M.P., and M.R. Harvey, The Rape Victim: Clinica

Community Interventions, 2d ed., Newbury Park, CA: 

Publications, 1991. 

This report summarizes findings from 

■ Pre

valence of rape victimization 

NVAWS on the extent, nature, and consewomen and men in different age 

quences of rape victimization among women and men in the United States. 

■

Relationship between rape victim

Information is presented on the following at an early age and subsequent 

topics: v i ctimization. ■�Prevalence and incidence of rape victim- ■ Characteristics of rape victims, r

ization among women and men. and rape incidents. 

■ Pre

valence of rape victimization among	

■

Frequency of injuries and sex u a 

minority populations.	 t r a n s m i tted diseases incurred b

a d u l t v i c t i m s .


4 
■�Frequency with which adult victims lose 

time from routine activities, such as 

work and school. 

■�Adult victims’ involvement and satisfaction with the justice system. 

SU R V E Y ME T H O D O L O G Y 

The National Violence Against Women Survey 

( N VAWS) was conducted from November 1995 to 

May 1996 by interviewers at Schulman, Ronca, 

Bucuvalas, Inc. (SRBI) under the direction of 

John Boyle.a The authors of this Special Report 

designed the survey questionnaire and conducted the analysis.b 

The sample was drawn by random-digit dialing of 

households with a telephone in the 50 States and 

the District of Columbia. The sample was administered by U.S. Census region. Within each 

region, a simple random sample of working residential “hundreds banks” of phone numbers was 

drawn. (A hundreds bank is the first 8 digits of 

any 10-digit telephone number.) A randomly generated 2-digit number was appended to each 

randomly sampled hundreds bank to produce the 

full 10-digit, random-digit number. Separate 

banks of numbers were generated for male and 

female respondents. These random-digit numbers were called by SRBI interviewers from their 

central telephone facility, where nonworking and 

nonresidential numbers were screened out. 

When a residential household was reached, eligible adults were identified. In households with 

more than one eligible adult, the adult with the 

most recent birthday was selected as the designated respondent. 

A total of 8,000 women and 8,005 men age 18 

a n d older were interviewed using a computera s s i s ted telephone interviewing (CATI) system. 

National Violence Against Women Survey” 

at the end of this report.) 

(Five completed interviews with men were subsequently eliminated from the sample during 

data editing because of an excessive amount 

o f inconsistent and missing data.) Only female 

interviewers surveyed female respondents. To 

test for possible bias introduced by the gender 

of the interviewer, a split-sample approach was 

used in the male sample whereby half of the 

interviews were conducted by female interviewers and half by male interviewers. A Spanishlanguage translation was administered by 

bilingual interviewers to Spanish-speaking 

r e s p o n d e n t s . 

Because of the large number of interviews to be 

conducted, the survey was fielded as a series of 

replicate samples, with each replicate sample 

consisting of approximately 500–3,000 completed interviews. Replicate samples were generated using the same sample frame and sample 

design and, unless otherwise noted, were analyzed as one sample. 

Two different sets of rape screening questions 

were fielded respectively during the first two 

female replicate samples to ascertain whether 

increasing the number of screening questions 

increases disclosure of rape victimization. 

Respondents in the first female replicate sample 

(n = 500) were asked two questions that respectively screened for attempted and completed 

forced penetration of the vagina, anus, or mouth 

Continued on page 6 
tongue, or objects. Respondents in the second 

female replicate sample (n = 501) were asked 

four questions that respectively screened for 

attempted and completed forced penetration of 

the vagina, anus, or mouth by penis; attempted 

and completed forced penetration of the mouth 

by penis or the vagina or anus by tongue; 

attempted and completed forced penetration of 

the anus by penis; and attempted and completed 

forced penetration of the vagina or anus by fingers, tongue, or objects. 

Survey records from the two replicate samples 

were analyzed immediately following completion 

of the interviews to determine whether one set of 

questions yielded higher disclosure rates. 

Results indicate that the two sets of questions 

yield similar victimization rates: 21.6 percent of 

the women in the first replicate sample and 20.6 

percent of the women in the second replicate 

sample said they were the victim of an attempted 

and/or completed rape at some time in their lifetime. It should be noted that because both sets of 

screening questions combine questions about 

attempted and completed rape, it is impossible to 

estimate attempted rape and completed rape victimization rates using the corresponding 1,001 

survey records. 

Following the analysis, the survey questionnaire 

was modified to include five different rape 

screening questions. (See “Rape Screening 

Questions,” p. 10.) The first four questions are 

identical to those used in the National Wo m e n ’s 

Study (NWS) and screen respectively for forced 

penile-vaginal penetration, forced penetration of 

the mouth by penis or the vagina or anus by 

tongue, forced penile-anal penetration, and 

forced penetration of the vagina or anus by fingers or objects.c The fifth question screens for 

was administered to the remaining 6,999 fe

respondents and all the male respondents 

were not queried about forced vaginal pen

tion). Because this version of the questionn

replicates screening questions used in NW

rape victimization estimates generated fro

6,999 survey records are directly comparab

rape victimization estimates generated fro

NWS. Moreover, because this version incl

separate questions about attempted rape a

completed rape, the survey records can be 

to ascertain separate victimization rates fo

attempted rape and completed rape. 

To determine the representativeness of the 

ple, select demographic characteristics of 

N VAWS sample were compared with demo

graphic characteristics of the general pop

from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 1995 Curren

Population Survey of adult men and wome

N o te s 

a . John Boyle, Ph.D., is senior partner and director of th

Government and Social Research Division at SRBI. H

cializes in public policy research in the area of healt

v i olence and manages SRBI’s Washington, D.C., offic

b . An indepth analysis of the statistical methodology ca

found in Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, an

Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings 

the National Violence Against Women Survey (see “

Publications From the National Violence Against Wo 

S u r v e y,“ p. 40 of this report). 

c . National Victim Center and Crime Victims Research a

Treatment Center, Rape in America: A Report to the N

Arlington, VA: National Victim Center and Charleston

Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, 1992. 

d . A technical report that describes the survey method

detail and records sample characteristics and preva

rates using weighted and unweighted data is availab

the Center for Policy Research, 1570 Emerson Street

CO 80218; phone: 303–837–1555; fax: 303–837–1557; e

c n t r p o l r e s @ q w e s t . n e t . 

6 
Using a definition of rape that includes 

attempted and completed vaginal, oral, 

and anal penetration achieved through the 

use or threat of force, NVAWS found that 

17.6 percent of surveyed women and 3 

percent of surveyed men were raped at 

some time in their lives (see exhibit 1). 

Thus, in the United States, 1 of every 6 

women has been raped at some time in 

her life, and 1 of every 33 men has been 

raped at some time in his life. Based on 

U.S. Census estimates of the number of

women and men age 18 and older in the 

United States in 1995 (the year the sample 

was generated), 17.7 million women and 

2.8 million men in the United States have 

been raped at some time in their life (see 

exhibit 1). 

The study also found that 0.3 perc

surveyed women and 0.1 percent 

veyed men were raped in the 12 m

preceding the survey. Based on 19

sus estimates of the number of w

and men age 18 and older in the N

302,091 women and 92,748 men 

raped in 1995, a year that approxim

the timeframe of the study.5 Beca

some victims were raped more th

in the 12 months preceding the su

the estimated number of rapes pe

ed in the United States in 1995 ex

the estimated number of rape vict

Specifically, female victims averag

rapes and male victims averaged 

in the 12 months preceding the su

Thus, an estimated 876,064 rapes 

Exhibit 1. Percentage and number of women and men who were raped in lifetime and previous 12 

Percentage Numbera 

Rape timeframe Women (n = 8,000) Men (n = 8,000) Women (100,697,000) Men (92

Raped in lifetimeb 17.6 3.0 17,722,672 2,78

Raped in previous 12 months 0.3 0.1 302,091 92

a. Estimates are based on women and men age 18 and older. Wetrogan, S.I., Projections of the Population of States by Age

Race: 1988 to 2010, Current Population Reports, Series P25–1017, Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1988. 

b. Difference between women and men is statistically significant. 

Note: Lifetime prevalence rates for women in this exhibit are based on survey records of 6,999 women who were administe

of the survey questionnaire that contains separate questions about attempted rape and completed rape. The remaining 1,00

were administered versions of the questionnaire that combine questions about attempted rape and completed rape. Becaus

sible to distinguish attempted rape and completed rape from the combined questions, the corresponding 1,001 survey recor

excluded when attempted rape and completed rape rates for women were calculated. The 1,001 survey records also were e

when the total lifetime rape rate for women presented here was calculated to make this rate consistent with information in 

which presents rape estimates for both lifetime attempted rape and lifetime completed rape. (See “Survey Methodology” fo

mation about different versions of the NVAWS questionnaire.) 
months preceding the survey, the data are 

unstable and should be viewed with caution. Annual estimates presented in this 

report also probably underestimate the 

true number of rapes committed each year 

because they exclude attempted/complet-

ed rapes of children and adolescents and 

attempted/completed rapes of women and 

men who are homeless or living in institutions (e.g., prisons, mental hospita l s ) , 

group facilities (e.g., dormitories, halfway 

houses), or households without telephones. 

Attempted rape versus

completed rape 

Interviewers queried respondents about 

their experiences as victims of both 

attempted and completed rape. Attempted 

rapes refer to incidents in which rapists 

threatened or used force to attempt vaginal, anal, or oral rape, but penetration did 

not occur. As shown in exhibit 3, relatively 

few women and men reported they were 

the victims of an attempted rape only. 

Among all respondents, 14.8 percent of 

the women and 2.1 percent of the men 

said they were victims of a completed 

rape at some time in their life, whereas 

2.8 percent of the women and 0.9 percent 

of the men said they were victims of an 

attempted rape only. (Women and men 

successful in penetrating their vict

They also demonstrate how the de

of rape used in a research study af

who is counted as a victim and, co

quently, victimization rates. Resea

find higher rape victimization rates 

ies include attempts in their defini

rape, illustrating the maxim that th

er the definition used to measure 

ization, the higher the victimization 

Comparison with previo

rape estimates 

Lifetime estimates. Before NVAW

national information on rape occur

a victim’s lifetime was limited to d

two nationwide studies on forced 

1992 National Health and Social Li

Survey (NHSLS) interviewed a nat

probability sample of U.S. women 

men about their experiences with 

including forced sex, and found th

percent of women and 2 percent o

had been “forced to do something 

in their life.”6 The 1990 National 

Wo

Study (NWS) surveyed a national p

ty sample of U.S. women about th

experiences with completed but n

attempted rape and found that 13 

of women had been raped at som

their lives.7 

Exhibit 2. Number of rapes perpetrated against women and men in the previous 12 months 

Victims’ Number of rape Average number of Total number of Rape rate 

gender victims rapes per victim rapes wome

Women 302,091 2.9 876,064 8

Men 92,748 1.2 111,298 1

8 
completed rape; NHSLS used only one 

question to screen for “being forced to do 

something sex u a l .” Nonetheless, NHSLS 

findings provide a context for NVAW S ’s lifetime rape prevalence estimates. NVAW S ’s 

estimate that 17.6 percent of women have 

been victims of an attempted/completed 

rape is lower than NHSLS’s 22 percent 

estimate. In contrast, the NVAWS estimate that 3 percent of men have been 

victims of an attempted/completed rape is 

higher than NHSLS’s 2 percent estimate. 

Although the two surveys generated different estimates for somewhat different 

phenomena, results from both surveys 

show that forced sex is a widespread 

problem in U.S. society, especially among 

women. 

NVAWS and NWS were conducted in different years (1995–96 and 1990, respectively), but their estimates are comparable 

because they used identical screening 

questions for completed rape (see “Survey Methodology” and “Rape Screening 

Questions”). The NVAWS estimate that 

mates may be insignificant. 

Annual estimates. The U.S. Department 

of Justice’s Bureau of Justice Statistics 

(BJS) generates estimates about the number of attempted/completed rapes perpetrated against women and men in the 

United States annually using information 

generated from the National Crime 

Victimization Survey (NCVS). For 1995— 

a year that approximates the timeframe 

for NVAWS—NCVS estimates 214,783 

attempted/completed rapes of females 

age 12 and older and 19,338 attempted/ 

completed rapes of males age 12 and 

older.8 NVAWS annual rape estimates are 

higher than those of NCVS, even though 

the NVAWS estimates include only 

attempted/completed rapes perpetrated 

against women and men age 18 and older. 

Specifically, the NVAWS estimate that 

876,064 attempted/completed rapes were 

perpetrated against women age 18 and 

older in 1995 is four times greater than the 

1995 NCVS estimate, and the NVAWS 

estimate of 111,298 attempted/completed 

Exhibit 3. Percentage of women and men who were victims of a completed versus attempted rape in lifetime 

Women (%) Men (%) 

Rape category (n = 8,000) (n = 8,000) 

Raped in lifetime* 17.6 3.0 

Completed rape* 14.8 2.1 

Attempted rape only* 2.8 0.9 

* Difference between women and men is statistically significant.

Note: Lifetime prevalence rates for women in this exhibit are based on survey records of 6,999 women who were administered a version 

of the survey questionnaire that contains separate questions about attempted and completed rape. The remaining 1,001 women were 

administered versions of the questionnaire that combine questions about attempted and completed rape. Because it is impossible to distinguish attempted rape and completed rape from the combined questions, the corresponding 1,001 survey records were excluded when 

attempted and completed rape rates for women were calculated. (See “Survey Methodology” for more information about different versions of the NVAWS questionnaire.) 
between NVAWS and NCVS are difficult 

because estimates reported by the two 

surveys refer to somewhat different populations (individuals age 18 and older versus 

those 12 and older). Moreover, the two 

surveys’ methodologies differ significantly, 

especially in terms of screening questions. 

NVAWS uses five questions to screen 

respondents for rape victimization (see 

“Rape Screening Questions”), while 

NCVS uses only two questions.10 Although 

empirical data on this issue are limited, 

some researchers believe that increasing 

the number of screening questions 

increases victimization disclosure rates.11 Furthermore, the NVAWS questions 

use more explicit language than those 

of NCVS. 

In addition, NCVS estimates count series 

victimizations—reports of six or more RA P E SC R E E N I N G QU E S T I O N S 

The following questions screened respondents for 

completed and attempted rape victimization:* ■ [Female respondents only] Regardless of how 

long ago it happened, has a man or boy ever 

made you have sex by using force or threatening to harm you or someone close to you? Just 

so there is no mistake, by sex we mean putting 

a penis in your vagina. 

■ Has anyone, male or female, ever made you 

have oral sex by using force or threat of force? 

Just so there is no mistake, by oral sex we 

mean that a man or boy put his penis in your 

mouth or someone, male or female, penetrated 

your vagina or anus with their mouth or tongue. 

■ Has anyone ever made you have anal sex by 

using force or threat of harm? Just so there is 

no mistake, by anal sex we mean that a man or 

boy put his penis in your anus. 

dents reported to its survey interv

To compare NCVS estimates direc

NVAWS estimates, NCVS would h

count each crime in a reported ser

victimizations separately. 

Rape prevalence compa

with other forms of viol

What is the relative risk of being r

versus physically assaulted or stal

NVAWS found that 1.9 percent of 

veyed women were physically ass

the 12 months preceding the surv

1 percent were stalked (see exhib

Thus, in the year preceding the su

U.S. women were six times more 

be physically assaulted than raped 

three times more likely to be stalk

■ Has anyone, male or female, ever put fin

objects in your vagina or anus against yo

or by using force or threats? 

■ Has anyone, male or female, ever a t t e m p 

make you have vaginal, oral, or anal sex 

your will, but intercourse or penetration 

occur? 

N o t e * Rape screening questions were adapted from those u

National Wo m e n ’s Study; see National Victim Center an

Victims Research and Treatment Center, Rape in Ameri

Report to the Nation, Arlington, VA: National Victim Cen

Charleston, SC: Crime Victims Research and Treatment 

1992: 15. 

10 
ratios of the likelihood of rape versus physical assault or stalking for men could not 

be completed. 

Type of rape experienced 

As the NVAWS screening questions show 

(see “Rape Screening Questions”), female 

respondents were asked specifically about 

different types of forced completed or 

cent of the women said they were victims 

of forced attempts to penetrate their vagina, anus, or mouth. 

Among male victims, 52.7 percent said 

they experienced forced penetration of the 

mouth by penis or of the anus by tongue, 

23.8 percent said they experienced forced 

penile-anal penetration, and 53.1 percent 

said they experienced attempted forced 

penetration of their anus or mouth. 

Exhibit 4. Percentage of women and men who were victimized in previous 12 months by type of violence 

Victimized in previous 12 months

Type of violence Women (%) (n = 8,000) Men (%) (n = 8,000) 

Rape 0.3 0.1 

Physical assault* 1.9 3.4 

Stalking* 1.0 0.4 

* Difference between women and men is statistically significant.

Exhibit 5. Percentage distribution of female and male rape victims by type of rape experienced 

Female victims (%)b Male victims (%)

b 

Type of rape experienceda (n = 1,235) (n = 239) 

Penetration of vagina by penis 68.2 NA 

Penetration of mouth by penis or vagina or anus by tongue 23.9 52.7 

Penetration of anus by penis 13.4 23.8 

Penetration of vagina or anus by objects or fingers 31.3 20.1 

Attempted penetration of vagina, anus, or mouth 49.3 53.1 

a. Questions to male respondents omitted reference to vaginal penetration. 

b. Total percentages by victim gender exceed 100 because some victims experienced more than one type of rape. 
percent were raped by two people, and 

8.3 percent were raped by three or more 

people (see exhibit 6). Among male rape 

victims, the comparable figures are 83.3 

one person may have been raped 

ple people during a single incident

ferent lone offenders during multip

incidents, or both. 

Exhibit 6. Percentage distribution of female and male victims by number of rapists in lifetime 

12 
To further understanding of the relationship between victimization and race/ 

e t h n i c i ty, respondents were asked whether 

t h ey would best classify thems e l ves as 

white, black or African-American, Asian or 

Pacific Islander, American Indian or A l a s k a 

N a t i ve, mixed race, or of Hispanic origin. 

The response rate was extremely high— 

98 percent of the respondents answe r e d 

the question about race, and 99 percent 

a n s wered the question about Hispanic 

origin. 

Combining data on Hispanic, AfricanAmerican, American Indian/Alaska Native, 

Asian/Pacific Islander, and mixed-race 

women revealed no statistically significant 

difference in rape prevalence between 

minority and nonminority women—19 percent of minority women and 17.9 percent 

of non-Hispanic white women reported 

being raped at some time in their lifetime 

(see exhibit 7). Nor was a statistically 

significant difference in rape preva

found between minority and nonm

men—3.4 percent of minority me

ed being raped at some time in th

time compared with 2.8 percent o

non-Hispanic white men. 

However, comparisons of lifetime 

prevalence among women from s

racial/ethnic backgrounds showed 

statistically significant differences

American Indian/Alaska Native wo

were significantly more likely than 

from all other backgrounds to have 

raped at some time in their lifetim

exhibit 8), except for Asian/Pacific 

women (of which too few victims 

interviewed to reliably estimate ra

prevalence or conduct statistical t

These findings are consistent with 

r e s e a r ch showing that Native A m e 

experience more violence than oth

Exhibit 7. Percentage of women and men who were raped in lifetime by minority status

Victims’ gender Minority (%)

a Nonminority (%)b 

Women 19.0 (n = 1,633) 17.9 (n = 6,217) 

Men 3.4 (n = 1,509) 2.8 (n = 6,250) 

a. Minority includes respondents who self-identified as Hispanic white, African-American, Asian/Pacific Islander, American 

Indian/Alaska Native, or mixed race. 

b. Nonminority includes respondents who self-identified as non-Hispanic white. 

Note: Rates for women in this exhibit are based on 8,000 records of survey data and are higher than the rates for women pr

exhibits 1 and 3. Rates for women in exhibits 1 and 3 are based on the 6,999 survey records that correspond to the version 

questionnaire that contains separate questions about attempted rape and completed rape. This version of the questionnaire 

lower lifetime rates than those produced by versions that combine questions about attempted rape and completed rape. 
Control found that homicide rates for 

Native Americans were about twice that 

of national U.S. rates.13 Another study that 

used data from the 1985 Family Violence 

Survey found that Native American couples were significantly more violent than 

their white counterparts.14 How much of 

the variance between American Indian/ 

Alaska Native women and women from 

other racial/ethnic backgrounds may be 

explained by demographic, social, and 

e nv i r o n m e n tal factors remains unclear 

and requires further study. Moreover, 

significant differences in rape prevalence 

between American Indian and Alaska 

Native women may be found that cannot 

be discerned from this study because it 

combined information on the two groups. 

Significant intertribal differences within 

American Indian and Alaska Native 

groups also may ex i s t . 

Hispanic white women. This findin

tradicts conclusions from previous 

that compared sexual assault prev

among mostly Mexican-American 

and non-Hispanic white women.15 

study also found no statistically sig

difference among non-Hispanic wh

women, African-American women

mixed-race women—17.9 percent 

Hispanic white women, 18.8 perce

African-American women, and 24.

cent of mixed-race women were r

some time in their lives. 

Unfortunately, the study could not 

reliable rape prevalence estimates 

duct statistical tests for Asian/Pac

Islander women because too few 

tims were identified from the surv

Research has suggested that intim

partner victimization rates are low

Asian and Pacific Islander women 

Exhibit 8. Percentage of women and men who were raped in lifetime by race/ethnicity 

Victims’ Non-Hispanic Hispanic African- American Indian/ Mixed As

gender white (%) white (%) American (%) Alaska Native (%) race (%) Is

Womena 17.9 11.9 18.8 34.1 24.4 

(n = 6,217) (n = 235) (n = 780) (n = 88) (n = 397) 

Men 2.8 – b 3.3 – b 4.4 

(n = 6,250) (n = 174) (n = 659) (n = 105) (n = 406) 

a. Difference between Hispanic white and mixed-race women and between American Indian/Alaska Native and all other no

Asian/Pacific Islander women is statistically significant. 

b. Estimates were not calculated on five or fewer victims. 

Note: Rates for women in this exhibit are based on 8,000 records of survey data and are higher than the rates for women pr

exhibits 1 and 3. Rates for women in exhibits 1 and 3 are based on the 6,999 survey records that correspond to the version 

questionnaire that contains separate questions about attempted rape and completed rape. This version of the questionnaire 

lower lifetime rates than those produced by versions that combine questions about attempted rape and completed rape. 

14 
Asian women from disclosing rape victimization or whether they actually experience 

less rape victimization than women from 

other racial/ethnic backgrounds. 

Asian/Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian/Alaska Native male victims were 

identified to reliably estimate rape prevalence or conduct statistical tests for these 

groups. 
To provide information about rape prevalence and age, lifetime rape victimization 

rates were compared for women and men 

who were ages 18–29, 30–39, 40–49, 

50–59, and 60 years and older at the time 

of the survey. Lifetime rape prevalence 

varied significantly by age group for 

women but not for men. About one-fifth of 

the women who were ages 18–29 (22.4 

percent), 30–39 (21.8 percent), and 40–49 

(21.2 percent) at the time of the survey 

said they were raped at some time in their 

life, compared with 16.6 percent of the 

women who were ages 50–59 and 6.9 

percent who were age 60 and older (see 

exhibit 9). Thus, 1 in 5 women who were 

18–49 years old at the time of the survey 

had been raped, compared with 1 in 6 

women who were ages 50–59 and 1 in 15 

women who were age 60 and older. The 

relatively low rape prevalence for women 

ages 50–59 and 60 and older is especially 

noteworthy given that women in these 

age groups were at risk for a longer time 

than younger women. 

At first glance, these findings sug

rape prevalence has increased ove

past 50 years. However, it is also 

that younger women (i.e., women 

years old) were simply more willin

older women to report their victim

to interviewers. Previous research 

shown that older women who me

legal definition of a crime victim a

likely than younger female crime v

label themselves as such. For exa

study of wife rape found that olde

who met the legal definition of be

marital rape victim were less likely 

define themselves as such than yo

women victimized this way.17 Sim

study comparing legal and victim d

tions of stalking, NVAWS found th

women who met the legal definiti

having been stalked were less like

younger women who were also st

label themselves as stalking victim

More research is needed to deter

whether rape victimization has inc

over time and, if so, what demogr

Exhibit 9. Percentage of women and men who were raped in lifetime by age at time of survey 

Age in years (%)

Victims’ gender 18–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+ 

Women* 22.4 21.8 21.2 16.6 6.9 

(n = 1,524) (n = 1,934) (n = 1,767) (n = 1,131) (n = 1,4

Men 3.5 3.6 2.9 2.1 2.1 

(n = 1,722) (n = 2,008) (n = 1,899) (n = 1,067) (n = 1,2

* Difference between women age 50–59 and all other age groups and women age 60 and older and all other age groups is 

significant. 
Rape occurs at an early age 

Survey results show that rape occurs at an 

early age for many rape victims—21.6 percent of women and 48 percent of men 

were younger than 12 years old when they 

were first raped, and 32.4 percent of 

women and 23 percent of men were 

between ages 12 and 17. Thus, more than 

half (54 percent) of female victims and 

nearly three-quarters (71 percent) of male 

victims were first raped before their 18th 

birthday. In comparison, 29.4 percent of 

female victims and 16.6 percent of male 

victims were 18 to 24 years old when they 

were first raped, and 16.6 percent of 

Although most rape victims identif

NVAWS were under 18 when they 

first raped, the survey found that m

women were raped as adults than 

dren or adolescents. Among all wo

surveyed, 9.6 percent said they w

raped as an adult, 6.3 percent said 

were raped as an adolescent, and 

cent said they were raped as a chi

exhibit 11). When the proportion o

who were raped before and after t

18th birthday was compared, the s

found that women were nearly eq

likely to be raped as minors and ad

Specifically, 9.1 percent of all wom

veyed said they were raped before 

Exhibit 10. Percentage distribution of female and male rape victims by age at time of first rape 

Note: Total percentage for male victims is less than 100 due to rounding. 

18 
they were raped as a child, 0.7 percent 

said they were raped as an adolescent, 

and 0.8 percent said they were raped as 

an adult (see exhibit 11). Thus, men were 

nearly twice as likely to be raped as children than as adolescents or adults. It 

should be noted that for every age group 

considered (child, adolescent, and adult), 

women reported significantly more rapes 

than men. Because a respondent could 

have been raped as a child, adolescent, 

and/or adult, age categories are not mutually exclusive. Thus, the percentages of 

child, adolescent, and adult rape victims 

cannot be added to get the total percentage of rape victims. 

Prevalence of early rape

victimization by age 

The study found that age at the time of 

the survey and being raped as a child 

and/or adolescent were inversely related 

for women. Specifically, 14.5 percent of 

the women who were 18 to 29 years old 

at the time of the survey said they were 

raped before their 18th birthday, compared 

nificant between all age groups except 

between women ages 40 to 49 and 50 

to 59. 

These findings suggest that the risk of 

being raped as a child or adolescent has 

increased steadily for women over the 

past half century. As previously noted, 

however, it is possible that younger 

women are simply more likely than older 

women to identify themselves as victims, 

including victims of child and adolescent 

rape, and more likely to report their victimization to an interviewer. 

The relationship between age at the time 

of the survey and being raped as a child 

and/or adolescent is less clear for men. 

Although men who were 18 to 39 years 

old at the time of the survey were more 

likely to report being raped before their 

18th birthday than men who were age 40 

or older, the difference in the rate of early 

rape victimization is not statistically significant between any of the male age groups 

(see exhibit 12). Thus, it is impossible to 

conclude that the risk of being raped as a 

child or adolescent has increased for men 

over the past 50 years. 

Exhibit 11. Percentage of women and men who were raped as a child, adolescent, and/or adult 

Women (%) Men (%) 

Age category of victima ,b (n = 8,000) (n = 8,000) 

Child (ages 0–11) 3.6 1.3 

Adolescent (ages 12–17) 6.3 0.7 

Adult (age 18 and older) 9.6 0.8 

a. Difference between women and men is statistically significant. 

b. Age categories are not mutually exclusive and therefore cannot be added to get the total percentage of victims. 
(n = 1,524) (n = 1,934) (n = 1,767) (n = 1,131) (n 

Men 2.3 2.3 1.9 1.3 

(n = 1,722) (n = 2,008) (n = 1,899) (n = 1,067) (n 

* Difference between women in all groups except 40–49 and 50–59 is statistically significant.

Relationship between early

and subsequent rape

victimization 

Previous research indicates that women 

who are sexually assaulted as children or 

adolescents are more likely to be sexually 

assaulted as adults.20 Results from 

NVAWS are consistent with this research: 

18.3 percent of the women who said they 

were raped before age 18 also reported 

being raped since their 18th birthday, compared with 8.7 percent of the women who 

did not report being raped before age 18. 

Thus, women who were raped as minors 

were twice as likely to report being raped 

as adults. (The number of male victims 

was insufficient to analyze the relationship 

between early and subsequent rape victimization for men.) 

Although these findings establish 

link between rape victimization as 

and subsequent rape victimization 

adult, the link is not necessarily ca

Early rape victimization may possi

a genuine risk for subsequent rape 

ization, but some other persistent 

tor, such as poverty or sexual orien

could possibly lead to early and su

quent rape. The relationship betwe

and subsequent rape victimization 

ed in NVAWS data also may simpl

the fact that respondents who are 

to disclose to interviewers that the

raped as children or adolescents a

more willing to disclose that they 

raped as adults. More research is 

on these issues. If early victimizat

poses a genuine risk for subseque

victimization, research is needed 

e ffe c t i ve intervention strategies 

gate this risk. 

20 
Victim and offender gender 

Although rape is a gender-neutral crime, 

most rape victims are women and most 

rapists are men. Among all rape victims 

identified by the survey, 85.8 percent were 

women and 14.2 percent were men. 

Nearly all of the female victims (99.6 percent) and most of the male victims (85.2 

percent) were raped by a male, while less 

than 1 percent of the female victims and 

18.2 percent of the male victims were

raped by a female. (Total percentages for 

male and female victims exceed 100, 

because some victims were raped by both 

a male and a female.) 

Victim-offender relationship 

Information from NVAWS confirms previous research that shows most rape victims know their rapist. Only 16.7 percent 

of all female victims and 22.8 percent of 

all male victims were raped by a stranger 

(see exhibit 13). In general, female victims 

tended to be raped by current or former 

intimates, defined in this study as spouses, male and female cohabiting partners, 

dates, boyfriends, and girlfriends. In comparison, male victims tended to be raped 

by acquaintances, such as friends, teachers, coworkers, or neighbors. Among all 

female victims identified by the survey, 

20.2 percent were raped by a spouse or 

ex-spouse, 4.3 percent were raped by a 

current or former cohabiting partner, and 

21.5 percent were raped by a current or 

former date, boyfriend, or girlfriend. 

Among all male victims, 4.1 percent were 

raped by a spouse or ex-spouse, 3

cent were raped by a current or fo

cohabiting partner, and 2.7 percen

raped by a current or former date, 

boyfriend, or girlfriend. 

Overall, 43 percent of all female ra

tims and 9 percent of all male vict

were raped by some type of curre

mer intimate partner. Nearly half (

cent) of all male victims identified 

survey were raped by an acquaint

compared with 27.3 percent of all 

victims (see exhibit 13). About equ

portions of female and male victim

raped by a family member other t

spouse (22.4 and 22.8 percent, re

ly). Rapes committed by family me

other than spouses tended to occ

childhood or adolescence. Althoug

victims were more likely than fem

tims to be raped by an acquaintan

stranger, it is noteworthy that wom

at significantly greater risk than m

being raped by all types of offende

including acquaintances and stran

A comparison of lifetime rape prev

among men and women by victim

offender relationship shows that 7

cent of all women, but only 0.4 pe

all men, were ever raped by a curr

former intimate partner; 3.9 perce

women, but only 0.6 percent of al

were ever raped by a relative othe

a spouse; 4.8 percent of all wome

only 1.4 percent of all men, were 

raped by an acquaintance; and 2.9 

of all women, but only 0.6 percen

men, were ever raped by a strang
a. Percentages by victim gender exceed 100 because some victims were raped by more than one person. 

b. The number of male victims is too small to conduct statistical tests. 

c. Difference between male and female victims is statistically significant. 

Exhibit 14. Percentage of women and men who were raped in lifetime by victim-perpetrator relatio

Raped in lifetime (%)

Victim-perpetrator relationship* Women (n = 8,000) Men (n = 8,000) 

Intimate partner 7.7 0.4 

Relative other than spouse 3.9 0.6 

Acquaintance 4.8 1.4 

Stranger 2.9 0.6 

* Difference between women and men is statistically significant.

22 
strangers. 

As shown in exhibit 15, the victimperpetrator relationship varies substa ntially with the age and gender of the 

victim. Females who were younger than 

age 12 at the time of the rape tended 

to be victimized by relatives other than 

a spouse; female victims who were 12 

to 17 years old tended to be raped by 

intimates and acquaintances; and fe m a l e 

Intimate partner rape and

termination of relationships 

Ending a relationship is commonly 

believed to pose an increased risk for or 

escalation of intimate partner violence. 

This assumption is based on two types of 

evidence. Divorced or separated women 

report more intimate partner violence than 

do married women.21 Interviews with men 

Exhibit 15. Percentage distribution of child, adolescent, and adult rape victims by victim-perpetrator 

relationship and victim gender Exhibit continued on page 24 

a. Estimates are not calculated on responses from five or fewer victims. 

b. Difference between female and male victims is statistically significant.

Note: Total percentages by gender may exceed 100 because some victims had multiple perpetrators. Total percentage for male 

adolescent victims is less than 100 because estimates for intimate perpetrators are not shown. 
a. Estimates are not calculated on responses from five or fewer victims. 

b. Difference between female and male victims is statistically significant.

Note: Total percentages by gender may exceed 100 because some victims had multiple perpetrators. Total percentage for m

cent victims is less than 100 because estimates for intimate perpetrators are not shown. 

24 
To test the theory that the termination of a 

relationship leads to increased risk of intimate partner violence, study interviewers 

asked respondents who had been raped 

by a former spouse or cohabiting partner 

whether the rape(s) occurred before the 

relationship ended, after the relationship 

ended, or both. Exhibit 16 shows that 69.1 

percent of the women who were raped by 

a former spouse or cohabiting partner said 

they were raped before the relationship 

ended, 24.7 percent said they were raped 

before and after the relationship ended, 

and 6.3 percent said they were raped only 

after the relationship ended. These findings suggest that most rapes perpetrated 

against women by marital and cohabiting 

partners occur in the context of an ongoing rather than a terminated relationship. 

Exhibit 16. Percentage distribution of female former 

intimate partner rape victims by point in relationship when rape(s) occurred (n = 288) 

Note: Estimates are based on responses from women who were 

raped by a former spouse/cohabiting partner since age 18. If a 

woman was raped by more than one former spouse/cohabiting 

partner since age 18, information about the former spouse/ 

cohabiting partner who raped her most recently was used. 

women before the relationship ended 

were linked to their threats to terminate 

the relationship. It is also unclear whether 

women who were raped before and after 

the relationship experienced an increase in 

sexual violence at the time of the separation. It is important to note that determining the end of a relationship is a matter of 

interpretation rather than objective reality. 

Some of the intimate partner rape victims 

surveyed may have equated a relationship’s end with when they or their partner 

first discussed termination, whereas others may have equated it with the formal 

dissolution of a marriage. Clearly, more 

r e s e a r ch is needed on whether terminating 

a relationship increases the risk of intimate 

partner violence for women and men. 

Characteristics of rape

committed against adults 

As noted, interviewers asked rape victims 

detailed questions about the most recent 

rape suffered at the hands of each type of 

offender they identified. Because most victims were raped by just one person (see 

exhibit 6), most were queried about just 

one rape incident. Characteristics of rapes 

perpetrated against adult women and men 

are discussed below. Because the focus is 

on rapes perpetrated against adults, information presented is based on the most 

recent rape that occurred since the victim’s 18th birthday. 

Location of the rape. Survey findings 

indicate that most rapes committed 

against adult women and men occur in private rather than public settings (see exhibit 17). Among victims who were raped as 

adults, 84.5 percent of the women and 

64.4 percent of the men said they were 
Public setting 15.5 35.6 

Perpetrator was using drugs and/or alcohol (n = 628) (n = 53) 

Yes 66.6 58.5 

No 33.4 41.5 

Victim was using drugs and/or alcoholb (n = 726) (n = 60) 

Yes 19.8 38.3 

No 80.2 61.7 

Perpetrator threatened to harm or kill (n = 725) (n = 61) 

Yes 31.9 21.3 

No 68.1 78.7 

Perpetrator committed the following physical assaultc (n = 739) (n = 62) 

Slapped or hit 31.4 21.0 

Kicked or bit 10.6 11.3 

Choked or attempted to drown 13.4 — d 

Hit with objectb 6.6 14.5 

Beat up 19.4 19.4 

Any of the above 37.8 33.9 

Perpetrator used a weapon (n = 733) (n = 62) 

Yes 10.8 8.1 

No 89.2 91.9 

Victim thought she/he/someone close would be seriously 

harmed or killedb (n = 726) (n = 61) 

Yes 43.1 21.3 

No 56.9 78.7 

a. Estimates are based on the most recent victimization since age 18. 

b. Difference between female and male victims is statistically significant. 

c. Total percentages by gender exceed 100 because some victims suffered multiple types of physical assault. 

d. Estimates are not calculated on five or fewer victims. 

26 
undoubtedly reflects the fact that women 

are more likely than men to be raped by 

intimate partners. 

Alcohol and drug use. Drugs and alcohol 

play an important role in rape victimization. 

About two-thirds of the women and men 

who were raped as adults—66.6 and 58.5 

percent, respectively—said their rapist 

was using drugs and/or alcohol at the time 

of the rape. In addition, 19.8 percent of 

the female victims and 38.3 percent of the 

male victims said they (the victims) were 

using drugs and/or alcohol at the time of 

the rape. 

T h re a t s , p hysical assaults, and fear of 

bodily injury. Compared with male victims, 

a higher percentage of female victims 

types of physical assaults perpetrated by 

rapists found that male victims were significantly more likely than female victims to 

report that their rapist hit them with an 

object. W hy male victims were more like l y 

to sustain this type of physical assault is 

u n k n own. 

Although female victims and male victims 

were almost equally likely to be verbally 

threatened or physically assaulted by their 

rapist, female victims were significantly 

more likely to fear their rapist. Nearly half 

of the female victims (43.1 percent), compared with one-fifth of the male victims 

(21.3 percent), said that during their most

recent rape as an adult they thought they 

or someone close to them would be seriously harmed or killed. 
Injury data indicate that women are nearly 

twice as likely as men to be physically 

injured during a rape. Among victims 

raped since their 18th birthday, 31.5 percent of the women, but only 16.1 percent 

of the men, said they incurred an injury 

other than the rape itself during their most 

recent rape (see exhibit 18). A small number of female victims (3.1 percent), but no 

male victims, reported contracting a sexually transmitted disease during their most 

recent rape. 

Female victims were also significantly 

more likely than male victims to report 

that their most recent rape resulted in 

penetration (62.2 and 29 percent, respectively). Few male victims said they were 

penetrated during their most recent rape, 

a finding that appears to contradict the 

finding presented earlier that men, like 

women, are more likely to experience 

a completed rather than an attempted 

rape over their lifetime (see exhibit 3). 

An explanation for this apparent contradiction is not readily available. It is possible 

that because of the stigma associated 

with male-to-male sex, male victims felt 

uncomfortable admitting to interviewers 

that they had been “penetrated” during 

their most recent rape. 

It also is important to note that findings 

presented earlier on the lifetime prevalence of attempted versus completed rape 

are not directly comparable to the findings 

presented here on the rate of penetration. 

The earlier estimate refers to the percentage of surveyed men who were victims of 

a completed versus attempted rape in 

their lifetime, whereas the estima

sented in exhibit 18 refers to the p

age of male victims who were pe

during their most recent rape as a

Physical injuries 

Most of the female victims who re

being physically injured sustained 

ly minor types of injuries, such as 

es, bruises, and welts (see exhibit 

Relatively few sustained more ser

types of injuries, such as broken b

dislocated joints, sore muscles, sp

strains, or chipped or broken teeth

(Because only 10 men reported be

injured, the study could not reliabl

mate the type of injuries or use of 

treatment for male victims.) Of th

women who were injured, 36.2 pe

said they received medical treatm

exhibit 18). 

Mental health and lost 

productivity 

NVAWS strongly confirms the neg

mental health and social costs of 

timization. Of those raped since a

33 percent of the female rape vict

24.2 percent of the male victims s

received counseling from a menta

professional as a direct result of th

recent rape (see exhibit 20). The s

found that 19.4 percent of the fem

tims and 9.7 percent of the male v

raped as adults said their victimiza

caused them to lose time from w
No 37.8 71.0 

Victim contracted sexually transmitted disease (n = 732) (n = 61) 

Yes 3.1 — c 

No 96.9 100.0 

Victim was physically injuredb (n = 734) (n = 62) 

Yes 31.5 16.1 

No 68.5 83.9 

Victim received medical treatmentd (n = 229) (n = 10) 

Yes 36.2 — c 

No 63.8 — c 

a. Estimates are based on the most recent rape since age 18. 

b. Difference between female and male victims is statistically significant. 

c. Estimates are not calculated on five or fewer victims. 

d. Estimates are based on responses from victims who were injured. 

Exhibit 19. Percentage of injured female rape victims who sustained specific injuries (n = 231)* 

* Estimates are based on the most recent rape since age 18. 

Note: Total percentage exceeds 100 because some victims incurred multiple injuries. 

30 
Exhibit 20. Percentage distribution of female and male rape victims by mental health and lost productivity 

outcomes* 

Outcome Female victims (%) Male victims (%) 

Victim received counseling from mental health professional (n = 737) (n = 62) 

Yes 33.0 24.2 

No 67.0 75.8 

Victim lost time from 

Work 19.4 (n = 736) 9.7 (n = 62) 

School 7.5 (n = 735) 11.3 (n = 67) 

Household responsibilities 13.0 (n = 738) 9.7 (n = 62) 

Volunteer work 5.7 (n = 735) 9.7 (n = 62) 

Social/recreational activities 23.4 (n = 734) 24.6 (n = 61) 

* Estimates are based on the most recent rape since age 18.
Survey findings confirm previous research 

that shows rape is a seriously underreported crime. Only 19.1 percent of the women 

and 12.9 percent of the men who were 

raped since their 18th birthday said their 

rape was reported to the police. (See 

“Total” column in exhibit 21 for estimate 

on female victims. Estimate for male victims is not shown.) In most (70.2 percent) 

of the rapes against women reported to 

the police, the victim rather than a friend, 

relative, or other third party reported the 

crime. In the majority of the reports (75.9 

percent), the police officer met with the 

victim and took a report. Only 43.3 percent of the reported rapes resulted in the 

rapist being arrested or detained. About 

one-third of the women who reported 

their rape to the police said the police 

referred their case to a prosecutor (33.3 

percent), referred them to some type of 

victim service (34.8 percent), or gave 

them some type of advice (32.6 percent). 

For those who reported their rape, 9.9 percent said the police did nothing. (So few 

men reported their victimization to the 

police that the study was unable to generate reliable information about their subsequent involvement with the justice 

system.) 

When asked why they chose not to report 

their rape to the police, 21.9 percent of the 

women who did not report their victimization said they didn’t know or refused to 

answer this question. Those who 

answered were likely to reply that they 

feared retaliation from their rapist, were 

too ashamed of or embarrassed about 

what happened to them, or thoug

rape was a minor incident or not a 

matter (see exhibit 22). 

Justice system outcom

According to victim accounts, 37 p

of the rapes against women that w

reported to the police resulted in t

being criminally prosecuted. Of th

cuted rapists, 46.2 percent were c

of a crime, and 76 percent of the c

ed rapists were sentenced to jail o

(see “Total” column in exhibit 21)

cution, conviction, and incarceratio

are substantially lower if they are 

responses from all rape victims, n

those who reported their victimiza

the police. Thus, among all wome

were raped since age 18, only 7.8 

said their rapist was criminally pro

3.3 percent said their rapist was c

of a crime, and a mere 2.2 percen

their rapist was incarcerated (estim

are not shown in the exhibit). 

Thirteen percent of the women w

raped since age 18 said they obta

restraining order against their rapi

“Total” column in exhibit 21). Of t

women, 65.9 percent said their ra

lated the order. 

A comparison of justice system o

for women who were raped by a c

or former intimate with those who 

raped by a nonintimate produced 

interesting findings (see exhibit 21
Yes 18.0 20.9 19.1 

No 82.0 79.1 80.9 

Identity of reporterb,c (n = 84) (n = 57) (n = 141) 

Victim 78.3 59.6 70.2 

Other 21.7 40.4 29.8 

Police responseb (n = 84) (n = 57) (n = 141) 

Took report 79.8 73.7 75.9 

Arrested/detained perpetrator 46.4 40.4 43.3 

Referred case to prosecutor/courtc 40.5 24.6 33.3 

Referred victim to victim servicesc 39.3 29.8 34.8 

Gave victim advicec 42.9 19.2 32.6 

Did nothing 8.3 12.2 9.9 

Perpetrator was prosecutedb (n = 81) (n = 54) (n = 135) 

Yes 32.1 44.4 37.0 

No 67.9 55.6 63.0 

Perpetrator was convictedc,d (n = 33) (n = 21) (n = 54) 

Yes 36.4 61.9 46.2 

No 63.6 38.1 53.8 

Perpetrator was sentenced to jaile (n = 12) (n = 13) (n = 25) 

Yes 66.7 84.6 76.0 

No 33.3 15.4 24.0 

Victim obtained restraining orderc (n = 452) (n = 257) (n = 709) 

Yes 17.7 4.7 13.0 

No 82.3 95.3 87.0 

Perpetrator violated restraining orderf (n = 80) (n = 11) (n = 91) 

Yes 68.8 45.5 65.9 

No 31.3 54.5 34.1 

a. Estimates are based on the most recent rape since age 18. 

b. Estimates are based on responses from victims whose rape was reported to the police. 

c. Difference between intimates and nonintimates is statistically significant. 

d. Estimates are based on responses from victims whose rapist was prosecuted. 

e. Estimates are based on responses from victims whose rapist was convicted. 

f. Estimates are based on responses from victims who obtained a restraining order. 

34 
were significantly more likely than women 

who were raped by a nonintimate to have 

been the person who reported the rape to 

the police (78.3 and 59.6 percent, respectively). These findings suggest that women 

who are raped by a current or former intimate are no more reluctant to become 

involved with the justice system than 

women who are raped by nonintimates. 

Police were almost equally likely to take a 

report or make an arrest if the rapist was 

an intimate or nonintimate. However, they 

were significantly more likely to refer the 

than those involving nonintimates to be 

prosecuted (32.1 and 44.4 percent, respectively); however, the difference between 

prosecution rates was not statistically significant. Once they were referred for prosecution, rapists who were intimates were 

significantly less likely than rapists who 

were nonintimates to be convicted of a 

crime (36.4 and 61.9 percent, respectively). 

These findings indicate that it is more difficult to successfully prosecute rape cases 

that involve intimates than those that 

involve nonintimates. 

Exhibit 22. Percentage distribution of female victims who did not report rape to the police by reason for not 

reporting (n = 453)a,b 

Reason Percent 

Reported to someone else 1.5 

One-time incident, last incident 2.9 

Did not want perpetrator arrested 2.9 

Did not want police or court involved 3.5 

Too young to understand 4.4 

Handled it myself 7.7 

Perpetrator was husband, family member, friend 8.6 

Police would not believe me or would blame me 11.9 

Police could not do anything 12.6 

Minor incident; not a crime or police matter 17.7 

Too ashamed or embarrassed 18.1 

Fear of rapist 22.1 

a. Estimates are based on the most recent rape since age 18. 

b. Total percentages exceed 100 because some victims had multiple responses. 
laws that govern restraining orders require 

the object of the restraining order to be a 

current or former intimate of the victim. 

Satisfaction with the 

justice system 

In general, victims gave the justice system 

mixed reviews. Of the female rape victims 

detained by the police were consi

Similarly, 48.6 percent of the fema

tims who came in contact with the 

courts—because their rapist was p

cuted, they obtained a restraining 

against their rapist, or both—said t

were satisfied with how the court

them. 

36 
Although NVAWS provides much needed 

information on the extent, nature, and consequences of rape victimization in the 

United States, it does not provide all the 

answers. The survey found that rape 

prevalence differs among women and men 

from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. However, how race and ethnicity 

intersect with other demographic variables 

was beyond the scope of this study. 

Research is needed to determine how 

much of the difference in rape prevalence 

among men and women from different 

racial/ethnic backgrounds can be explained 

by respondents’ willingness to report victimization and how much by social, demographic, and environmental factors. For 

example, future research should examine 

how age, marital status, and economic 

stresses such as poverty and unemployment interact with race and ethnicity to 

increase or decrease the risk of rape 

victimization. 

N VAWS confirms previous findings that 

s h ow that many rape victims are victimize d 

at an early age, and that women raped 

b e fore age 18 are twice as likely to report 

rape victimization as adults. In addition to 

highlighting the need to direct preve n t i o n 

strategies toward minors, these findings 

suggest that research should focus on the 

long-term effects of early rape ex p e r iences, especially with respect to the possible causal link between childhood sex u a l 

abuse and subsequent sexual abuse. 

Future research also should consider the 

gender and age variations among rape victims and those who commit the crime. 

Clearer understanding of how the 

gender of the victim and offender 

with the context and motivations 

can assist in developing adequate 

vention and prevention strategies 

rapists and their victims. 

More research is needed on risk f

associated with injury, death, and 

incurred during rape victimization 

men and women. Also essential is 

research on the long-term psycho

and social consequences of rape v

tion, including depression, posttra

stress disorder, lost productivity, a

of crime. 

Despite widespread public educat

programs, rape remains a largely 

reported crime. This finding calls f

sideration as to whether law enfo

agencies and victim service provid

might expand their efforts to assis

victims and do more to convince t

that reporting their rape to the po

worthwhile and appropriate. 

Research of a more qualitative nat

needed to understand the differen

texts in which rape occurs, the dif

ways in which male and female ra

tims interpret their victimization, a

processes by which they come to 

themselves as rape victims. Quali

research is also needed on the mo

for rape and the ways rapists mini

rationalize their aggression. 

In addition, cohort and trend analy

are needed to determine whether 
rape prevalence has actually increased or 

whether younger women are simply more 

willing than older women to define themselves as rape victims and report their victimization to survey interviewers. 

Longitudinal research is needed to determine whether rape victimization early in 

life increases the risk of rape victimization 

later in life and, if so, what particular consequences of early victimization make an 

individual more vulnerable to revictimization. As noted previously, findings establish a clear link between early and 

subsequent rape victimization for women. 

However, because NVAWS used a onetime retrospective assessment of respondents’ experiences, the data cannot 

answer certain key questions. For example, did women who were raped as 

minors suffer some long-term effects 

(e.g., emotional vulnerability or low selfesteem) that carried over into adulthood 

and made them more susceptible to being 

raped as adults? Do certain risk factors for 

rape in childhood or adolescence (e.g., 

poverty, sexual orientation23) persist into 

adulthood? Does the relationship between 

early and subsequent rape victimization 

uncovered by NVAWS findings reflect the 

fact that women who were willing to 

report one type of victimization to survey 

interviewers (e.g., rape as a child by a family member) were simply more willing to 

report other types of victimization (e.g., 

rape as an adult by a spouse), or did recalling early rape victimization trigger recall of 

subsequent rape victimization? 

some of the problems inherent in 

spective survey such as NVAWS a

answer such questions. The assum

of a longitudinal design is that if vi

and nonvictimized respondents do 

differ at one point in time after con

for preexisting conditions, but do d

certain characteristics at a later po

time following a victimization, then 

characteristics may be considered 

comes rather than predictors or ca

of victimization.24 

In summary, more research is nee

the characteristics, causes, and co

quences of rape and other forms o

assault. Future research should foc

the context and motivations for va

forms of sexual assault perpetratio

factors and patterns associated w

sexual assault victimization and pe

tion, short- and long-term consequ

of victimization, and the relationsh

between early and subsequent vic

tion. Studies should incorporate m

research design strategies, includi

indepth interviews with victims an

trators, longitudinal surveys of bot

and adult populations, and police a

record reviews. 

38 
Burgess, Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 

1996: 9–10. 

2. For example, rape victimization estimates generated from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National 

Crime Victimization Survey are substantially lower 

than rape victimization estimates generated from the 

National Women’s Study (see National Victim Center 

and Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center, 

Rape in America: A Report to the Nation, Arlington, 

VA: National Victim Center and Charleston, SC: Crime 

Victims Research and Treatment Center, 1992). 

3. National Research Council, Understanding Violence 

Against Women, 40–44 (see note 1). 

4. Ibid.

5. NVAWS was conducted from November 1995 to 

May 1996. Respondents reported on events that 

spanned the 12 months prior to their interview. Thus, 

a person who was interviewed in November 1995 

reported on events that occurred between November 

1994 and November 1995; a person who was interviewed in May 1996 reported on events that occurred 

between May 1995 and May 1996. 

6. Michael, R.T., J.H. Gagnon, E.O. Laumann, and G. 

Kolata, Sex in America: A Definitive Survey, New 

York: Warner Books, 1994: 223. 

7. National Victim Center and Crime Victims Research 

and Treatment Center, Rape in America (see note 2). 

8. Special tabulation was done by Bureau of Justice

Statistics staff using 1995 National Crime Victimization Survey data, September 2001. 

9. See, for example, Tjaden, Patricia, and Nancy 

Thoennes, Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, 

and Consequences of Violence Against Women: 

Findings From the National Violence Against Women 

Survey, Research Report, Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 

and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 

November 2000, NCJ 183781. 

10. The two rape screening questions used in NCVS 

are as follows: (1) (Other than any incidents already 

mentioned,) has anyone attacked or threatened you 

in any of these ways . . . (e) Any rape, attempted 

11. See, for example, Helton, A.M., The Pregnant 

Battered Women,” Responses to Victimization of 

Women and Children, 9 (1) 1986: 22–23; and Koss, 

Mary P., “Detecting the Scope of Rape: A Review of 

Prevalence Research Methods,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8 (2) (June 1993): 198–222. 

12. Greenfeld, L.A., and S.K. Smith, American Indians 

and Crime, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 

Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, February 1999, 

NCJ 173386. 

13. Wallace, L.J.D., A.D. Calhoun, K.E. Powell, J. 

O’Neil, and S.P. James, Homicide and Suicide Among 

Native Americans, 1979–1992, Violence Surveillance 

Summary Series, No. 2, Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center 

for Injury Prevention and Control, 1996. 

14. Bachman, R., Death and Violence on the 

Reservation: Homicide, Family Violence, and Suicide 

in American Indian Populations, Westport, CT: Auburn 

House, 1992. 

15. See, for example, Sorenson, S.B., J.A. Stein, J.M. 

Siegel, J.M. Golding, and M.A. Burnam, “The 

Prevalence of Adult Sexual Assault: The Los Angeles 

Epidemiologic Catchment Area Project,” American 

Journal of Epidemiology, 126 (6) (1987): 1154–1164; 

and Sorenson, S.B., and C.A. Telles, “Self-Reports of 

Spousal Violence in a Mexican American and a nonHispanic White Population,” Violence and Victims, 6 

(1991): 3–16. 

16. National Research Council, Understanding 

Violence Against Women: 40–41 (see note 1). 

17. Bergen, R.K., Wife Rape: Understanding the 

Response of Survivors and Service Providers, 

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996. 

18. Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes, and Christine J. 

Allison, “Comparing Stalking Victimization From Legal 

and Victim Perspectives,” Violence and Victims, 15 (1) 

(2000): 7–22. 

19. The National Women’s Study (see note 2) found 

that 29 percent of all forcible rapes of females 

occurred when the victim was younger than 11 years 

old, and another 32 percent occurred when the victim was between ages 11 and 17. 
Physical Abuse and Risk of Revictimization in 

Women: A Cross-sectional Survey,” The Lancet, 358 

(9280) (August 11, 2001): 450–454; Messman-Moore, 

Terri L., Patricia J. Long, and Nicole J. Siegfried, “The 

Revictimization of Child Sexual Abuse Survivors: An 

Examination of the Adjustment of College Women 

With Child Sexual Abuse, Adult Sexual Assault, and 

Adult Physical Abuse,” Child Maltreatment, 5 (1) 

(2000): 18–27; Miller, J., D. Moeller, A. Kaufman, P. 

Divasto, P. Fitzsimmons, D. Pather, and J. Christy, 

“Recidivism Among Sexual Assault Victims,” 

American Journal of Psychiatry, 135 (1978): 

1103–1104; and Russell, D.E.H., The Secret Trauma: 

Incest in the Lives of Girls and Women, New York: 

Basic Books, 1986. 

21. Klaus, P., and M. Rand, Family Violence, Special 

Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 

Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1984, NCJ 93449; Stark, 

E., and A. Flitcraft, “Violence Among Intimates: An 

Epidemiological Review,” in Handbook of Family 

Violence, ed. V.B. Van Hasselt, R.L. Morrison, A.S. 

Intimacy: The Family as a Model for Love 

Relationships,” Family Relations, 32 (1983)

and Daly, M., and M. Wilson, “Evolutionary 

Psychology and Family Homicide,” Science

(1988): 519–524. 

23. Duncan, D.F., “Prevalence of Sexual As

Victimization Among Heterosexual and Gay

University Students,” Psychological Report

(1990): 65–66, and Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy T

and Christine J. Allison, “Comparing Violen

the Life Span in Samples of Same-Sex and 

Sex Cohabitants,” Violence and Victims, 14 

413–425. 

24. White, Jacquelyn W., and John A. Hum

Longitudinal Approach to the Study of Sexu

Theoretical and Methodological Considerat

Researching Sexual Violence Against Wom

Methodological and Personal Perspectives

Martin D. Schwartz, Thousand Oaks, CA: S

Publications, 1997: 22–42. 

OT H E R PU B L I C AT I O N S FR O M T H E NAT I O N A L VI O L E N C E AG A I N S T WO M E N SU 

The following NIJ publications provide more 

information about the National Violence Against 

Women Survey (NVAW S ) : 

■ Stalking in America: Findings From the 

National Violence Against Women Survey, 

Research in Brief, by Patricia Tjaden and 

Nancy Thoennes, Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Justice, National Institute of 

Justice, and U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services, Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention, April 1998, NCJ 169592. 

■ Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of 

Violence Against Women: Findings From the 

National Violence Against Women Survey, 

Research in Brief, by Patricia Tjaden and 

Nancy Thoennes, Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Justice, National Institute of 

Justice, and U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services, Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention, November 1998, NCJ 172837. 

■ Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Int

Partner Violence: Findings From the Nati

Violence Against Women Survey, R e s e a 

Report, by Patricia Tjaden and Nancy 

Thoennes, Washington, DC: U.S. Departm

of Justice, National Institute of Justice, a

U.S. Department of Health and Human


Services, Centers for Disease Control an

Prevention, July 2000, NCJ 181867.


■ Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, 

Consequences of Violence Against Wo m 

Findings From the National Violence Aga

Women Survey, Research Report, by Pat

Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, Washingto

U.S. Department of Justice, National Inst

of Justice, and U.S. Department of Healt

Human Services, Centers for Disease Co

and Prevention, November 2000, NCJ 183

To obtain copies of these publications, visi

N I J ’s Web site at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij; c

40 
The following journal articles, book chapters, 

and other documents have been published 

about NVAW S : 

■ Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, 

“Prevalence and Incidence of Vi o l e n c e 

Against Women: Findings From the National 

Violence Against Women Survey,” T h e 

C r i m i n o l o g i s t , 24 (3) (May/June 1999): 1, 4, 

1 3 – 1 4 . 

■ Patricia Tjaden, Nancy Thoennes, and 

Christine J. Allison, “Comparing Violence Over 

the Life Span in Samples of Same-Sex and 

Opposite-Sex Cohabitants,” Violence and 

Vi c t i m s , 14 (4) (1999): 413–425. 

■ Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, 

“Prevalence and Consequences of Male-toFemale and Female-to-Male Intimate Partner 

Violence as Measured by the National 

Violence Against Women Survey,” Vi o l e n c e 

Against Women, 6 (2) (2000): 142–161. 

■ Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, 

“Stalking in America: Prevalence, 

Characteristics, and Police Response,” in 

Problem-Oriented Policing: Crime-Specific 

Problems, Critical Issues, and Making POP 

Wo r k , vol. 3, ed. Corina Solé Brito and Eugenia 

E. Gratto, Washington, DC: Police Executive 

Research Forum, 2000: 113–138. 

■ Patricia Tjaden, Nancy Thoennes, and 

Christine J. Allison, “Comparing Stalking 

Victimization From Legal and Vi c t i m 

Perspectives,” Violence and Vi c t i m s , 15 (1) 

(2000): 7–22. 

■ Patricia Tjaden, “Extent and Nature of 

Intimate Partner Violence as Measured by the 

National Violence Against Women Survey, ” 

From the National Violence Against Wo m e n 

S u r v e y,” American Journal of Preventive 

Medicine, 20 (2) (2001): 85–89. 

■ Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, “The 

Prevalence of Rape by Clergy and Other Ty p e s 

of Perpetrators,” The Resource, F a l l / W i n t e r 

(2002): 3. 

■ Patricia Tjaden, Nancy Thoennes, and 

Christine J. Allison, “Comparing Stalking 

Victimization From Legal and Vi c t i m 

Perspectives,” in Stalking: Perspectives on 

Victims and Perpetrators, ed. Keith E. Davis, 

Irene Hanson Frieze, and Roland D. Maiuro, 

New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2002: 

9 – 3 0 . 

■ National Center for Injury Prevention and 

Control, Costs of Intimate Partner Vi o l e n c e 

Against Women in the United States, A t l a n t a , 

GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, March 2003. 

■ Patricia Tjaden, “Prevalence and 

Characteristics of Stalking,” in S t a l k i n g : 

P s y c h o l o g y, Risk Factors, Intervention, and 

L a w, ed. Mary P. Brewster, Kingston, NJ: Civic 

Research Institute, 2003: 1–19. 

To learn more about CDC prevention activities 

related to family violence and intimate partner 

violence, visit CDC’s National Center for Injury 

Prevention and Control Web site at 

w w w. c d c . g o v / n c i p c / d v p / d v p . h t m . 

To learn more about NIJ’s violence against 

women research portfolio, visit NIJ at 

w w w. o j p . u s d o j . g o v / n i j / v a w p r o g / w e l c o m e . h t m l . 
About the National Institute of Justice

NIJ is the research, development, and evaluation agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. NIJ’s

mission is to advance scientific research, development, and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety. NIJ’s principal authorities are derived from the Omnibus

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