This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained 

within will help you understand the 

cultural dimension of your assigned 

location and gain skills necessary 

for success. (Photo a courtesy of 

Wikimedia). 

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1: Introduces “Culture 

General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate

effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2: Presents “Culture 

Specific” Ethiopia, focusing on 

unique cultural features of 

Ethiopian society and is 

designed to complement other 

pre-deployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase your 

knowledge of your assigned 

deployment location.

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or

contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated. 

ECFG Ethiopia

About this Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story – 

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture. 

Social Behaviors Across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For 

example, all societies obtain 

food for survival, although

agrarian societies generally 

produce their own food for 

limited consumption using 

very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

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CULTURE 
market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent. 

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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CULTURE 
deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURE 

CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing 

most of what was 

traditional and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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CULTURE 
presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form 

of bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed 

for several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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CULTURE 
along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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CULTURE 
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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CULTURE 
death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers. 

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life. 

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual. 

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions. 

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as civil 

war, disease, poverty, 

and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Ethiopian society. 

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An African Legend The history of Ethiopia (known as 

Abyssinia in early times) began mainly in

the northern highlands region. It is the 

oldest independent country in Africa and 

home to the world’s earliest sites of human 

existence, dating back to 5.8 million years 

ago. Its territory is believed to be the origin 

of human kind, with Ethiopia yielding an 

impressive lineage of early human remains, including those of 

Australopithecus afarensis or a young woman popularly known 

as Lucy, the world’s most complete human adult ancestor. 

Anthropologists discovered Lucy’s remains, believed to be 3.2

million-years-old, in 1974 in Ethiopia’s Rift Valley. Ethiopians 

refer to Lucy as Dinqinesh (den-key-NESH), which means,

"Thou art wonderful" in the local Amharic language and have 

placed her remains in Ethiopia’s National Museum in Addis 

Ababa. 

Recent find

More recent excavations in 2010 have uncovered a partial 

male skeleton identified as belonging to Lucy’s species and 

believed to have been her great-grandfather. Known as 

Kadanuumuu, which means “big man,” this fossil is believed to 

have preceded Lucy by about 400 thousand years.

Ethiopian Origins

Ethiopia has existed as a state since the 10th-century BC and 

is likely the only sub-Saharan African nation with historical and 

cultural ties to the ancient cultures of the Mediterranean. 

Established during Biblical times, the oldest Ethiopian 

aristocracy was mostly tribal, in some cases nomadic, and 

military in nature up through the Middle Ages. 

Various records indicate that the earliest Egyptians were aware 

of Ethiopia's existence despite the fact that it was little more 

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
than a loosely allied network of kingdoms. Perhaps based on 

their naval explorations of Punt (refers to a coastal city on the 

Red Sea), the Egyptians themselves believed that their 

ancestors were Ethiopian, establishing an Ethiopian dynasty in 

Egypt in 720 BC. Likewise, the ancient Greeks and Romans 

knew of the Ethiopians and traded with them. 

Biblical association: The Old Testament makes several 

references to Ethiopia ("Cush" to the Hebrews). For example, 

Moses wed an "Ethiopian" woman (Numbers 12:1), and 

according to tradition, the Ethiopian nation was founded by 

Etiopik, great grandson of Noah, with the legendary city of 

Axum founded by Etiopik's son, Aksumai. Queen Makeda of 

Sabea (The Queen Sheba), who ruled a vast area including 

Yemen from Ethiopia’s northern city of Axum, was considered 

a member of this biblical dynasty.

Legend of King Menelik I

Archaeological findings suggest that Ethiopia supported a 

sizable agricultural and urbanized society by 1000 BC, when 

according to tradition, the Queen of Sheba ventured to 

Jerusalem bearing gifts for King Solomon. Ethiopians believe 

that the two produced a son who became Menelik I, the first 

emperor of Ethiopia who ruled around 950 BC and founder of 

the Solomonic Dynasty. 

While sources verify that Solomon and Sheba existed, the 

notion that they had a son who founded the Solomonic Dynasty 

in Ethiopia is better established in tradition than in physical 

evidence. However, to Ethiopians this myth is central to their 

national heritage. Ethiopian tradition 

goes on to say that Menelik, as a 

young adult, visited his father in 

Jerusalem for 3 years to learn Mosaic 

law and returned to Axum bearing the 

most holy of relics, the Ark of the 

Covenant (see Religion & Spirituality).

Solomonic Empire

Menelik’s line of Solomonic emperors continued for nearly

3,000 years, with only one significant 100-year interruption 

between the 12th and 13th centuries, and would eventually put 

225 emperors on the Ethiopian throne. For much of its early 

HISTORY &

MYTH
history, the empire’s religion derived from Judaism, allegedly 

as a result of Solomon’s role in establishing the imperial line. 

However, the empire would experience many changes during 

that period, most notably the replacement of traditional 

Judaism with Christianity as the prominent religion. 

Axumite Empire

The city of Axum, which still exists today, would eventually 

become in the 3rd-century BC the center of the first recorded

Folklore

Ethiopia has a rich heritage of traditional folk tales, 

many of which are familiar to Americans through 

their popularization in children’s books. Animal 

fables, trickster tales, and creation stories are a few 

of the common types of folk tales told throughout 

Ethiopia, with various ethnic groups having a 

collection of stories passed down from generationto-generation. Some of these stories include “The 

Lion’s Whiskers,” “The Fire on the Mountain,” 

“Pulling the Lion’s Tale,” and “The Perfect Orange.”

One notable work is Kebra Negast (Glory of Kings), 

a collection of mythical stories on the Queen of 

Sheba and her son, Menelik. 

Another popular religious folk tale expresses the 

belief in Buda (a demon) and the power of the evil 

eye thought to be held and wielded by those in a 

different social group and often based on gender or 

kinship links – in Ethiopia it is low caste peoples 

who may transmit this power. In fact, the word for 

manual worker, tabib, is also used to denote "one 

with the evil eye." This belief is a form of black 

magic or witchcraft whereby a human being can 

cause injury or death through a malevolent glance 

or stare. People typically wear amulets or summon 

God’s name to protect against the evil eye. (see 

Learning & Knowledge).

HISTORY &

MYTH
Kingdom in Ethiopia and was the first African political entity to 

adopt Christianity during the reign of King Ezana in the 4th

century AD. Flourishing under both Roman and Greek 

influence, the Axumite Empire was a trading state that 

dominated Red Sea commerce between the Nile Valley and 

Arabia and between the Roman Empire and India. Centered in 

the highlands of present-day Eritrea and Tigray (Tigre), the 

empire stretched at its height from the Nile Valley in Sudan to 

Southwest Arabia. 

Axum’s Decline

Axum continued as a center of power for several centuries into 

the Christian era, although it started to decline in the 7thcentury AD when merchants from Arabia introduced Islam to 

peoples along the Red Sea coast, 

spreading thereafter into the central and 

southern regions. 

Today, Axum is best known for its 

imperial cemetery where each emperor’s 

grave is marked by a carved monolithic 

monument known as an obelisk (similar to 

the Washington monument.). The third 

largest of these structures was dedicated 

to Emperor Ezana (pictured). 

Middle Ages

Following a period of Jewish 

control and later restoration of the 

Solomonic Empire, Emperor Zara 

Yakub took the throne during the 

15th century and became one of 

the greatest Ethiopian kings. A 

progressive reformer of both 

church and state, he centralized 

imperial power and institutionalized two fundamental segments 

of Ethiopian state – Christianity and feudalism (Photo: Giyorgis 

church, Lalibela, © Giustino – courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Early Modern Era

What followed was a succession of less significant rulers who 

were forced to contend with Muslim incursions and foreign 

influences, although in 1632 Emperor Fasil banished most 

HISTORY &

MYTH
foreigners and placed the Orthodox Church in its position of 

primacy. 

Italy’s Colonial Endeavor

Ethiopia's eventual role in European politics resulted from 

French and British influence in the region, although Ethiopia 

was one of only two territories that escaped European 

colonization. As a newcomer to colonial exploitation, Italy 

decided to invade Ethiopia in 1885. Unlike France and Great 

Britain, the Kingdom of Italy, was not politically nor militarily 

prepared for the undertaking. 

Menelik II (ruled 1889-1913) defeated the Italians in 1896, 

although he allowed them to retain the frontier province facing 

the Red Sea – which they named Eritrea. At the same time, he 

Legend of Lalibela

In the 12th century Zagwe Emperor Lalibela 

ascended to the throne about the same time that 

Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, conquered 

Jerusalem. It was traditional for Ethiopian 

Christians who had the means to pilgrimage to 

Jerusalem, an event that was curtailed now that

the holy city was in hostile hands. Emperor 

Lalibela responded by seeking to establish his 

capital as a new Jerusalem and holy land, along 

with a new River Jordan. According to legend, 

angels carried Lalibela to heaven while he was 

under the influence of a sleeping potion given by 

his jealous brother. While there God told Lalibela to 

return to earth and construct unique churches with 

the assistance of angels. Commissioning one of 

the most remarkable construction projects seen in 

Ethiopia, or even the world, Emperor Lalibela 

commanded the forces necessary to carve 11 

exquisitely fashioned monolithic churches from the 

solid rock that lay beneath the city, a project 

believed to have taken 42 years and considered 

the 8th wonder of the world. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
sent armies to conquer the southern 

highlands and surrounding lowlands, 

annexing them to the traditional AmharaTigray kingdom to create the present-day 

nation-state of Ethiopia with its capital at 

Addis Ababa (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia). 

Menelik also opened the country to 

Western influence and technology, 

established diplomatic relations with several European powers, 

and constructed a railway from Addis Ababa to Djibouti on the 

Red Sea. The rapid modernization of his nation was Menelik's 

greatest domestic achievement. 

Last Emperor

Following Menelik’s death, his daughter, 

Zawditu, was crowned Empress in 1917, 

and her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, 

became regent and successor to the 

throne. (Of note, Menelik II and Zewditu

would be the last Ethiopian monarchs who 

could claim uninterrupted descent from 

King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba). 

Tafari, who exercised considerable influence at court, 

ascended to the throne as Haile Selassie I, which means 

"Might of the Trinity,” following Empress Zawditu’s death in 

1930, whereby he continued Menelik's modernization efforts. 

French-educated and aware of Ethiopia’s backwardness, he 

began to introduce various Western-inspired reforms, but these 

changes were hardly underway before war broke out with Italy

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

World War II

It was Ethiopia's role in World War II that defined the nation's 

international identity during the second-half 20th century. Not 

forgetting its humiliating 19th-century defeat, Fascist Italy

sought to establish a vast colonial empire, and therefore, 

invaded Ethiopia in 1935, forcing Emperor Selassie into exile. 

Having no intention of permitting Axis control of the Red Sea,

the British intervened, forcing the Italians to surrender and 

restored Emperor Selassie’s monarchy. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Communist Revolution

The slow pace of Emperor Selassie’s reform effort following 

the war fostered discontent and led to an attempted coup in 

1960. Following continued political unrest, along with a famine 

that killed over 300,000 people, a creeping coupe reduced the 

emperor’s power, and in 1974, Emperor Salassie’s empire was 

overthrown by a communist regime, leading to his 

imprisonment and assassination. His monarchy was replaced 

by a Marxist council called the Derg, with 

power eventually consolidated in the hands 

of a military dictatorship led by Mengistu 

Haile Meriam (pictured), who ruled with 

violence until his overthrow in 1991. 

Throughout the Derg’s 17-year rule, social 

and political unrest dominated the war-torn 

country. The government denied individual 

rights to own land, nationalizing it in an effort to collectivize its 

agriculture. In the late 1980s, the Tigray People’s Liberation 

Front and other Ethiopian ethnic-based resistance groups

formed the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front 

(EPRDF), and, together with the Eritrean People’s Liberation 

Front, forced the Derg’s collapse. 

New Regime

The fall of Communism brought more 

transformation. The transitional government 

of EPRDF Leader Meles Zenawi (pictured) 

was installed in 1991 as a means of

stabilizing and strengthening Ethiopia. The 

new administration established a 

provisional government sponsoring multiethnic elections under 

a new constitution. Multiparty elections were held in May 1995, 

with Zenawi remaining head of government until his death in 

2012. He was succeeded soon afterwards by his Deputy Prime 

Minister Hailemariam Desalegn (see Political & Social 

Relations).

From 1998 to 2000, Ethiopia and Eritrea fought a bitter war 

over their common border, and despite international arbitration, 

the status of the border in mid-2005 remained stalemated and 

relations between the two nations continues to be hostile (see 

Political & Social Relations). 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Political Borders

• Eritrea: 567mi

• Djibouti: 217mi

• Somalia: 884mi

• Kenya: 535mi

• South Sudan:520mi

• Sudan: 478mi

Features

• Landlocked country located on 

the Horn of Africa.

• Covers over 435,000 square miles and is slightly less than

 twice the size of Texas.

• Has access to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden through a port

 in Djibouti. 

• Has a variety of terrain and climate zones (see Economics & 

Resources). 

Flag

It has three equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, and red with 

a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the 

angles between the points on 

a light blue disk centered on 

the three bands.

• The yellow pentagram, also 

known as the National Coat 

of Arms, is a symbol of the 

current government and 

intended to reflect the desire of the nationalities and peoples 

of Ethiopia to live together in unity and equality.

• Since Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, 

other African countries upon their independence have 

adopted the three colors commonly known as the pan-African 

colors.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Government Type

Ethiopia is a Federal Republic consisting of three branches to 

include executive, legislative, and judicial. The Ethiopian legal 

system is based on civil law having a transitional mix of national 

and regional courts. 

Political Setting

Consisting of members from all of Ethiopia’s ethnic groups, the 

current EPRDF government abandoned traditional provinces for 

ethnically defined states to form a federal system in the early 

1990s. The existing "democratic" government contains 9 semiautonomous states (each ethnic state known as a national 

regional state) and two special federally chartered cities, Addis 

Ababa and Dire Dawa that do not administratively belong to a 

regional state and, therefore, have the power to raise their own 

revenues. These territorial 

demarcations are intended to 

recognize the national identity of the 

majority ethnic group within each 

regional state. 

Political Power

Ethiopia presently has 8 major 

political parties. Prime Minister 

Hailemariam Desalegn represents 

the EPRDF party and was elected its 

chair soon after his appointment as 

Prime Minister in 2012. Under both 

Zenawi and Desalegn, Ethiopians 

enjoy wider political freedom than 

with previous administrations (see History and Myth). 

Executive Branch

• Consists of a prime minister, designated by the party in power 

following legislative elections, who serves as head of 

government and has strong executive authority. There are no 

term limits on the office of the prime minister.

• A ceremonial President (currently Mulatu Teshome Wirtu

since 2013) is primarily a figurehead having no real power. 

The House of People's Representatives elects the President 

for a 6-year term with eligibility for a second term. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
• The 1994 constitution provides for the prime minister to select, 

with legislative House of People's Representatives approval, 

a cabinet containing a Council of Ministers. 

Legislative Branch

The Legislative Branch includes a twochambered Parliament composed of a 

House of Federation that functions as an 

upper chamber responsible for interpreting 

the constitution and federal-regional issues 

and the House of People's Representatives 

or lower chamber responsible for passing 

legislation. The former is composed of 108 

seats whose members are chosen by state assemblies to serve 

5-year terms, while the latter contains 547 seats that are filled 

through popular-vote elections from single-member districts also 

to serve 5-year terms (Photo courtesy of Pro Quest, 2009). 

Judicial Branch 

The Judicial Branch or Federal Supreme Court consists of a 

president and vice president who the prime minister 

recommends and the House of People's Representatives

appoints to office. The Federal Judicial Administrative selects

candidates for federal judge 

position, with the prime minister‘s 

recommendation to the House of 

People's Representatives.

Defense

Ethiopia is a nation of warriors

where military service is 

considered a path to social advancement and economic 

success. The Ethiopian National Defense Forces (ENDF) 

numbers about 200,000 personnel, making it one of the largest 

militaries in Africa. The ENDF consists of Ground Forces and an 

Ethiopian Air Force (ETAF), with no navy – Ethiopia became

landlocked following Eritrea’s independence in 1993 and 

retention of Ethiopia’s naval facilities located there. 

Military Inventory

Ethiopia made significant purchases of arms from Russia in late 

20th and early 21st centuries before a May 2000 UN arms 

embargo went into effect. Since much of her equipment suffered 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
battle damage in the 1998-2000 war with Eritrea, her raw 

numbers likely overstate the defense force capacity. 

Air Force: The Ethiopian air force is believed to have close to 

50 combat aircraft (including Su-27s, MiG-21MFs, and MiG23BNs), around 25 armed helicopters, and about a dozen

transport helicopters. 

Army: The Ethiopian army possesses approximately 250 main 

battle tanks, 400 reconnaissance, armored personnel, and 

infantry fighting vehicles, 400 

pieces of towed artillery, 50 

multiple rocket launchers, 370 

surface-to-air missiles, and a 

small number of self-propelled 

artillery. Ethiopia has no 

strategic weapons and is a 

party to nuclear, chemical, and 

biological weapons treaties. 

US Security Assistance

Between 2002 and 2006 the US 

government more than tripled

military assistance to Ethiopia in 

the form of International Military 

Education and Training and 

Foreign Military Financing. This aid 

occurred despite documented 

evidence from the US State 

Department and various international humanitarian

organizations of Ethiopia’s human rights abuse. (data from the

Center for Defense Information). Of note, Ethiopian officials 

connected to the human rights abuses have denied the reports. 

Be Cautions About Urban Theft

Petty theft involves mugging, snatching, pick-pocketing 

and opportunistic grabbing from stopped vehicles – 

most common in Addis Ababa’s Piazza or Mercato other 

urban areas. Airmen should exercise particular caution

when visiting crowded public places and keep valuables, 

particularly cameras and passports hidden.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues 

Ethiopia is a case study in modern national security concerns. 

Three of its neighbors (Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea) have been 

accused of helping sponsor or serving as bases for terrorist 

organizations. Besides resisting Eritrean and Somali radical 

activities, Ethiopia also has dealt 

with an unstable Sudan, which has 

only recently concluded a brutal

decades-long civil war that led to 

thousands of refugees fleeing into 

Ethiopian camps. 

Border dispute: Eritrea fought a 

protracted 30-year war of independence with Ethiopia 

(September 1961-May 1991), whereby it defeated Ethiopia and 

earned international recognition of its independence in 1993. 

Since then an unresolved border dispute between the two 

countries constitutes the major external threat to security and 

stability in Ethiopia. The two neighbors have been in a state of 

“cold peace” since a December 2000 truce. Neither nation has 

an interest in renewing a war they cannot financially or politically

afford, although this shortfall has not curtailed political posturing 

on both sides. 

Militant Groups

Two primary factions are the Oromo Liberation Front and the 

Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), both of which seek 

autonomy for their constituent populations or regions. The ONLF 

is believed to be motivated by the desire to reunite eastern

Ethiopia with “Greater Somalia,” a reversal of the loss of the 

Ogaden to Ethiopia in the 1890s. Nevertheless, the lawlessness 

and political instability along Ethiopia’s long and highly porous 

border with Somalia make it a potential area for extremist 

activity.

Ethnic insurgencies: Besides coping with rival neighbors, 

Ethiopia has had to employ its military to combat internal antigovernment ethnic insurgencies. Although it has had fewer 

coups than have plagued other African countries, Ethiopia's 

turmoil has been no less devastating. To add to its many 

challenges, Ethiopia has to balance among extreme poverty, 

droughts, famines, and uneven allocation of land and natural 

resources, all of which tend to undermine stability.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the US

US-Ethiopian relations, established in 1903, were good 

throughout the period prior to Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 

1935. After World War II, these ties strengthened based on a 

1951 treaty of amity and economic relations. After Ethiopia's 

1974 revolution, the bilateral relationship began to cool due to 

the Derg regimes instituting 

perhaps the most radical 

social and economic reform in 

Africa. The US rebuffed 

Ethiopia’s actions and further 

rejected her request for 

increased military assistance. 

With the 1991 downfall of the 

Derg regime, US-Ethiopian 

relations improved, with restrictions on US assistance lifted. 

Today, Ethiopia has good relations with the US and the West, 

and since 2001, has played an increasingly important role in US 

efforts to combat terrorism in the 

Horn of Africa (HOA)(Photo: 

Former US Ambassador to 

Ethiopia Donald Booth during a 

traditional coffee ceremony – 

described below). 

Ethnicity 

Cultural Melting Pot

Ethiopia's population of near 

95.5M has an annual growth of 

about 3% and represents a collection of ancient Middle Eastern 

and African cultures as seen in its religious, ethnic, and 

language composition. It includes at least 75 distinct ethnic 

groups of which the Oromo, Amhara, and Tigrayan hold primacy, 

collectively constituting nearly 75% of the total population. The 

Ethiopian people are usually classified by the languages they 

speak.

Regionally, ethnic groups generally are distinguished between 

“highland societies” and “lowland societies,” where historically, 

neighboring ethnic groups competed for resources, water, and 

pasture lands. 

40%

30% 7%

28%

Oromo Amhara

Tigrean Other

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Highland Groups

• Oromo: Consisting of about 34.2 million people or about 

34.4% of total population, the Oromo is the largest group in both 

Ethiopia and the HOA region, and concentrated primarily in the 

southern half of the nation. The most widespread ethnic group, 

it occupies both highland and lowland territories in all regions 

except Gondar. The Oromo include sub-ethnic clans, each 

having unique social identities. 

For example, its Borana clan remains pastoralist, although the 

majority of Oromo have become plow cultivators or engaged in 

mixed farming. Expanding from their homeland in the central 

southern highlands beginning in the 6th century, the Oromo refer 

to their region as Oromia, also known as the 

richest area in the HOA because of its 

agricultural and natural resources. 

The Oromo exemplify how some ethnic 

groups do not fit within the current political 

boundaries. They have never maintained 

political power nor been dominant in 

Ethiopian political society, mainly because 

of their internal diversity and geographical 

expanse. 

Traditionally, they have been less united religiously and socially 

than the Amhara and Tigrayans and never formed an Oromo 

state, although they have had periods of military and political 

dominance. There are significant differences in social 

organization, religion, and economy across the sub-ethnic 

groups – some are Muslims, others Christians, and still others 

adhere to indigenous religions. Many live in urban centers. The 

Oromo traditionally have been suppressed as the Amhara 

emerged as the dominant group and were expected to adopt 

Amhara ethnic identity. 

Even today, under a federalist government, the Oromo lack 

appropriate political representation, with large groups of Oromo 

refugees seeking sanctuary in neighboring border countries and 

the Middle East. Despite historical repression, their cultural 

identity remains strong and most consider themselves Oromo, 

as well as Ethiopian. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATION
• Amhara: 

Traditional power: Accounting for about 27% of the population, 

the Amhara occupy northwestern Ethiopia and, although a 

minority group, has controlled the country almost continually for 

the past 100 years. While they are not the dominant ethnic group 

in Ethiopia today, they continue to play a central role – both 

inside and outside the country. Claiming descent from King 

Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, they gave rise to the 

Solomonic dynasty, and their language, Amharic, is Ethiopia’s 

national language. Their

established base is the Amhara 

Regional State, with its capital 

at Bahir Dar, and Gondar 

another major city in the region. 

The Amhara people are mostly 

farmers situated mainly in the 

central highland plateau of Ethiopia. For centuries their

predominant religion has been Christianity, with the Ethiopian 

Orthodox Tewahedo Church playing a central role in their

culture, although about 18% of the population is Muslim. Many 

Gada System

Among the southernmost Oromo people, elements of 

the traditional Gada social organization system remain

in place, although no longer practiced among the more 

northern groups. Within the system, boys and men 

progress through life in 8-year stages. They are 

organized into subgroups based on age and generation, 

with each group advancing to the next stage of 

development through an elaborate rite-of-passage 

initiation. Political and religious leaders, for example, 

would be considered members of the 5th stage. Oromo 

people who no longer practice the system still use it to 

promote Oromo independence because of its traditional 

role in defining their social, cultural, and political heritage 

– particularly their democratic character.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
live in the mountains, making it difficult to travel and gain 

provisions. Plagued by contaminated drinking water, they also 

risk famine as a result of deforestation. 

• Tigrayan: Another 6.1% of the people make up the 3rd major 

group known as Tigrayan, who primarily have occupied the

northernmost Tigray Regional State since Eritrean 

independence. Its capital and population center is Mekele. 

Ascendant in Ethiopian politics since 

the fall of the communist Derg, the 

Tigrean Peoples’ Liberation Front 

(TPLF) transformed itself into the 

EPRDF party that, as noted earlier, 

has controlled the government of 

Ethiopia since 1991. 

Present-day Tigray is located where 

the powerful Kingdom of Axum 

established its legendary heritage as 

it became the first recorded Kingdom 

in Ethiopia and the first African 

political entity to adopt Christianity. 

Auxumites were a strong-willed and literate people whose 

monasteries remain centers for learning and translating. Axum 

today is viewed as a symbol of Tigrayan national consciousness 

and cultural pride because of the Tigrayans notable defense 

against attacks from Italian, Egyptian, and Sudanese armies 

seeking to invade and colonize Ethiopia. 

Lowland Groups 

• Somali: In the eastern Ethiopian 

region once belonging to Somalia, the 

majority population remains ethnic 

Somali despite the migration of many 

highlanders seeking fortune and 

extended highland authority. The capital 

of the Somali Regional State is Jijiga, 

and ethnic Somalis are predominantly 

Sunni Muslim. Many maintain the customs and practices of 

Somalia, remaining loyal to their clans even across borders that 

are long, remote, and very porous, with smuggling of untaxed or 

illicit goods common. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATION
• Afar: Inhabitants of the northeast Danakil Desert and 

Depression region of Ethiopia occupy the Afar Regional State 

(capital city is Asaita). Having extended their traditional influence 

into neighboring Djibouti, the Afar are primarily pastoralists and 

herdsmen, and while predominantly Muslim, their cultural 

practices are in some cases very 

different from other Muslims. 

For example, due to the intense heat, 

some of their women have been 

known to go topless while performing 

their household duties. When they 

visit other areas, Afar women usually 

cover themselves. While it is unlikely 

Airmen will be exposed to this 

isolated, rural practice; it is beneficial 

to be aware it does exist, is acceptable 

behavior in the local culture, and not intended to have sexual 

implications (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Southwestern Tribes

The southwest corner of Ethiopia, known as the Southern 

Nations’ Nationalities’ and Peoples’ Regional State (SNNPRS), 

is renowned for its isolation and unique ethnic traditions. Of the 

more than 45 ethnic groups that occupy southern Ethiopia, the 

people of this region are known 

for their assortment of artistic 

shells, beads, and body paint 

accented by a patchwork of 

ethnicities, worldviews, histories, 

and beliefs – all preserved by 

their remoteness and isolation. 

• Mursi: Numbering close to 

5,000 the Mursi are pastoralists

who share minimal worldly 

possessions and express their 

culture by adorning their bodies. 

They are most famous for lip 

plates and earlobe plugs worn by their women. There are a 

variety of explanations for the lip disk. Some believe it was first 

used to make women unattractive to slave traders, although 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
today it is commonly used to determine a young woman’s dowry. 

The size of her lip disk at marriage determines the number of 

cattle her husband-to-be must pay her family (Photo Courtesy 

Pierre Martinez).

• Konso: Deep in the mountains bordering the Great Rift 

Valley, the near 170 thousand Konso people make their home. 

Although related to the fierce, semi-nomadic herdsmen of the 

south, the Borana, the Konso are a relatively calm people, 

known for their terraced farms and their carefully constructed 

villages made with natural wood and stone materials – their 

structures are crafted with little construction. For example, they 

never form the wood into beams and planks, but rather, carefully 

use the natural shape of a branch or bough to its best advantage 

– a practice that requires great skill.

Wood craftsmen: The 

Konso people reserve 

their wood-working skills

for one notable spiritual 

purpose, the creation of 

totems, or waga, to 

commemorate their dead. 

In the photo, the old man, 

who is playing a krar or 

lyre (national instrument 

of Ethiopia), has carved 

three new waga for placement near a gravesite (Photo: Boy 

playing in Konso village, courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Those ethnic groups covered in this guide represent the 

tremendous diversity of Ethiopian culture. The Southern 

Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, for instance, also 

includes other large ethnic groups like the Sidamo (about 9% of 

the total population and, therefore, larger than Tigrayans), the 

Wolaitta and Gurage, and smaller groups such as the Hadiya, 

Gamo, and so forth. In addition, the western regions of Gambella 

and Benishangul-Gumuz are home to several other ethnic 

communities, some of which straddle the border with Sudan, 

such as the Anuak, Nuer, and Berta peoples. Finally, the city of 

Harar is the ancient home of the Aderi people, but also includes 

sizable communities of Oromo and others.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Social Groups and Status

There are four major social groups in Ethiopia. At the top are 

high-ranking followed by lowranking lineages, caste groups, and 

slaves (to include their decedents). 

This four-tier system is traditional 

within Ethiopia’s hierarchical, classoriented society where wealth is the 

chief criterion for social 

stratification. Having wealth earns 

respect and recognition, and one’s status or wealth has 

traditionally been ascribed (assigned) based on family lineage, 

although exposure to Western influence 

has opened opportunities for gaining status 

through personal achievement.

In rural areas wealth is typically measured 

by the amount of grain and cattle a person 

possesses, while in urban parts it is 

normally accrued based upon education, 

vocation, and social network. Some jobs, 

such as lawyers and federal government 

employees, are considered more esteemed than others than 

others. Many professions carry negative associations, such as 

potters or metal and leather workers, and are considered of low 

status and frequently are isolated from 

mainstream society. Likewise, owning a 

vehicle is a symbol of wealth and high 

status because there are few available 

to purchase.

Social Etiquette

Sociable and generous, Ethiopians 

delight in an opportunity to entertain

friends in their homes, and therefore, an 

invitation to a private home should be 

considered an honor. Punctuality is not expected, although 

considerable tardiness is considered rude. Expect to remove 

your shoes at the door and shake hands with each individual. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Before or after eating, also expect to socialize over a cup of 

coffee – it is important you accept the coffee if offered as it is 

considered impolite not to do so (see Coffee Ceremony below). 

Ethiopians are relatively formal and believe table manners are a 

sign of respect. 

Do not be surprised if no eating utensils are offered, as food is 

typically eaten by hand from a communal serving dish, although 

done so with decorum. For example, before the meal it is proper 

to wash your hands from a small earthenware or metal jug 

brought to the table by a family member. You are expected to 

extend your hands over the basin 

while water is poured over them. 

Also, it is preferred to use the right 

hand for eating, as the left hand is 

reserved for toilet hygiene and 

considered unclean. However, this 

issue has decreased in importance 

due to contact with Westerners. It 

is customary for the guest to initiate eating, although hierarchy 

dictates that the eldest person is the first to take food from the 

communal plate.

It is also traditional for the host to serve guests tasty morsels in 

a process called "gursa,” although this custom is often reserved 

for close friends and family. With the hands he or she places the 

morsel in the other person’s mouth. Since this is done out of 

respect, it is proper to accept the offering. 

Weddings & Family Events

Weddings are major social events. Following the 

ceremony in a local church or hotel, the wedding party 

will conduct a drive-by procession followed by a 

reception and photo opportunity. Wedding gifts are not 

expected. (see Family & Kinship). Children commonly 

accompany parents during social events and will be 

seen in restaurants late in the evening. Likewise, 

children’s birthday parties are considered main 

events. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Likewise, you can anticipate your host to encourage you to take 

more food, as providing an abundance of food is a sign of 

hospitality. During meals, participation in conversation is 

considered polite, while complete attention to the meal is thought 

to be impolite. It is also appropriate for a guest to stop eating 

when the host has finished. The meal ends with another ritual 

hand-washing and coffee ceremony. 

Coffee Ceremony

When invited to an Ethiopian home, expect to participate in their 

traditional coffee ceremony, and be prepared to drink at least 

three cups of coffee, always complimenting the flavor of the first 

cup. Coffee is a national drink, and its brewing has developed 

into a ritual which rivals the traditional Japanese tea ceremony 

for its grace. The ceremony is traditionally recreated every 

morning in all its many features throughout many households. 

Giving Appropriate Gifts 

• When invited to an Ethiopian’s home, it is 

appropriate to bring an inexpensive gift such as 

pastries, fruit, or flowers to the host. 

• Gifts are also given to honor significant events 

or religious occasions. 

• Since Ethiopia is a poor country, an expensive 

gift is not appropriate and may be viewed 

negatively. 

o For example, it may be seen as an attempt 

to gain influence, or may embarrass the 

recipient who would be unable to match in 

kind.

• A small gift for the children is always 

appreciated. It is best to avoid giving alcohol, 

particularly to conservative Muslims whose 

religious practices forbid its consumption. 

• It is best to present the gift with both hands or 

only the right one, as the left hand is considered 

unsanitary (see Sustenance & Health).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Commercial coffee houses, called buna beit, will perform the 

ceremony for each table of customers. 

Participants in the ceremony typically sit on a grass or flowerstrewn floor with an aroma of incense burning in the background. 

Typically, a woman or young boy enters the room to wash and 

roast the beans over charcoal. The roasted beans are then 

hand-ground and added to boiling water. Sugar is placed within 

small cups without handles and the water/coffee mixture is 

added. Participants typically sip the coffee slowly, inhaling the 

aroma of the coffee before sipping. 

The first round (called "awol") is served, starting with the eldest 

person, and when the first cup is finished, the "jebena" (coffee 

pot) is again refilled with water for 

the second round (called "tona"), 

followed by a third round (called 

"baraka"). The second and third 

rounds are noticeably weaker than 

the first, as the same ground beans 

are used throughout the brewing 

process. In Ethiopia, coffee is often 

served with popcorn and is 

sometimes served with a sprig of 

‘tena adam,’ a strong-tasting aromatic herb. In some regions, 

coffee may be spiced with ginger, cinnamon, or cloves or even 

salted. 

Khat Chewing 

After meals men from some ethnic communities are known to

chew khat (cot), a mild stimulant

from a leafy green tree branch

grown in the Ethiopian Highlands 

and elsewhere in the region. 

Ethiopia is known to grow the best 

khat in the region. While chewing 

khat is not illegal in Ethiopia, its 

sustained use can lead to 

addiction. Scientists compare its 

stimulation to that of several cups of strong coffee. Likewise, this 

substance has had a profound influence on Ethiopian society, 

as researchers estimate that some families spend a great 

portion of their income on the plant. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Religion in Ethiopia

While the world’s three great religions – Christianity, Islam, and 

Judaism – are represented in Ethiopia, Christianity was long

considered the State religion, (although it no longer is 

constitutionally). Despite dominance of the Ethiopian Orthodox 

Church (EOC) in the last century, currently Orthodox 

Christianity and Islam each constitute perhaps 40% to 45% of 

the Ethiopian population. 

Orthodox Christianity was introduced to the ancient Axumites 

from the Byzantine world in about 340 AD, thereafter spreading 

southward into the highlands region. Islam was introduced a 

few centuries later by merchants from Arabia to peoples along 

the Red Sea coast, spreading thereafter into the center and 

south. 

Orthodox Christianity was 

the official religion of the 

imperial court and of the 

establishment until Haile 

Selassie was deposed 

during the 1974 revolution. 

Thereafter all religions were 

made equal, and the 

Orthodox Church was 

disestablished. While 

religious freedom was the policy, tensions between the two 

major faiths were never completely resolved, and lingering 

disputes exist to the present day in some areas of the country. 

For the most part, though, Ethiopians treasure a tradition of 

coexistence among religious communities. In most regions 

Orthodox Christians and Muslims generally respect each 

other's religious observances and tend to tolerate intermarriage 

and religious conversion in certain areas (Photo courtesy of

Pro Quest 2009).

As in Western cultures Ethiopians tend to be monotheistic, 

which means worship of “One God.” In general, Christians tend 

to live in the populous highland economic centers, while 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Muslims and adherents of traditional African religions typically 

inhabit the more isolated lowland regions. However, some 

Muslims who are important in the business community

comprise a considerable population in highland Ethiopian 

capital, Addis Ababa. 

Orthodox Christianity is most strongly represented among the

predominant Tigray and Amhara ethnic groups; while Islam 

exists among the Somali, Afar, and Oromo (particularly those in

the southern highlands). Gurage, and Sidama in the southwest 

contain a mixture of both faiths. In many regions, the two 

communities coexist, particularly in urban areas.

Protestants number perhaps 11 million, constituting up to 10 

percent of the population. There are substantial Protestant 

communities in western Oromiya, southern parts of the country, 

and increasingly in urban areas. Smaller groups include 

Roman Catholics (about 500,000), Eastern Rite Catholics, and 

Ethiopian Jews. Traditional or tribal religions are practiced by 

about 12% of the population, particularly in the South. A large 

number of foreign missionaries are active, especially in the 

south and southwest borderlands. Although missionary activity 

through the centuries has produced some converts to 

European denominations, the vast majority of Ethiopians 

remain Orthodox Christian or Muslim. 

Distinguishing Christians & Muslims 

Besides living near their respective churches or 

mosques, each group has its own strict and elaborate 

dietary laws that require separate markets, restaurants, 

and hotels. Apart from prayer times whereby Ethiopian 

Muslims typically wear Arab-inspired ceremonial dress, 

there is little physical distinction between Ethiopian 

Muslims and Christians. (see Political and Social 

Relations for ethnic characteristics). In addition, 

Orthodox Christian women wear a white shawl (netella) 

in church, while Muslim women wear a head-covering 

or hijab (See Aesthetics & Recreation). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Ethiopian Orthodox Church

EOC Origins The EOC evolved from the Coptic 

Orthodox Church, the official name of the 

largest Christian church in Egypt. It is not 

to be confused with its Catholic 

counterpart, the Ethiopian Catholic 

Church, although EOC doctrine is similar 

to Catholicism in its emphasis on 

celebrating Mass and reverencing icons 

and patron saints. (Photo © Steve Evans, 

courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Christian Doctrinal Dispute

In AD 451 the Council of Chalcedon, the last council 

recognized by the Anglican Communion, rejected the 

Monophysite doctrine that espoused the belief that 

Jesus Christ has only one divine “nature” rather than 

two, divine and human, as asserted at the Council. 

The Chalcedonian Creed considers Jesus the second 

person of the Holy Trinity having “full humanity and 

full divinity,” a belief promoted by today's Roman 

Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Likewise, 

most Protestants consider the concept of the Trinity 

as defined by the Council to be orthodox doctrine.

Conversely, the EOC promoted the Oriental 

Orthodox or Monophysite belief in the one single 

unified Nature of Christ. (The EOC is often referred to 

as the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church with 

the Tewahedo referring to the Monophysite doctrine). 

While the EOC holds a different viewpoint regarding 

the Nature of Christ, it does strongly believe in the 

Trinity – God is one in three and three in one: the 

divine Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Despite the 

nature of this long-term controversy, in modern times, 

Oriental Orthodox churches are generally 

acknowledged by Roman Catholic, Eastern 

Orthodox, and Protestant Christendom. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Judaic Influence

With the spread of Islam in Africa, Ethiopian Orthodox

Christianity became somewhat detached from Christian

influence, resulting in its resemblance to a Judaic form of 

Christianity with some differences. While many Ethiopian 

Orthodox Christians consider themselves biblical “chosen 

people” and descendents of Solomon and Sheba, they haven’t 

fully embraced Judaic doctrine, particularly as interpreted in 

western tradition. For example, Orthodox Christians believe 

Jesus was the Messiah while Jews do not. However, like Jews, 

Orthodox Christians adhere to Old Testament guidance 

regarding kosher diet, circumcision, and Saturday Sabbath. 

The EOC is, likewise, the only established church that has 

rejected the doctrine of Pauline Christianity that proclaims the 

Old Testament lost its regulatory influence after the coming of 

Jesus. 

Worship Practices

Closely reflecting those of the earliest Christian Church, 

Ethiopian orthodox practices are rigorous and systematic. 

Members are known to fast 165 days of the year (Clergy 250 

days-per-year), including every Wednesday, Friday, and 

throughout Lent and Easter. They often omit breakfast and eat 

only vegetables throughout the fast day. Ethiopian Christians 

are expected to attend church services both on Sundays and 

holy days, normally commencing at 6 am and continuing for up 

to 3 hours. Easter services, for example, start the Friday prior 

and end on midnight Easter Sunday. Attendees usually stand 

Baptism

Baptism is considered one of seven Christian Orthodox 

Holy Sacraments – along with Holy Communion, 

confirmation, penance, the Unction of the Sick (healing 

ritual), Holy Orders (ordainment), and matrimony. It 

represents Christian rebirth or purification of a child, 

occurring 40 days following the birth of a boy and 80 for 

a girl. The child is anointed with oil 30 times over the 

entire body, then dipped in water 3 times while the Holy 

Trinity is summoned. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
for the duration of the worship service. Visitors are welcome to 

attend EOC services providing they remove their shoes, cover 

their arms and legs, and show respect for Church traditions.

Islamic Faith

While the Orthodox Church has dominated political, cultural, 

and social life of the Ethiopian population, Islam and Islamic

institutions such as schools and mosques historically were 

tolerated by the imperial system. Ethiopian Muslims are 

predominantly Sunni and are distinguished by their belief that

the leader (Caliph) of the Muslim community (Ummah) should 

be elected. Shi’a, which do not reside in Ethiopia, believe he 

should be a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Islam has played a relatively minor role in Ethiopian history and 

culture, due in large part to the dominance of Christian imperial 

rule. Even today, Christian highlanders continue to settle and 

extend their cultural and political influence into Muslim 

territories. 

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th century when the Prophet Muhammad 

was born in Mecca, in the country currently known as Saudi 

Arabia. Muslims believe that while Muhammad was meditating 

Fasting

The practice of Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity involves, 

among other features, a complex system of fasting. 

• Because Ethiopian Orthodox Christians value meat 

and animal products, fasting by their definition 

involves total abstention from animal products, 

while all non-animal foods may be eaten during 

their fasting days that include every Wednesday 

and Friday, Lent, and many others. 

• The Islamic faith also has its own unique system of 

fasting that is part of the Five Pillars of Islam.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
in the desert, the Archangel Gabriel 

visited him over a 23-year period, 

revealing the Qur’an, or the “Holy 

Book,” to guide their everyday life. The 

Qur’an represents a core belief that 

helps shape Muslims’ lifelong values 

(Photo Courtesy Pro Quest, 2010). 

Meaning of Islam

Islam is more than a religion to its adherents – it is a way of life. 

The term Islam literally means submission, and a Muslim is “a 

person who submits to God.” Islamic doctrine can be summed 

up in its five pillars which serve as the foundation of Muslim life. 

Five Pillars of Islam 

• Shahada (Faith): “There is no god but God and Mohammad

is His Messenger.” 

• Salat (Prayer): Pray five times a day.

• Zakat (Charity): Donate alms to the poor. 

• Sawm (Fasting): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during holy month of 

Ramadan (Discussed below). 

• Hajj (Pilgrimage): Travel to Mecca, Saudi Arabia if possible 

at least once.

Basics of Islam

Prayer: Muslims pray every day and several times throughout 

the day. They wash their hands, elbows, face, ears, feet, and 

wet their hair to cleanse the body prior to prayer.

Mosque: Islamic house of worship.

Holy cities: The Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia is the 

site of the Hajj or pilgrimage. Medina, Saudi Arabia is revered 

as the burial site of Muhammad. Muslims also consider 

Jerusalem, the site of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, holy because they 

believe Muhammad made his nighttime ride to heaven from 

there. 

Day of Worship: Friday is the holy day of worship for Muslims. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Inshallah: Arabic saying, which means all things occur 

according to God’s Will, particularly future events.

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel the other two major world 

religions, Judaism and Christianity. In fact, Muslims consider 

Christians and Jews “people of the Book,” referring to biblical 

scriptures, who share their monotheistic belief in one God. 

Abraham: All three faiths trace their lineage back to Abraham, 

known as Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace 

their line back to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; 

while Muslims believe that they descend from Abraham and his 

Egyptian concubine, Hagar, and their son Ismail. According to 

Muslim tradition, Abraham, under pressure from Sarah, took 

Hagar and Ismail to Mecca and left them there to fend for

themselves, thus establishing the Arabian Peninsula. 

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments, and Muslims view Islam 

as a completion of previous revelations to 

Jewish and Christian prophets. However, 

Muslims believe that man distorted the

Holy Bible and that Muhammad received 

God’s true revelation (Photo: Mosque in 

Harar, courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Jesus: The three religions differ 

significantly over role of Jesus. While 

Christians consider Him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills the Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting 

for the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as having 

been a prophet, but do not acknowledge the Christian view of 

His divine nature. Muslims do not believe in the Christian 

doctrine of the Trinity and regard both Jesus and Muhammad 

(along with the other prophets) as mortal men. 

Concept of Jihad

The concept of Jihad, or striving, is a fundamental element 

within Islam. Traditionally, it applies mainly to an inner striving

to elevate the principled, higher, more civilized and moral 

elements of one’s own being and the pursuit of God’s will, to 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
lead a virtuous life. Don’t confuse this traditional, common 

concept of “internal” Jihad with the publicized violence often 

referred to as Jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to 

terrorism and believe it is contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Judaism in Ethiopia 

A distinct form of Judaism, 

historically known as Beta Israel

(“House of Israel” in Hebrew), has 

existed in Ethiopia for many

centuries, although its practices 

vary from traditional Judaism. 

Non-Jewish Ethiopians refer to 

the Jewish community as Falasha 

(meaning "Exiles" or "Strangers“), 

a term the Jews consider derogatory. When in the late 20thcentury, civil war and famine threatened the Ethiopian Jewish 

population, the Israeli government launched rescue efforts 

known as Operations Moses (1984) and Solomon (1991) to 

Religious Myths in Ethiopia

• As with the Roman Catholic Church in Europe, the 

Ethiopian Orthodox church had a period of “Dark 

Ages,” or isolation, which stimulated development of 

various myths that were added to her doctrinal 

teachings. Many of these legends became traditions 

that are still practiced in the church. 

• One of these teachings is based on the belief that the 

original Ark of the Covenant (which Moses built in the 

Wilderness) is secretly housed in a monastery in the 

northern city of Axum. As the legend goes, only a few 

monks actually have seen the ark. Ethiopians strongly 

believe in the ark’s existence, and therefore, each 

local church has its own ark replica that is hidden 

from public view by a heavy curtain. Each year village 

peoples conduct elaborate ceremonies reenacting the 

return of the ark to Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
accommodate Jewish migration to Israel. As a result a majority 

of the Beta Israel community, comprising more than 120,000 

people, moved to Israel under its Law of Return, which has 

given Jews and their families the right to settle in Israel and 

obtain citizenship. The immigration is ongoing, although a few 

Jews have elected to remain in Ethiopia (Photo Courtesy of 

Wikimedia). 

Tribal Religions

Some ethnic groups believe in the traditional power of natural 

forces over human existence. Known as animism, this religious 

form is rarely based on sacred doctrine but rather verbal 

traditions passed through several generations. 

The traditional religious practices of Ethiopia’s largest ethnic

group, the Oromo, have survived alongside both Christianity 

and Islam. The Oromo believe in one God known as 

Waaqayoo, often called Waaqa, who is creator of the universe. 

He is pure, all-powerful, and is intolerant of injustice, crime, sin, 

and falsehood. Waaqayoo is 

believed to deliver His 

blessings to Earth in the form 

of rain. 

Embodied in this faith is the 

conviction that ancestor spirits 

have great power and exert 

potent influence on the daily 

lives of family members.

Oromo believe that nature teams with these spirits in rushing 

rivers and majestic trees. For example, the Sof Omar caverns 

in the Oromo Regional State have particular significance in 

traditional Oromo religion. Some of these ancient cults 

produced an unusually impressive 

type of art and architecture seen 

in ancient temples and palaces, 

and the monolithic obelisk of 

Axum. 

Likewise, the lowland Karo people 

believe natural and inanimate

objects house spirits with supernatural powers over human 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
beings, while the lowland Omo River people use their spiritual 

sense of the cosmos to guide their agricultural lifestyle. They 

look to the sun to predict the seasons and the stars to indicate 

flooding. 

Rastafarianism 

An unusual, 20th-century development on 

the Ethiopian cultural scene was

Rastafarianism. In the late 1920s, a 

Jamaican Back-to-Africa movement leader, 

Marcus Garvey, foretold the arrival of an 

African leader who would shepherd his 

people back to their homeland and the 

ultimate Promised Land. The movement 

derives its name from the title and name of its savior, Ras 

Tafari, prior to his coronation and adoption of the imperial 

name, Emperor Haile Selassie. Emperor Selassie granted land 

in the Rift Valley to the Rastafarian community, where many 

adherents have now staked their claim in the Promised Land. 

Many adherents also live in Addis Ababa (Photos on this page 

courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Although Haile Salassie was dishonorably buried following his 

Derg assassination, his followers disinterred his remains in 

2000 and respectfully reinterred them at Addis Ababa’s Trinity 

Cathedral. Despite the fact that many 

members of Ethiopia’s Rastafarian 

community witnessed his reburial, Ras 

Tafari will forever be their Living God. It is 

therefore wise to avoid mentioning Haile 

Selassie’s death to a Rastafarian or 

discussing him in the past tense. 

Bob Marley and Reggae: In the US 

revered performer of reggae music, Bob 

Marley, is credited for helping spread both 

Jamaican music and the Rastafarian movement to a worldwide 

audience in the 1960s and 70s. He was the lead singer, song

writer, and guitarist for the reggae band, The Wailers.

Marley’s best known hits include “I Shot the Sheriff,” “No

Woman, No Cry,” “Could You Be Loved,” “Buffalo Soldier,” 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
“Stir It Up,” "Jamming,” “Redemption Song,” “One Love," and, 

together with The Wailers, “The Three Little Birds.” The 

compilation album, Legend (1984), released 3 years after his 

death, is reggae's best-selling album. 

Religious Holidays

The EOC doesn’t follow the western Gregorian calendar and 

adheres to the older Julian calendar (See Time & Space). 

Therefore, their holidays fall on days Westerners aren’t 

accustomed to. For example, the Ethiopian New Year is 11 

September with many other religious holidays, festivals, 

processions and celebrations commemorated throughout the 

year. The primary Christian holidays include Timkat or Feast of 

Epiphany (19 January that celebrates the baptism of Jesus), 

Fasika or Easter (date variable in March or April to celebrate 

Jesus’ resurrection), Meskal (27 September commemorates 

the finding of the true cross on which Jesus was crucified), 

Ganna or Christmas (7 January to honor Jesus’ birth) and 

various holidays for saints and angels. Celebrations usually 

extend for 3 days and consist of processions, all-night prayer 

devotions, feasts, and gift exchanges.

Ramadan

The object of Ramadan is to subdue life’s passions 

and draw oneself nearer to God by purifying the 

body. It is a time for inner reflection, self-control, and 

reading the Qur’an. Because the Islamic calendar is 

based on the moon’s appearance, Ramadan occurs 

at a different date each year on the Western 

calendar. When it occurs during the summer, 

keeping Ramadan requires great focus and 

endurance because people will not hydrate for up to 

18 hours, despite extreme climatic conditions. It is 

common for Muslims to break their fast at sunset 

with a light meal followed by sunset prayer and then 

dinner.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Muslim celebrations: Muslims celebrate Ramadan, a monthlong time for inner reflection, self-control, and God. It includes 

Eid Id al-Adha or Feast of the Sacrifice (also called Arefa) and

ArefaId al-Fatar, which is a 3-day feast at the end of Ramadan. 

Muslims also celebrate Moulid to commemorate the birth of the 

prophet Muhammad. 

Common celebration: Meskal, which

coincides with winter’s end, was 

celebrated before the advent of 

Christianity and Islam and has been 

adapted by all faiths. Each religion or 

culture celebrates it in different ways, but 

some customs are similar. Urban people 

visit friends and relatives in the 

countryside, and on the eve of Meskal, 

each person places a tree branch vertically into a pile. The 

people dance around the pile, while a community elder lights 

the branches with fire. Christians tie a cross made of two 

branches to the top of the bonfire. The direction it falls is 

believed to forecast the coming year, as interpreted by a local 

elder or religious leader. Families and friends gather the next 

day to dine and continue to celebrate.

National Holidays

• September 11 Enkutatash (Ethiopian New Year)

• September 27 Meskal (Finding of True Cross)

• January 7 Gena (Christmas)

• January 19 Timkat (Epiphany)

• March 2 Battle of Adwa (First victory over Italians)

• Variable dates Faseka (Easter)

• April 6 Victory Day (Selassie’s return to the throne)

• May 1 Labor Day

• May 28 National Holiday

• August 28 (date varies) Prophet Mohammad’s birth

• Eid al Fitr marks end of Ramadan

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Importance of Family

Across all tribal and ethnic boundaries, the family remains the 

single most important institution in Ethiopia. Extended families, 

which are two or more nuclear families to include parents and 

offspring plus their families and close friends, usually live near 

each other, sometimes all together in the same compound,

often resulting in little individual privacy. 

Family Organization

Ethiopia is a patriarchal society, which means the male head of 

family or tribal line leads the family network. The basic 

extended family structure is 

much larger than the typical 

Western nuclear unit, with the 

eldest male usually serving as 

decision-maker. Individuals 

achieve recognition or social 

standing through their 

extended family, and their 

collective actions determine 

family honor. Likewise, family needs are put before all other 

obligations, including business. 

Authority: Elders are generally responsible for settling 

disputes within a clan or kin group. The father is seen as an 

authority figure, in whose absence, the eldest adult son leads 

the family network. Men are usually the primary source of 

income and control the family finances, while women are 

responsible for domestic life 

and have significantly more 

contact with the children. 

Importance of age: Age is 

highly respected in Ethiopia, 

where traditionally, adult 

children are expected to care 

for their parents. In rural areas sons bring their brides to live 

with or near their father's family. With the advent of urban 

living, however, this trend is changing, with children often living

apart from their families, making it difficult to support them. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Urbanites have a responsibility to send money to their rural 

families and often try their best to relocate their family unit to 

the cities, although maintaining land and a home in the rural 

community remains a priority.

Descent is traced through both the maternal and paternal 

lineages, although the male line is more dominant than the 

female, and it is, therefore, customary for a child to take the 

father's first name as his or her last or second name. In rural 

areas, villages are often composed of kin groups from the male 

line that offer support during difficult times. 

Housing

A single compound sometimes houses up to three or more 

generations in the male line, and in rural areas, a father 

typically provides a separate 

house in the compound, along 

with a plot of land, for each son.

Traditionally, Ethiopia's ethnic 

groups have built homes in their 

own distinctive style. For 

example the Somalis, who are 

nomadic herders, use stick 

frames, canvas, plastic, or animal hides to build homes that are 

easily dismantled and transportable (pictured above). 

Harari homes (pictured right) are 

famous for their flat wood-beamed 

roofs and multi-leveled sitting rooms 

where family members and their 

guests rest 

and socialize. 

The Dorze, 

who are accomplished weavers among 

the Omo River people, are known for their 

woven houses that resemble beehives

(pictured left). 

In cities, a typical family shares one or two 

rooms separated from other families by 

thin walls, while in rural areas homes typically consist of a 

single, multi-functional room used for sleeping, socializing, and 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
cooking. Many of them also double as businesses, either as 

shops selling small goods or as restaurants. In the past, 

animals typically were kept indoors, and this practice continues 

among some rural communities. 

Marriage

The legal marriage age for women in 

Ethiopia is 18, although the average 

age for a first marriage is 16, with 

some women having married as early 

as ages 12 or 14. Traditional 

marriage customs, found primarily in 

rural areas, vary by ethnic group,

although many customs are transethnic. Traditional marriage 

represents the union of two families, 

and individual choice of spouse is 

limited. Arranged marriages are the 

norm, although this practice is becoming less common, 

especially in urban areas where Western-style dating and 

choosing one’s spouse are more popular practices. 

Likewise, both Ethiopian men and women commonly marry

foreigners, especially Eastern Mediterranean people who have 

been settling in the region for centuries. Also, romance and 

marriage to Westerners is increasingly widespread. 

Polygyny: In Muslim communities, polygyny – the practice of a 

husband having more than one wife – was once a common 

practice that is becoming less popular primarily due to the cost 

of sustaining multiple households. The ceremonial aspects of 

marriage in Ethiopia are complex. The presentation of a dowry 

from the male's family to the female's family is common. The 

dowry – which varies depending on 

the family’s wealth – may include 

livestock, money, or other valuables.

Proposal & ceremony: The 

proposal usually involves the groom’s 

elders requesting the marriage from 

the bride’s family. The elders are 

traditionally the individuals who 

decide when and where the ceremony takes place. Weddings 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
can be costly, as they’re typically elaborate family events 

lasting 2 or 3 days. Both families prepare food and drink for the 

ceremony by brewing honey wine (tej) and local beer (tella) 

and cooking large quantities of food, especially meat dishes. 

Christians often wed in Orthodox churches, and a variety of 

wedding types exist. For example, takelil involves the bride and 

groom participating in a special ceremony whereby they agree 

never to divorce, although this type of commitment has become 

rare in recent years. Westernized wedding attire is seen in 

urban areas. 

Divorce

Like many other societies, marriage is not always a lifelong 

proposition in Ethiopia. Divorce and extramarital relations 

commonly occur in both rural and urban communities.

Research indicates that early marriage and childlessness are 

the two primary influential factors. 

Social Issues

Premarital rape: Among 

certain ethnic groups, 

particularly in the south, a 

man may seek to short-cut 

pomp and ceremony – or if the

marriage offer is rejected – he 

may opt to kidnap and rape 

his intended bride, rendering 

her as an unacceptable bride to other men. By ruining her 

prospects for a preferable marriage, both to her and her family, 

the man would likely gain her hand in marriage. This practice 

has seen some reduction owing to education and community 

leadership. 

Pregnancy: While teenage marriage is considered problematic 

in many modern societies, it is commonplace and acceptable in 

Ethiopia. Likewise, since poverty is widespread and medical 

services are severely lacking, early pregnancy is considered a 

medical problem in many cases. Early pregnancy and lack of 

adequate medical care can result in many preventable 

maternal and infant deaths, as well as birth complications.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Passage Rites

Birth: When a baby is born to a Christian family, the mother 

takes it to her family’s home. A baby boy will remain there with 

his mother for 40 days and a baby 

girl for 80 days. Thereafter, the 

baby is baptized in a ceremony 

witnessed by the whole family to 

include godparents. 

Death is considered an integral 

part of daily life since famine, 

AIDS, and malaria take many 

lives. Three days of mourning for the dead is the norm. 

Christians bury their dead on the church grounds, and Muslims 

do the same at the mosque. Upon learning of the death of a 

loved one, men and women wail and tear at their hair to 

express their grief. Muslims customarily bury their dead within 

24 hours, and Christians within 24-48 hours. (see Religion & 

Spirituality).

Inheritance Laws

Inheritance laws follow a fairly regular pattern. Before an elder 

passes away he or she orally states his or her will or wishes for 

the disposal of possessions. Children and living spouses are 

typically the inheritors, but if an individual dies without a will, 

property is allotted by the court system to the closest living 

relatives and friends. 

While individuals do not officially own land, its usage is 

inheritable. Men are more privileged than women and usually 

receive the most prized properties and equipment, while 

women tend to inherit items associated with the domestic 

sphere. We’ll discuss gender roles further in Sex & Gender. 

Talking about Family (see Language and Communication).

Building Rapport through Family Values

Sharing in the Ethiopian reverence of family is a great 

way to gain respect and acceptance. Expressing 

reverence for the family unit (especially elders) and love 

for your own family will help elevate your status, and 

bring you closer to your local counterparts. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Display of Affection

Ethiopians view sexual relations as 

personal and private. Public 

display-of-affection of a sexual 

nature is considered unacceptable 

even in family circles. However, 

controlled affection in the form of a 

greeting is a common practice (see

Time & Space). Of note,

homosexuality traditionally has been unaccepted, even 

unlawful, although gaining some acceptance in urban areas. 

Gender Roles

Gender roles in Ethiopia are generally distinct and rigid as 

compared to many western cultures. Men are viewed as the 

“first” and women the “second” gender, although Ethiopians are 

known to be hard working, honest, 

and trustworthy regardless of their 

sexual affiliation. Women have 

usually performed traditional roles 

within the home to include 

household upkeep and childcare. 

Women

As in other traditional societies, a 

woman's worth is measured in terms of her role as a mother 

and wife. Not only have Ethiopian women been responsible for 

most child-rearing and household 

responsibilities, they have also played an 

important part in the rural agricultural 

economy. Their duties and privileges are 

well-defined, and they often lead 

sheltered lives, although gender division 

in urban areas is less pronounced than in 

the countryside.

Rural Women: Over 85% of Ethiopian 

women reside in rural areas, where 

peasant families are engaged primarily in subsistence 

agriculture. Rural women are integrated into the local economy, 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
which is labor intensive and physically demanding for both 

them and their children. The 1974 revolution (see History & 

Myth section) did little to improve the lifestyles of rural women, 

as land reform failed to change their subordinate status that is 

deep-rooted in traditional values and beliefs. While improved 

economic conditions would notionally enhance their standard of 

living, real change would require a transformation of attitudes 

from both government and society. 

Urban Women: Unlike rural women, 

there have been some changes for 

women in urban areas, where 

education, healthcare, and 

employment outside the home have 

become more available. Although a 

few women with higher education 

have found professional 

employment, most hold low-paying 

jobs. About 40% of employed women in urban areas work in 

the service sector – mainly in hotels, restaurants, and bars. 

Employment in production and related areas, such as textiles 

and food processing, accounts for 25% of the female work 

force, followed by sales, which accounts for about 11%. 

Gender Issues 

While there have been only a few formal studies concerning

women in Ethiopia, many outside observers have commented

on the physical hardship that Ethiopian women experience

throughout their lives. Such hardship involves excessive 

manual labor while maintaining the homestead, raising 

children, and cooking. Ethiopian women traditionally have 

Professional Workplace Relations

• Male and female co-workers are expected to respect

each other’s honor, particularly in Muslim communities. 

• Men are expected to maintain professionalism and 

avoid the perception of sexual interest. 

• Airmen should avoid any perceptions of unprofessional 

relations that would result in dishonor to both a woman 

and her entire family.

SEX &

GENDER
suffered socio-cultural and economic discrimination and have 

had fewer opportunities for personal growth, education, and 

employment than their male counterparts.

Inferior status: While women 

may have certain legal rights, their 

civil liberties tend to vary from one 

ethnic group to another. Despite 

legal reforms which expanded and 

enhanced a variety of rights for 

females, cultural traditions in both 

rural and urban areas continue to 

undermine substantial improvements in women’s quality of life. 

During extended periods of conflict, many men died leaving 

female-headed households that have become some of the 

poorest and most marginalized in the country. Likewise, their 

patriarchal society tends to stress education for boys over girls. 

Traditionally, females are viewed as less competent than males 

and unworthy of an education. 

Workplace: Gender issues are also common in the workplace 

where, for example, a woman may be of higher “rank” but 

expected to cater to guests as her gender role. Employment at 

a baseline level is fairly equivalent, although 

men tend to advance ahead of women. 

Women factory workers in Addis Ababa 

earn about a quarter of the wages men earn 

for the same type of work – a practice that 

exists despite a 1975 proclamation 

stipulating equal pay for equal work 

regardless of gender. 

Likewise, since professional women also 

retain responsibility for the home and 

children, they oftentimes experience difficulty balancing their 

duties. Another concern is the high marriage rate among young 

women, especially given the country’s extremely high fertility 

rate and overpopulation. 

Female circumcision: The current Ethiopian government, for 

its part, has endorsed reform policy that would establish 

political, social, and economic equality for women. Changes to 

the civil code resulted in a reformed Family Law in 2000 which 

SEX &

GENDER
addressed the current regime’s interest in 

advancing women’s positions in society, 

although women remain 

underrepresented in formal politics and at 

all levels of society. The government has 

also encouraged and promoted both

governmental and nongovernmental 

outreach programs to curtail the prevalent 

practice of female genital cutting (FGC), 

which involves varying degrees of female 

circumcision – a procedure estimated to 

have been performed on 70-75% of Ethiopian women. 

Performed for cultural, religious, or other non-therapeutic 

reasons, the procedure typically results in injury and long-term 

health consequences. 

According to Netsanet Asfaw, 

Ethiopia’s first woman Minister for 

Information, many Ethiopian 

women have themselves long 

endorsed the FGC practice likely 

because it has traditionally carried 

various social and economic 

implications for women to include 

determining their worth for 

marriage. In Asfaw’s opinion, only increased education would 

likely modify attitudes toward FGC and other harmful practices. 

Others would also argue that along with education is a need for 

improved healthcare in general to see improvements in 

women’s health to include reduced FGC. 

Reform Challenges

With a poor population that suffers from low literacy, the 

challenges in advancing women’s opportunities and restraining 

violence against them are abundant. Following the 1974 

revolution, women made some gains in economic and political 

areas. The Revolutionary Ethiopia Women's Association 

(REWA), whose membership reached over 5 million, took an 

active part in educating women. The enrollment of women in 

primary and secondary schools increased by about 32% over a 

10-year period, although the rate of enrollment for urban 

women far exceeded that rural women. 

SEX &

GENDER
 

Language Families

There are 86 known indigenous 

languages in Ethiopia: 82 spoken 

and 4 extinct. The vast majority of 

these languages can be classified 

within three families of the AfroAsiatic super family: Semitic, 

Cushitic, and Omotic. 

Related to Hebrew and Arabic, the 

primary Semitic languages, are Amharic (or Amarigna in the 

local pronunciation), spoken predominantly in the central and 

northern regions, and Tigrinya (pronounced “ti – grin – ya”), 

spoken in the province of Tigray

(Tigre) and Eritrea. A smaller 

Semitic language group known as 

Gurage is based in an area of land 

approximately 150 kilometers or 93 

miles south/southwest of Addis 

Ababa and divided into at least 

three subgroups known as 

Northern, Eastern and Western 

Gurage. 

Cushitic language forms are spoken by Oromo, Somali, and 

Afar people living in various highland and lowland regions. This 

language family takes its name from the Kingdom of Kush, 

centered about 2000 years ago

on the banks of the Nile in Sudan. 

The Oromo refer to their language 

as “Afaan Oromo” or sometimes 

“Oromiffa,” but not “Oromigna.” 

The Semitic languages, such as 

Amharica, add the ‘nga’ ending, 

while the Cushitic do not.

Found solely in Ethiopia, Omotic 

speakers live predominantly in the 

south between the lakes of southern Ethiopia’s Great Rift 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Valley and the Omo River. Omotic languages are closely 

related to the Cushitic and consist of two regional sub-families 

– Northern and Southern Omo. The Northern group consists of 

11 languages, while the Southern embodies 5. The diversity of 

Omotic languages indicates Omo ancestors have been in place 

for many millennia. 

Primary Languages 

Amharic is the native language of perhaps 30% of the people 

and traditionally has been the national language used for 

primary school instruction, commerce, and government 

administration. It has been replaced in many areas by local 

languages such as Afaan Oromo, spoken by perhaps 40% of 

all Ethiopians, and Tigrinya which is spoken by about 80% 

Orthodox Christian and 20% Muslim (also spoken in 

neighboring Eritrea). 

Amharic’s primacy derives from the dominance of the Amhara 

people throughout Ethiopia’s modern history. After the fall of 

the Derg regime in 1991, the new federal government granted 

all ethnic groups the right to 

develop their own native languages 

and to establish mother-tongue 

primacy in their education systems 

– this was a notable change in 

previous policy. Therefore, most 

residents usually speak Amharic or 

Afaan Oromo in addition to their 

native language, for example Afar.

Rural people commonly speak only 

their own particular dialect because knowledge of the Amharic 

national language is acquired through education. Many 

educated citizens speak several indigenous languages. 

Secondary Languages 

More than 80 other languages (of which there are more than 

200 dialects) are spoken in Ethiopia. English is the most widely 

spoken foreign language and is taught in all secondary 

schools. French is heard occasionally in parts of the country 

near Djibouti, formerly French Somaliland, with Italian 

sometimes heard among neighboring Eritreans although not 

spoken in Ethiopia. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Style

As a general rule, Ethiopians are humble, respectful, and 

speak in soft tones. They are often reluctant to show emotion – 

a characteristic that is deeply ingrained in their culture. They 

appreciate modest demeanor, consider boasting rude, and loud 

voices overly aggressive. They treat any hint of superiority with 

contempt. Ethiopians pride themselves on their eloquent 

speaking style to include using metaphor, allusion, and wit. 

They often use exaggerated phrases to emphasize a point. 

Normally, they tend to be non-confrontational and offer what 

they believe to be the expected response rather than say 

something that might embarrass 

another person. Honor and dignity 

are crucial to Ethiopians, and they 

will go out of their way to keep from 

doing anything that could bring 

shame to another person. 

Therefore, it is important to treat 

your Ethiopian colleagues with 

utmost professionalism and never behave in a manner that 

could cause embarrassment or loss of dignity or respect. 

Discussion Topics

Sports, music, culture, sightseeing and travel are preferred 

topics to discuss. It is best to avoid discussing potentially 

sensitive topics such as politics, religion, family, ethnicity, 

status, and sex-related themes. It is difficult to gauge in 

advance people’s views about these subjects. 

Visiting 

In Ethiopia, visiting serves an important social function. Rural 

dwellers visit friends and family members frequently and 

without advance notice, while urban residents prefer to know 

ahead of time, particularly from outsiders. In new social 

environments, Ethiopians often appear formal and reserved at 

first. They avoid disclosing themselves to strangers and, 

therefore, limit responses to short answers. 

Friendship

It is important for Airmen to understand that forging 

relationships is a complex and refined process, and it may 

require several visits to gain mutual understanding and trust. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Ethiopians value friendships and traditionally honor guests with 

warm hospitality. In most cases, men and women converse 

freely and enjoy a relaxed visit. In some Muslim homes, men 

and women do not socialize together. 

Topics to Avoid

 Abruptly announcing bad news. 

 Sensitive political discussions, such as relationship 

with Eritrea. 

o Your comments could possibly be viewed as 

critical and derogatory.

o As a general rule, be a good listener and 

withhold your opinions. 

 Discussing religion, family, ethnicity and sex.

o Ethiopians are passionate about their faith.

o Muslims in particular are not receptive to 

attempts to convert them to another belief.

o It is best to avoid initiating discussions about 

family matters.

o Ethiopians are not usually comfortable talking 

about private or personal matters outside of their 

family circle.

o It is inappropriate for a male to inquire about 

Muslim female family members. 

o Once they get to know you well, the local people 

will likely inquire in their native phrases “How are 

you (Tena-Yestelegn or Endmenot)?” and “How 

is your family” as part of their daily greetings.

o It is best not to directly ask to which ethnic group 

an Ethiopian belongs, although if it would be 

appropriate for you to ask if the person was born 

in the associated area with their language.

o Because status is hierarchal, there are 

distinctions between classes and ethnic groups 

in some regions, although this practice has 

declined in importance. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Greetings

Greetings are courteous and warm in Ethiopia. The most 

common form of greeting is a handshake, with both hands 

used when shaking hands with highly-respected people. New 

acquaintances shake hands gently with one or both hands. 

Following the handshake, Muslims usually place their right 

hand over their heart to express sincerity. Muslims also shake 

hands to solidify a deal. After a close personal relationship has 

been established, relatives and friends may kiss several times 

on the cheeks. Kissing and hugging are part of the normal 

greetings and is not, in any way, 

an expression of sexual affection. 

It is common to see women 

kissing women, women kissing 

men, and men kissing men on the 

check in public. They rarely hug 

and kiss a person whom they do 

not know.

Common Gestures

 Ethiopians keep a reasonable distance during 

conversation, particularly with strangers. 

 It is considered respectful to stand when elders 

enter a room and to greet them first by bowing 

your head when you enter the room. 

 If serving food or drink elders are served first. 

 Pointing with the finger or foot is inappropriate – 

use the entire hand.

 It is impolite to stare or maintain prolonged eye 

contact.

 Keeping your hands by your side rather than in 

your pockets while conversing is considered 

polite.

 Trilling the tongue expresses excitement or 

happiness.

 Slow head nods indicate reflection or sorrow 

while quick nods show agreement.

 Walking between people who are conversing is 

considered rude behavior.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Across genders, men should wait to see if a woman extends

her hand. There is generally little touching between the sexes; 

however, if a foreign businesswoman extends her hand, a 

cosmopolitan Ethiopian may accept it to avoid offending her. 

Greetings should never be rushed. Once you establish a good 

relationship with your Ethiopian counterpart, it is customary to 

ask about his health and to spend a few minutes in "small talk,” 

inquiring about the person’s family, health, job, etc. 

Age is a factor in social behavior, and the elderly are treated 

with the utmost respect. When an elderly person or guest 

enters a room, it is customary to stand until that person is

seated and bow by lowering the head as a way of showing 

deference for one senior in position.

Phrases vary among ethnic groups, but some form of “How are 

you?” is typical. For example in Amharic, friends and peers say 

Indemin nih? to a male or 

Indemin nish? to a female. Older 

or respected people are greeted 

with Indemin nawot? A more 

formal Amharic greeting is Tena 

Yistilin (May God give you 

health). In Afaan Oromo, one 

greets members of either sex 

with Akam jirta? The Tigrinya form is Kameleha? for a man, or 

Kamelehee? for a woman. The elderly greet grandchildren by 

kissing them on the forehead; who respond by returning kisses 

on the elderly’s knees. 

Greeting etiquette: People are addressed by title (Mr., Mrs., 

Miss, Doctor, etc.) followed by their given or first name. They 

typically use title and first name rather than surnames. For 

example, Captain Daouda Camara would be properly 

addresses as “Captain Daouda.” In fact, second names are not 

family names but refer to the father’s first name and used to 

distinguish one person from another. For example, Captain 

Daouda’s child named Dawit would be Dawit Daouda, but 

always referred to as Dawit. Women do not take their 

husband’s second name since there is no family name. 

Therefore, a man, his wife, and their children will all have 

different second names. Parents can be greeted by the name 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
of their first child (e.g., “How are you, Sheba's father?” or 

“Hello, Solomon's mother”). Once a close relationship is 

established, it is common to address colleagues using more 

informal language to include addressing each other on a firstname basis. As a guest in Ethiopia, it is appropriate for you to 

wait for your host to initiate informal conversation. 

Hiring An Interpreter

Be cautious when hiring an interpreter, as people tend to 

remain loyal to their own ethnic group or clan. Therefore, it is 

best to hire someone who represents the dominant ethnic 

group and language in that particular location.

Behavior to Avoid 

• Bewilderment when treated strangely – some 

Ethiopians may view and treat foreigners as objects 

rather than humans beings. 

• Driving too fast – pedestrians do not abide by 

Western road etiquette. Stray animals are abundant.

• Arguing with the local people – most will assume you 

know little if anything about their country and will 

consider it their duty to inform you. Listen politely.

• Profanity is considered obscene and extremely 

offensive – even more-so than in the US.

• It is impolite to lick your fingers while eating. 

• Frequenting public restrooms – many tend to be 

unsanitary.

• Touching walls, shrines, or artifacts in any mosques, 

temples, or churches.

• Showing bottom of your shoes, particularly to 

Muslims – soles are considered unclean and should 

be hidden.

• Asking for coffee when tea is served, and vice-versa.

• Using offensive American slang – most Ethiopians 

are familiar with its meaning and take offense.

• Making the two-finger victory sign (a sign of a 

political opposition group) or the “A-OK” sign – it may 

be offensive to some local people.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Criticism and Humiliation 

• Concept of constructive criticism doesn’t exist in 

parts of Ethiopia.

• You should avoid giving public criticism – if you 

need to approach an issue critically, it is best to 

avoid assigning blame to a particular person.

• Individual criticism in the presence of a person’s

peers could result in a loss of face – one of the 

highest values to Ethiopians. 

o It is best to privately discuss an issue with the 

individual.

• In a group, never single out an individual who may 

be at blame. When discussing a problem, never 

identify names and avoid making eye contact with 

the person at fault. 

o An indirect approach is preferred to

confrontational language. Never say something 

like “This is wrong.” Instead, use hedge phrases 

like “I think” and “perhaps” – for example, 

“Perhaps this approach would prove more 

effective.” 

o Make comments such as “as you know” to 

promote confidence in your Ethiopian 

counterpart, even if he may not know. It’s 

effective to say “We find it useful to ...” rather 

than “you didn’t respond correctly.” 

o It is best to frame your comments as a friendly 

conversation, stressing that you aim to teach and 

mentor by offering constructive improvements

rather than assign blame or dictate your own 

agenda. 

o If someone has an impractical idea, you could 

say, “This is a logical approach, although we 

previously tried to implement it with little 

success.” Referring to a “past” failure indirectly 

expresses your desire to avoid reoccurrence. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

ENGLISH AMHARIC AFAAN OROMO

Do you speak 

English?

Englizegna menager 

yechelalu?

Affaan Engilifaa ni 

dubataa?

Please/thank 

you

Ebakoten/amesegenalhu Maaloo/Galattomi

How long? Mene yahel yereqal? Amam turaa?

How much? Sente yawetal? Meqa dha?

How many? Sente? Meqa dha?

Yes/No Awo/Aye Eeyyee/Lakii

How/What Endet/Mene Akamiti/Maal

When/Why Meche/Lemen IYoom/Maalif

Where Yet Esati

Which/Who Yetu/Ma Esakami/Enyu

What is your 

name?

Semo manew? Maqaan kee 

enyu? 

My name is... Yene seme (name) new Maqaan koo 

(name) dha

We are 

Americans

Americanoch nene Nuti Americani dha

Foreigners Yewycghe ager swoch 

nene

Halagaa

Food/Time Megeb/Gize Midhaan/Yeroo

Do you need? Yefelegalu? Nibarbaadaa?

Hello Erdata Qarqaarsa

Calm down Aaraam sha Teregaga Aaraam baasheed

Help me Zamaa sara marasta

Erdagn

Kumak am ko

Good Morning Endemen aderu Akam bulte

Good Evening Endet ameshu Akam olte

Good Night Dehana ederu Nagaan buli

Get me a . . . . . . Yamtulegne Naakeni

Do you have .. . . . Alote Qabdaa

One at a time Ande beande Tokko tokkon

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy 

Total population age 15 and over

that can read and write: near 49% 

• Male: average 57% 

• Female: average 41% 

(2015 estimates)

Traditional Education

Historically, education was private, 

stressing religion as its central theme, with the Orthodox Coptic 

Church maintaining its dominance. The needs of the soul were 

stressed over those of the human body, with emphasis on the 

pursuit of modesty, humility, and thoroughness. Nobles prided 

themselves on being patrons of education, the arts, and 

literature – elite parents hired resident scholars to teach their 

children and generously contributed to church-sponsored 

schools. 

Both Christian Orthodox and Muslim houses of worship remain

involved in pre-primary religious education. In Orthodox 

churches children learn writing and reading skills before entering 

public, government-run schools. Of note, Ethiopia has more than 

a quarter million trained priests educated within this traditional 

system, with more than 20,000 churches and monasteries 

providing traditional education. Missionary 

schools, which charge fees and provide 

religious and secular governmentmandated education, are generally

considered superior to government 

schools.

Separate Religion and State

The Ethiopian government interprets the 

constitutional provision for separation of 

religion and state to mean no religious 

instruction permitted in secular schools, 

whether public or private, although 

religious clubs are allowed. Likewise, various clerical schools 

are allowed to teach religion as a course of study, with people 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
generally granted freedom to worship in their respective 

churches, mosques, and synagogues. 

Italian Influence

The Ethiopian educational system suffered dramatically under 

the 6-year Italian rule (see History & Myth), with thousands of 

educated Ethiopians killed and survivors exiled to England, 

France, and the US. Before the Italian 

invasion, Ethiopia had over 4,000 

students in schools, while afterwards the

number dropped to 1,400. Italians 

manipulated Ethiopian loyalty through 

illiteracy, creating a dual-system of 

education whereby European children 

received sound academic training, while 

Ethiopian children were educated for 

servitude – their inferior education stifled 

their ability to challenge Italian authority. 

Missionary schools had to comply with Italian educational 

regulations and were influenced to further segregate the 

Ethiopian school system. Ethiopian schools were limited to 

teaching in Ge'ez (the liturgical 

language of the Orthodox church), 

Tigrinya, and Amharic, where 

religion rather than science was 

stressed. Italian scholars had 

learned from the mistakes of

ancient Rome where native British 

chiefs were allowed to receive a 

good education. They, therefore, 

influenced Italian leadership to limit Ethiopian education to 

elementary level and not teach the Italian language in Ethiopian 

schools (Photo courtesy of Pro Quest, 2009). 

Haile Selassie and Derg Influences

The public school system continued to suffer under Emperor

Haile Selassie’s reign. The education system saw marginal 

growth, with only 400 schools spread throughout the country, 

educating only a small percentage of the population. The system 

was plagued with teacher shortages, high dropout rate, and an 

attendance rate of a dismal 10%. Amharic was the national 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
language used for instruction, although people outside the 

highland region did not speak the language. 

Under the Derg regime Ethiopia’s education 

system improved tremendously, with the 

number of schools doubling the first 10 

years (1974-84). Emphasis was placed on a 

curriculum that focused on the cultural 

needs of both rural and urban areas alike. 

As a result, the literacy rate vastly improved, 

although still more than 50% of the total 

population remained illiterate.

Until 1991, many children fought in the civil 

war and were unable to pursue an 

education. Starting in 1993 schools were allowed to teach 

courses in the local languages for the first time, and the 

curriculum was geared more towards the cultural aspects of a 

region’s specific ethnic population.

Present-day Educational System

Education expenditures are about 6% GDP, and although less 

than half of all school-aged children are enrolled, classrooms are 

overcrowded. Many schools have adopted a shift system 

whereby students attend school for 4 hours-per-day, with one 

group of students attending a morning class and another group 

in the afternoon. 

The system falls behind other African countries in providing

basic academic skills of reading, writing, and math. The 

US Support to Education

As part of its ongoing commitment to support Ethiopia’s 

educational system, the US in 2005 donated over 50,000 

English-language reading books for use in primary schools 

across the country. This donation is part of a program 

administered by the US Agency for International 

Development (USAID) that is also providing over 100,000 

5th-grade English textbooks and more than 300,000 copies 

of educational magazines for use in Ethiopian schools.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
curriculum is not very well organized and attendance is sporadic. 

Primary education, grades 1–6, begins at age 7 and secondary 

education, grades 7–12, at age 15. 

Education is free from 

primary through university 

level and is compulsory at

the primary level. Thereafter, 

further education depends 

on access to facilities. While 

there are an abundance of 

primary schools scattered 

across the countryside, 

secondary facilities are exclusive to larger urban areas. 

Consequently, enrollments decline drastically from the primary 

to the secondary level, with secondary facilities severely 

overburdened. 

Children who do well in elementary school generally progress to 

secondary school. According to United Nations estimates, 47% 

of children in the appropriate age-group attend some primary 

school. Attendance among girls, at 41%, lags significantly 

behind boys, at 53%. At the 

secondary level, only 13% of 

children in the appropriate agegroup attend (15% of boys, 10% 

of girls). 

After the 10th grade, students 

are separated into universitybound candidates, who receive 

concentrated academic instruction, and those who receive 

commercial, polytechnic, teaching, or other professional 

training.

University System

The university system fosters academic research in cultural and 

physical anthropology, archaeology, history, sciences, 

linguistics, theology, and business; although a lack of funding for

adequate resources has constrained its development. The 

library system is inferior, with computers and internet access

limited. While the main university campus is in Addis Ababa, 

there are five other campuses located at other regional state

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
capitals, as well as many government-run technical colleges. In 

recent years, a number of private colleges have sprung up to 

meet the demand for university-level instruction, especially in 

Addis Ababa. 

While university attendance 

is free, admission is 

extremely competitive. 

Every secondary student 

takes a standardized 

examination to get into 

college. The acceptance 

rate is approximately 20% of 

all the individuals who take the tests. There is a quota for the 

various departments, and only a certain number of individuals 

are enrolled in their desired majors. The criterion for enrollment 

is based on the grades of first-year students – those with the 

highest marks are granted their first choice of study. (Photo 

courtesy of Wikimedia).

Ethiopian Folklore

(see History & Myth)

• One who loves you warns you.

• If a blind man says he will throw a stone at you, he 

probably has his foot on one.

• You do not need a light to see someone you know 

intimately at night.

• Where error gets to, correction cannot reach.

• When spider webs unite, they can tie up a lion.

• A close friend can become a close enemy.

• The witness of a rat is another rat.

• The frog wants to be as big as the elephant and 

bursts.

• A single stick may smoke, but it will not burn. 

• What one hopes for is always better that what one 

has.

• Advise and counsel him, if he does not listen, let 

adversity teach him. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concepts of Time and Space

Ethiopians have a moderate perspective of time and are 

flexible in meeting schedules, although 

their attitudes to time can be quite variable 

and context-specific. Generally speaking, 

Ethiopians value and respect being 

punctual, although not necessarily to the 

extent that Westerners place on ‘being on 

time.’ You should find that their attitude 

towards personal matters unusually tolerant 

compared to our western culture. 

Flexibility: Ethiopians are very flexible 

when unforeseen circumstances such as lack of transportation 

or family illness arise that would cause a delay or absence. 

This attitude doesn’t suggest lack of regret when missing a 

meeting – it just means that in Ethiopian society, most personal 

issues take precedence over all other commitments. 

Personal space & eye contact: Likewise, they typically 

maintain some distance when speaking with someone and like 

to establish eye contact. Actually, avoiding eye contact could 

be interpreted as a sign of hiding something. However, they 

consider prolonged eye contact or staring to be rude behavior. 

Touching on the shoulder or on the arm when talking face-toface with someone of the same sex is okay but touching or 

holding the opposite sex with intimacy is not proper (see Sex & 

Gender). 

Space Between Friends:

Friends, particularly of the same 

sex, generally are considerably 

more affectionate with one 

another and have closer spatial 

relations than you may be 

accustomed to in America. It is 

normal for male Ethiopians to hold hands or have their arms 

around each other while walking or for people of the same sex 

to kiss each other on the cheeks when greeting. These 

gestures signal friendship, not homosexuality, and to back 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
away would likely cause offense. They value friendship, and 

close friends have great influence on situational outcomes, 

more-so than in American culture (see Language & 

Communication). The close friend in essence becomes part of 

the family and is considered trustworthy. 

Taking Photos: Ethiopians generally value their privacy and 

expect outsiders to respect that privilege. It is therefore wise to 

ask permission to photograph local citizens. 

Don’t Forget Prayer Time: Muslims take time during the 

working day for prayers, so it is important that you plan your

business appointments accordingly. Orthodox Christians also 

may take time off work for particular Saints days and religions 

holidays.

Conducting Business

Business interactions are hierarchical and formal. An agenda 

traditionally is not part of their local culture. When one is used, 

it primarily serves as a 

guideline for discussion 

and a springboard to 

other related business 

topics. 

For Ethiopians it is a 

cultural imperative to 

develop a personal 

relationship prior to 

conducting business, 

and therefore, any attempt to by-pass or rush what tends to be 

a time-consuming process could hamper success. 

Meetings start with extended social pleasantries. For example, 

you can anticipate being offered tea or coffee and asked 

questions about yourself and your family. You will likewise be 

expected to inquire about the other person.

Patience is necessary to building effective cross-cultural 

relations. Reaching consensus or agreement generally takes 

longer than Americans are accustomed to, and it may require 

several meetings to accomplish what you would generally 

handle via a routine phone call. 

SPACE

TIME &
Meetings seldom have a scheduled ending time, as it is

considered more important to focus on building relationships

than watching the clock. The meeting will end when everyone 

has had their say and the most senior Ethiopians decide to 

adjourn.

Since they generally only conduct business with people they 

consider friends, they have difficulty saying "no" to requests 

from business associates. Therefore, not saying “no” does not 

indicate they will necessarily do what they appear to have 

agreed to do – they simply agree for the sake of politeness. 

Likewise, delivery dates and deadlines are considered 

estimates rather than firm commitments. 

Government influence: Furthermore, local government exerts 

great influence in the business sector, particularly in matters 

pertaining to contracts with outside agencies. Therefore, it is 

wise to maintain cordial contact with government officials and 

agencies. 

Hierarchy: It is also effective to understand the corporate 

culture of specific companies, as some – particularly familyowned – are more hierarchical and formal than others, and

Negotiations

• It is best not to expect immediate decisions, as 

reaching agreement usually requires follow-on 

discussions and negotiating for mutual benefits.

• Disagreements should be handled in a calm, 

diplomatic manner and should never involve 

raised voices and anger. 

• It is helpful to find ways to compromise, even if it 

results in delays, and seek “win-win” outcomes. 

• It is good to remember that Ethiopians are 

extremely patient and tend to consider time on 

their side.

• If the negotiation involves cost for an item, you 

may have to bargain, so it is advisable to initially 

ask a higher price than you are willing to accept.

SPACE

TIME &
managers typically do not seek consensus in decision-making. 

Employees are expected to show proper deference and 

respect towards those in superior positions to include age and

rank. For example, in most companies the highest ranking 

person makes decisions. 

Employees will range from feeling empowered to speak out in 

the management process, to those who simply execute the 

instructions from their leadership. As in other collective 

cultures, Ethiopians do not strictly separate their personal and 

work lives, and it is common practice for managers to take a 

paternalistic role with their subordinates. 

Timekeeping

While much of the world marks time according to the Gregorian 

calendar, Ethiopia has its own calendar known as Ge'ez. 

Based upon the ancient Coptic Calendar, the Ethiopian 

calendar falls 7 years behind the Gregorian calendar, owing to 

alternative calculations in 

determining the date of Jesus

Christ’s birth. While in the 

Western world the current year 

is 2013, in Ethiopian society it is 

2006. The Ethiopian Calendar 

has 12 months of 30 days each, 

plus 5 or 6 additional days 

(sometimes known as the 13th 

month), which are added at the end of the year to match the 

calendar to the solar cycle.

Time in Ethiopia

In Ethiopian society the 24-hour day begins at sunrise, 

with the day divided into 12 hours each of daylight and 

nighttime. The time-of-day falls 6 hours behind Western 

time, which means midday begins at 0600 rather than 

1200 and midnight at 1800 rather than 2400. Therefore, 

a 9 AM meeting in Ethiopia would correspond to 3 PM 

in Western culture. This time difference poses 

opportunities for confusion and tardiness. Also, the time 

zone is 8 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time or 3 

hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.

SPACE

TIME &
Attire

Ethiopians are a proud people and believe it is important to be 

dignified in one’s behavior and appearance. To them the way 

one dresses makes a statement about that person’s attitude 

and self worth. Ethiopia is a 

conservative society where dress is 

modest for both them and their 

foreign guests. Ethiopian men and 

women working as professionals or 

in office environments typically

wear Western-style clothing, while

other people wear traditional attire. 

For example, both men and women may wear shammas, a 

type of cotton shawl worn in a variety of ways. Shammas made 

from a heavier weave are known as gabis, whereas netellas 

are more scarf-like and are made from a 

light gauze-like cotton fabric. They are 

commonly worn for formal occasions, with 

men wearing them around their waist. Both 

types of shammas are often white and 

bordered with colorful pattern pieces (tilets).

White is also a common color for women’s 

dresses (abesha kemis) and men’s long 

shirts and accompanying trousers. Some of 

the pastoral groups in the Ethiopian 

lowlands, such as the Afar and Somalis, wear light cloth shirits

wrapped around the body, which are not only comfortable, but 

also conform to Muslim clothing restrictions. 

During holidays and other important occasions, Ethiopians of 

the northern and central regions wear traditional white cotton 

clothing decorated with various designs depicting a symbol of 

an Orthodox cross. (see Religion & Spirituality).

Recreation 

All Ethiopians enjoy visiting friends and relatives and attending

local parks (Menafesha) and markets. Of note, Addis Ababa is

said to have Africa’s largest market called the Mercato. Urban

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
people routinely watch television, attend sporting events and 

movies, eat at restaurants, and take their children out for 

desserts. Few rural residents have electricity and typically

attend community events and play with their children. Chess, 

checkers, and cards are favorite games. Soccer and track-andfield are the most popular sports, and in rural areas, sports also 

include gena (similar to field hockey) and gugs (horse racing). 

Rural women usually do not play sports but socialize at home. 

Distance running: Ethiopians are exceptionally proud of their

distance runners, who have been highly successful in the 

international sports arena. For example, at the 2004 Summer 

Olympics 7 of the 12 medalists in the men’s and women’s 

5,000 and 10,000 meter events were Ethiopian. One medalist, 

Meseret Defar, holds the world record for the 5,000 meter 

event and was awarded the 2007 Female Athlete of the Year 

by the International Association of Athletics Federation. 

Another prominent Ethiopian distance runner 

is Kenenisa Bekele, 2004 Olympics gold 

medal winner in the Men’s 10,000 meters 

and world record holder in both the 10,000 

and 5,000 meter events. Of note, Haile

Gebrselassie, two-time Olympic gold medal 

winner in the Men’s 10,000 meters and the 

current world record holder in the men’s 

marathon, is proclaimed a heroic idol 

throughout Ethiopia (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia). 

Art Forms

Religious art, especially Orthodox Christian, has been a 

significant part of the national culture for hundreds of years. 

Illuminated Bibles and manuscripts, traced to the 12th century, 

and the 800-year-old churches in Lalibela contain Christian 

paintings, manuscripts, and stone relief. Likewise, Islamic 

mosques reflect broader Muslim architecture. 

Most art forms were religious until the late 1800s, when the 

influx of foreigners created a demand for more secular images 

– although depicted in a more conservative style. Classical 

Ethiopian paintings, traditionally associated with Orthodox 

Christian iconic imagery, were done in a two-dimensional “folk” 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
style that is very direct. Good characters are shown in full face, 

with both eyes visible, while evil characters are displayed in 

profile having only one eye visible. Black lines clearly delineate 

the contours of characters. Secular narrative paintings 

illustrating legendary Ethiopian stories (such as the meeting of 

the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon) are depicted in a 

similar direct style. 

Working mostly within this traditional 

style, Qes Adamu Tesfaw is one of 

Ethiopia’s best known modern artists. 

As has long been customary for 

religious painters in Ethiopia, Tesfaw 

received religious training in addition to 

developing his painting skills, ultimately 

being ordained for the Orthodox 

priesthood and given the honorable title 

“Qes”(Graphic courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Also, modern artist Afewerk Tekle is 

renowned for his lively and colorful stained-glass windows. 

Music

Music is used in religious ceremonies and for entertainment. 

Special instruments include the begena (a lyre), kebero (a 

drum made from wood and animal skin), and tsenatsil (a type 

of rattle). Azmaris (traveling singers) are important to the 

musical tradition. Despite modern Western influences, 

traditional Ethiopian music 

remains popular. Christian 

music is believed to have been 

established by Saint Yared in 

the 6th century and is sung in 

Ge'ez, the liturgical language. 

Both Orthodox and Protestant 

music is popular and is sung in 

the primary ethnic languages. 

The traditional dance, eskesta, consists of rhythmic shoulder 

movements and usually is accompanied by the kebero and the 

masinqo, a single-stringed violin with an A-shaped bridge that 

is played with a small bow. Foreign influences exist in the form

of Afro-pop, reggae, and hip-hop (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Diet

The most popular dish in Ethiopia is 

wat, a thick stew containing meat or 

vegetables served on injera, a 

spongy unleavened sourdough flat 

bread made from fermented teff (a 

perennial grass used as a cereal 

crop) flour. Injera, which traditionally 

is a staple of every meal, and wat are 

popular dishes in highland areas. In the north, most people eat 

shiro, a thick sauce made of chickpea flour and spices. 

A vegetarian porridge made from different combinations of 

beans, lentils, chickpeas, potatoes, 

collard greens, carrots, and cabbage is 

the most common food in nearly all 

regions of the country and especially 

popular during religious fasting periods 

when no animal products are eaten. 

Two national dishes are kai wat, a spicy 

meat or vegetable (usually potatoes or 

pumpkin) stew that contains berbere (a red spice mixture 

containing chili peppers and various other spices), and tibs, 

finely diced and cooked meat. Shekla tibs is a dish of sautéed 

meat served in a hot clay pot. 

A less spicy type of wat that does not include berbere is alitcha 

wat. Niter kibbeh, a clarified butter containing ginger, garlic, 

cardamom, and other spices, is also an essential element of 

Ethiopian cooking. Besides the native dishes, most restaurants 

in Ethiopia also serve spaghetti, a remnant of Italian influence. 

Meat

Besides sheep other meats commonly used in Ethiopian dishes 

include chicken (doro), beef (yebere siga), goat, and lamb 

(bege). The Gurage enjoy a popular dish called kitfo, which 

consists of raw beef dressed in a berbere and niter kibbeh mix. 

Kitfo is served with qocho (a bread prepared from the ensete

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
plant, which is related to the banana) and sometimes spinach. 

Pork usually is not used in Ethiopian cooking because of Islamic 

and Ethiopian Orthodox dietary restrictions. 

Cheese and Fruit

An Ethiopian cheese made from cottage cheese and yogurt and 

similar to feta cheese is customarily eaten after the spicier 

dishes as a way to cool the palate. Available fruits include 

oranges, bananas, mangoes, papaya, avocados, grapes, 

tomatoes, and lemons. 

Beverages

Desserts are not typically part of Ethiopian cuisine. Instead, 

meals usually end with the popular coffee ceremony. Other 

traditional Ethiopian beverages include tej (honey wine) and tella

(beer). One of the largest honey-producing countries in the 

world, Ethiopia uses large quantities to produce tej. 

Dietary Customs

Ethiopians typically eat two or three daily meals, depending on 

their income. Children eat separate from or before their parents, 

except on holidays or on special occasions. Urban Ethiopians 

frequent cafés and restaurants, although traditionally eating out 

was viewed as a sign of laziness or of a poor home life. When 

dining in restaurants, it is appropriate to modestly tip, although 

over tipping is frowned upon.

Dining Etiquette: (see Political & Social Relations).

Health Issues

Poverty is widespread, with 

slightly less than half the 

population living below the basic 

needs poverty line. Health 

indicators are generally poor. 

Communicable diseases are 

the primary illnesses, with acute respiratory infections such as 

tuberculosis, upper respiratory infections, and malaria high on 

the Ministry of Health's list of priority health problems. 

Other major infectious diseases include bacterial and 

protozoal diarrhea, viral hepatitis (A, B, C, and E) typhoid fever, 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
cholera, rabies, meningitis, and water-born schistosomiasis. 

Outbreaks are usually devestating because few citizens are 

vaccinated, and only about a quarter of the population has 

access to safe water. Poor sanitation, malnutrition, and a 

shortage of health facilities contribute to infectious diseases. 

Healthcare System

The healthcare system is insufficient even with notable

improvements in recent years. Healthcare is inconsistently

available in urban centers, while in rural areas where the vast 

majority of the population resides, 

access to health care varies from 

limited to none. For example, Addis 

Ababa and other major cities have 

some medical facilities, but most 

Ethiopians do not have access to 

proper medical care. 

The nation has few physicians, life expectancy remains very low, 

and infant mortality is extremely high. Average life expectancy 

at birth is 61.48 years, for males it is 59.11 years and 63.93 years 

for females (2015 estimate). 

HIV/AIDS: Reports indicate that as many as 1.15% of adults are

infected with HIV/AIDS, which has contributed to falling life 

expectancy since the early 1990s. According to the Ministry of 

Health, a third of young adult 

deaths are AIDS-related. 

Malnutrition and food insecurity 

are widespread, especially among 

children. Ethiopia’s structural food 

deficit is so severe that even in the 

most productive years, at least 5 

million people require food relief. 

Social and Health Programs Reconstruction: During the

1990s the government increased funding for social and health 

programs, which brought corresponding improvements in school 

enrollments, adult literacy, and infant mortality rates. These

expenditures stagnated or declined during the 1998-2000 war

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
with Eritrea, and since the ceasefire, outlays for healthcare have 

grown, although far below what is needed.

Poverty reduction: In 2002 the government embarked on a

program that called for greater spending in education, health, 

sanitation, and water. Again in 2004, it launched a 5-year

program to expand primary healthcare, and in early 2005, it 

began distributing antiretroviral drugs for HIV-infected adults.

Restricted Food & Dietary Customs

• Strict religious dietary and fasting customs influence 

the Ethiopian diet.

• Muslim and Orthodox Christian beliefs forbid eating

pork – most Muslims do not consume alcohol.

• Orthodox Christians avoid closed-hoof animals and 

those that do not chew a cud.

o Abstain from dairy products and meat on 

Wednesdays, Fridays, and during Lent and other 

fasting periods.

o Slaughter animals for food with the animal’s head 

turned toward the east while throat is cut “In the 

name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.”

o Muslims slaughter them “In the name of Allah the 

Merciful.”

• Muslims during holy month of Ramadan daily fast 

from sunrise to sundown.

• People wash hands before meal is served.

o Traditional for oldest person to wash first.

• All food eaten by hand and from common platter 

taking food with right hand.

• Host expects guests to eat and drink freely until food 

is finished – host may occasionally say “please eat.”

• Guests expected to stop eating when host is 

finished

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Economic Overview

One of the world’s poorest 

countries, Ethiopia primarily 

bases its economy on rainfed agriculture, constituting

nearly 41% of gross 

domestic product (GDP).

The Mengistu regime 

imposed radical changes, 

notably nationalizing all 

banks and industries and collectivizing farmland. Improvements 

in crop yields and living standards improved temporarily until 

drought and famine reversed the trend, placing a burden on 

government expenditures. The current EPRDF government has 

sought to reform and modernize the economy, although land 

remains a collective resource not to be individually owned

(Photo courtesy of Pro Quest 2010). 

Three major crops believed to have originated in Ethiopia 

include coffee, grain sorghum, and castor bean. Ethiopia’s 

natural resources (see Technology & Material) include small 

reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, natural gas, and 

hydropower from its chief 

water source, the Blue Nile 

that rises into T'ana Hayk 

(Lake Tana) in northwest 

Ethiopia. There are no 

significant fishing or forestry 

industries. 

Services include retail trade, 

public administration, 

defense, transportation, and tourism and constitute the second 

largest economic component. Manufacturing and mining are a 

distant third and fourth. Defense outlays have been high since 

the early 1990s and resulted in an overall budget deficit – most 

recently because of 1998-2000 war with Eritrea – although 

spending has since declined. Ethiopia is heavily dependent on 

international donor support, particularly in times of drought. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Agricultural Production 

This sector provides by far the largest percentage of exports and 

employs up to 85% of the population. About 20% of potential 

arable land is actually cultivated, and almost exclusively 

dependent on direct rainfall, with some small-scale irrigation in 

limited areas. Lacking modern equipment and techniques, 

farming methods are largely primitive, with farmers depending 

on livestock and basic agriculutral tools to cultivate the land. In 

the highlands, grains (barley, corn, teff, and wheat), pod-bearing 

plants, and oilseeds are the major crops, while at lower 

elevations, sorghum and sugarcane are prominent. Honey and 

beeswax are major cash crops – Ethiopia is the world’s 10th

largest honey producer.

Two bush crops – coffee, which is the major export, followed 

by khat – are primary cash crops that flourish in various highland 

areas. Ethiopia’s coffee Arabica (Arabian coffee) is grown in the 

wild forests of southwestern highland districts of Kaffa and Buno. 

Legal & illegal substances: Primarily cultivated in the eastern 

highland region of Hararge, Khat’s use is legal in Ethiopia, 

Djibouti, Yemen, and a handful of other countries despite its 

addictive effects, although the Ethiopian government does not 

encourage its cultivation. Besides producing khat (pictured) for 

local use and regional export, Ethiopia is a transit hub for illegal 

drugs to include heroin originating in Southern Asia and destined 

for Europe, as well as cocaine destined for markets in southern 

Africa. Ethiopia is also an illicit producer of cannabis, (largely for 

domestic use) methamphetamine, and ecstasy. 

Additionally, Ethiopia’s fastest growing 

agricultural export is cut flowers, a market 

that did not exist before 2003 and by 2005 

rose to its 6th largest export. Other 

notable exports are niger and sesame 

seeds. 

Pastoralism

Ethiopia is home to an estimated 7 million

pastoralists who tend a large number of 

cattle, sheep, and goats. Most livestock is 

found in the dry lowlands of the eastern 

and southern regions that are more suited to animal husbandry

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
than farming. Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in 

Africa, and in 2005-06, for example, the count was estimated 

equal to Ethiopia’s human population. 

Land Tenure

All rural land is state-owned with peasants cultivating individual 

plots that are subject to reduction and redistribution as the rural 

population increases. Since they do not own land and are unable 

to provide collateral for loans, farmers have little motivation to 

invest in soil or water 

improvement methods. 

Privatization has been 

considered as one alternative to 

the current arrangement, 

although many people fear this 

approach would result in a 

largely landless rural population 

working as tenants on large land 

holdings; as occurred in various periods of Ethiopian history up 

through Haile Selassie’s reign.

Foreign Economic Relations

Ethiopia has long maintained commercial relations with its 

immediate neighbors, Sudan and Yemen, and with West 

European countries to include Britain, Germany, and Italy – all 

of whom purchase large quantities of coffee. Recently, trading 

relations have broadened, and as of 2002, Ethiopia’s most 

important markets have expanded internationally to China, 

Japan, and Saudi Arabia, along with its HOA neighbor, Djibouti. 

Primary imports include fuel and refined petroleum products

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Banking

The National Bank of Ethiopia 

(NBE – pictured), 

headquartered in Addis 

Ababa, is Ethiopia’s central 

bank and serves as 

Ethiopia’s banking regulatory 

agency. The NBE controls 

the vast majority of the 

banking industry’s capital, deposits, and assets, although the 

percentage of its total assets has dropped from over 93% in 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
1998 to a little less than 80% in 2004 (most current reporting). 

While the remaining bank industry assets are controlled by a few 

private banks, by law, no bank operating in Ethiopia is allowed 

majority foreign ownership. Likewise, foreign investment is low, 

although rising (Photo Courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Economic Outlook

Positive indicators: Despite Ethiopia’s generally poor 

economic standing, there are some positive signs. The economy 

saw an average growth rate of nearly 9% between 2004 and 

2006, spurred by agricultural growth and expanding industry and 

services sectors. Trade has benefited by a rise in coffee prices 

after several years of declining prices. 

Debt reduction: Since 2001 Ethiopia has qualified for over USD 

1 billion in debt reduction under the Heavily Indebted Poor 

Countries initiative sponsored by the International Monetary 

Fund and the World Bank. 

Major challenges: These 

reductions in debt repayments, 

combined with a lowering of 

defense spending, have aided 

in channeling more of 

Ethiopia’s budget to areas 

such as health, education, and 

infrastructure. Private 

investment has also increased 

in recent years as marketbased reforms take hold. 

According to the World Bank’s 

2008 Country Assistance 

Strategy paper, Ethiopia may 

be entering a new phase of 

more rapid economic growth, 

while simultaneously 

experiencing what might be 

called “service delivery take-off.” If the take-off proves more than 

a short-term anomaly, Ethiopia could leave the ranks of one of 

the poorest countries in the world sooner than might have been 

previously expected. Nonetheless, Ethiopia still faces major 

challenges if it is to continue its economic growth. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

Ethiopia’s unit of currency is the 

birr, which has a current USD 

exchange rate of 21.55 birr per 1 

USD. The birr is divided into 100 

santim, with Ethiopian coinage 

based on units of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 

50 santim. 

Geographic Overview

From arid deserts to icy mountaintops, Ethiopia’s topography 

and natural environment are as amazing as its traditions. Having 

one of the most varied terrains of any country in Africa, it is one 

of the highest countries in the continent, with its greater part 

located in its central highlands measuring up to 15,000 feet and 

offset by inhospitable deserts sinking below-sea-level. 

Together these extreme environments serve as a refuge for a 

number of plant and animal species found nowhere else in the 

world. Stretching from the Middle East to southern Africa, the 

Great Rift Valley 

divides Ethiopia in half 

and is the most 

prominent geological 

feature in the country.

Climate

As with its terrain, 

Ethiopia also has a 

variety of climates. 

Daily high 

temperatures in the highlands average between 60°F (16°C) 

and 74°F (23°C). The capital city of Addis Ababa (which means 

“New Flower”), located in the central highland’s uppermost 

elevation, has daily highs averaging 77°F (25 ̊C) in the hottest 

months (May and June) and average daily lows are 41°F (5°C) 

in the coldest month (December). In the western lowlands, the 

hottest days average 95°F (35°C) but can rise to 120°F (49°C). 

The rainy season is from mid-June to mid-September in the 

highlands, and the period from October to February is extremely 

dry. Rainfall varies widely from year-to-year, a factor that proves 

problematic for Ethiopia’s two main sources of sustenance, 

agriculture and pastoralism (Photo Courtesy Pro Quest 2010). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Technology

Ethiopia’s industrial and manufacturing sector is very limited, 

consisting of roughly 16% of the country’s GDP. It has an even 

smaller effect on the country’s employment figures, with only 5% 

of Ethiopians working in this sector. 

Addis Ababa is the center of much of Ethiopia’s technological 

activity. Under the Derg government, virtually all large and 

medium-sized industries were nationalized. Since the mid1990s, the government has been slowly privatizing some of 

these enterprises, although government ownership of land has 

hampered industrial expansion – businesses are unable to use 

the value of their land as collateral. 

Primary products are processed foods and 

beverages, textiles, leather, chemicals, 

processed metals, and cement. Of these 

products, leather (in the form of goat and 

sheep skin) is the only significant export – 

primarily to Saudi Arabi – while the food 

processing industry is the largest employer. 

Energy Sources

Aside from waterpower and forests, Ethiopia is not well endowed 

with energy sources. In general, she relies on forests for nearly 

all of her energy and construction needs, resulting in extensive

deforestation of much of 

the highlands during the 

last three decades. 

Ethiopia has started 

construction on a 

geothermal plant in the 

Great Rift Valley which will 

use the earth’s interior heat 

to provide energy. Ethiopia

derives about 90% of its electricity from hydropower, which 

means electricity generation, as with agriculture, is dependent 

on abundant rainfall. Hardly half of the country’s urban areas are 

connected to the national power grid. 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Plans are in place to exploit natural gas reserves in the 

southeastern lowlands, estimated at 4 trillion cubic feet, while 

exploration for gas and oil is underway in the Gambela region 

bordering Sudan. Refined petroleum is imported, with some oil 

hauled overland from Sudan. 

Transportation

By any measure, Ethiopia’s transportation network is

inadequate, primarily because rugged terrain and sporadic 

weather patterns inhibit construction. Many villages and 

essential resources are isolated and oftentimes inaccessible. 

For a country of its size, the transport network is limited and 

needs both upgrades and expansion. Service is unreliable and 

concentrated primarily in Addis Ababa. A bright spot is Ethiopian 

Airlines, which delivers efficient and reliable service domestically 

and internationally and provides maintenance and training for 

other regional carriers. 

Roads: Ethiopia has about 15,000 miles of roadways, of which 

just over 2,000 miles are paved. Almost all primary roads are 

gravel, including those that connect Addis Ababa with major 

cities and towns across the country. Some 75% of government 

spending on infrastructure is targeted at improving the road 

network.

Railroads: Ethiopia 

has only one 

railroad, a 7485-mile

line that connects 

Addis Ababa with the 

port of Djibouti. 

Ethiopia and Djibouti 

jointly own and 

operate the line, which carries up to 800,000 passengers and 

250,000 tons of freight per year. Like the road system there are

plans for railroad renovation and expansion (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia). 

Inland Waterways: Ethiopia has no significant navigable 

waterways, although limited ferry service is available on Lake 

Tana. The Baro and Awash rivers are navigable only in the rainy 

season. The Abay (Blue Nile) is not navigable within Ethiopia’s 

borders. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Civil Aviation and Airports: Ethiopia has two international 

airports. One in Addis 

Ababa and the other 

Dire Dawa with some 

40 airfields located 

elsewhere. Bole 

International Airport in 

Addis Ababa handles 

95% of all international

air traffic and 85% of 

domestic flights. A 

major renovation and 

expansion of Bole was completed in 2002 (Photo courtesy of 

Wikimedia).

Telecommunications

The Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC) currently 

controls the national communication system. The telephone 

network in major cities and towns is fairly efficient, although 

public phones are in short supply and direct-dial services are 

inconsistent. Rural residents primarily rely on mail and word-ofmouth for communication. While the number of fixed lines and 

mobile telephones is increasing, the combined fixed and mobilecellular teledensity is only about 35 per 100 persons. 

Internet 

The internet has opened Ethiopia to the world.

• Largely confined to urban areas where internet cafes 

are widespread.

• Service is saturated with dial-up connection slow.

• Broadband exists in larger hotels, although it is 

expensive.

• Wireless connections are found primarily in 

international hotels in popular locations such as 

Adidas Ababa.

• The limited service and expense have opened ETC to 

national criticism, with frequent public demands for 

privatization or alternative providers.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Only one television and four radio 

stations broadcast in Ethiopia, which

also has the second lowest internet 

penetration rate in sub-Saharan Africa 

(only Sierra Leone is lower). 

Expansion efforts have been 

hampered by the largely inaccessible 

rural population and government’s 

refusal to permit privatization of the 

telecommunications market (Photo 

courtesy of Wikimedia).

Environmental Concerns

Environmental issues include deforestation, overgrazing, soil 

erosion, desertification, and water shortages in some areas due 

to water-intensive farming and poor management. Natural 

hazards include frequent droughts and a geologically active 

Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes and volcanic 

eruptions. Droughts have increased in severity since the 1970s 

in step not only with 

shortfalls in crop production 

but also with a burgeoning 

population growth. 

Not only is Ethiopia 

challenged even in good 

rainfall periods to produce 

enough food for its 

population, the loss of soil 

nutrients and concurrent 

reduction of land available 

for agriculture are also critical concerns. In an average year, 

some 2-4 million citizens are in need of emergency food aid. The 

government has sponsored resettlement programs for people 

living in environmentally degraded areas in which the land is no 

longer capable of sustaining the growing population, although 

few have been successful. 

Urban pollution in Ethiopia is most prevalent in the region 

around Addis Ababa where over 32% of the daily solid waste 

generated in the city ends up untreated and deposited in open 

sites, rivers, drainage channels, and even city streets.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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