U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE

THE IMPACT OF

FORENSIC SCIENCE

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

APRIL 2015
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

810 Seventh St. N.W.

Washington, DC 20531

Eric H. Holder, Jr.

Attorney General

Karol V. Mason

Assistant Attorney General

Nancy Rodriguez, Ph.D.

Director, National Institute of Justice

This and other publications and products of the National Institute of Justice 

can be found at:

National Institute of Justice

Strengthen Science • Advance Justice 

http://www.nij.gov

Office of Justice Programs

Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

The National Institute of Justice is the research, development and evaluation agency 

of the U.S. Department of Justice. NIJ’s mission is to advance scientific research, 

development and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety.

NIJ is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau 

of Justice Assistance; the Bureau of Justice Statistics; the Office for Victims of Crime; 

the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; and the Office of Sex 

Offender Sentencing, Monitoring, Apprehending, Registering, and Tracking (SMART).

Opinions or points of view expressed in this document are those of the authors and do 

not reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

Photo Source: ThinkStock
APRIL 2015

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE

NIJ SCIENTIFIC STAFF: GREGORY DUTTON, DANIELLE McLEODHENNING, MINH NGUYEN AND FRANCES SCOTT

BOOZ ALLEN HAMILTON SUPPORT STAFF: VANESSA CASTELLANOS, 

ANASTASIA DUPONT AND CHAD ERNST

NCJ 248572

The Impact of Forensic Science Research and Development 3

National Institute of Justice | NIJ.gov

THE IMPACT OF

FORENSIC SCIENCE

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

In crime labs across the United States, scientists and technicians are being armed 

with increasingly sophisticated technologies that they can use to help bring criminals 

to justice and prevent the innocent from going to prison. Innovations from forensic 

science research and development (R&D) are bringing new techniques to crime 

solving and increasing the reliability and efficiency of forensic testing.

Just as medical research is crucial for advancing public health, sustained progress in 

the research underlying forensic science is critical for advancing public safety and the 

administration of justice.

Strengthening science to improve 

justice is a key goal of the National 

Institute of Justice (NIJ). Toward that 

goal, NIJ funds both basic and applied 

forensic research.

In addition, NIJ maintains partnerships 

with the National Science Foundation 

(NSF) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to promote 

innovation in forensic science. In 2014, NIJ and NSF jointly initiated an Industry/

University Cooperative Research Center to advance university and industry 

collaboration in forensic science R&D and in education.

One of several NIJ-NIST working groups has developed best practices for the 

handling and preservation of DNA and other biological evidence. Other working 

groups in the partnership are addressing the interoperability of regional and national 

automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS); developing procedures to limit 

investigator bias in examining fingerprints; and creating examination standards for a 

variety of evidence types in criminal cases.

Since 2009, the Institute has invested 

more than $127 million in an R&D 

portfolio that makes it a global leader in 

the advancement of forensic science.
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Strengthening Crime Laboratories

Forensic science R&D in the 1980s laid the groundwork for advances in the 1990s 

and early 2000s that had a profound impact on crime laboratories. Although the 

scientific advances, particularly the growth of DNA testing, provided more effective 

tools for analyzing evidence and identifying perpetrators, they also led to a dramatic 

increase in the demand for lab services. By the late 1990s and through the 2000s, 

demand outstripped the ability of the labs to respond quickly and efficiently. Today, 

scientists and technicians at forensic labs are under relentless pressure to produce 

results faster and at lower cost. NIJ employs a two-pronged approach to supporting 

forensic labs:

 • In the short term, NIJ awards grants to labs that cover the increasing costs of 

processing cases, assist in DNA backlog reduction and support ongoing efforts to 

adopt more advanced instrumentation and analytical methods.

• In the long term, NIJ awards grants to scientists to conduct research, both basic 

and applied, that can lead to methods, techniques and technology that will 

advance forensic science and, ultimately, public safety and justice.

Innovation is an essential way to assist crime labs. For example, high-tech robotic 

workstations can now process large numbers of DNA samples simultaneously, 

allowing crime labs to work more efficiently. NIJ-supported research helped in the 

development of fully automated systems that amplify DNA from small samples to 

determine a person’s genetic profile. The workstations not only make labs more 

efficient but also lower the cost of DNA processing.

NIJ is also funding several projects that seek to apply more sophisticated methods to 

detect and analyze evidence. Examining evidence for trace amounts of blood or other 

biological material is time consuming for law enforcement and crime lab personnel, 

and it requires techniques that can compromise or destroy evidence. One NIJ-funded 

project involves developing a camera with multispectral and fluorescence imaging 

capabilities to detect and identify fingerprints, body fluids, stains and other residues 

at crime scenes. Such imaging technology would make it easier for investigators to 

find and process evidence while minimizing evidence contamination.

Researchers working on another NIJ-supported project are developing methods 

that will allow investigators to identify the body fluids in a stain without destroying 

any of the stained material. Researchers are also exploring how to use one sample 

to determine multiple pieces of information, such as body fluid type and genetic 

information associated with identity.
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Advancing Forensic Technology in the Field

Law enforcement investigators, as well as scientists and technicians in crime labs, 

must rely on new technologies and scientific innovations to more efficiently identify, 

gather and process evidence related to criminal activity. The NIJ portfolio covers a 

wide range of forensic science disciplines, both for investigators in the field and for 

scientists in the lab.

Identifying Drugs in the Field

Researchers working on a current NIJ-supported project are developing a simple 

yet sophisticated device that may soon allow law enforcement personnel to 

quickly identify illegal drugs using a handheld fluorometer and a smartphone. The 

fluorometer, constructed for about $45 with a 3-D printer, allows investigators to 

identify powders and other substances using a paper test strip soaked in copper 

iodide. Certain classes of drugs react with the copper by giving off a fluorescent 

light signature unique to the drug. An investigator in the field can photograph the 

fluorescence spectrum with a smartphone, upload the results to the Cloud, compare 

it to known spectra in an online database for identification, and use that information 

in building a criminal case. According to the lead researcher, the system requires only 

a small amount of the drug for testing and has not shown false positive readings.

Validating the Accuracy of Firearm Examiners

Since 2009, NIJ has supported studies to determine the accuracy and reliability of 

firearm and toolmark examinations. In a recent collaboration between the MiamiDade Police Department and researchers at Florida International University, scientists 

tested the accuracy of firearms examiners’ analysis of evidence.

The researchers found that firearms examiners had an average error rate of less than 

1.2 percent. The experiment used bullets fired from 10 consecutively manufactured 

Glock barrels with the same EBIS (Enhanced Bullet Identification System — an 

etched-barrel barcode system) pattern. These comparisons, which used bullets fired 

from barrels intentionally made as similar as possible, were designed to be among 

the most challenging that an examiner could face. The research team distributed 150 

test sets to 165 firearms examiners in 41 states, the District of Columbia and four 

other countries. A test set consisted of one known bullet test-fired from each barrel, 

plus 10 unidentified bullets drawn from the test fires. This was the largest sample size 

ever used for this type of experiment. Most examiners recorded no incorrect answers, 

and the average examiner rate was less than 1.2 percent. The researchers found no 

significant difference in error rates between examiners with more than 10 years of 

experience and those with less experience.
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The growing demands for evidence processing in recent years have clearly shown that 

labs must move to more efficient and sophisticated methods and procedures. Scientific 

and technological advances made possible through strong support for research will be 

essential to ensuring that crime labs keep pace with increasing demand.

Assisting Law Enforcement

Scientific advances already play an important role in solving crimes. Labs can analyze 

smaller pieces of evidence than ever before, and law enforcement officials can gain 

valuable information from evidence that, in the past, would have been degraded and 

unusable due to weathering or time. New technology also allows investigators to 

find and analyze evidence that they would likely not have found via earlier methods. 

One example of this increasingly sophisticated technology is a method that could 

help forensic scientists analyze dust and other particles that piggyback on carpet 

fibers to determine whether fibers found in different locations are consistent with 

having originated from the same source. In some instances, such a comparison could 

provide investigative leads associating a suspect or victim with a crime scene.

Investigators can now use DNA and other evidence collected and stored decades ago 

to help identify and convict criminals who have eluded authorities for years and to 

exonerate prisoners who were wrongly convicted before today’s more sophisticated 

methods became available. A striking example of new technology solving a cold case 

occurred in 2009, when Milwaukee police tested evidence in a reopened case and 

eventually linked nine murder cases dating back to 1986. They identified Walter Ellis 

as the suspect in what were known as the North Side Strangler cases. Faced with the 

new evidence, Ellis pleaded “no contest” to charges that he strangled seven women. 

In 2011, he was sentenced to seven life terms with no chance of parole.

One of the more difficult challenges facing police officers working in the field today 

is accurately identifying substances that may be illegal drugs. This problem has 

grown in recent years with the widespread use of ever-evolving novel psychoactive 

substances, such as “bath salts” and synthetic cannabinoids, which are specifically 

created not only to mimic the effects of other drugs but also to avoid being classified 

as illegal.

These drugs can be extremely difficult to identify, and NIJ has responded to the 

problem by funding several projects focused on developing more accurate methods 

of identifying the parent drugs (the drugs as ingested into the body) and their 

metabolites (the forms of drugs after being processed by the body). The goal of 

the research is to make drug identification faster, easier, safer and more accurate. 

One study aimed at improving identification of drugs and their metabolites involves 

obtaining blood, urine and oral fluid samples from volunteers at electronic dance 

music festivals who have ingested drugs.
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Confirming the Accuracy of Bloodstain Pattern Examiners

Crime scenes can present a variety of bloodstain patterns on assorted surfaces. To 

verify examiners’ accuracy in determining what happened at a crime scene based 

on a particular pattern, scientists asked analysts to review more than 700 patterns 

falling within six different pattern types. Generally, the results indicated that bloodstain 

pattern analysts had lower error rates when classifying patterns on rigid surfaces than 

when classifying patterns on fabric surfaces (13 percent vs. 23 percent). These rates 

varied by pattern type, and some patterns were more reliably classified than others. 

Researchers also found evidence of confirmation bias, meaning that when analysts 

were given a scenario that pointed deliberately toward the correct classification, they 

were more likely to select that classification for the bloodstain pattern.

These results indicate that more work is needed to understand how the interaction 

of blood with different surfaces influences the observed patterns. NIJ has ongoing 

investments in fluid dynamics research with the goal of providing examiners with 

objective computational tools to assist in their analyses. In addition, the results of 

the bias study indicate that crime labs and law enforcement agencies should take 

steps to minimize extraneous information that analysts receive before they conduct 

an analysis.

Examining Human Factors in Fingerprint Analysis

The accuracy of latent print examinations and the extent of human error in fingerprint 

analysis have also been the subject of recent studies in the justice system. NIJ is 

funding experts who are examining the effect of human error in fingerprint analysis, 

especially the tendency to focus on data that confirm preconceived expectations. One 

of the early recommendations from the experts is that crime labs develop a “culture of 

openness” in which errors are identified, acknowledged and used to improve analysis 

and reduce the error rate.

Standardizing Broken Glass Analysis

Broken glass at a crime scene can often be important evidence for investigators. 

In hit-and-run crimes, for example, examiners can analyze glass fragments to see 

whether the characteristics of the fragments are consistent with samples taken from 

a suspect’s car. A team of scientists has developed two new standards for forensic 

glass analysis to ensure that testing is administered consistently in different labs.
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Helping the Public

Ultimately, forensic science R&D is conducted to improve public safety and ensure that 

justice is fairly applied. For NIJ, that means improving the information available to all 

parties as a crime is investigated and prosecuted. For example, new forensic techniques 

to help identify human remains not only can assist authorities in apprehending the 

perpetrator but also can provide some resolution to the victim’s family.

With NIJ funding, scientists are developing more effective ways to identify bodies 

and pinpoint the time of death. Forensic anthropologists, for example, are mapping 

craniofacial features with 3-D imaging to help determine the ancestry of individuals 

and using radiographs to more precisely estimate the age at death for juveniles.

The advanced science and innovative technology currently in use in the nation’s 

crime labs are the direct result of R&D conducted in the past. Through its funding of 

forensic science R&D, NIJ will continue to improve the speed, accuracy and scope of 

crime lab evidence analysis and ultimately strengthen the administration of justice.

Funding Forensic Science Research and Development

NIJ’s investment in research is strengthening science and enhancing justice. It is the 

Institute’s most enduring contribution to forensic science. 

Since 2009, NIJ has funded forensic science projects worth more than $127 million, 

including approximately $116 million for 269 research awards and nearly $11 million 

for projects by federal partners. This funding has resulted in more than 900 reports, 

publications in scholarly journals and presentations. More than $23 million of that 

funding was invested in fundamental forensic research in direct response to the 

recommendations of the 2009 National Academies report Strengthening Forensic 

Science in the United States: A Path Forward, available at NCJRS.gov, keyword: 

228091. Figure 1 shows funding by fiscal year. 

Figure 1. Funding by Fiscal Year

Total Funding: $127,650,471
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Forensic science is, at its base, the application of science to matters of law. Forensic 

research encompasses a wide range of fields, including biology, chemistry, physics 

and anthropology. Figure 2 shows the overall distribution of funding categories for 

research awards.

Figure 2. Distribution of Funding for Research Awards by Discipline

NIJ uses information reported semiannually by recipients of R&D funding to assess the 

technical and programmatic progress of projects. One way that NIJ evaluates the reach 

and impact of its research is to track dissemination activities such as publications and 

presentations at meetings and conferences. Figure 3 shows dissemination reported 

through July 2014 for projects funded between 2009 and 2013. 

Figure 3. Grantee Dissemination Activities

Publications include all peer-reviewed articles in academic journals, abstracts published in conference proceedings 

and other sources based on numbers reported by grantees. This number does not include grantees’ self-reported 

articles “accepted” for publication and articles published through media outlets.
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Appendix: Solicitations for Forensic Science Research 

and Development

Through funding for external research, NIJ’s forensic science research and 

development program seeks to increase the body of knowledge necessary to guide 

forensic science policy and practice. Funded projects are producing useful materials, 

devices, systems and methods that have the potential for forensic application, as 

well as developing further fundamental understanding of the science underlying the 

forensic science disciplines.

Between 2009 and 2014, NIJ issued 23 solicitations inviting proposals for research 

and development projects related to forensic science. NIJ awarded a total of 

$116,670,798 to fund 269 research projects. Learn more about these projects at 

NIJ.gov, keywords: forensic awards.

Fiscal

Year

# Solicitation Title

FY

2009

1 Forensic DNA Research and Development: Invited Full Proposals

2 Research and Development in the Forensic Analysis of Trace 

Evidence: Invited Full Proposals

3 Research and Development on Impression Evidence: Invited Full

Proposals

4 Fundamental Research to Improve Understanding of the 

Accuracy, Reliability, and Measurement Validity of Forensic 

Science Disciplines

5 Directed Funding for Forensic Science Research, Development 

and/or Evaluation

FY

2010

6 Research and Development on Instrumental Analysis for Forensic 

Science Applications

7 Research and Development on Forensic Crime Scene and

Medicolegal Death Investigations

8 Research and Development on Pattern and Impression Evidence

9 Forensic DNA Research and Development

10 Fundamental Research to Improve Understanding of the 

Accuracy, Reliability, and Measurement Validity of Forensic

Science Disciplines

11 Directed Funding for Forensic Science Research, Development

and/or Evaluation
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FY

2011

12 Applied Research and Development in Forensic Science for

Criminal Justice Purposes

13 Basic Scientific Research to Support Forensic Science for

Criminal Justice Purposes

14 Directed Funding for Forensic Science Research, Development

and/or Evaluation

FY

2012

15 Applied Research and Development in Forensic Science for

Criminal Justice Purposes

16 Basic Scientific Research to Support Forensic Science for

Criminal Justice Purposes

17 Directed Funding for Forensic Science Research, Development 

and/or Evaluation

FY

2013

18 Applied Research and Development in Forensic Science for

Criminal Justice Purposes

19 Basic Scientific Research to Support Forensic Science for

Criminal Justice Purposes

20 Directed Funding for Forensic Science Research, Development

and/or Evaluation

FY

2014

21 Research and Development in Forensic Science for Criminal

Justice Purposes

22 Research and Development for Publicly Funded Forensic Science

Laboratories to Assess the Testing and Processing of Physical 

Evidence

23 Directed Funding for Forensic Science Research, Development

and/or Evaluation

Evolution of the NIJ Research and Development in Forensic 

Science Solicitation

In 2009, NIJ announced the creation of the Fundamental Forensic Science Research 

portfolio and solicited proposals for projects seeking to improve understanding of 

the accuracy and reliability of methods used to analyze evidence. In 2011, to further 

support research in the physical, life and cognitive sciences underlying the forensic 

science disciplines, NIJ created the Basic Scientific Research solicitation while 

focusing its applied research and development mission into a separate, concurrent 

solicitation. In 2014, basic, fundamental, and applied research and development 

proposals were all invited through a single combined forensic research solicitation 

that made no distinction between types of research.
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Learn more about NIJ’s forensic science portfolio, including how NIJ 

identifies research priorities, addresses forensic casework backlogs and 

studies the impact of forensic science on the criminal justice system. 

Visit NIJ.gov, keywords: forensic science.

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