U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

By:

Craig D. Uchida, 

Justice & Security Strategies, Inc. 

Shellie Solomon, 

Justice & Security Strategies, Inc. 

Charles M. Katz, 

Arizona State University West

and

Cynthia E. Pappas,

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School–Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

www.cops.usdoj.gov
School-Based

Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

This project was supported by Grant No. 1999-CKWX-K005 by the U.S. Department of Justice Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services. The opinions,

findings, and conclusions or recommendations

expressed in this document are those of the authors

and do not necessarily represent the official position or

policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Section Page

School-Based Partnerships: An Overview............1

The Problem-Solving Process ......................3

Scanning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Analysis ......................................4

Response .....................................5

Assessment ...................................6

The Problem-Solving Process In Action -

Selected SBP Sites ..............................9

Bullhead City Police Department -

Bullhead City Junior High School .............9

Hollywood Police Department -

Attucks Middle School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Miami Police Department -

Booker T. Washington Senior High School . . . . 23

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

iii
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

§ This acronym,

formulated by John Eck

and Bill Spelman, refers

to the four problemsolving stages of Scanning,

Analysis, Response, and

Assessment.

School-Based Partnerships: An Overview

The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

(COPS Office) funded the School-Based Partnerships

(SBP) grant program for the purpose of partnering

law enforcement agencies with schools to address

crime and disorder problems in and around middle

and high schools. In Fiscal Years 1998 and 1999, the

COPS Office awarded 275 law enforcement agencies

more than $30 million to partner with school entities

to address crime and disorder in and around schools.

These law enforcement agencies were required to

attend training in problem-analysis and problem-solving

methods, specifically the SARA model,§ to better

understand the causes of identified problems, apply

analysis-driven responses, and evaluate their efforts.

The COPS Office funded Justice & Security Strategies,

Inc. (formerly 21st Century Solutions, Inc.) to conduct

an assessment of the SBP grant program. Dr. Craig D.

Uchida, President of Justice & Security Strategies, and

his staff, along with consultants from Michigan State

University, George Mason University, and Arizona State

University West, reviewed the SBP program through

surveys and case studies, provided technical assistance,

and conducted quasi-experiments in five jurisdictions.

The information in this document was gathered from

the findings of this assessment, grantee testimonies,

progress reports, and COPS staff reports. This report

focuses on three SBP sites and their use of the SARA

problem-solving process to address specific issues in

their schools: students and teachers feeling threatened,

illegal drug sales, and truancy.

1
The Problem-Solving Process

The emphasis on problem-solving as an effective

policing strategy stems from pioneering work on

problem-oriented policing done by Herman Goldstein

in 1979 and from experiments in the early 1980s in

Madison, Wisconsin; Baltimore County, Maryland; and

Newport News, Virginia.§ The problem-solving model

takes a proactive, comprehensive approach to crime

and disorders rather than a traditional reactive approach

that stresses handling calls on a case-by-case basis.

Goldstein’s model emphasizes partnerships among

police and non-police groups, analysis of traditional and

nontraditional data to clarify problems, solutions that

are tailored to the specific problem, and assessments of

the overall strategy.

Three elements are generally required to constitute a

crime in the community: a victim, an offender, and a

crime scene or location. Many problem solvers have

found it useful in understanding a problem to visualize

a link among the three elements by drawing a problem

analysis triangle, also known as the crime triangle. §§

When crime is occurring, all inner elements must be

present and outer elements weak or absent.

School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

This theory, originally formulated by Cohen and Felson,

states that “predatory crime occurs when a likely

offender and suitable target come together in time and

place, without a capable guardian present.” §§§ The outer

triangle describes the “controllers” for the target/victim,

offender, and place. The “capable guardian” includes

people protecting themselves or others (i.e., family

§ Goldstein, Herman,

“Improving Police:

A Problem-Oriented

Approach.” Crime and

Delinquency 25, April:

236-258, 1979. See also,

Goldstein, Herman,

Problem-Oriented Policing,

New York: McGraw-Hill,

1990.

§§ Spelman, William

and John E. Eck, “Sitting

Ducks, Ravenous Wolves,

and Helping Hands: New

Approaches to Urban

Policing”, Public Affairs

Comment, Austin, Texas:

School of Public Affairs,

University of Texas,

1989; and Sampson,

Rana, NeighborhoodOriented Policing in

Rural Communities: A

Program Planning Guide,

Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Justice,

Office of Justice Programs,

Bureau of Justice

Assistance, 1994.

§§§ Clarke, Ronald V.

and John E. Eck, Crime

Analysis for Problem

Solvers in 60 Small Steps,

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services;

2005.

Handler

Manager

Guardian

Target/Victim

Place

Offender

CRIME

3
COPS Innovations

§ www.popcenter.org/

about-SARA.htm.

§§ Eck, John E. and

William Spelman, Problem

Solving: ProblemOrientation Policing

in Newport News.

Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Justice,

Office of Justice Programs,

National Institute of Justice

and Police Executive

Research Forum, 1987.

§§§ U.S. Department

of Justice Office of

Community Oriented

Policing Services, ProblemSolving Tips A Guide

to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Trough ProblemSolving Partnerships.

Washington, D.C.: Office

of Community Oriented

Policing Services, April

1998.

§§§§ www.popcenter.org/

about-SARA.htm.

members or police). The “handler” has the ability

to exert some level of control over the offender

(i.e., parent, probation officer, or teacher). The

“manager” is responsible for the specific locations

(i.e., bar owner or landlord).

This crime triangle informs all aspects of the SARA

problem solving process.§ This four-step model

offers a framework for approaching crime problems

and consists of scanning, analysis, response, and

assessment:§§

Scanning

The scanning phase involves problem identification.

Its objectives are to define a basic problem,

determine the nature of that problem, determine the

scope of seriousness of the problem, and establish

baseline measures. An inclusive list of stakeholders

for the selected problem should be identified in

this phase. Stakeholders are private and public

organizations and types or groups of people that

will benefit if the problem is addressed or may

experience negative consequences if the problem

is not addressed.§§§ Police and stakeholders must

be willing to work together to develop effective

solutions to the problem. Truly effective problem

solvers know how to forge genuine partnerships

with others who are prepared to invest considerable

effort in making these partnerships work.

Scanning typically involves:§§§§

• Identifying recurring problems of concern to the

public and the police.

• Identifying the consequences of the problem for

the community and the police.

• Prioritizing those problems.

• Developing broad goals.

• Confirming that the problems exist.

• Determining how frequently the problem occurs

and how long it has been taking place.

• Selecting problems for closer examination.

Analysis

Analysis is the heart of the problem-solving

process. The objectives of analysis are to develop

an understanding of the dynamics of the problem,

develop an understanding of the limits of current

responses, establish correlation, and develop

4
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

§ Spelman and Eck, 1989

§§ www.popcenter.org/

about-SARA.htm.

§§§ U.S. Department

of Justice Office of

Community Oriented

Policing Services, 1998

§§§§ www.popcenter.org/

about-SARA.htm.

an understanding of cause and effect. As part of the

analysis phase, it is important to find out as much as

possible about each aspect of the crime triangle by

asking Who? What? When? Where? How? Why? and

Why Not? about the victim, offender, and crime scene.§

The Analysis phase involves:§§

• Identifying and understanding the events and

conditions that precede and accompany the problem.

• Identifying relevant data to be collected.

• Researching what is known about the problem type.

• Taking inventory of how the problem is currently

addressed and the strengths and limitations of the

current response.

• Narrowing the scope of the problem as specifically as

possible.

• Identifying a variety of resources that may be of

assistance in developing a deeper understanding of the

problem.

• Developing a working hypothesis about why the

problem is occurring.

Response

The response phase of the SARA model involves the

development and implementation of strategies to address

an identified crime or problem. This is accomplished

by searching for strategic responses that are both broad

and uninhibited. The response should follow logically

from the knowledge learned during the analysis and it

should be tailored to the specific problem. The goals of

the response can range between totally eliminating the

problem, substantially reducing the problem, reducing

the amount of harm caused by the problem, or improving

the quality of community cohesion.§§§

Types of activities undertaken in the Response phase

include:§§§§

• Brainstorming for new interventions.

• Searching for what other communities with similar

problems have done.

• Choosing among the alternative interventions.

• Outlining a response plan and identifying responsible

parties.

• Stating the specific objectives for the response plan.

• Carrying out the planned activities.

5
COPS Innovations

§ Sampson, 1994

§§ www.popcenter.org/

about-SARA.htm.

§§§ Clarke, Ronald V.

and John E. Eck, Crime

Analysis for Problem

Solvers 60 Small Steps,

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services;

2005.

Assessment

Assessment is the phase that attempts to determine

if the response strategies were successful. This

information not only assists the current effort but

also gathers data that build knowledge for the

future. Strategies and programs can be assessed

for process, outcomes, or both. If the responses

implemented are not effective, the information

gathered during analysis should be reviewed. New

information may need to be collected before new

solutions can be developed and tested.§

The Assessment phase includes:§§

• Determining whether the plan was implemented

(a process evaluation).

• Collecting pre- and post-response qualitative and

quantitative data.

• Determining whether broad goals and specific

objectives were attained.

• Identifying any new strategies needed to augment

the original plan.

• Conducting ongoing assessment to ensure

continued effectiveness.

It must be noted that these four stages do not

always follow one another in a strictly linear

fashion from the initial scanning through the final

assessment. According to Clarke and Eck (2005),

“projects rarely follow a linear path from the initial

scanning and analysis stages through the stages of

response and assessment. Rather, the process often

has loops, so that an unfolding analysis can result

in refocusing of the project, and questions about

possible responses can lead to the need for fresh

analyses.”§§§ They designed the figure on page

7 to illustrate the loops that are likely to occur,

especially with complex projects. New information

obtained during the scanning phase may lead to

a revision of the definition of the problem or the

discovery of a new problem or problems. In brief,

analysis and evaluation are critical components

of the problem-solving process and should not

be overlooked for a quick fix from scanning to

response.

6
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

7

Through the SBP program, more than 200 law

enforcement agencies and schools worked together to

address the problems affecting their communities using

this model. The following sites were chosen for this

report to provide the reader with practical, successful

examples of the SARA problem-solving process:

Bullhead City Police Department, Hollywood Police

Department, and the Miami Police Department.

Complete reports of these and thirteen other sites can be

found at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

SCANNING ANALYSIS

ASSESSMENT RESPONSE
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

§ Katz, Charles M.,

“Bullhead City, Arizona

School-Based Partnership

Project: A Case Study,”

unpublished ms., 21st

Century Solutions, Inc.,

2003.

The Problem-Solving Process in Action –

Selected SBP Sites

Bullhead City Police Department - Bullhead

City Junior High School§

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as a result of this project: the SBP team found a

decrease in violent incidents and an increase in

student perceptions of being protected (safe and

FDUHG IRU E\ VFKRRO VWDII &UHGLW MXVWL¿DEO\ LV

attributed both to the SBP project participants and

to the leadership of the new principal for improving

the quality of the educational experience at Bullhead

City Junior High School. 

Bullhead City, Arizona is located in the northwestern

part of the state, and borders Laughlin, Nevada.

Bullhead City is the 16th largest city in the state, with

a population of about 34,000. In 1999, the year of the

SBP project, approximately 86 percent of the city’s

population was Caucasian, 20 percent Hispanic, 1

percent African-American, and 1 percent American

Indian. The city’s economic activity centered on

tourism, with approximately 6 million people visiting

the area each year. The median household income in

Bullhead City was $30,221 compared to $40,558 for the

state. Likewise, 15.1 percent of the city’s population

lived under the poverty level compared to 13.9 percent

for the state. In terms of education, about 72.4 percent

of Bullhead City residents were a high school graduate

or higher, and 8.6 percent of residents had a bachelor’s

degree or higher.

The city’s crime rate had fallen substantially during

the past 5 years (1993–1998). Police officials reported

that the city did have a gang problem; however,

they stipulated that it was fairly minor in nature and

magnitude. For instance, in 2000 the police department

reported to the National Youth Gang Center that it

had documented seven gangs and 300 gang members.

The department also reported that there were no gang

homicides during this period; however, police officials

did state that motorcycle gangs that frequented the area

were responsible for a substantial amount of criminal

9
COPS Innovations

activity and drug trafficking. When residents were asked

to prioritize their top concerns for the community, crime

was mentioned as the problem that the city should most

focus its resources, specifically drugs, followed by

gangs, traffic, burglary, and thefts.

Bullhead City Junior High was targeted for intervention

as part of the School-Based Partnership grant. Bullhead

City Junior High School served 660 sixth, seventh, and

eighth graders. The majority of the students were white

(about 66 percent) and Hispanic (about 33 percent). In

terms of student performance, the attendance rate for

the school was about 91 percent and the promotion rate

was about 99 percent. There was quite a bit of student

turnover within the school, with 18.6 percent of the

students transferring out of the school during the 2000–

01 school year. These indicators suggest that the school

was fairly average compared to other junior high schools

in Arizona.

PROBLEM: Students and teachers felt

threatened and intimidated.

Scanning

To examine the nature and scope of crime and disorder

problems within and around Bullhead City Junior High

School, the Bullhead City Police Department initially

examined its calls for service data. The police found

that there was a relatively large volume of assaultrelated calls originating from the school. To confirm

that assaults were a problem, the school resource officer

surveyed teachers, staff members, administrators, and

students. The survey focused on a wide number of

issues in an effort to scan for potential problems related

to: (1) attitudes toward teachers and the school,

(2) student safety, (3) student victimization, (4) student

involvement in assaults, (5) the availability of drugs and

the influence of gangs, and (6) the accessibility of guns

and knives. The surveys indicated that assault-related

problems were the most serious issues facing the school.

The stakeholders involved in the problem-solving

process were identified as: Bullhead City school

resource officers, Bullhead City Police Department,

Bullhead City Junior High School governing board,

parents, students, community members, and the media.

10
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Analysis

To analyze the nature of the school’s assault problem,

the police department triangulated six types of data:

official police data, official school data, student

interview data, suspect and victim interview data,

teacher and staff interview data, and parent survey data.

The analysis phase took place between March 1999 and

December 2000.

Official Police Data

• Assaults were most likely to occur on Tuesday

through Friday either before school, during the lunch

hour, or after school.

• From September 1996 to February 1999 there were

37 police reports that involved violence (30 reports

of assaults, 4 reports of threats, and 3 reports of

disorderly conduct).

Official School Data

• During the 1999–2000 school year, 266 campus

violations (22 reported to the police).

• Forty-five percent of the incidents were for disorderly

conduct and 43 percent were for violence (e.g., fights,

battery, weapons, and threats).

• From August 1999 to March 2000, 99 incidents

involving violent acts: 24 percent in classrooms, 23

percent in the hallway, 22 percent on the playground,

11 percent outside the building, 5 percent off-campus,

5 percent in the cafeteria, and 7 percent at other

locations.

Student Survey Data

• Sixth, seventh, and eighth graders were surveyed.

• Positive attitudes about the teachers and

administrators, believing that they cared about the

students and that the teachers wanted to help the

students.

• Seriously concerned about school safety: 58 percent

said that the teachers are afraid of other students, 50

percent of the students said that they did not feel safe

at school, 50 percent had been threatened at school,

27 percent reported that someone had threatened

them or used force to take their property, and 66

percent had seen a student threaten a teacher.

11
COPS Innovations

• Fifty-one percent admitted that they had threatened

another student and 12 percent admitted carrying a gun

or knife to school.

• Seventy-seven percent believed that there were too

many rules in school and that rules were not applied in

a fair and impartial way (60 percent).

Student Offender Interview Data

• Thirteen student offenders interviewed.

• Most of the reasons given for the assaults were related

to intimidation/bullying and name-calling.

• All of the students stated that they were punished for

the assault, either being suspended from school or

serving some jail time.

• Nine of the 13 students reported that their peers either

looked up to them after the assault or did not care

one way or the other that he or she assaulted another

student.

Student Victim Interview Data

• Fourteen students who were victims of school-related

assaults were interviewed.

• Many of the victims reported that they either did

not know why they were assaulted, were assaulted

because the assaulter did not like them, or because of

intimidation/ bullying.

• Most of the students expressed that the incident left

them feeling emotionally hurt, confused, and mad/

angry.

• Most had not been informed about how the suspect

was punished, five victims believed that the assaulter

received the proper amount of punishment, and one

stated that the suspect was suspended but should have

been put in jail.

Teacher and Staff Interview Data

• Twenty-one teachers and staff were interviewed.

• Felt that violent behavior was a problem at the school.

• Seventy percent had personally felt threatened at

school.

• Reported that violence was most likely to occur before

school, during the lunch period, between class periods,

or after school.

12
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Parent Survey Data

• One hundred fifty parents were surveyed.

• Forty percent said that there was a problem with

violence in the school and 47 percent said that their

child had complained to them about the violence

within the school.

• Twelve percent said that their child had been a victim

of a violent crime at school and 18 percent said that

their child was at times afraid to go to school because

of the violence.

• Eighty percent of the parents believed that having a

police officer at the school helped reduce the amount

of violence.

The above analysis led the police department to three

major conclusions:

1. Much of the violent activity was taking place in the

lunchroom and during the lunch hour. Because of the

physical layout of the school and the large number

of students who are free to roam around, it was

not possible to maintain supervision over all of the

students during the lunch period.

2. Much of the violent activity was taking place in the

hallways between classes when the students were not

being supervised.

3. Many of the students were not aware of the policies

of the school nor did many of the students have an

understanding of the criminal law.

Response

The analysis of the assault-related problems within

Bullhead City Junior High School led the police

department to recommend seven responses. Of the

seven, the school implemented five of the responses

between January 2000 and August 2001. Before any of

the responses were initiated, they were discussed with

the teachers, administrators, and representatives from city

government. The media were also used to announce the

changes that were taking place in the school.

13
COPS Innovations

School Lunch Hour Response

In January 2000, school administrators, teachers, and

school resource officers worked together to adjust the

scheduling of the lunch hour so that it was separated

into three 20-minute lunch periods segregated by grade

level. Students were required to spend the entire time

seated in the lunchroom. After 20 minutes the students

were allowed no more than 10 minutes for recess. In

August 2001, to supplement the lunch hour response to

assaults, the police department assigned one auxiliary

police officer to assist with supervision during the lunch

hour. At 11:00 AM every school day an auxiliary officer

would park his or her patrol vehicle in front of the

school to enhance the police department’s visibility. The

auxiliary officer would then patrol the school hallways

until the lunch period, where he or she supervised the

lunch room and playground until 1:30 PM.

Increase Adult Supervision in the Hallways

In January 2000 in an effort to increase supervision

in the hallways, the school administration adopted a

policy in which all teachers were required to monitor

the hallways between periods. Interviews with the

school resource officer and several school administrators

indicated that initially teachers followed the policy;

however, periodically there were lapses in supervision.

One administrator emphasized that the teachers receive

few breaks during the day and that the periods between

classes are the few moments they have to prepare for

their next class.

School Safety Officer

In August 2001, the school was awarded funding

through the safe schools initiative to hire a safe schools

officer. The school hired a retired Los Angeles,

California police officer who had recently moved to

Bullhead City. The school safety officer was responsible

for implementing the new law-related education

course, patrolling school grounds, and supervising

students during the lunch period. He also served as

the formal liaison between the school and the county

juvenile probation department, counseled parents of

truant students, attended school disciplinary hearings,

developed safe-school plans, and provided in-service

training to teachers. Although the officer was not

in uniform, he wore a blue polo shirt and jeans to

differentiate him from the other employees at the school.

14
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Law-Related Education

In August 2001, the newly hired school safety officer

designed and implemented a class on the law and school

policies to increase student awareness about criminal law

and school rules. The course was taught for 90 hours

each semester during the students’ regularly scheduled

social studies course. The course focused on various

aspects of the law, good citizenship, and school rules and

regulations.

The school drama club and a local television station

collaborated to create two video productions entitled

“Decision,” and “Trice Christmas,” which were shown

to the students at the junior high. About 60 students

participated in the productions and many of them,

the teacher and school resource officer stated, were

considered “problem” students. The videos were created

to help the students make the “right” choices about

such issues as how to handle bullies, gangs, and those

who ask them to use drugs and alcohol. The video

productions were also shown several times on the local

cable access channel. The teacher who supervised the

production stated that many of the parents of the students

involved in the project told her that the project had a

major impact on their child’s life.

Incident-Tracking System

In August 2001, the school resource officer created an

incident-tracking system for the school. It consisted of

a large map of the school, with colored dots showing

where each violent incident took place. Blue dots were

used for incidents involving males and pink dots were

used for incidents involving females. The tracking

system identified hot spot locations.

Assessment

The Bullhead City Police Department School-Based

Partnership was assessed in two ways. First, the school

resource officer examined pre- and post-intervention

arrest data, student survey data, and school resource

officer log data. Second, evaluators from 21st Century

Solutions gathered official data from the police

department and school to examine changes in behavior

prior to and after the implementation of the responses

and interviewed key stakeholders in the project to

examine their perceptions of change.

15
COPS Innovations

§ Solomon, Shellie E.

and Uchida, Craig D.,

“Evaluating the SchoolBased Partnership Program

in Hollywood, Florida,”

unpublished ms., 21st

Century Solutions, Inc.,

2002.

All of the findings suggested that from the beginning

of the 2001–2002 school year there was a substantial

change in the number of assaults and related activity

at the school and that there was a significant change in

student perceptions concerning school safety. These

changes coincided with the implementation of several

responses developed as part of the School-Based

Partnership project. They also took place after a new

principal was assigned to the school. While it was

not possible to untangle the confounding influences of

the responses and administrative changes, interviews

suggested that both might have had an impact on

reducing assaults and related problems within the school

over the period studied.

Hollywood Police Department - Attucks

Middle School§

The SBP project served as the center of a wider

community improvement effort. Before this project

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the area when students were arriving at and dismissed

IURPWKHVFKRRO$IWHUZDUGRQHRI¿FHUZDVVXI¿FLHQW

The Department’s SAVI model has been emulated

by other jurisdictions. Most of its components

are low-cost activities that can be adopted by any

school district in cooperation with its local police

department.

Hollywood, Florida covers 28 square miles and is the

second-largest city in Broward County. The “Diamond

of the Gold Coast” was founded in 1925 by Joseph

Young as a tourist mecca and has maintained that image

through the years. At the time of the SBP project, the

year-round population of 133,000 residents increased

to 253,000 during the winter months. Liberia is a 2-

square-mile neighborhood located in the northeast side

of Hollywood. With the introduction of the railroad,

this low-income neighborhood established itself and is

now nestled between the freight rail tracks bordering

the city edge and a four-block long strip mall containing

multiple chain stores such as Home Depot, Kmart, and

16
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

the restaurant/recreation club, Dave and Buster’s. In

1999, the neighborhood was home to three community

stores, Attucks Middle School, and Flanagan High

School. The 2,870-plus residents were predominantly

African-American and lived in approximately 500 singlefamily homes. Apartments, most in significant disrepair,

were located on the west and northwest corners of the

neighborhood.

Attucks Middle School was one of Broward County’s

leading magnet schools, with an educational focus on

communications and broadcast arts. Studies included

newspaper journalism, radio, television, and public

speaking. As a magnet school, any student living in

the neighborhood or throughout Broward Country who

wished to study communications and broadcast arts could

attend Attucks. In 1999–2000, 1,125 students attended

Attucks and in 2000–2001, 1,038 students attended. The

ethnic makeup of the student body was diverse. In 2000,

the student body was 54 percent African-American, 28

percent Caucasian, and 15 percent Hispanic, with 49.7

percent of all students eligible for free or reduced-price

lunches.

The Hollywood Police Department served a community

of more than 133,000 residents with 341 officers and

240 non-sworn civilians. The command staff met

quarterly with lieutenants to discuss objectives for

each neighborhood to address problems at the root

level through community interaction. The Department

sent officers to every civic meeting and published

neighborhood meetings times on the its web site.

Command staff reported that since 1999 the crime rate

has fallen by 12 percent.

PROBLEM: Illegal drug sales.

Scanning

The Hollywood Police Department relied on information

collected though calls for service, citizen input during

community meetings, a community policing survey

conducted by area officers, and an environmental

assessment of the Liberia area conducted by the city.

Of the 22 Hollywood neighborhoods, Liberia ranked

first in felony assaults (82), auto thefts (145), and theft

(546) in 2000. During monthly civic meetings and a

17
COPS Innovations

survey conducted by the Liberia community policing

team, residents stated that their number one concern was

street-level drug dealing. During 1998, residents made

297 drug-related calls for service, 60 percent occurring

between 6:00 AM and 7:00 PM, with 80 of these calls

occurring during the times that children were walking

to and from school. Police were particularly concerned

because multiple shooting incidents attributed to the drug

trade had occurred in the area adjacent to the school in

the year prior to the grant.

Concurrently, Hollywood city officials hired an urban

planning consulting firm to analyze the Liberia area.

The firm discovered that the neighborhood lacked a

sound environmental design with its narrow streets and

poor lighting conditions, which area officers felt made

Liberia attractive for drug dealers. The consulting firm

recommended the demolition of the apartments

During interviews with the school resource officers

and other Hollywood Police Department staff, it was

discovered that Attucks Middle School was well known

as a rough school that was often compared to the prison

with a somewhat similar name, Attica. Despite its

negative reputation, the number of crime and violence

incidents was somewhat lower per student than other

Broward County schools. Crime and violence incidents

ranged from 639 incidents in the 1996–97 school year

to 335 in the 1998–99 school year. In the 1996–97

school year, 678 external suspensions were issued and

one student was expelled. The numbers dropped to 454

external suspensions and one expulsion during the 1997–

1998 school year.

Analysis

Five survey instruments were used with students, faculty

and staff, businesses, residents and offenders. Each

survey asked approximately 16 questions covering the

following issues:

• Perceived safety in school and in the neighborhood,

including going to and from school

• Environmental factors such as pay phone usage and

lighting

• Criminal activity and illegal drug trade

• Satisfaction with the school resource officer and the

neighborhood services officer

• Willingness and ideas to help police address safety

issues

• Demographic characteristics.

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School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Resident Survey (571 surveys completed)

• Residents reported feeling safe during the day and in

the evening in their homes and neighborhoods, with

the majority always feeling safe.

• Half of the residents believed there was inadequate

street lighting in the neighborhood.

• Forty-four percent believed that pay phones were

being used for drug sales.

• One-third of residents felt crime had increased at

Attucks Middle School during the past three years.

Eighteen percent felt crime had stayed the same.

• Thirty-five percent were very satisfied with the school

resource officer’s performance, with another 25

percent being somewhat satisfied.

• Sixty-one percent were satisfied with the

neighborhood team leader’s performance in Liberia.

Business/Employee Survey (28 surveys completed)

• Half the business employees always felt safe at work,

yet 43 percent sometimes felt safe.

• Sixty-four percent believed that there was insufficient

street lighting and 63 percent believed that pay phones

were used as a tool for drug dealers.

• Seventy-nine percent were very satisfied and 21

percent were somewhat satisfied with the job done by

the neighborhood team leader.

Faculty and Staff Survey (37 surveys completed)

• Forty-three percent always felt safe at school or

on school property while the remaining 54 percent

reported feeling safe sometimes.

• Half of the staff believed that there was inadequate

lighting in the neighborhood and half believed that pay

phones were used as a tool for drug dealers.

• Thirty-five percent believed that crime had increased

at Attucks over the past three years while 32 percent

believed that crime had stayed the same.

• Seventy-six percent were very satisfied with the job of

the school resource officer was doing.

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COPS Innovations

Student Survey (68 surveys completed)

• The majority of students walked to school. Most

sometimes felt safe traveling to and from school. Only

three students never felt safe traveling to and from

school.

• Fifty-five percent felt that the street lighting in the

neighborhood was adequate; 50 percent believed that

pay phones were a tool for drug dealers.

• Fifteen percent felt that crime at Attucks had increased,

while 19 percent felt it had decreased.

• Fifty-eight percent were very satisfied with the school

resource officer’s performance while 23 percent were

somewhat satisfied.

• The majority was very or somewhat satisfied with the

job done by the Liberia neighborhood team leader.

Incident Report Analysis and Public Intersection Survey

During the night survey, a light meter was used to obtain

illumination information and calls were reviewed for

service and incident data. From January 1, 2001 to

May 1, 2001, the Liberia area recorded 326 incidents

of the following types: shootings, suspicious persons

or incidents, disturbing noise or persons, narcotics,

and robbery and/or breaking and entering. A lighting

inspection found the following public access areas to

lack sufficient lighting:

• A pay phone lacked lighting because the bulb was

burned out.

• One corner of a parking lot lacked sufficient lighting

because of the location of the city light pole.

• A bus stop lacked lighting because of a low-lumens

bulb in the streetlight.

• Tree branches blocked traffic signs and lighting in

some areas.

• Crime watch signs, believed to aid in the deterrence of

crime, were missing in the area.

Student and Staff Observations at the School

The school resource officer did not find a significant

gang problem or group of troublemakers at Attucks.

However, there did appear to be a lack of respect for the

school itself. Students randomly dropped garbage in

the hallways and neither students nor teachers picked it

up. Parents did not attend school events as evidenced by

only 30 parents attending the back-to-school night.

20
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Response

The Hollywood Police Department employed multiple

responses to reduce fear and address crime problems

plaguing the area. These efforts ranged from zero

tolerance policies in the school to community

engagement to code enforcement and police visibility.

At Attucks

Within the school, the school resource officer initially

instituted the zero tolerance policy to assert control,

including banishing gang color representation in clothes,

exposed underwear, and an explanation that verbal and/

or physical threats to teachers or students would not be

tolerated. The zero tolerance policy applied throughout

the school day and began on the school bus where the

school resource officer worked with the bus driver to

identify and arrest offenders, if necessary. The school

resource officer also worked to gain the cooperation of

the faculty and staff and introduced a number of crimeprevention programs that were coordinated as part of a

larger Hollywood Police Department effort referred to

as SAVI, the School Anti-Violence Initiative. Programs

under the SAVI umbrella included the Police Referral

Outreach Program, Youth Mentoring, D.A.R.E. program,

teen court, peer counseling, and truancy prevention

alternative suspension programs.

On January 25, 2001, the Attucks School Crime

Watch grew from 20 active members to 65. One of

the first official activities was the “Give Back to Our

Neighborhood” clean-up held on February 17, 2001.

More than 40 students from all over Broward County

showed up to clean up the campus. Afterwards, the

students began to police themselves, which resulted

in a reduction in graffiti and cleaner halls. Additional

programs included referrals to the Youth Evaluation

Service (Y.E.S.), a joint program between the Hollywood

Police and Memorial Hospital that provided counseling

for children ages 5 to17 and their families and also the

Police Referral Outreach Program (PROP), a program

for juveniles with drug problems run by the Hollywood

Police and Starting Place.

21
COPS Innovations

Outside of Attucks

To address trespassers, the school resource officer

began a block-by-block visibility effort to gain control

of a four-block perimeter around the school. This

included chasing trespassers off school property,

working additional shifts after school, and talking

with individuals to interrupt their illicit business.

The school resource officer worked closely with the

neighborhood team leader on truancy problems and in

securing the perimeter of the school and continued to

build relationships with residents through the Liberia

civic meetings, informal discussions, and a coordinated

landlord/tenant meeting starting in August 2001. The

team also addressed the environmental problems in

the area by working with Florida Power and Light to

increase the lighting in and around the school. Finally,

they created a Critical Incident Plan, a comprehensive

security plan designed by the Hollywood Police

Department, for Attucks Middle School as part of the

larger efforts undertaken under SAVI.

Assessment

At the conclusion of the SBP grant, the Florida State

Department of Education statistics indicated that

violence and crime in Attucks Middle School dropped

from a high of 639 incidents in the1996–1997 school

year to 184 during 2000–2001. An analysis of crime and

violence incidents per student showed that one incident

for every two students occurred in the 1999–2000 school

year and one incident for every six students occurred

during the 2000–01 school year. From December 2001

to May 2002, arrests declined from the previous year

to only 68 arrests. The school resource officer reported

few arrests at the start of the 2002–03 school year,

compared to as many as three arrests per day during the

project years, with more students, teachers, and parents

involved in prevention efforts such as peer mediation,

teen court, back-to-school night, and Crime Watch.

22
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

§ Solomon, Shellie E.

and Uchida, Craig D.,

“Working with Truants:

The Miami Police

Department 1998 SchoolBased Partnership,”

unpublished ms., 21st

Century Solutions, Inc.,

2002.

Miami Police Department -

Booker T. Washington Senior High School§

The outcome for several targeted middle school

students and, therefore, for peers, the school,

families, and community was unquestionably

positive. One of the more compelling stories from

this project, as well, is the change that occurred in

WKHDWWLWXGHVDQGOLYHVRIVRPHRI¿FHUVDQGLQWKHLU

working relationships with their counterparts in

the school. The police department, school, and the

FRPPXQLW\ZLOOFRQWLQXHWREHQH¿W

In 1999, the Miami (Florida) Police Department

served a community of more than 365,000 people with

1,100 officers and 365 civilian employees. Major

community policing efforts involved the creation of

twelve Neighborhood Enhancement Team Service Areas

(NETs) throughout the city. These teams worked with

other city agencies to respond to specific problems of

residents and businesses in these areas. Miami also

served as a Community Policing Demonstration Center

to assist other police agencies. Under its “Distressed

Neighborhoods” grant, the department targeted Miami’s

most disadvantaged areas. Officers formed problemsolving teams with community members to address

crime problems, stabilize neighborhoods, and begin the

revitalization process.

In 1999, Booker T. Washington Senior High School

opened its doors and was referred to as “an all-academy,

neighborhood, comprehensive senior high school.” Like

most Miami schools, it was an open facility with exposed

courtyards and open-air hallways. In the fall of 1999,

there were 917 seventh and eighth graders in the school.

The school was made up of about 52 percent AfricanAmerican and 48 percent Hispanic students. Over the

last few years, there had been a 52 percent increase in the

cultural mix of the school. Most of the school population

had limited English skills. Other nationalities included

Honduran, Nicaraguan, and Cuban immigrants.

23
COPS Innovations

Booker T. Washington was designated a “Title I”

school, meaning that 75 percent of the students received

free or reduced-cost lunches, the only high school in

Miami-Dade County with such a high percentage. The

school received additional funding to address social

and educational issues connected with this level of

poverty. In particular, Booker T. Washington used Title I

funding to support additional paraprofessionals to assist

with tracking and reporting requirements. Also, a new

community involvement specialist was hired to work

with the truancy project.

PROBLEM: Truancy

Scanning

Miami-Dade County was the highest-ranking county

for juvenile arrests in the state of Florida. Further, the

Miami Police Department found that the Overtown area

accounted for 60 percent of juvenile arrests in the city

during the 1995–96 school year. Based on reports by

two Dade County Grand Juries (1991 and 1993), truancy

was identified as one of the major causes of juvenile

delinquency. A third grand jury report in 1996 revealed

that early warning indicators of future criminal behavior

included truancy, academic failure, and behavior

problems in schools. Students at Booker T. Washington

appeared to fit these indicators as the school ranked 48th

out of 48 middle schools for attendance. In addition,

only 7 percent of the students scored above the national

median in reading and 12 percent in math. On an average

day, eight students were on internal suspension and 35 on

external suspension.

The police department worked with the Miami-Dade

School Board and Booker T. Washington Middle School

officials, alumni, and students. They reviewed crime

data and school data. They also relied on personal

observations of officers and school officials. As a result

of these reviews and discussions, the police department

focused on addressing the problem of chronic truancy (30

or more days of unexcused absences). By concentrating

on this problem, they hoped to address juvenile crime

issues and fear of crime in and around the school.

24
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Analysis

Calls for Service

The team examined calls for service occurring during

the day shift from August 28, 1999 to April 9, 2000.

They reviewed where calls were originating, what they

reported, and what outcomes resulted. The calls at the

school involved assaults, larcenies, and disturbances. A

review of all calls in the area indicated that:

• Twenty incidents occurred with no report required.

• Six incidents resulted in arrests related to traffic stops.

• Five incidents resulted in reports but no arrests.

• Four calls were disturbance calls.

• Three calls were motor vehicle larcenies.

• Three calls were assaults on people.

• Three calls were for traffic accidents.

Student Surveys

Ninety-nine student surveys were conducted with

55 obtained from a random sample of students and

44 targeting chronically truant students. Additional

demographics of the survey group are as follows:

• Eighty-two percent were 15 or 16 years old.

• Half were in 9th grade and half were in 10th grade.

• Forty were female; 53 were male; 3 were unknown.

• Thirty-five were African-American; 50 were Hispanic.

• Fifty-four percent woke up at 6:00 AM and 6:30 AM

to go to school.

From this survey the team learned that the majority of

students (68 percent) stated that they go to school to

get an education; even the majority of truant students

surveyed (54 percent) stated they go to school to get

an education. However, one-fifth of truant students

stated they go to school because someone makes them.

Sixteen (36 percent) of the truant students stated that

they skipped school 1 or 2 days per month while 11 (25

percent) said they skipped school 3 to 5 days per month.

When asked why they were skipping, the primary reason

identified by all students was that they did not like their

teachers. Seventeen percent reported individual reasons

such as they lacked clothing or were baby-sitting and an

additional 17 percent reported they were scared and did

not fit in to school.

25
COPS Innovations

Attendance Records

Attendance records were reviewed at three different time

periods. In each time period the number of students who

were considered chronically truant increased. It should

be noted that this number may understate the problem.

Those students who made up the truancy rates in the

first and/or second reporting period were not necessarily

the same students accounting for the truancy rate in

the second and third reporting periods. Some students

“disappeared” from the student roster either because

they transferred to another school or turned 16 and were

classified as a “dropout.” They were administratively

removed from the roster. These data show that two

students were considered chronically truant at the end

of November. A month later, three students met this

category. By May 1 the number of chronically truant

students rose to 35. A more dramatic rise was seen

in the number of students with significant unexcused

absences ranging from 15 to 30. These data were useful

in determining which students to target in the response

phase. Further analysis of the attendance data showed

that unexcused absences went up just prior to lunch.

The team questioned these data because it did not seem

logical that students would come back to school after

skipping those periods right around the lunch hour.

Ninth graders accounted for approximately 70 percent

of the unexcused absences. Race made no difference.

Males skipped 1.7 times more often than females. Using

the survey results from the truant students, the majority

(27 out of 44) skipped by themselves while 22 usually

skipped with two to three friends. Only three skipped

with family members. When they skipped, 28 reported

going home; nine reported hanging out on the streets and

six went to a friend’s house. Thirty-four arrived at their

destination by walking. Thirteen rode the bus. Further,

the team found from attendance data that the majority of

truant students (77 percent) lived within a 2-mile radius

of the school.

Environmental Study

A fourth data collection method that proved useful was

the environmental survey. In this survey, officers walked

around the school noting the physical appearance and

general state of the areas as well as the type of building

structures. They observed 5 to 6 abandoned buildings,

26
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

up to 20 people hanging out, vacant lots or areas suitable

for loitering, and trash on each side of the school. They

also noted that the school was bordered by residential,

commercial, and industrial properties and the transit stop

and bus stops were located next to the school.

Parent Interviews

A final data source involved information from officers

who contacted the parents of chronically truant students.

Although much effort was put into this collection

method, it yielded few contacts. Of the 37 attempts

made, 23 parents/guardians were reached. About half

(18) were aware of the absences and the other half (19)

were unaware. The officers were unable to find 21 of the

truant students, but they transported nine back to school

and learned that five were out sick.

Response

Targeted Interventions

Based on the analysis information about the typical

truant student, the team decided to work with incoming

ninth graders. Eighth grade attendance records were

reviewed for the incoming ninth grade class. Sixty-five

students with more than 40 unexcused absences but less

than 70 within the previous school year, were targeted

for the focused intervention. Forty unexcused absences

were double the average number of absences for this

incoming ninth grade class. Efforts to contact these

students included attempts to call them out of class on

different school days at different time periods, home

visits by officers, and a home visit by the community

involvement specialist. During successful home visits,

the police officer and/or the community involvement

specialist would advise parents of truancy concerns and

request their assistance in addressing the problem with

the student. They would also provide information about

social services, if needed, and identify what issues were

having an impact on the student’s attendance at school.

In addition to the home visits, police officers and

teachers conducted weekly, then biweekly, and then

monthly group and one-on-one discussions with targeted

students to mentor them and encourage their attendance

at school. Student leaders attended group discussions to

27
COPS Innovations

form a bond with truant students and to serve as mentors.

Officers and teachers informed the students of their

responsibilities, provided detailed information about

graduation requirements, discussed the benefits of an

education, and explained truancy laws.

For the one-on-one discussions, the officers obtained

up-to-date attendance data. During each session, they

pinpointed unexcused absences, questioned the cause of

the absences, and discussed the impacts of the unexcused

absences with truant students. The students were held

accountable for their answers and actions about each

unexcused absence. Most importantly, officers worked

with students to develop a strategy for preventing future

unexcused absences.

In many cases, students were simply not waking up in

time for school. They did not own alarm clocks. Once

they did wake up, these students decided to stay home

rather than be tardy. Also, the attendance policy required

actions that many were not aware of and were not taking.

If a student missed homeroom, he or she was marked

absent for the day, unless he or she reported to the Main

Office. The school resource officer advised students

to come to school and report to the office when they

arrived. She also solicited and obtained private funding

to purchase alarm clocks for the students as holiday

presents.

A second problem was the lack of appropriate school

clothing. These students reported having no clean

clothing or having clothing that no longer fit their

growing bodies. Most students with this problem were

female. Again, the school resource officer obtained

funding from private donations and purchased clothing

for these students. Providing these clothes seemed to

aid, although not erase, this issue.

Broad Interventions

Student leaders focused on ensuring that all incoming

ninth grade students felt welcome and bonded to Booker

T. Washington High School. The entire team worked to

explain the policies and procedures of the school. They

published information about high school graduation

requirements in multiple media forums. Finally,

the team briefed teachers on the analysis findings.

Administrators and students identified ways for teachers

to make better connections with the new students early in

28
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

the school year. These efforts responded to discussions

with students and findings from the student surveys that

some students, especially truant students, did not like

school and did not like their teachers.

Specific interventions included providing an

introductory/orientation course to high school to all

ninth graders during the summer and developing schoolplanner calendars. The school planners included phone

numbers for social services and emergency providers as

well as information about school policies and graduation

requirements. These attractive calendars were given to

every student during the first weeks of school. Student

leaders worked with officers to obtain donations from

businesses to host a welcome breakfast for incoming

ninth graders. During this breakfast, student leaders

introduced themselves and school administrators.

They recognized and promoted teachers assisting with

ninth grade class-specific activities such as spirit week

competition. The leaders explained extracurricular

activities, discussed how to request assistance with

specific courses, and offered their friendship to these

students.

Assessment

The Miami School-Based Partnership 1998 grant

program was successful on a number of levels. First,

it was a key part of a comprehensive effort to improve

the educational focus of a school in a poverty stricken,

diverse immigrant community. Due to a variety of

ongoing projects and other factors—the transition from

a middle school to a high school, the designation and

resources provided to a Title I high school, the extensive

construction, the increasing alumni involvement,

and many other factors—it is difficult to distinguish

the precise impact of the grant. Even so, these

accomplishments are noteworthy:

• Booker T. Washington school officials sought and

received assistance from the Miami Police Department.

• The partnership between the school and the police

department was strong and continues.

• Team members involved in the project have a better

understanding of the truancy problem—who is truant,

where they are being truant, and what they are doing

when they are truant. It seems clear that truant

students are not contributing to the crime problems in

the Overtown area.

29
COPS Innovations

• The team involved in this effort determined in the

analysis phase that they would be successful if they

saw a 6- to 10-percent drop in truancy. While the

truancy rate did not drop by that percentage, average

truancy rates appeared to be dropping. Of the 31

students targeted and contacted, 25 students (80

percent) improved their attendance significantly.

• Those students who participated in the interventions

have a clear understanding of the school policies and

graduation requirements. These students feel they are

more likely to graduate as a result.

30
School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Conclusion

Partnerships with key stakeholders were a primary

objective of the COPS-sponsored School Based

Partnerships program. The most successful partnerships

had clear roles among participants with strategic goals

and shared priorities. Too many partners, internal or

extra-organizational conflicts, competing priorities,

and limited resources proved challenging to some

grantees. Police indicated that certain partnerships were

instrumental in developing a better understanding of

problems in and around schools.

Students provided excellent input regarding the

problems and they tended to be more successful at

retrieving information. School administrators and

faculty assisted in policy change, provided program

support, and organized programs beneficial to the

problem-solving effort. School support personnel (i.e.,

security staff, cafeteria workers, etc) were key sources

of information concerning problem identification

(locations/offenders/victims) and response development.

Parents completed surveys, provided support, and gave

insights on health issues (both physical and mental).

And finally, local businesses provided information,

financial, and/or political support. Often overlooked

partners included bus drivers who provided information

for police and school administrators in addition to

supporting programs and providing feedback on results.

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School-Based Partnerships:

A Problem-Solving Strategy

Recommended Readings

The COPS Office works with some of the most

innovative and respected names in law enforcement

to develop publications designed to help with many

aspects of community policing, as well as specific

problem-oriented studies. From enterprise-level

organizational issues to problems like stamping out

graffiti, COPS publications can offer insights and

experiences from others in the field. Visit our Resource

Center at www.cops.usdoj.gov or call 800.421.6770.

A Guide to Developing, Maintaining, and Succeeding

With Your School Resource Officer Program, by

Peter Finn, Meg Townsend, Michael Shively, and

Tom Rich, 2005. This report documents promising

methods that selected SRO programs have used to

address potential problem areas of SRO program

operations, such as recruiting, screening, retaining,

training, and supervising SROs. www.cops.usdoj.

gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=1531.

A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993.

This guide offers a practical introduction for police

practitioners to two types of surveys that police

find useful: surveying public opinion and surveying

the physical environment. It provides guidance on

whether and how to conduct cost-effective surveys.

www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/polc.pdf.

Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory

Guide for Police Problem-Solvers, by John E. Eck

(U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide

is a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides

for Police series. It provides basic guidance for

measuring and assessing problem-oriented policing

efforts.

www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item-585.

Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah

Weisel (Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 1999).

This guide, along with accompanying computer

software, provides practical, basic pointers for police

in conducting community surveys. www.ojp.usdoj.

gov/bjs.

33
COPS Innovations

Crime Analysis for Problem Solving in 60 Small

Steps, by Ronald Clarke and John Eck, 2005. This

innovative manual, written by two leading crimeprevention experts, is intended for crime analysts and

other police officials working on problem-oriented

policing projects. It covers the basics of problemoriented policing and shows how many new concepts

developed to analyze crime patterns can sharpen

understanding of crime and disorder problems. www.

cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=1597.

Guide to Using School COP to Address Student

Discipline Problems, by Tom Rich, Peter Fynn,

and Shawn Ward, 2001. This guide is designed to

help school administrators, police officers assigned

to a school, and nonsworn school security staff

reduce student discipline and crime problems using

a new software application called the School Crime

Operations Package, or School COP. www.cops.usdoj.

gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=301.

Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman

(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains

the rationale behind problem-oriented policing and

the problem-solving process, and provides examples

of effective problem-solving in one agency.

Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships, by

Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy

Rinehart, and Meg Townsend. (U.S. Department

of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing

Services, 1998) (also available at www.cops.usdoj.

gov). Provides a brief introduction to problemsolving, basic information on the SARA model,

and detailed suggestions about the problem-solving

process.

SRO Performance Evaluation: A Guide to Getting

Results, by Tammy Rinehart Kochel, Anna Laaszlo,

and Laura Nickles, 2005. This evaluation captures

the lessons-learned from a COPS-funded, 2-year

pilot project conducted by Circle Solutions, Inc. The

result is a step-by-step guide to help law enforcement

and school personnel use school resource officers

(SRO) effectively. To better address school crime and

disorder, it also provides guidance on how to match

the SROs’ actual performance to their evaluations.

www.cops.usdoj.gov/mime/open.pdf?Item=1570.

34
www.cops.usdoj.gov

FO R M ORE IN FO RM ATIO N

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.

Washington, DC 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit COPS Online at the address listed below.

e10061029