Inside the front cover is a facsimile of the first plat of a township surveyed 

under the rectangular system of surveys. The township was surveyed in 1786 

by Absalom Martin from New Jersey.

The township was designated Township No. V First Range. Ranges were 

counted west from the west boundary of Pennsylvania and townships were 

counted north from the Ohio River. The north boundary of the townships is 

the Geographer’s Line, the first line surveyed in the system, begun on 

September 30, 1785, under the direction of Thomas Hutchins, Geographer of 

the United States.

Under the Land Ordinance of May 20, 1785, only the exterior boundaries of 

townships were actually surveyed. Township plats were marked by subdivisions 

into sections or “lots” 1 mile square, numbered from 1 to 36, commencing 

with No. 1 in the southeast corner of the township and running from south to 

north in each sequence to No. 36 in the northwest corner of the township. In 

subsequent years, the subdivision lines were surveyed on the ground and are 

shown on later plats.
Manual of Surveying Instructions

For the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States

Prepared by the

United States Department of the Interior

Bureau of Land Management

Cadastral Survey

2009
Key to Citation of Authorities, by Volume and Page or Section

A- Administrative Decisions of the Department of the Interior.

CFR Code of Federal Regulations of the United States of America.

F. Federal Reporter. Decisions of the United States Courts of Appeals.

F.2d Federal Reporter, second series.

F.3d Federal Reporter, third series.

IBLA Decisions of the Interior Board of Land Appeals, Department of the Interior, September 1970 

and later.

Interior Dec. Decisions of the Department of the Interior, 1930 and later, beginning with Vol. 53.

M- Department of the Interior Solicitor’s Opinion.

Pub. Lands Dec. Decisions of the Department of the Interior relating to the public lands through 1929, 

Vols. 1 to 52.

Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes of the United States; citation includes section number.

Stat. United States Statutes at Large.

Title 43 Public Lands: Interior.

U.S. United States Reports. Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States.

U.S.C. United States Code (The Code of the Laws of the United States).

Section numbers cited in this Manual without other designation indicate the chapter and chapter section of 

the Manual.

The Office of Cadastral Survey of the Bureau of Land Management acknowledges with gratitude the generous 

donation by James A. Simpson of the copyright and some of the associated image production materials for his book 

River & Lake Boundaries, case studies from which appear in Chapters III and VIII of this edition of the Manual of 

Surveying Instructions.

ISBN 978-0-9791310-2-8

BLM/WO/GI-09/010+9600

www.blm.gov

Suggested citation for general reference:

U.S. Department of the Interior. 2009. Manual of Surveying Instructions: For the Survey of 

the Public Lands of the United States. Bureau of Land Management. Denver, CO: Government 

Printing Office.

Suggested citation for technical reference:

Manual of Surveying Instructions (2009).

The information contained within this Manual of Surveying Instructions assures consistency with the Cadastral 

Data Content Standard developed by the Federal Geographic Data Committee’s Subcommittee on Cadastral 

Data in support of the requirements of the Office of Management and Budget Circular No. A-16, revised, entitled 

Coordination of Geographic Information and Related Spatial Data Activities.
2009 Edition

United States

Department of the Interior

Bureau of Land Management

Manual of Surveying Instructions

Prepared and published under the supervision of the Director, Bureau of Land Management.

The following instructions, issued for the guidance of all cadastral surveyors executing 

surveys with special instructions, were prepared under my supervision, and will supersede 

all previous instructions or directives on the technical subjects contained therein.

Robert V. Abbey

Director, Bureau of Land Management

Under the authority of Title 43 U.S.C. §§ 2 and 1201, and subject to the authority of the 

Secretary of the Interior, the Manual of Surveying Instructions was created subject to my 

direction and control.

Approved: September 24, 2009

Wilma A. Lewis

Assistant Secretary, Land and Minerals Management

Department of the Interior

Washington, DC

vii

Contents

Chapter I

The General Plan.....................................................1

The Manual ...........................................................1

The Federal Lands.................................................4

Laws and Rules Relating to Surveys......................7

Organization ........................................................14

The Public Land States........................................15

The Non-Public Land States................................17

Chapter I Notes....................................................18

Chapter II

Methods of Survey.................................................27

Introduction .........................................................27

Measurement .......................................................27

The Geodesy of Large-Scale 

Cadastral Surveys..........................................28

Coordinate Systems and Projections ...................34

Chapter III

The System of Rectangular Surveys..................39

Introduction .........................................................39

General Scheme...................................................39

Initial Points ....................................................... 40

Principal Meridian.............................................. 40

Base Line.............................................................42

Protraction Diagrams

Plan of Survey...............................................42

Standard Parallels................................................42

Guide Meridians..................................................43

Township Exteriors..............................................43

Subdivision of Townships....................................54

Irregular Townships.............................................59

Extension and Completion Surveys.................... 60

Subdivision of Sections....................................... 64

Protraction Diagrams...........................................76

Developing Amended 

Protraction Diagrams....................................77

General Rules on Surveying Amended 

Protraction Diagrams....................................79

Meandering..........................................................81

Swamp and Overflowed Lands............................89

Limits of Closure for Original Surveys.............. 90

Marking Lines Between Corners.........................91

Summary of Objects to be 

Noted and Sketches.......................................93

Soil Classification ................................................96

Chapter III Notes.................................................97

Chapter IV

Monumentation....................................................105

Introduction .......................................................105

Legal Significance of the Monument.................105

General Requirements.......................................105

Corner Monument Material...............................106

Construction of Monuments..............................106

Special-Purpose Monuments.............................107

System of Marking ............................................109

Marks on Corner Monuments............................109

Marks on Special-Purpose Monuments.............120

Corner Accessories............................................121

Arrangement and Marking of 

Corner Accessories .....................................124

Chapter V

Principles of Resurveys ......................................129

Resurveys...........................................................129

Jurisdiction ........................................................131

Bona Fide Rights of Claimants..........................133

General Field Methods ......................................134

The Dependent Resurvey...................................135

The Independent Resurvey ................................137

Special Cases.....................................................143

Resurvey Summary, Including

Subdivision of Sections...............................143
viii

Contents Manual of Surveying Instructions

Chapter VI

Resurveys and Evidence.....................................147

The Nature of Resurveys...................................147

Identification of Existent Corners......................148

Identification of Obliterated Corners.................149

Direct Evidence of Existent and 

Obliterated Corners.....................................150

Collateral Evidence of Obliterated Corners.......154

Corner Positions Based on the Protection of

Bona Fide Rights: 43 U.S.C. 772................157

Independent Resurveys: Bona Fide Rights 

and the Location of Alienated Lands..........162

Chapter VII

Resurveys and Restoration................................165

Restoration of Lost Corners...............................165

Primary Methods...............................................166

Secondary Methods...........................................173

Special Cases.....................................................180

Summary ...........................................................180

Chapter VII Notes .............................................181

Chapter VIII

Resurveys and Water Boundaries....................183

Introduction .......................................................183

Meanders...........................................................183

Navigability .......................................................186

Source of Law Considerations...........................193

Opposite Banks Delimitations...........................194

Water Body Movements.....................................197

Partition Lines...................................................209

Boundaries in Front of Riparian 

Acquired or Non-Federal Lands ................. 217

Islands and Sandbars.........................................218

Erroneously Omitted Lands...............................219

Accretion Prior to Entry ....................................221

Land Outside Meanders with 

No Gross Error in Survey ...........................221

Mineral Lands Survey and 

Water Boundaries........................................222

Acquired Lands and Tidal Waters.....................222

Division of Tidewater Flats................................223

Protraction Diagrams.........................................224

Chapter VIII Notes............................................225

Chapter IX

Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats...283

Special Instructions...........................................283

Field Notes and Plat...........................................285

Field Notes.........................................................285

Plats...................................................................295

Chapter X

Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys.............329

Special Surveys..................................................329

Mineral Surveys.................................................350

Special Cases.....................................................373

Appendix I

Specimen Field Notes and Plat—

Original Survey...............375 and pocket, back cover

Appendix II

Specimen Field Notes and Plat—

Dependent Resurvey ......411 and pocket, back cover

Appendix III

Specimen Field Notes and Plat—

Mineral Survey................451 and pocket, back cover

Appendix IV

Supplemental Plat

Specimen Plat ................. 473 and pocket, back cover

Appendix V

Protraction Diagram

Specimen Plat ..................475 and pocket, back cover

Index.......................................................................477
1

The Manual

Introduction

1-1. One of the earliest issues faced by the new United 

States Government after the conclusion of the War of 

Independence was the appropriate development and 

disposition of the public lands owned by the Federal 

Government. The issue was addressed in the United 

States Constitution itself under Article IV, Section 3, 

Clause 2, which provides that “The Congress shall have 

Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and 

Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property 

belonging to the United States” ensuring that the Federal 

Government, and not the individual States, would determine how the public lands of the United States were to 

be administered.

Prior to the Constitution’s adoption in 1788 and while 

the Articles of Confederation (1781) were still in effect, 

the Congress passed the Land Ordinance of 1785, establishing a system for surveying and thereby demarcating the public lands for their (1) orderly disposition into 

new States, (2) conveyance from Federal into State and 

private ownership, or (3) retention for Federal administration. This “rectangular system of survey” typically 

describes townships of 36 square miles comprised of 

sections of 1 square mile (640 acres, more or less), each 

subdivided into quarter sections (160 acres) and quarterquarter sections (40 acres). Chapter III describes this 

system in greater detail. Under this land tenure system, 

each tract of land would receive a unique identifying 

description. Before a survey was completed, the lands 

were known as “unsurveyed public lands” and could not 

be disposed out of Federal ownership.

Since the Land Ordinance of 1785, it has been the 

continuous policy of the United States that land shall 

not leave Federal ownership until it has first been surveyed, and an approved plat of survey has been filed. 

After the survey, persons interested in homesteading or 

making other authorized land entries under the Federal 

public land laws could identify what lands were available for claim and entry. The corner monuments on 

the ground established actual on-the-ground locations 

for the boundaries of the lands entered, patented, and/

or otherwise conveyed. This process assures the orderly 

disposition of the public lands and avoids confusion and 

contention.

Thirty of the fifty current States (“public domain 

States”) were originally surveyed under this system. 

With very few exceptions all chains of title to privately 

owned land in those 30 States trace back to a Federal 

land patent or other grant. These titles contain a written land description and locatable, on-the-ground monuments established according to an original “cadastral 

survey,” which created (not merely located) identifiable 

land boundaries. In litigation concerning land boundaries in these 30 States, often it is necessary to determine 

what specific lands left Federal ownership under a given 

Federal land patent or other instrument of conveyance 

and what lands remain in Federal ownership. Reference 

to the original patent and to its statutory authority, as 

well as the relevant survey (including the survey monuments, survey notes and plat, and instructions), are often 

needed for proper adjudication of modern land disputes 

in these 30 States, regardless of whether any Federal 

interests are directly involved in the dispute. Land ownership and boundaries in the other 20 States, i.e., the 

Thirteen Original States plus Hawaii, Kentucky, Maine, 

Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia, were 

established by other means and surveyed according to 

different systems and standards.

1-2. This Manual of Surveying Instructions (Manual) 

represents the latest in a series of official and binding 

survey instructions dating back to 1804; the most recent 

prior to this edition was issued in 1973. The dominant 

Federal policy has shifted from one favoring disposal 

and settling of the unreserved public lands to one favoring retention, administration, and control. This Manual, 

related Manual supplements and special instructions, 

and all former editions remain legally relevant because 

Chapter I

The General Plan
2

Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

they provide the instructions in force at the time a given 

survey was conducted. This edition of the Manual governs the conduct of all surveys and resurveys of the 

official boundaries of all Federal interest lands authorized or approved by the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) in the Department of the Interior after its issuance.1

 The same is true for prior Federal surveys; they 

are governed by the edition of the Manual in force at the 

time they were authorized and performed. Accordingly, 

the cadastral survey itself governs Federal land conveyances issued thereunder and the lands described in any 

given private chain of title, some of which are now more 

than 200 years long. Regardless of its length, each such 

chain of title begins with a land description established 

by an original cadastral survey prior to issuance of the 

patent or other conveyance document.

Every effort has been made in this edition of the Manual 

to preserve the long-standing principles of cadastral survey from the 1973 edition of the Manual while accommodating updated technology and making clarifications 

as deemed necessary. Advances in technology may 

make the surveyor’s job more efficient and various relatively minor changes in survey policy and techniques 

may occur over time, but the job itself and the basic 

principles have not changed since 1785. Security of legal 

title to land, one of the bulwarks of our basic freedoms, 

is the fundamental object of the cadastral surveyor’s 

work and of this Manual.

Purpose and Scope of the Manual

1-3. The Manual of Surveying Instructions describes 

how cadastral surveys are made in conformance with 

statutory law and its judicial interpretation. This chapter summarizes the various laws governing cadastral 

surveys, often referred to as official surveys or Federal 

authority surveys, and the general plan of surveying 

derived from them. This Manual is not intended to limit 

the survey authority or practices of any Federal agency 

other than the BLM.

The Chapter I Notes provide historical background to 

facilitate present-day understanding of the terms and 

practices used in prior editions of this Manual. The 

Chapter I Notes also provide additional history on the 

legal context of the surveying of Federal interest lands.

1 The term “Federal interest lands,” rather than “public lands,” is used 

throughout this edition of the Manual to reflect this change in orientation 

from disposal to retention and management of its land by the Federal 

Government, as well as to articulate the extent of BLM’s survey authority. 

Federal interest lands include, but are not limited to, public lands that have 

never left Federal ownership.

1-4. Surveying, in general, is the art and science of 

measuring and locating points, lines, angles, and elevations on the surface of the earth, including within 

underground workings, and on the beds of bodies of 

water.

A cadastral survey creates or reestablishes, marks, and 

defines boundaries of tracts of land. Cadastral surveys 

referred to in this Manual are the official surveys of the 

United States. In the general plan, each cadastral/official 

survey includes: a request for survey; special instructions; assignment instructions; a field note record of the 

observations, measurements, and monuments descriptive of the work performed; and a plat representing 

the official survey. All are subject to review, approval, 

and/or acceptance of the Director, Bureau of Land 

Management (Director, BLM). A cadastral survey is not 

complete until it is officially filed with the BLM as the 

culmination of this process.

1-5. The Manual prescribes the procedures and principles for establishing or reestablishing these boundaries. The instructions contained in this Manual will 

be observed by surveyors engaged in the execution of 

official Federal surveys. They are of utmost importance 

in maintaining a consistent and orderly survey system 

based upon certainty and predictability in survey procedures. A failure to follow the Manual may be considered 

an error. Surveys may be canceled and ordered redone if 

the Manual is not properly followed. The practices and 

explanations set forth here are also broadly applicable 

for other surveyors.

A cadastral/official survey is the highest form of boundary evidence available to the Federal Government, providing legal evidence of the geographic limits of the 

Federal interest in land. A cadastral survey is a formal 

decision by the Federal Government and is subject to 

administrative or judicial appeal. Official surveys are 

executed by authorized surveyors acting in the stead 

of and under the direction of the Director, subject to 

the delegated authority of the Secretary of the Interior. 

Therefore, it is critical that surveyors properly perform 

their duties; the execution of an official survey impacts 

the boundaries of all present and future landowners.

An official survey is distinct from a local survey or 

an administrative survey. A local survey is an opinion 

on the location of a boundary based on a survey that 

does not contain every element of an official survey. 

An administrative survey is a local survey for a Federal 

agency executed by a Federal employee or an agent of a 

Federal agency for administrative purposes.
3

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

1-6. Within the public domain States, boundaries that 

trace their origin to a Federal instrument of conveyance created when the United States owned both sides 

of the boundary are governed by applicable Federal 

laws and surveyed by the procedures and principles in 

the appropriate editions of this Manual. In all States, 

boundaries of Federal interest lands that trace their origin to an instrument of conveyance created when the 

United States did not own both sides of the boundary 

are governed by applicable Federal or State laws, which 

may involve survey by the procedures and principles in 

the appropriate portions and edition(s) of this Manual. 

Boundaries of non-Federal land in all States created 

when the United States owned neither side of the boundary are governed by the applicable State or foreign sovereign law in effect at the time of their creation.

Some States have enacted or adopted the Manual, thus 

making it explicitly applicable to boundaries of nonFederal land within such State. In cases where no 

Federal interest lands are involved and the State has 

not enacted or adopted the Manual, the surveying procedure must necessarily be consistent with due process 

and applicable State law.

Source of Law

1-7. When State law (or foreign sovereign law) and 

Federal law conflict in application to an identical fact 

situation, the surveyor must ascertain which law would 

most likely be found to be controlling and followed by 

the final court of competent jurisdiction. Final determination as to the controlling law is made by a court.

Surveyors should be guided, however, by the principle 

that the controlling law of an individual boundary of a 

parcel will be that law under which that boundary was 

created. If the boundary in question is a section line, 

even if no Federal interest land now is affected, Federal 

law, i.e. the law under which the boundary was created, 

will generally control its position. If, on the other hand, 

the boundary in question was created by a county or 

local surveyor or an individual acting under State law, 

then the answer to what law controls will depend on 

whether the State has adopted the Manual or some other 

standard to guide its survey procedures. By the same 

token, boundaries created by foreign sovereigns, such as 

Mexican land grants, will be controlled by application 

of the relevant law of Mexico at the time the boundary 

was established.

The surveyor cannot resolve such legal issues, but should 

be aware of them, use good judgment, and be prepared 

to provide technical advice.

Basic Surveying Principles and Practices

1-8. Application of basic surveying principles and 

practices to large-scale areas requires an understanding of the stellar, solar, and satellite methods for making 

observations to determine the true meridian, the treatment of the convergency of meridians, the running of 

the true parallels of latitude, the effect of elevation on 

distances, and the conversion in the direction of lines so 

that at any point the angular value will be referred to the 

true meridian at that place. These subjects are therefore 

explained and examples given with specific relation to 

the approved surveying practice.

1-9. The Manual gives extended treatment to subdivision of sections, restoration of lost or obliterated corners, resurveys, and special surveys of many kinds. 

These now make up a substantial portion of the surveying program of the BLM. Emphasis is placed on thoroughness in the identification and perpetuation of the 

surveys already completed.

Development of the Manual

1-10. Since 1785, the surveys of public lands have 

been conducted under the laws and rules of the Public 

Land Survey System (PLSS). The first surveys, covering parts of Ohio, were made by surveyors appointed 

by Congress or the States under the supervision of the 

Chief Geographer of the United States and complying 

with the Land Ordinance of May 20, 1785. A beginning point was established where the west boundary 

of Pennsylvania crosses the north bank of the Ohio 

River.

Based on early laws, that part of the Northwest Territory 

that became the State of Ohio was the experimental area 

for the development of the rectangular system used by 

the PLSS. Here the plans and methods were tested in a 

practical way. Notable revisions of the rules were made 

as the surveys progressed westward until the general 

plan was complete.

The Act of May 18, 1796, provided for the appointment 

of a Surveyor General, whose duty was to survey the 

public lands northwest of the Ohio River and above the 

mouth of the Kentucky River. A Surveyor General of 

the Lands of the United States South of the State of 

Tennessee was appointed in 1803 with the same duties as 

the first Surveyor General (Act of March 3, 1803 (2 Stat. 

229)). Eventually, a Surveyor General was appointed for 

each new surveying district created in the territories and 

States as lands were opened for settlement.
4

Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

The first set of surveying instructions was the actual 

Federal survey statutes. Initially, advice and general 

instructions were given to the Surveyors General by the 

Secretary of the Treasury, who was then in charge of 

land sales. Beginning in 1812, instructions were issued 

by the Commissioner of the General Land Office (GLO), 

an agency within the Treasury Department. Subsequent 

instructions were given to surveyors in manuscript or in 

printed circulars.

In 1831, the Commissioner of the General Land Office 

issued detailed instructions to the Surveyors General 

concerning surveys and plats. The applicable parts were 

incorporated by individual Surveyors General in bound 

volumes of instructions suitable for use in the field by 

deputy surveyors. From these directions the Manual of 

Surveying Instructions evolved.

The Act of July 4, 1836, placed the overall direction of 

the public land surveys under the Principal Clerk of the 

Surveys under the direction by the Commissioner of the 

General Land Office. The immediate forerunner of the 

Manual series was printed in 1851 as Instructions to the 

Surveyor General of Oregon; Being a Manual for Field 

Operations. Its use was soon extended to California, 

Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and New Mexico. In a 

slightly revised version, these instructions were issued 

as the Manual of 1855.

In 1946 the General Land Office was merged with the 

Federal Grazing Service to form the new Bureau of 

Land Management, which assumed responsibility for 

the functions and duties involved in managing the public lands, including the cadastral survey functions and 

responsibility for the Manual.

1-11. Previous editions of the Manual were issued in 

1855 (reprinted as the Manual of 1871), 1881, 1890, 1894, 

1902, 1930, 1947, and 1973. Instructions modifying 

specified surveying operations were prescribed in 1864 

(and reprinted as the Instructions of 1871). Advance 

Sheets of the first six chapters of what would become the 

Manual of 1930 were promulgated in 1919, and a manuscript edition of the chapter on plats was put into effect 

in 1928. Throughout, and to this day, the primary focus 

of the Manual has been, and remains, the integrity of the 

PLSS and the system of Federal survey and land records.

The Manual Supplements

1-12. The following are supplements to this Manual:

(1) Restoration of Lost or Obliterated Corners 

and Subdivision of Sections, a Guide for 

Surveyors. The guide provides an introduction to 

the rectangular system of public land surveying 

and resurveying, with a compendium of basic 

laws relating to the system. The restoration 

and subdivision guide answers many common 

questions arising in practical work. Although 

intended especially for county and other local 

surveyors and others who may have occasion 

to conduct local or administrative surveys, 

the guide is also of interest to attorneys, title 

insurance company personnel, and others who 

have professional interests in former or present 

Federal lands in the PLSS.

(2) Specifications for Descriptions of 

Tracts of Land for Use in Executive Orders 

and Proclamations. The specifications give 

guidance to persons who write and interpret 

land descriptions. The specifications’ purpose is 

to assist in producing legal descriptions that are 

definite, legally defensible, and susceptible to 

only one interpretation. It provides standardized 

processes for review of descriptions to assure 

that only valid descriptions are published.

(3) Glossary of BLM Surveying and Mapping 

Terms. The glossary is an authoritative reference 

of survey and mapping definitions used both 

within and outside the BLM.

(4) Mineral Survey Procedures Guide. This 

guide provides an introduction to the mineral 

lands system of Federal land surveying and 

resurveying and includes a compendium 

of basic laws relating to the system. It also 

answers many common questions encountered 

in practical survey work. Although intended 

especially for U.S. Mineral Surveyors, it is also 

of interest to locators, land surveyors, mineral 

examiners, attorneys, title insurance company 

personnel, and others who have professional 

interests in mineral lands.

The Federal Lands

Definitions

1-13. “Federal lands” or “Federal interest lands,” as used 

in this Manual, refer to any lands in which the United 

States holds title, an estate, or other interest. Federal lands 

or Federal interest lands include, but are not limited to: 

public domain lands, or those lands that were acquired 

by the United States from another sovereign and have 
5

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

never left Federal ownership (public domain lands were 

classified into, among others, agricultural lands, mineral 

lands, and Indian lands; for administrative purposes, 

these lands may now be administered by any one of several Federal agencies), private land claims (which were 

never part of the public domain), and acquired lands 

(which may or may not have ever been part of the public 

domain and which may be administered by any one of 

several Federal agencies). While the primary focus of the 

Manual is the PLSS States, Federal interest lands can be 

located anywhere. However, outside of the PLSS States, 

some portions of the Manual may not be applicable, as a 

technical matter. For treatment of mineral lands surveys, 

see sections 10-77 through 10-230.

The original public domain is comprised of the lands 

that have been added to the area included in the 

Thirteen Original States. These lands included the lands 

that were turned over to the Federal Government by the 

Colonial States and the areas acquired later from the 

Native Americans or foreign powers. In other words, the 

public domain includes the States west of the 18 Eastern 

States created from Colonial lands, excluding Hawaii 

and Texas (figure 1-1).

Administration

1-14. After admission of the public domain States into 

the Union, the Federal Government continued and continues to hold title to and administer unappropriated 

lands. Various enabling acts expressly provide that the 

title to unappropriated lands within these States shall 

be retained by the United States. Moreover, lands in the 

territories not appropriated under competent authority 

before they were acquired are the exclusive property of 

the United States. The lands are to be administered or 

prepared for disposal to such persons at such time, in 

such modes, and by such titles as the Government may 

deem most advantageous to the public. Congress alone 

has plenary power, derived from Article IV, Section 3, 

Clause 2, of the Constitution to dispose of and make all 

needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 

other property belonging to the United States.

1-15. The Director of the Bureau of Land Management 

has the authority to determine what lands are Federal 

interest lands, what lands have been surveyed, what 

are to be surveyed, what have been disposed of, what 

remains to be disposed of, and what are reserved. By a 

well-settled principle of law, the United States, through 

the Department of the Interior, has the authority and 

duty to extend the surveys as may be necessary to 

include lands erroneously omitted from earlier surveys.

Proper administration of Federal interest land requires 

identifying and marking ownership boundaries or special use boundaries in a manner that defines the physical 

limits of interests or permitted uses. The BLM, unique 

among Federal agencies, has been given, in addition to 

its specific authority to conduct official/cadastral surveys 

of the public lands, specific authority to survey Federal 

interest lands in general. Therefore, other Federal entities, as well as federally recognized Indian tribes and 

their individual members, Alaska Native Corporations, 

Alaska Natives, and non-Federal landowners, may 

request assistance from the BLM for official surveys 

and related cadastral services necessary to meet administrative responsibilities or legal requirements. Funding 

for official survey services is appropriated directly to 

the BLM by Congress or, in appropriate cases, is provided by the requester through contributed funds.

Navigable Waters

1-16. Sovereignty over the lands beneath navigable 

waters2 lies with the individual States upon statehood, 

unless explicitly declared otherwise by competent 

authority. Beds of navigable bodies of water are not 

public domain lands and are not subject to survey and 

disposal by the United States.

Under the laws of the United States, the navigable 

waters have always been and shall forever remain common highways. This includes all tidewater streams and 

other important permanent bodies of water whose natural and normal condition at the date of the admission of 

a State into the Union was such as to classify it as navigable water. Tidelands (lands below the line of mean 

high tide) are not subject to survey as public domain 

land, save in exceptional instances.

2 “Lands beneath navigable waters” means:

(1) all lands within the boundaries of each of the respective States, 

which are covered by nontidal waters that were navigable under the 

laws of the United States at the time such State became a member of 

the Union, or acquired sovereignty over such lands and waters thereafter, up to the ordinary high water mark as heretofore or hereafter 

modified by accretion, erosion, and reliction;

(2) all lands permanently or periodically covered by tidal waters up to 

but not above the line of mean high tide and seaward to a line 3 geographical miles distant from the coast line of each such State, and to 

the boundary line of each such State where in any case such boundary 

as it existed at the time such State became a member of the Union, 

or as heretofore approved by Congress, extends seaward (or into the 

Gulf of Mexico) beyond 3 geographical miles; and

(3) all filled in, made, or reclaimed lands that formerly were lands 

beneath navigable waters, as hereinabove defined (67 Stat. 29; 43 

U.S.C. 1301(a)(1), (2), and (3)).
6

Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions Figure 1-1. The principal meridians and base lines of the Public Land Survey System. 180°

52°

52°

70° 130°

125° 115° 105° 95° 85° 75°

105° LONGITUDE WEST 95° FROM GREENWICH 85° 75°

45° 35°

45° ° 35

25°

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vajo

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St. Stephens

Huntsville

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the United States

Public Land Surveys

Dates indicate

establishment of

initial points or

first survey.

Principal Meridians

and

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Blue, green, orange and yellow shades

distinguish between the 37 different

Principal Meridians and Base Lines

Principal MeridiansBase LinesRiver Base (Ohio)State Boundaries

160°

° 20

HI
7

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

Swamp and Overflowed Lands

1-17. In Alabama, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, 

Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 

Ohio, Oregon, and Wisconsin, the swamp and overflowed lands, though public domain, passed to the 

States. This was done upon identification as such by 

public land survey and approved selection, the title then 

being subject to disposal by the States.

The Act of March 2, 1849 (9 Stat. 352), granted to the 

State of Louisiana all its swamp and overflowed lands 

for the purpose of aiding in their reclamation. The Act 

of September 28, 1850 (9 Stat. 519), extended the grant 

to other public land States then in the Union. The grant 

was also extended to Minnesota and Oregon by the Act 

of March 12, 1860 (12 Stat. 3). These various grants 

were carried over into 43 U.S.C. 982 (Rev. Stat. 2479). 

Section 4 of the Act of July 23, 1866 (Rev. Stat. 2488; 

14 Stat. 218), established the rules and methods for the 

identification of the granted lands in California. A notable exception to the swamp land laws is found in the 

Arkansas Compromise Act of April 29, 1898 (30 Stat. 

367; 43 U.S.C. 991), by which all right, title, and interest 

to the remaining unappropriated swamp and overflowed 

lands reverted to the United States.

The provisions of the grants described above apply to 

elevations below the uplands where, without the construction of levees or drainage canals, the areas would 

be unfit for agriculture. The grants apply to all swamp 

and overflowed lands unappropriated at the dates of the 

granting acts, whose character at that time would bring 

them within the provisions of the grant. It is important 

that original survey plats and field notes within these 

States identify the extent of swamp and overflowed 

lands. Discussion of swamp and overflowed lands in 

connection with field examinations and surveys is found 

in sections 3-208 through 3-214.

Laws and Rules

Relating to Surveys

Surveying and Survey Administration Laws

1-18. In recognition of the fundamental principle of the 

common law that a valid land conveyance shall, in addition to other requirements, contain a description sufficiently accurate to identify boundaries with a required 

degree of certainty, Congress has passed a number of 

laws governing the manner in which Federal interest 

lands are to be surveyed and how the survey process 

will be administered.

The PLSS provides a uniform system of keeping records 

related to conveyance documents. The Land Ordinance 

of May 20, 1785 adopted the PLSS as “An ordinance 

for ascertaining the mode of locating and disposing of 

lands in the western territory, and for other purposes 

therein mentioned.”

Based upon field surveys establishing on-the-ground 

monuments prior to conveyance, the PLSS marked an 

important transition from the surveying practice that 

generally prevailed in the Colonial States where lands 

were described by irregular metes-and-bounds, with 

each parcel depending more or less on the description 

of its neighbors.

This Manual serves as the official interpretation 

of the controlling survey law and doctrines by the 

Department of the Interior with respect to the PLSS. It is 

applicable to a greater or lesser degree to official 

surveys of Federal interest lands outside public domain 

States as well. It also provides additional technical 

details to make the land tenure system function effectively. This Manual is not intended to limit the survey 

authority or practices of any Federal agency other than 

the BLM.

1-19. The rectangular surveying system of the PLSS 

was established by law and was devised with the objective of marking upon the ground and fixing for all time 

legal subdivisions for purposes of description and disposal of the public domain under the general land laws 

of the United States. The system is used for the purpose 

of describing and managing Federal interest lands in 

public domain States.

1-20. The following are selected Acts pertinent to surveying and survey administration:

The Act of May 18, 1796 (1 Stat. 464; 43 U.S.C. 

52, 751, and 931), made explicit the requirement, 

still in effect, that lands were to be surveyed 

and returned prior to conveyance. This act also 

began the contract system of surveying the 

public lands, which endured until 1910 when 

the direct system was enacted.

The status of navigable waters was also 

established at this time: “All navigable rivers, 

within the territory occupied by the public 

lands, shall remain and be deemed public 

highways; and, in all cases where the opposite 

banks of any streams not navigable belong 

to different persons, the stream and the bed 
8

Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

thereof shall become common to both” (Rev. 

Stat. 2476; 43 U.S.C. 931).3

The Act of May 10, 1800 (2 Stat. 73; 43 U.S.C. 

751), established that the Surveyor General 

would prepare three plats for each survey. It 

directs the division of townships into sections of 

640 acres each and half sections of 320 acres 

each, as nearly as may be. This is to be done 

by running parallel lines from east to west and 

from south to north at the distance of 1 mile 

from each other, marking the corners at the 

distance of each half mile on the lines running 

east to west and at the distance of each mile on 

those running from south to north, and placing 

the excess or deficiency of measurement in the 

legal subdivision adjoining the north or west 

exterior of the township.

Of the three plats prepared by the Surveyor 

General, the original was retained by the 

Surveyor General, the duplicate was sent to the 

Department of Treasury and the triplicate was 

used at the local land office. Pursuant to this 

Act, land started to be sold in units of 160 acres 

or more.

The three-plat system has been modified at 

various times. Today the BLM’s State Office 

Chief Cadastral Surveyor prepares two official 

plats. Depending on the State in which the land 

is located, the Chief retains the original or sends 

it to the designated State Official, and sends the 

duplicate, called the Secretary’s copy, to the 

BLM Chief Cadastral Surveyor in Washington, 

DC. The latter is currently held at the BLM 

Eastern States Office.

The Act of February 11, 1805 (2 Stat. 313; 43 

U.S.C. 752), directs that the public lands be 

subdivided into quarter sections (by protraction 

not by survey). This act further provides that 

boundary lines that have not been actually run 

and marked as aforesaid shall be ascertained 

by running straight lines from the established 

corners to the opposite corresponding corners 

(statutory method of subdivision except for 

fractional townships and sections described 

below, see Acts of April 24, 1820, and April 5, 

1832). In those portions of the townships where 

3 This section has been interpreted to mean that the common law rules 

of riparian ownership should apply—that instead of the owners of opposite 

banks of a nonnavigable stream being tenants in common of the bed, 

each held in severalty to the center of the stream.

no such opposite or corresponding corners 

have been or can be fixed, the said boundary 

lines shall be ascertained by running from 

the established corners due north and south 

or east and west lines, as the case may be, to 

the external boundary of such fractional unit 

(statutory method of subdivision of fractional 

townships and sections; see Acts of April 24, 

1820 and April 5, 1832).

The most important parts of the Act of February 

11, 1805, are:

(1) All section lines shall be surveyed 

and all quarter corners on those lines 

established.

(2) The corners set by the Surveyor 

General are unchangeable.

(3) The lines marked by the Surveyor 

General are unchangeable.

(4) The lengths of the section lines are 

unchangeable.

(5) The quantity or area of a section or 

fractional section is unchangeable. However, 

case law in the courts later established that 

the Surveyor General, i.e., the Government, 

could correct or change a survey up until 

such time as private rights were acquired 

based on the survey.

The Act of April 25, 1812 (2 Stat. 716; 43 U.S.C. 

2, 6, 12, 14, and 17), created the GLO as a bureau 

within the Department of the Treasury. These 

responsibilities are carried out today by the 

BLM Director. The Act states the Secretary of 

the Interior, or such officer as the Secretary may 

designate [the BLM Director], “shall perform all 

executive duties appertaining to the surveying 

and sale of the public lands4 of the United States, 

4 “Public Lands” as referenced in 43 U.S.C. 2 is different from the “public 

lands” as defined in the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 

1976, as amended, 43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq. The “public lands” referenced 

in 43 U.S.C. 2 include land owned by the United States that was part of 

the original public domain, not just those lands now managed by the BLM. 

The General Land Office (subsequently the BLM, as successor agency 

to the GLO) surveyed the public domain lands before they left Federal 

ownership—in fact, in order that they could leave Federal ownership. 

These surveys were carried out according to instructions issued by the 

Secretary of the Interior acting through the GLO (or BLM) —instructions 

that were precursors to, and incorporated into each successive edition of 

the Manual.
9

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

or in anywise respecting such public lands, and, 

also, such as relate to private claims of land, and 

the issuing of patents for all grants of land under 

the authority of the Government” (Rev. Stat. 

453; 43 U.S.C. 2).

The Acts of April 24, 1820 (3 Stat. 566; 43 

U.S.C. 753), and April 5, 1832 (4 Stat. 503; 43 

U.S.C. 753), direct that the corners and contents 

of half-quarter and quarter-quarter sections and 

fractional sections shall be ascertained, as nearly 

as possible, in the manner and on the principles 

directed and prescribed in the Act of February 

11, 1805.

The Act of March 3, 1849 (9 Stat. 395; 43 

U.S.C. 1451 and 1457), creates the Department 

of the Interior. This act transferred the GLO 

to the new Department and authorized 

the Secretary of the Interior to perform

all the duties of the GLO, formerly discharged 

by the Secretary of the Treasury.5

The Acts of March 3, 1853, and July 9, 1870 

(10 Stat. 245; 16 Stat. 218; Rev. Stat. 2406; 43 

U.S.C. 766), provide that the “public surveys 

shall extend over all mineral lands; and all 

subdividing of surveyed lands into lots less 

than one hundred and sixty acres may be done 

by county and local surveyors at the expense of 

claimants; but nothing in this section contained 

shall require the survey of waste or useless 

lands.” See sections 10-94 through 10-230 for 

additional details regarding the administration 

and surveys of mineral lands.

The Act of April 8, 1864 (13 Stat. 41; Rev. Stat. 

2115; 25 U.S.C. 176), provides that whenever 

it becomes necessary to survey any Indian or 

other reservations, or any lands, the same shall 

be surveyed under the direction and control of 

the BLM and as nearly as may be in conformity 

to the rules and regulations under which other 

public lands are surveyed.

The Act of March 3, 1899 (30 Stat. 1098; 43 

U.S.C. 751a), extended the PLSS to Alaska.

5 The Secretary of the Interior, or such officer as he or she may designate, is authorized to enforce and carry into execution, by appropriate 

regulations, every part of the provisions of this title not otherwise specially 

provided for. The title referenced is Title 43, Public Lands, United States 

Code; Rev. Stat. 2478; 43 U.S.C. 1201.

The Act of March 3, 1909 (35 Stat. 845), as 

amended (36 Stat. 884; 90 Stat. 2743, 2792; 

43 U.S.C. 772), provides that: “The Secretary 

of the Interior may, as of March 3, 1909, in 

his discretion, cause to be made, as he may 

deem wise under the rectangular system on 

that date provided by law, such resurveys or 

retracements of the surveys of public lands as, 

after full investigation, he may deem essential to 

properly mark the boundaries of the public lands 

remaining undisposed of: Provided, that no such 

resurvey or retracement shall be so executed as 

to impair the bona fide rights or claims of any 

claimant, entryman, or owner of lands affected 

by such resurvey or retracement” (43 CFR 

9180.0).

This General Resurvey Act is the authority for 

the BLM to execute resurveys of Federal interest 

lands provided bona fide rights or claims as to 

location are not impaired.

The law provides a penalty for the unauthorized 

alteration or removal of any Government survey 

monument or marked trees: “Whoever willfully 

destroys, defaces, changes, or removes to 

another place any section corner, quarter-section 

corner, or meander post, on any Government 

line of survey, or willfully cuts down any 

witness tree or any tree blazed to mark the line 

of a Government survey, or willfully defaces, 

changes, or removes any monument or bench 

mark of any Government survey, shall be fined 

under this title or imprisoned not more than six 

months, or both” (108 Stat. 1796, 2146; 18 U.S.C. 

1858). The willful destruction of monuments and 

corners of an official mineral survey is within 

the purview of this statute.

The Act of June 25, 1910 (36 Stat. 703, 741), 

provides, under “Surveying the Public Lands”: 

“The surveys and resurveys to be made by such 

competent surveyors as the Secretary of the 

Interior may select . . .” This provision of law 

brought to a close the practice of letting contracts 

for the making of surveys of public lands. The 

surveys are now made under the direct system, 

by appointed surveyors employed by the Federal 

Government. Beginning with the Act of May 

18, 1796, most public land surveys were made 

by county and other local surveyors, sworn in 

as U.S. Deputy Surveyors, under contract with 

Surveyors General. Today most official surveys 
10

Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

are conducted under the direct system, including 

interagency agreement, and modified contract 

system of noninherently governmental activities operating under special and assignment 

instructions.

The Act of September 21, 1918 (40 Stat. 965; 43 

U.S.C. 773), provides authority for the resurvey, 

by the Government, of all privately owned lands 

of townships in which the disposals exceed 50 

percent of the total area. Such resurveys shall 

be undertaken only upon application of the 

owners of at least three-fourths of the privately 

owned land in the township and upon deposit 

of the estimated costs of the resurvey. Similar 

resurveys may be made on the application of any 

court of competent jurisdiction.

On July 16, 1946, the Bureau of Land 

Management was established within the 

Department of the Interior in accordance with 

the President’s Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 

1946. Under that plan, the General Land Office 

was abolished and its functions transferred to 

the Secretary of the Interior (60 Stat. 1097, 1100; 

5 U.S.C. App. 519; 43 U.S.C. 1 note; 43 U.S.C. 

1201; 43 U.S.C. 1451 note).

The Secretary of the Interior provided, subject 

to his or her direction and control, that the 

functions and powers of the General Land 

Office, and the United States Supervisor of 

Surveys, together with the field surveying 

service, be exercised by the Director of the 

BLM. This includes the cadastral survey 

functions (President’s Reorganization Plan No. 

3 of 1950; 64 Stat. 1262 as amended; 5 U.S.C. 

Appendix; 5 U.S.C. 903 provisions; 43 U.S.C. 

1451 provisions; and Departmental Manual—

Delegation of Authority).

The Department of the Interior is responsible for 

the operation, maintenance, and modernization 

of the PLSS and other spatial databases 

covering Federal land titles and resources. The 

Department is also tasked with identifying and 

marking, by official survey, the boundaries 

of Federal interest in lands, except when 

Congress has explicitly assigned a surveying 

responsibility to another department, bureau, 

agency, or office.

The Federal Land Policy and Management 

Act (FLPMA) of October 21, 1976 (90 Stat. 

2743, 2766; 43 U.S.C. 1737(c)), provides 

that the Secretary of the Interior may accept 

contributions for cadastral surveying performed 

on Federally controlled or intermingled 

lands. This is a specific statutory provision to 

permit the acceptance of private and public 

contributions for official surveys of (1) lands or 

interests in lands owned by the United States 

and (2) lands or interests in lands owned by the 

United States with an interdependent corner or 

line with lands not owned by the United States. 

This substantially reenacts section 103 of the 

Public Land Administration Act of July 14, 

1960 (43 U.S.C. 1364, repealed).

The Act of October 5, 1992 (106 Stat. 1378; 43 

U.S.C. 1731 note), provides that appropriations 

therein made to the BLM, in fiscal year 1993 

and thereafter, may be expended for surveys of 

Federal lands and on a reimbursable basis for 

surveys of Federal lands.

Other statutes relevant to BLM survey authority 

in other specific situations or locations are 

contained in the Chapter I Notes.

Orders, Regulations, and Policies

1-21. Descriptions of tracts of land in Executive orders 

and proclamations will conform, as far as practicable, 

to the most recent edition of the Specifications for 

Descriptions of Tracts of Land for Use in Executive 

Orders and Proclamations, prepared by the BLM 

(Executive Order 11030, as amended; 1 CFR 19.1)

In the Department of the Interior, the Solicitor has 

authority to issue final legal interpretations, in the form 

of M-Opinions published in the Decisions of the United 

States Department of the Interior (Interior Dec.), on all 

matters within the jurisdiction of the Department, which 

will be binding, when signed, on all other Departmental 

offices and officials.

Further, the Office of Hearings and Appeals (OHA) is 

an authorized representative of the Secretary for the 

purpose of hearing, considering, and determining matters within the jurisdiction of the Department involving 

review functions of the Secretary. The Interior Board 

of Land Appeals (IBLA) is the administrative body 

that, on behalf of the Secretary, hears appeals of decisions rendered by Departmental officials relating to the 

use and disposition of public lands and their resources, 

including land selections arising under the Alaska 
11

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

Native Claims Settlement Act, as amended (43 CFR 4.1; 

43 U.S.C. 1201). Any party who is adversely affected by 

an official survey has the right to appeal to the Board 

(43 CFR 4.410). Decisions by the IBLA are binding for 

the official survey appealed and serve as precedent for 

future surveys.

1-22. Executive Order 12906 (April 11, 1994), as 

amended, states in part that: “Geographic Information 

is critical to promote economic development, improve 

our stewardship of natural resources, and protect the 

environment.” This Executive order defines National 

Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and spatial data and 

orders agencies to develop, in cooperation with State, 

local, tribal governments, and the private sector, a coordinated NSDI. The NSDI encompasses the technology, 

policies, standards, human resources, and related activities necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data. Cadastral survey data is 

a geospatial data theme that defines rights and interests 

in land that affect the value and use of land and comprises an essential element of the NSDI.

1-23. Organizationally, the Department of the Interior’s 

Departmental Manual Part 109, chapter 7 (May 21, 

1984), provides that the Assistant Secretary—Land and 

Minerals Management will exercise Secretarial direction and supervision over the BLM. The Director, BLM, 

is authorized, except as provided, to exercise the program authority of the Assistant Secretary—Land and 

Minerals Management with respect to the management 

of the public domain and acquired lands, including 

all associated and related functions per Departmental 

Manual Part 235, chapter 1 (June 28, 2001).

Further, Departmental Manual Part 757 (November 29, 

1988) provides, consistent with Office of Management 

and Budget Circular No. A-16 “Coordination of 

Geographic Information and Related Spatial Data 

Activities” (2002), that the Cadastral Survey Program 

will (1) establish procedures and responsibilities for 

cadastral surveying activities; (2) coordinate Federal 

cadastral surveying activities through the Interagency 

Cadastral Coordination Council (ICCC) and prescribe 

policy, responsibility, and procedures for cadastral 

surveys performed by the bureaus and offices of the 

Department; (3) be responsible for the Public Land 

Survey System and exercise its authority to survey and 

resurvey Federal interest lands, including trust territories and Indian land, and land in private ownership; 

(4) prepare the Manual of Surveying Instructions and 

its amendments and supplements for the Department; 

(5) maintain the storage and dissemination of survey 

data within the Federal survey records system; (6) establish a Geographic Coordinate Data Base of all corner 

positions related to the PLSS and Federal interest lands, 

thereby providing the administration and coordination 

of the establishment and maintenance of the system for 

the storage and dissemination of survey and land status 

data for use by local and national realty, land title, and 

mapping interests; (7) be responsible for the segregation by survey of valid private rights acquired pursuant to a variety of public land laws including the general mining laws; (8) coordinate bureaus’ and offices’ 

actions that serve to change the official Federal survey 

records; (9) provide special instructions to the Bureau 

of Reclamation when the latter exercises its specific 

authority to conduct cadastral surveys on certain public 

lands withdrawn for reclamation; (10) execute cadastral surveys for the Bureau of Indian Affairs on Indian 

reservations; (11) after authorizing other agencies and 

offices to perform surveys, provide necessary instructions, guidance, and official approval of the records; 

(12) conduct original surveys; and (13) conduct resurveys for agencies on a reimbursement basis.

1-24. In addition, under OMB Circular No. A-16, the 

BLM is the lead Federal agency with responsibilities 

for three NSDI spatial data themes: Cadastral, Federal 

Land Ownership Status, and Public Land Conveyance 

(patent) Records.

The Circular also establishes the Federal Geographic 

Data Committee (FGDC) as the interagency coordinating committee for all NSDI-related activities. The 

FGDC created a Subcommittee for Cadastral Data 

for interagency cadastral matters. The Subcommittee 

issued the following Cadastral Data Content Standard 

for the NSDI:

To provide a standard for the definition and 

structure for cadastral data which will facilitate 

data sharing at all levels of government and the 

private sector and will protect and enhance the 

investments in cadastral data at all levels of 

government and the private sector (ver. 1.4, p.2; 

May 2008).

1-25. In summary, the Secretary of the Interior has 

delegated survey authority and responsibility via the 

Assistant Secretary—Land and Minerals Management, 

and the Director, Bureau of Land Management, to the 

Washington Office Chief Cadastral Surveyor to act as 

consultant to the Director in the formulation of policies, 

programs, standards, and procedures of cadastral surveys, to perform all functions and sign all documents 
12

Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

relating to the appointment of U.S. Mineral Surveyors, 

and to provide the final interpretation of the Manual. 

The State Office Chief Cadastral Surveyors perform 

technical supervision and approval of surveys within 

their jurisdiction.

Rules of PLSS Survey

1-26. The rules for the PLSS were developed under the 

early survey statutes and are summarized as follows:

First. The public lands shall be divided by 

north and south lines run according to the true 

meridian, and by others crossing them at right 

angles, so as to form townships of 6 miles square, 

unless where the line of an Indian reservation, or 

of tracts of land heretofore surveyed or patented, 

or the course of navigable rivers, may render this 

impracticable; and in that case this rule will be 

departed from no further than such particular 

circumstances require (figure 1-2).

Second. The corners of the townships shall be 

marked with progressive numbers from the 

beginning; each distance of a mile between such 

corners shall be also distinctly marked with 

marks different from those of the corners.

Third. The township shall be subdivided into 

sections, containing, as nearly as may be, 

640 acres each, by running parallel lines through 

the same from east to west and from south to 

north at the distance of 1 mile from each other, 

and marking corners at the distance of each 

half mile. The sections shall be numbered, 

respectively beginning with the number 1 in 

the northeast section and proceeding west and 

east alternately through the township with 

progressive numbers, until the 36 be completed.

Fourth. The cadastral surveyors, respectively, 

shall cause to be marked on a tree near each 

corner established in the manner described, and 

within the section, the number of such section, 

and over it the number of the township within 

which such section may be; and the surveyors 

shall carefully note, in their respective field 

tablets, the names of the corner trees marked 

and the numbers so made.

Fifth. Where the exterior lines of the townships 

which may be subdivided into sections or halfsections exceed, or do not extend 6 miles, the 

excess or deficiency shall be specially noted, 

and added to or deducted from the western and 

northern ranges of sections or half-sections in 

such township, according as the error may be 

in running the lines from east to west, or from 

south to north; the sections and half-sections 

bounded on the northern and western lines of 

such townships shall be sold as containing only 

the quantity expressed in the returns and plats 

respectively, and all others as containing the 

complete legal quantity.

Sixth. All lines shall be plainly marked upon 

trees, and measured with chains, containing 

two perches of 161⁄2 feet each, subdivided into 

25 equal links; and the chain shall be adjusted to 

a standard to be kept for that purpose.6

Seventh. Every surveyor shall note in his field 

tablet the true situations of all mines, salt licks, 

salt springs, and mill seats which come to his 

knowledge; all watercourses over which the 

line he runs may pass; and also the quality of 

the lands.

Eighth. These field tablets shall be returned 

to the Secretary of the Interior or such officer 

as he or she may designate, who shall cause 

6 The superior results obtained by the use of modern linear distance 

measuring tools and indirect measuring tools, in contrast with the obsolete 

link chain, have led to the abandonment of the latter, except that the 

“chain unit,” which is peculiarly adapted to public lands surveying, has 

continued in use. The responsible Chief Cadastral Surveyor can in the 

special instructions authorize returns in units other than the chain unit.

6 5 4 3 2 1

7 8 9 10 11 12

18 17 16 15 14 13

R ange Line

To wnship Line

19 20 21 22 23 24

30 29 28 27 26 25

31 32 33 34 35 36

Figure 1-2. A regular township.
13

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

therefrom a description of the whole lands 

surveyed to be made out and transmitted to 

the officers who may superintend the sales. A 

fair plat shall be made of the townships and 

fractional parts of townships contained in the 

lands, describing the subdivisions thereof, and 

the marks of the corners. This plat shall be 

recorded in books to be kept for that purpose; 

and a copy thereof shall be kept open at the 

office of the Secretary of the Interior or of 

such agency as he may designate for public 

information, and other copies shall be sent 

to the places of the sale, and to the Bureau 

of Land Management (Rev. Stat. 2395; Parts 

135, 235 and 757 Departmental Manual; OMB 

Circular A-16; 43 U.S.C. 751).

1-27. The boundaries and contents of the several sections, half-sections, and quarter-sections of the public 

lands shall be ascertained in conformity with the following principles:

First. All the corners marked in the surveys, 

returned by the Secretary of the Interior or 

such agency as he may designate, shall be 

established as the proper corners of sections, 

or subdivisions of sections, which they were 

intended to designate; and the corners of halfand quarter-sections, not marked on the surveys, 

shall be placed as nearly as possible equidistant 

from two corners which stand on the same line.

Second. The boundary lines, actually run and 

marked on-the-ground and described in the 

surveys returned by the Secretary of the Interior 

or such agency as he may designate, shall be 

established as the proper boundary lines of 

the sections, or subdivision, for which they 

were intended, and the length of such lines as 

returned, shall be held and considered as the 

true length thereof. And the boundary lines 

which have not been actually run and marked 

shall be ascertained, by running straight lines 

from the established corners to the opposite 

corresponding corners; but in those portions of 

the fractional townships where no such opposite 

corresponding corners have been or can be 

fixed, the boundary lines shall be ascertained by 

running from the established corners due north 

and south or east and west lines, as the case may 

be, to the watercourse, Indian boundary line, 

or other external boundary of such fractional 

township.

Third. Each section or subdivision of section, 

the contents whereof have been returned by the 

Secretary of the Interior or such agency as he 

may designate, shall be held and considered 

as containing the exact quantity expressed in 

such return; and the half-sections and quartersections, the contents whereof shall not have 

been thus returned, shall be held and considered 

as containing the one-half or the one-fourth 

part, respectively, of the returned contents of 

the section of which they may make part (Rev. 

Stat. 2396; Parts 235 and 757 Departmental 

Manual; OMB Circular A-16; 43 U.S.C. 752).

1-28. In every case of the division of a quarter-section, the line for the division thereof shall run north 

and south, and the corners and contents of halfquarter sections, which may thereafter be sold, shall 

be ascertained in the manner and on the principles 

directed and prescribed by the section preceding (43 

U.S.C. 752). Fractional sections containing 160 acres 

or upwards shall in like manner, as nearly as practicable, be subdivided into half-quarter sections, under 

such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the 

Secretary of the Interior, and in every case of a division of a half-quarter section, the line for the division 

thereof shall run east and west, and the corners and 

contents of quarter-quarter sections, which may thereafter be sold, shall be ascertained, as nearly as may 

be, in the manner and on the principles directed and 

prescribed by the section preceding (43 U.S.C. 752). 

Fractional sections containing fewer or more than 

160 acres shall in like manner, as nearly as may be practicable, be subdivided into quarter-quarter sections, under 

such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the 

Secretary of the Interior (Rev. Stat. 2397; Parts 235 and 

757 Departmental Manual; OMB Circular A-16; 43 

U.S.C. 753).

General Rules

1-29. From the foregoing synopsis it is evident:

First. That the boundaries and subdivision of 

the public lands as surveyed under approved 

instructions by the duly appointed surveyors, 

the physical evidence of which survey consists 

of monuments established upon the ground, and 

the record evidence of which consists of field 

notes and plats duly approved by the authorities 

constituted by law, are unchangeable after the 

passing of title by the United States.
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Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

Second. That the original township, section, 

quarter-section, and other monuments as 

physically evidenced shall stand as the true 

corners of the subdivisions which they were 

intended to represent, and shall be given 

controlling preference over the recorded 

directions and lengths of lines.

Third. That sixteenth-section corners not 

marked in the process of the original survey 

shall be placed as nearly as possible on the 

line connecting the section and quarter-section 

corners, and midway between them, except on 

the last half mile of section lines closing on the 

north and west boundaries of the township, or 

on other lines between fractional or irregular 

sections.

Fourth. That the center lines of a regular section 

are to be ascertained by running straight lines 

from the quarter-section corner on one boundary 

of the section to the corresponding corner on the 

opposite section line.

Fifth. That in a fractional section where no 

opposite corresponding quarter-section corner 

has been or can be fixed, the center line of such 

section shall be run from the proper quartersection corner as nearly in a cardinal direction to 

the meander line, reservation, or other boundary 

of such fractional section, as due parallelism 

with section lines will permit.

Sixth. That lost or obliterated corners of the 

approved surveys must be restored to their 

original locations whenever this is possible.

1-30. The basic provisions require that the public lands 

“shall be divided by north and south lines run according to the true meridian, and by others crossing them at 

right angles, so as to form townships six miles square;” 

that “the townships shall be subdivided into sections, 

containing as nearly as may be, six hundred and forty 

acres each;” and that “the excess or deficiency shall 

be specially noted, and added to or deducted from the 

western and northern ranges of sections or half-sections 

in such townships, according as the error may be in running the lines from east to west, or from south to north.” 

The system of rectangular surveys fits the basic requirements to the curved surface of the earth.

In this rectangular plan, the township boundaries are 

intended to be due north and south or due east and west. 

The boundaries running north and south are termed 

“range lines.” The boundaries running east and west 

are termed “township lines.” In this general plan, all the 

lines are rhumb lines and cross each meridian at a constant angle.

The range lines are great circles of the earth that, if 

extended, would converge and intersect at the North 

Pole. This convergency becomes apparent in the measurement of the township lines. The convergency is 

taken up at intervals by the running of standard parallels, on which the measurements are again made full. 

On the standard parallels, first termed “correction 

lines,” there are offsets in the range lines and two sets of 

corners, standard corners for the lines to the north and 

closing corners for lines to the south. The usual interval between the standard parallels is 24 miles, but there 

were many exceptions in the older surveys.

To make the sections represent “square miles” as nearly 

as may be, the meridional lines are run from south to 

north and parallel to the east boundary of the township 

for a distance of 5 miles from the south boundary. These 

are run and monumented as true lines. The remaining 

section lines are all run by random and true between the 

established section corners. This produces the rectangular sections, 25 of which contain 640 acres each, within 

allowable limits. The sections along the north and west 

boundaries are subdivided on a plan for certain lottings 

to absorb the convergency and the excess or deficiency 

in the measurements. These sections provide a maximum number of aliquot parts (160-, 80-, and 40-acre 

units) or regular subdivisions of a section, the remainder 

being shown as lots for which the contents are computed 

according to the field measurements.

Organization

1-31. The reorganization of the Federal Government 

has involved necessary changes in the administrative 

practice consistent with the established technical procedure. Note that throughout the Manual, references 

to the administrative practice are purposely stated in 

general terms; this is done to avoid diverting the attention from a strictly technical treatment of the surveying 

subjects.

Official surveys are conducted by the BLM’s State 

Offices under the direction of the State Office Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor. The authority over field operations 

is limited by instructions issued by the Director. The 

State Offices, with locations, are:
15

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

Alaska State Office at Anchorage, Alaska.

Arizona State Office at Phoenix, Arizona.

California State Office at Sacramento, California 

(administers official surveys in California and 

Hawaii).

Colorado State Office at Denver, Colorado.

Idaho State Office at Boise, Idaho.

Montana State Office at Billings, Montana 

(administers official surveys in Montana, North 

Dakota, and South Dakota).

Nevada State Office at Reno, Nevada.

New Mexico State Office at Santa Fe, New 

Mexico (administers official surveys in Kansas, 

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas).

Oregon State Office at Portland, Oregon 

(administers official surveys in Oregon and 

Washington).

Utah State Office at Salt Lake City, Utah.

Wyoming State Office at Cheyenne, Wyoming 

(administers official surveys in Wyoming and 

Nebraska).

Headquarters for official surveys in the 

remaining States are at the Eastern States Office, 

Springfield, Virginia.

The Public Land States

1-32. Thirty States have been created out of the public 

domain. In those where the public land surveys have 

been substantially completed, excepting Oklahoma, 

the original records have been transferred to the States 

upon closure of the Surveyor General’s office. In most 

cases, the duplicate original records of surveys prior 

to public survey office closures are retained in the 

Washington Office and are on file at the Eastern States 

Office of the BLM at Springfield, Virginia.

The Director of the BLM has administrative authority 

in questions relating to the re-marking of the boundaries of the remaining Federal interest land, where 

resurvey is required, and to the extension of surveys to 

include parcels of Federal land omitted from the official surveys.

The following is a list of the States formed from the 

public domain, giving the date of admission, a citation 

of the primary enabling act, statehood act, admission 

act, authorization act, resolution, or President’s proclamation as applicable (amendment acts and supplemental acts are not listed) in the United States Statutes at 

Large, and the present location of the original records, 

except as noted in sections 9-32 and 9-84, of public 

land surveys:

Alabama. Included in the territory of the 

original 13 States and portions acquired under 

the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; admitted 

into the Union December 14, 1819 (3 Stat. 

489 and 608); records with the Department 

of Conservation and Natural Resources at 

Montgomery.

Alaska. Purchased from Russia in 1867; 

admitted into the Union January 3, 1959 (72 

Stat. 339; 73 Stat. c16); records in the State 

Office of the BLM at Anchorage.

Arizona. Included in the lands ceded by Mexico 

in 1848 and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853; 

admitted into the Union February 14, 1912 (36 

Stat. 557; 37 Stat. 39 and 1728); records in the 

State Office of the BLM at Phoenix.

Arkansas. Acquired under the Louisiana 

Purchase in 1803 and admitted into the Union 

June 15, 1836 (5 Stat. 50); records with the 

Commissioner of State Lands at Little Rock.

California. Ceded by Mexico in 1848 and 

admitted into the Union September 9, 1850 (9 

Stat. 452); records in the State Office of the 

BLM at Sacramento, and National Archives 

and Records Administration (NARA) Records 

Center at San Bruno.

Colorado. Acquired largely under the Louisiana 

Purchase in 1803, but including additional land, 

title to which was quieted through treaty with 

Spain in 1819, with other lands annexed with 

Texas in 1845, and lands ceded by Mexico in 

1848; admitted into the Union August 1, 1876 

(18 Stat. 474; 19 Stat. 665); records in the State 

Office of the BLM at Denver.
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Chapter I - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

Florida. Ceded by Spain in 1819 and admitted 

into the Union March 3, 1845 (5 Stat. 742); 

records with the Division of State Lands, 

Bureau of Survey and Mapping, at Tallahassee.

Idaho. Acquired with the Oregon Territory, title 

to which was established in 1846, and admitted 

into the Union July 3, 1890 (26 Stat. 215); records 

in the State Office of the BLM at Boise.

Illinois. Included in the territory of the Thirteen 

Original States and admitted into the Union 

December 3, 1818 (3 Stat. 428 and 536); records 

in the Illinois State Archives, Office of the 

Secretary of State, at Springfield.

Indiana. Included in the territory of the 

Thirteen Original States and admitted into the 

Union December 11, 1816 (3 Stat. 289 and 399); 

records with the Commission on Public Records 

at Indianapolis.

Iowa. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 

1803 and admitted into the Union December 28, 

1846 (9 Stat. 117); records with the Secretary of 

State, Corporate Division, at Des Moines.

Kansas. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase 

in 1803 (additional lands annexed with Texas 

in 1845); admitted into the Union January 29, 

1861 (12 Stat. 126); records with the Historical 

Archives at Topeka.

Louisiana. Included in the Louisiana Purchase 

in 1803; boundary extended to include additional 

lands, title to which was quieted through treaty 

with Spain in 1819; admitted into the Union 

April 30, 1812 (2 Stat. 641 and 701); records 

with the Division of Administration, State Land 

Office, at Baton Rouge.

Michigan. Included in the territory of the 

Thirteen Original States and admitted into the 

Union January 26, 1837 (5 Stat. L 49 and 144); 

records with the Chief, Real Estate Division, 

Department of Natural Resources, at Lansing.

Minnesota. Included in the territory of the 

Thirteen Original States (additional lands 

acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803); 

admitted into the Union May 11, 1858 (11 Stat. 

166 and 285); records with the Secretary of 

State, Business Services Division, at Saint Paul.

Mississippi. Included in the territory of the 

Thirteen Original States and admitted into the 

Union December 10, 1817 (3 Stat. 348 and 472); 

records with the Secretary of State’s Office at 

Jackson.

Missouri. Acquired under the Louisiana Purchase 

in 1803 and admitted into the Union August 10, 

1821 (3 Stat. 545, 645, and 797); records with 

the Missouri Department of Natural Resources, 

Geological Survey—Land Survey at Rolla.

Montana. Acquired under the Louisiana 

Purchase in 1803 and with the Oregon Territory, 

title to which was established in 1846; admitted 

into the Union November 8, 1889 (25 Stat. 676; 

26 Stat. 1551); records in the State Office of the 

BLM at Billings and NARA Records Center at 

Denver, Colorado.

Nebraska. Acquired under the Louisiana 

Purchase in 1803 and admitted into the Union 

March 1, 1867 (13 Stat. 47; 14 Stat. 391 and 820); 

records with the State Surveyor at Lincoln.

Nevada. Ceded by Mexico in 1848 and admitted 

into the Union October 31, 1864 (13 Stat. L 

30 and 749); records in the State Office of the 

BLM at Reno and NARA Records Center at San 

Bruno, California.

New Mexico. Included in the lands annexed 

with Texas in 1845, with lands ceded by Mexico 

in 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853; 

admitted into the Union January 6, 1912 (36 

Stat. 557; 37 Stat. 39 and 1723); records in the 

State Office of the BLM at Santa Fe.

North Dakota. Included with lands acquired 

under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; admitted 

into the Union November 2, 1889 (25 Stat. 676; 

26 Stat. 1548); records with the State Water 

Commission at Bismarck.

Ohio. Included in the territory of the Thirteen 

Original States and admitted into the Union 

November 29, 1802 (2 Stat. 173 and 201); records 

with the Auditor of State at Columbus.

Oklahoma. Acquired under the Louisiana 

Purchase in 1803 and with lands annexed 

with Texas in 1845; admitted into the Union 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I - The General Plan

November 16, 1907 (34 Stat. 267; 35 Stat. 2160); 

records in the Eastern States Office of the BLM 

at Springfield, Virginia.

Oregon. Included in the Oregon Territory, title to 

which was established in 1846; admitted into the 

Union February 14, 1859 (11 Stat. 383); records 

in the State Office of the BLM at Portland.

South Dakota. Included with lands acquired 

under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; admitted 

into the Union November 2, 1889 (25 Stat. 676; 

26 Stat. 1549); records with the State Archives 

at Pierre.

Utah. Ceded by Mexico in 1848 and admitted 

into the Union January 4, 1896 (28 Stat. 107; 

29 Stat. 876); records in the State Office of the 

BLM at Salt Lake City.

Washington. Included in the Oregon Territory, 

title to which was established in 1846; admitted 

into the Union November 11, 1889 (25 Stat. 

676; 26 Stat. 1552); records in the Oregon State 

Office of the BLM at Portland, Oregon.

Wisconsin. Included in the territory of the 

Thirteen Original States and admitted into the 

Union May 29, 1848 (9 Stat. 56, 178 and 233); 

records with the Board of Commissioners of 

Public Lands at Madison.

Wyoming. Included with lands acquired under 

the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, with lands 

annexed with Texas in 1845, with lands included 

in the Oregon Territory, title to which was 

established in 1846, and with lands ceded by 

Mexico in 1848; admitted into the Union July 

10, 1890 (26 Stat. 222); records in the State 

Office of the BLM at Cheyenne.

The Non-Public Land States

1-33. Twenty States and the District of Columbia were 

not created out of the public domain. Generally, any 

Federal interest lands in those States fall into the category of acquired lands. The survey original records 

for the States formed from the original colonies, 18 

Eastern States, and the District of Columbia are retained 

at the Eastern States Office of the BLM at Springfield, 

Virginia. The duplicate original records are held at local 

government offices.

The two remaining non-public land States are Hawaii 

and Texas. The survey original records for Hawaii are 

retained at the California State Office of the BLM at 

Sacramento and the duplicate original records are held 

in the Washington Office and are on file at the Eastern 

States Office at Springfield. The survey original records 

for Texas are held in the NARA and the duplicate original records are held in the Washington Office and are on 

file at the Eastern States Office at Springfield.

The Director of the BLM has administrative authority in 

questions relating to the official marking of the boundaries of Federal interest lands, where survey or resurvey 

is required, and to the extension of official surveys to 

include parcels of land to be acquired or exchanged.
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Chapter I Notes - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

Purpose and Scope of the Manual

1-5(n). Corners established in an administrative survey by BLM employees, by other Federal departments 

and agencies, or by or for an Indian tribe, unless subject to special enactment, cannot be considered official 

United States corners unless and until they are accepted 

by the authorized officer of the BLM. In the absence of 

official acceptance by the BLM, users rely on such corners at their own peril (Longview Fibre Co., 135 IBLA 

170, 185 (1996)).

Source of Law

1-7(n). In cases of Federal interest lands that at some 

point in time were not in Federal control, such as 

acquired lands, lands beneath navigable waters, and foreign sovereign private land grants, the location of the 

boundary by application of Federal laws and rules is but 

an intermediate step of the official survey. In most such 

cases, boundaries were originally defined or confirmed 

by the application of Federal laws and rules, but during a resurvey, the application of State or foreign sovereign laws and rules not consistent with Federal laws and 

rules may be required, including evaluating unwritten 

rights. In some cases the original boundaries were created under the law of a foreign sovereign. Guidance on 

these subjects is purposely stated in very general terms. 

Special instructions should be issued in cases requiring 

the interpretation of State or foreign sovereign laws.

Basic Surveying Principles and Practices

1-8(n). Details of the general plan and its methods 

go beyond the scope of textbooks on surveying. The 

application of the general plan to the land tenure system requires an understanding of the application of the 

rules of evidence governing the location of boundaries. 

Surveys of Federal interest lands require detective work 

for ancient marks, which are often obscured by poor 

materials or workmanship, or both, and subject to aging, 

misidentification, and destruction. Surveying within the 

land tenure system of the various States requires knowledge of (1) record systems stretching back over centuries, (2) the availability of the records in specific locales, 

(3) whether surveys and related records were subject to 

recordation or not, and (4) the relevancy of records to 

each boundary location case.

Experience has proven that knowledge of the proper 

use of current and past instrumentation to obtain and 

observe direction and distance is a prerequisite to 

properly executing a cadastral survey according to the 

general plan and its methods. Thorough discussion of 

past and present field procedures and mathematical 

processes for determining direction of lines is readily 

available in instrument manuals, textbooks, and previous editions of this Manual, and is therefore omitted in 

this edition.

Development of the Manual

1-10(n). Originally, the Land Ordinance of May 20, 

1785, itself served as the survey instructions. There is 

no record of additional instructions to or from the Chief 

Geographer.

More detailed regulations and instructions, improving the system for greater accuracy, permanency, and 

uniformity, were issued in book form as Manuals. 

These early Manuals of instructions were prepared 

by Surveying District Surveyors General, issued to 

their Deputy Surveyors, and pertained to a single 

district. The earliest known and extant instructions 

by a Surveyor General were issued in 1804 by Jared 

Mansfield. Knowledge of the specific Manual requirements for original surveys is key to the proper performance of subsequent surveys.

1-11(n). The early Manuals emphasized original surveys and contained little mention of retracements or 

resurveys. The need for increased instruction for the 

resurvey of public lands was marked by passage of the 

General Resurvey Act of March 3, 1909, as amended 

June 25, 1910 (43 U.S.C. 772). Retracement and resurvey responsibilities were further expanded with passage of the Act of September 21, 1918 (43 U.S.C. 773), 

which provides a general authorization for the definition of boundaries of those lands to which title has 

passed from Federal control. The first full Manual 

discussion of resurveys was contained in the Advance 

Sheets, published June 16, 1919, and became part of the 

Manual of 1930.

The notes presented here elaborate on or continue to discuss the topics presented in chapter I. 

The section numbers correspond to the section numbers in the chapter and are followed by “(n)” to 

indicate that they are additional notes. Chapter I Notes
19

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I Notes - The General Plan

The Manual Supplements

1-12(n). (1) The subject matter under this title first 

appeared in the decisions of the Department of the 

Interior in 1883 (1 Pub. Lands Dec. 339, first edition) 

and 1887 (1 Pub. Lands Dec. 671, revised edition). 

There have been several revisions and extensions of this 

guide.

Definitions

1-13(n). Section 2 of Title 43 of the United States Code 

assigns responsibility to the Secretary to consider for 

survey and sale that which the United States acquired 

from another sovereign and determine what was properly public lands of the United States and what was 

properly related to “private land claims” (e.g., grants 

from the Spanish Crown or Mexican Government). 

Depending on how the public lands were classified and/

or disposed of, different survey principles might apply. 

For instance, with respect to mining claims and entries 

under the 1872 Mining Law, lode claims and tunnel 

sites were described by the metes-and-bounds method, 

while placer claims and millsites were described by the 

rectangular survey system. If public domain lands or 

“public lands” were classified as “townsites,” the GLO 

would accept entries that were described in terms of the 

rectangular survey system, metes-and-bounds, or lot 

and block methods. By contrast, for public lands classified as, for instance, “agricultural lands” or “grazing 

lands” or “timber lands,” the GLO would only accept 

entries or claims described by the rectangular survey 

system.

The acquisitions from foreign sovereign powers were 

subject to prior rights and confirmation by the Federal 

Government.

Lands to which this Manual and the authority of official 

surveys apply include the following three classes, all 

falling within the borders of the original public domain 

(figure 1-1) or otherwise under the direct political jurisdiction of the United States:

(1) Public domain lands: Lands owned and 

administered by the United States within the 

original public domain that have remained in 

Federal ownership.

(2) Acquired lands: Lands owned and administered by the United States that were not part 

of the original public domain or such lands that 

were part of the original public domain but that 

were alienated and later returned to Federal 

ownership.

(3) Non-Federal, private, or alienated7 lands: 

Lands not owned or administered by the United 

States that were not part of the original public 

domain or lands that were part of the original 

public domain that were alienated.

The spectrum of Federal interest in land includes possessory interests, such as ownership in fee simple; an 

estate held in trust for a beneficiary, such as Indian trust 

land; or fractional interests such as split estates, reserved 

mineral rights on patented land (including fractional 

interests in minerals); and nonpossessory interests in 

the use of land, such as easements, rights-of-way, leases, 

or permits.

Federal interests are often physically intermingled with 

non-Federal ownership. The surveyor must ascertain 

the land status of every parcel surveyed as an integral 

part of any boundary determination. For surveys where 

public domain land is not involved, the procedures must 

necessarily be brought into harmony with the appropriate State or foreign sovereign law and the decisions of 

the courts of competent jurisdiction.

In general usage, the status of any particular parcel of 

land is obtained from an accumulation of information 

relating to the parcel. Examples of status information 

are: the legal description; whether surveyed or unsurveyed; rights or privileges attached, if any; whether 

classified as mineral or agricultural lands; applicable 

withdrawals, orders, or special laws; and other pertinent 

information that may influence the operation of the laws 

related to the use or disposal of the parcel. Land status does influence which of various boundary laws and 

rules are controlling and the court of competent jurisdiction for resolution of disputes.

Administration

1-14(n). Private or other non-Federal landowners wishing to contribute funds for an official survey should 

consult the relevant regulations and contact the Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor of the BLM State Office with jurisdiction where the land is located.

7 Alienated lands are non-Federal lands that have been conveyed out 

of Federal ownership through valid operation of law. Much of the original 

public domain has been alienated; however, where a Federal interest in 

the land remains, the land has been returned to Federal ownership, or the 

land has a reversionary interest or is anticipated to be acquired, official 

surveys are used to identify the boundaries.
20

Chapter I Notes - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

The lack of specific instruction by this Manual for 

surveys of Federal lands outside the original public 

domain is not intended to inhibit appropriate action by 

the Federal Government to mark and define boundaries 

of Federal interest lands. Special instructions for such 

surveys will be issued upon receipt of a proper request. 

Such instructions would address technical and administrative matters. As a general rule, however, administrative aspects of such surveys would follow the procedures outlined in this Manual.

Navigable Waters

1-16(n). The United States held the lands beneath navigable waters in the territories “in trust” for the future 

States that would be created. Title to the lands beneath 

navigable waters passed to the State upon statehood 

unless a contrary intention was definitely declared or 

otherwise rendered in clear and specific words, or unless 

a prior confirmed claim embraces the lands beneath 

navigable waters. Some States have conveyed title to 

their lands beneath navigable waters or portions thereof.

Lands beneath navigable waters do not include the beds 

of streams in lands now or heretofore constituting a part 

of the public lands of the United States if such streams 

were not meandered in connection with the public survey of such lands under the laws of the United States 

and if the title to the beds of such streams was lawfully 

patented or conveyed by the United States or any State 

to any person (67 Stat. 29; 43 U.S.C. 1301(f)). (See discussions on meandering in chapter III and water boundaries in chapter VIII.)

Surveying and Survey Administration Laws

1-20(n). The Land Ordinance of May 20, 1785, provided 

for townships 6 miles square laid out in ranges extending westward from the Ohio River. The townships were 

numbered from south to north and the ranges from east 

to west. The region embraced by the surveys under this 

law forms a part of the State of Ohio. In these initial surveys, all lines were run on the true meridian. Only exterior lines of the townships were surveyed and mile corners established. Plats were marked by townships with 

protracted subdivisions, called lots, of 1 mile square.

The Land Ordinance directed that surveys were to be 

made by surveyors appointed by the States, under the 

direction of the Chief Geographer of the United States. 

The Geographer was to transmit the survey plats to the 

Board of Treasury, which was to record the same and 

conduct the land sales. The whole expense of surveying 

was not to exceed $2 per mile. Land was to be sold for 

not less than $1 per acre cash, in units of 640 acres or 

more.

The Northwest Territory Ordinance of July 13, 1787, 

was the first general legislation by the Congress on 

the subject of real property. Since its passage, free 

and unconditional alienation is the rule of the Federal 

Government in the disposal of the public domain. The 

Ordinance contains the basic propositions as to land 

tenures of the laws of the United States and of most of 

the States and became the foundation of the same statutes in all the public land States and territories. By this 

Ordinance, new States were to be admitted on an equal 

footing with the original States (affirmed by the Act of 

August 7, 1789 (1 Stat. 50), under the Constitution).

The Act of September 2, 1789 (1 Stat. 65), created the 

Department of Treasury. The Secretary of the Treasury 

was to execute the services relating to the sale of the 

lands belonging to the United States, including the survey function.

The Act of May 18, 1796 (1 Stat. 464; 43 U.S.C. 52, 751, 

and 931), provides that half of the townships were to 

be subdivided into four section blocks, and the rule for 

numbering of sections within the township was changed 

to that which is practiced today.

This Act also created the office of Surveyor General 

within the Department of Treasury, charged with the 

duty of all surveying and platting of the public lands. 

The Surveyor General begins receiving written instructions from the Secretary of the Treasury. The Surveyor 

General was to engage skillful surveyors as his deputy 

surveyors; frame regulations and instructions for the 

governance of his deputies; and prepare three survey 

plats, two sets of field notes and one set of descriptive notes for each township survey to be submitted to 

the Secretary who was to direct the land sales.8 The 

Secretary of State was to record the conveyances of 

land, called patents. The whole expense of surveying 

was not to exceed $3 per mile. Land was sold on terms, 

for not less than $2 per acre, in units of 640 acres or 

more.

The Act of March 1, 1800 (2 Stat. 14), established the 

important principle that the lines run and the corners 

8 Section 1 states: “The Secretary of the Interior or such officer as he 

may designate shall engage a sufficient number of skillful surveyors as 

his deputies, to whom he is authorized to administer the necessary oaths 

upon their appointments. He shall have authority to frame regulations for 

their direction, not inconsistent with law or the instructions of the Bureau of 

Land Management, and to remove them for negligence or misconduct in 

office” (Rev. Stat. 2223; 43 U.S.C. 52).
21

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I Notes - The General Plan

marked on the ground and returned in the field notes 

and on the plat by the Surveyor General shall be considered to be the lines and corners of the parcels so 

identified, even though not in conformity to the precise 

theoretical positions contemplated by the survey laws, 

or not appearing to correspond with the plat, or found

at unequal distances from the respective corners. It thus 

established a hierarchy of boundary evidence, the foremost and dispositive of which were the actual marks on 

the ground. This principle was amplified by the Act of 

February 11, 1805.

The Act also set the precedent that each legal subdivision on the plats returned by the Surveyor General shall 

be considered as containing the exact quantity expressed 

on the plat. Thus by this Act, the plat is the source of 

the quantity of acres for administrative purposes, often

called legal acres. This was important in calculating 

acreage-based costs for entries, grants, and selections.

The Act of March 26, 1804 (2 Stat. 277), made the necessary provision for the disposal of the public lands in 

the Indiana Territory. This is an early example of the 

policy to extinguish Indian title to the public domain, 

followed by the extension of the surveys and settlement.

The Act of February 11, 1805 (2 Stat. 313; 43 U.S.C. 

752), fixes the corners marked (monumented) in position regardless of any errors, requires that any corners 

of half- or quarter-section not marked (monumented) in 

the original survey shall be established at midpoint and 

on line, fixes the lines actually run and marked as the 

proper (true) boundary lines, and establishes the length 

of the lines returned by the Surveyor General (now 

Chief Cadastral Surveyor) as the true length. These provisions are the basis of single and double proportion as 

the proper method of restoring lost corners and also fix 

the method of subdividing sections. The precedent for 

these important principles is the Act of March 1, 1800 

(2 Stat. 14).

The Act also establishes the quantity or area of land 

returned as the true quantity and that a half-section or 

quarter-section of a full 640-acre section contains 320 

or 160 acres, respectively.

This Act was passed to remedy weaknesses identified 

in the subdivision of the four section blocks. Prior to 

the Act, the sections within the blocks were being relocated to obtain the record quantity by use of the record 

bearings and distances. This method resulted in four 

parallelograms and gaps and overlaps. The Act stated 

that the purchasers are to take to the corners marked 

and returned by the Surveyor General and that it was 

not material what quantity the section may actually 

contain. This method eliminated conflicts between the 

sections.

The Act of March 3, 1811 (secs. 2 and 5, 2 Stat. 662), 

provided for a departure from the system of rectangular surveys. It applied only to lands adjacent to any 

river, lake, creek, bayou, or water course in the Orleans 

Territory. These “Riverfront Tracts” or “French Tracts” 

are one example of many when Congress enacted deviations away from the rectangular system. The records of 

official surveys and resurveys cover special cases such 

as these.

The Act of April 25, 1812 (2 Stat. 716; 43 U.S.C. 2, 6, 

12, 14, and 17), created the GLO as a bureau within 

the Department of the Treasury. Its chief officer was 

the Commissioner of the GLO, “whose duty it shall 

be, under the direction of the head of the Department, 

to superintend, execute, and perform all such acts and 

things touching or respecting the public lands of the 

United States, and other lands patented or granted by the 

United States, as have heretofore been directed by law 

to be done or performed in the office of the Secretary of 

State, of the Secretary and Register of the Treasury, and 

of the Secretary of War, or which shall hereafter by law 

be assigned to the said office.”

The Act of April 24, 1820 (3 Stat. 566; 43 U.S.C. 753), 

directs the sale of half-quarter sections (80-acre units) 

and that sections and fractional sections containing 160 

acres and upward shall, as nearly as practicable, be subdivided into half-quarter sections under such rules and 

regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the 

Treasury.

The Act of May 29, 1830 (4 Stat. 417; Rev. Stat. 2413; 

43 U.S.C. 774), provides that whenever the President is 

satisfied that forcible opposition has been offered, or is 

likely to be offered, to any surveyor or deputy surveyor 

in the discharge of his duties in surveying the public 

lands, it may be lawful for the President to order the 

marshal of the State or district, by himself or deputy, to 

attend such surveyor or deputy surveyor with sufficient 

force to protect such officer in the execution of his duty, 

and to remove force should any be offered.

The Act of April 5, 1832 (4 Stat. 503; 43 U.S.C. 753), 

determined that the 40-acre aliquot part and the 

Government lot are the smallest legal subdivision under 

the public land laws. It directs the subdivision of the 

lands into quarter-quarters (40-acre units), and that 
22

Chapter I Notes - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

fractional sections will be subdivided under rules and 

regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. 

The Secretary directed that fractional sections containing less than 160 acres, or the residuary portion of a 

fractional section, after the subdivision into as many 

quarter-quarter sections as it is susceptible of, may be 

subdivided into lots, each containing the quantity of a 

quarter-quarter section as nearly as practicable. This is 

to be done by laying down the lines of subdivision so 

that they will be 20 chains wide. These distances are 

to be marked on the plat of subdivision, as are also the 

areas of the quarter-quarters and residuary fractions.

The Act of June 30, 1834 (4 Stat. 730; Rev. Stat. 2118; 

25 U.S.C. 180), provides that every person who surveys 

or attempts to survey any lands belonging, secured, or 

granted by treaty with the United States to any Indian 

tribe, or to designate any of the boundaries by marking 

trees or otherwise, is liable to a penalty.

The Act of July 4, 1836 (5 Stat. 107; 43 U.S.C. 2, 6, and 

18), provided for the reorganization of the GLO such 

that the executive duties of the office became subject to 

the supervision and control of the Commissioner of the 

GLO under the direction of the President. However, in 

practice, the Secretary of the Treasury still had supervisory control over the Office. The Principal Clerk of the 

Surveys in the GLO provided overall direction for the 

public land surveys.

The Act of June 12, 1840 (5 Stat. 384; Rev. Stat. 2218; 43 

U.S.C. 54), directed that once the surveying was completed, all the plats, field notes, maps, records, and other 

papers appertaining to land titles produced in a State be 

delivered to the Secretary of State or such officer as may 

be authorized to receive them for the respective State.9

The Office of Surveyor General in every such district 

then ceased operation and the Commissioner assumed 

the duties.

The Act of August 3, 1846 (sec. 5, 9 Stat. 51), as amended 

by the Isolated Tract Act of February 26, 1895 (28 Stat. 

687; Rev. Stat. 2455; 43 U.S.C. 1171 (repealed sec. 703(a) 

of Public Law 94-579)), provided for survey and sale of 

isolated or disconnected tracts or parcels of the public 

domain. This included unsurveyed islands.

The Act of January 22, 1853 (10 Stat. 152; Rev. Stat. 

2219; 43 U.S.C. 53, 55, and 56), provides that in all 

cases where an Office of Surveyor General was discontinued, all the Surveyor General’s authority transferred 

9 The records turned over to the States were the original field notes and 

plats previously retained by the Surveyor General.

to the Commissioner of the GLO (now the Director of 

the BLM).

By this Act, and under the authority and direction of the 

Chief Cadastral Surveyor, any surveyor or other agent 

of the United States shall have free access to any plats, 

field notes, maps, records, and other papers transferred 

to State authorities, for the purposes of taking extracts 

therefrom or making copies thereof without charge of 

any kind.

The Act of March 3, 1853 (10 Stat. 245; Rev. Stat. 2223; 

43 U.S.C. 52), provides that the Secretary of the Interior 

or such officer as he or she may designate shall cause 

to be surveyed all foreign sovereign private land claims 

after they have been confirmed by authority of Congress, 

so far as may be necessary to complete the survey of the 

public lands.

The same Act (Rev. Stat. 2410; 43 U.S.C. 770) provides 

that departures may be made from the system of rectangular surveys whenever it is not feasible or economical 

to extend the rectangular surveys in the regular manner 

or whenever such departure would promote the beneficial use of lands.

The Act of May 30, 1862 (sec. 10, 12 Stat. 409), as 

amended by the Act of August 20, 1894 (28 Stat. 423; 

Rev. Stat. 2401; 43 U.S.C. 759), provides that it is lawful when the settlers in any township not mineral or 

reserved by the Government, or when the owners or 

grantees of public lands under any law thereof, desire 

an official survey and shall file an application therefore, 

and shall deposit a sum sufficient to pay for such survey 

together with all expenditures incident thereto, without 

cost or claim on the United States, the BLM shall survey 

such township or such public lands owned by said grantees of the Government.

The value of small islands was considered so inconsiderable as not to warrant incurring the expense of surveys 

because the proceeds from such sales would not reimburse the Government for its costs. In order to relieve 

the public from this expense and still enable individuals to obtain title to unsurveyed islands, the party desiring the survey was required to pay the cost of survey. 

However, the payment conferred no preference in the 

purchase of the island.

The Act of July 23, 1866 (43 Stat. 1144; 43 U.S.C. 987), 

provides that the BLM shall examine the segregation 

maps and survey of the swamp and overflowed lands 

made by the State of California, and where found to 

conform to the system of surveys adopted by the United 
23

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I Notes - The General Plan

States, shall construct, approve, and file township plats 

accordingly.

The Act of March 3, 1879 (20 Stat. 394; Rev. Stat. 441; 

43 U.S.C. 1457), provides that the Secretary of the 

Interior is charged with the supervision of public business relating to the following subjects and agencies: 

Alaska Railroad; Alaska Road Commission; Bountylands; Bureau of Land Management; United States 

Bureau of Mines; Bureau of Reclamation; Division of 

Territories and Island Possessions; Fish and Wildlife 

Service; United States Geological Survey (USGS); 

Indians; National Park Service; petroleum conservation; 

and public lands, including mines.

The Act of May 17, 1884 (23 Stat. 24), extended the mining laws to Alaska.

The Act of July 5, 1884 (23 Stat. 103; 43 U.S.C. 1071–

1073 repealed), as amended, placed the control of the 

survey and disposal of all of the reduced or abandoned 

military reservations under the Secretary of the Interior.

The Act of February 8, 1887 (24 Stat. 388), authorized 

the President to have lands allotted and surveyed for 

individual Indians. Many allotments surveyed by agents 

of the United States Indian Service were not approved 

by the GLO/BLM nor filed in the United States survey records. Allotment surveys under the direction and 

control of the GLO/BLM were officially approved and 

filed.

The BLM Director has discretion to correct a resurvey 

of patented land where a substantial allegation of fraud 

or mistake is made (19 Op. Atty Gen. 126 (1888)).

The Act of June 11, 1896 (29 Stat. 435; 43 U.S.C. 38), 

instructs the USGS, when making topographic surveys 

west of the 95th meridian, to mark on the ground iron or 

stone posts in each township or equivalent area.

The Act of June 4, 1897 (30 Stat. 34; 16 U.S.C. 474), 

provides that the surveys, field notes, and plats returned 

from the survey of public lands designated as national 

forests undertaken under the supervision of the Director 

of the USGS shall be approved by the Director of the 

BLM.

The Act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. 388; 43 U.S.C. 434), 

provides for lands within reclamation projects to be subdivided to not less than 10 acres by the officers of the 

Bureau of Reclamation and the surveys shall be submitted for approval and filing by the BLM.

The Act of February 1, 1905 (33 Stat. 628; 16 U.S.C. 

472), provides that the Secretary of Agriculture shall 

execute all laws affecting public lands reserved as 

National Forest Lands excepting such laws as affect 

the surveying, reconveying, or patenting of any of such 

lands.

The Act of May 17, 1906, as amended (34 Stat. 197; 43 

U.S.C. 270-1 repealed; see 43 U.S.C. 1634), authorized 

Alaska Native allotments and surveys.

The Act of June 27, 1906 (34 Stat. 519; 43 U.S.C. 561), 

provides for townsite surveys within reclamation projects to be submitted for approval and filing by the 

BLM.

The Act of May 27, 1908 (35 Stat. 317, 348), provides 

“for the purchase of metal monuments to be used for 

public land survey corners wherever practicable.”

The Act of March 4, 1909, as amended (63 Stat. 89, 95; 

Rev. Stat. 2412; 108 Stat. 1796, 2147; 18 U.S.C. 1859), 

provides that whoever, by threats or force, interrupts, 

hinders, or prevents the surveying of the public lands, 

or of any foreign sovereign private land claim which has 

been or may be confirmed by the United States, by the 

persons authorized to survey the same in conformity 

with the instructions of the Director of the BLM, shall 

be fined under this title or imprisoned, or both.

The Act of August 10, 1912 (37 Stat. 287; repealed 

October 23, 1962), provided that the survey of land 

within forest reserve chiefly valuable for agriculture 

could be made by an employee of the Forest Service 

under the direction of the Surveyor General. These are 

commonly called Forest Homestead Entry Surveys.

Under the Economy Act of May 21, 1920, as amended 

(41 Stat. 607, 613; 31 U.S.C. 1535), the expertise and services of the BLM may be lawfully procured by another 

Federal department or agency to survey or resurvey 

Federal interest land, including acquired land that is 

administered by the head of any Federal department or 

agency.

The Act of March 3, 1925 (43 Stat. 1144; 43 U.S.C. 51 

superseded), provided for the reorganization of the public survey offices. The Offices of Surveyor General were 

abolished, effective July 1, 1925, and the administration 

of all activities theretofore in charge of the Surveyors 

General, including all records, were transferred to and 

consolidated with the field surveying service, under the 

jurisdiction of the United States Supervisor of Surveys, 
24

Chapter I Notes - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

who thereafter administered the same in association 

with the surveying operations in his charge and under 

regulations as the Secretary of the Interior provided.

The administrative plan that was set up through the Act 

of March 3, 1925, continued in operation until displaced 

by the reorganization of July 16, 1946, wherein the GLO 

was abolished and its functions transferred to the BLM.

The Act of July 7, 1943, as amended (57 Stat. 380; 44 

U.S.C. 3301), defines Federal records (also called official records) as all papers and maps made or received 

by an agency of the United States in connection with the 

transaction of public business and preserved because of 

the administrative, legal, fiscal, or informational value 

of data in them.

The Federal Records Act of 1950, as amended (64 Stat. 

586; 44 U.S.C. 3101), requires the preservation of Federal 

records vital to the protection of the legal and financial 

rights of the Government and individuals affected.

The Submerged Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C. 1301 et 

seq. and 1311 et seq.) uses the terms “navigable” and 

“navigability” for the purpose of determining title to 

lands beneath navigable waters, as between the United 

States and the several States.

The Alaska Statehood Act of July 7, 1958 (72 Stat. 339, 

344; 48 U.S.C. note preceding section 21), modifies public land survey law, in Alaska, by allowing selected land 

to be conveyed by tentative approval prior to survey. 

Subject to valid existing rights, the force and effect of 

such a tentative approval is to convey to and vest in the 

State exactly the same right, title, and interest in and to 

the selected lands the State would have received had it 

been issued a patent by the United States. The survey of 

the exteriors of the selections only, without any interior 

subdivision, is permissible. The boundaries of the lands 

as defined and conveyed by the tentative approval shall 

not be altered but may then be redescribed, if need be, 

in reference to the plat of survey. Upon survey of lands 

covered by the tentative approval, a confirmatory patent 

thereto shall be issued to the State. This Act is applicable 

only to land in Alaska.

The Public Land Administration Act of July 14, 1960 

(section 103; 74 Stat. 506; 43 U.S.C. 1364), provides that 

the Secretary of the Interior may accept contributions 

for cadastral surveying performed on Federally controlled or intermingled lands. This Act was repealed by 

section 705(a) of FLPMA on October 21, 1976. Section 

307(c) of FLPMA (43 U.S.C. 1737(c)) substantially reenacts 43 U.S.C. 1364.

The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 

December 18, 1971 as amended (85 Stat. 688; 43 U.S.C. 

1612, 1621), provides that the Secretary, save explicit 

exceptions, shall survey all Native Alaska Village 

Corporation withdrawals, selections, and conveyances 

in conformance as nearly as practicable to the PLSS.

ANCSA also modifies public land survey law by allowing selected land to be conveyed by interim conveyance 

prior to survey. Subject to valid existing rights, the force 

and effect of such an interim conveyance is to convey 

to and vest in the recipient exactly the same right, title, 

and interest in and to the selected lands as the recipient 

would have received had they been issued a patent by 

the United States. In addition, the Act authorizes original surveys to monument only exterior boundaries of the 

areas selected or designated areas at angle points and at 

intervals of approximately 2 miles on straight lines. The 

Act states that no ground survey or monumentation will 

be required along meanderable water boundaries and 

conveyances can be based upon protraction diagrams. 

Upon survey of lands covered by the interim conveyance, a confirmatory patent thereto shall be issued to the 

Native Corporation. This Act is applicable only to land 

in Alaska.

The Federal Land Policy and Management Act of October 

21, 1976 (90 Stat. 2743, 2747; 43 U.S.C. 1701, 1711), provides that the Secretary shall prepare and maintain, on 

a continuing basis, an inventory of all public lands and 

shall ascertain the boundaries of the public lands; provide 

means of public identification thereof including, where 

appropriate, signs and maps; and provide State and local 

governments with data from the inventory for the purpose of planning and regulating the uses of non-Federal 

lands in proximity of such public lands.

Under FLPMA, a tract of public lands10 or interests 

therein or a tract of land or interests therein within the 

National Forest System may be disposed of by exchange; 

the costs or other responsibilities or requirements shall 

include costs or other requirements associated with land 

surveys (90 Stat. 2756; 102 Stat. 1087; 43 U.S.C. 1716).

Under FLPMA, unsurveyed islands may be surveyed 

and conveyed if the applicant State or its political sub10 Under section 103 of FLPMA, the term “‘public lands’ means any land 

and interest in land owned by the United States within the several States 

and administered by the Secretary of the Interior through the Bureau of 

Land Management, without regard to how the United States acquired 

ownership, except: (1) land located on the Outer Continental Shelf; and 

(2) lands held for the benefit of Indians, Aleuts, and Eskimos” (43 U.S.C. 

1702(e)).
25

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter I Notes - The General Plan

division donates money or services for such survey and 

such services are conducted pursuant to criteria established and survey approval by the Director (43 U.S.C. 

1721).

Under FLPMA, omitted lands, other than islands, are 

lands determined after survey to be erroneously or fraudulently omitted from the original surveys. Conveyance 

of such land shall not be made without a survey. The 

prospective recipient may donate money or services for 

the survey and such services are conducted pursuant to 

criteria established by the Director (43 U.S.C. 1721).

Under FLPMA, the Secretary may establish reasonable 

charges and commissions with respect to applications 

and other documents relating to the public lands. Such 

fees collected shall be made immediately available for 

program operations and remain available until expended 

(43 U.S.C. 1734).

The Secretary is authorized to enter into contracts for 

the use of aircraft and for supplies and services prior to 

the passage of an appropriation therefore for airborne 

cadastral survey operations of the BLM (43 U.S.C. 1738).

FLPMA permits the Secretary to issue a document of 

disclaimer of interest or interests in any lands in any 

form suitable for recordation, where the disclaimer will 

help remove a cloud on the title of such lands and where 

he or she determines (1) a record interest of the United 

States in lands has terminated by operation of law or 

is otherwise invalid; or (2) the lands lying between the 

meander line shown on a plat of survey approved by 

the BLM or its predecessors and the actual shoreline 

of a body of water are not lands of the United States; or 

(3) accreted, relicted, or avulsed lands are not lands of 

the United States (90 Stat. 2743, 2770; 43 U.S.C. 1745; 

43 CFR 1864).

Under FLPMA, the Secretary of the Interior, or the 

Secretary of Agriculture, as applicable, shall specify 

the boundaries of each right-of-way (defined as an easement, lease, permit, or license to occupy, use, or traverse 

public lands granted for the purpose listed) as precisely 

as is practical. Rights-of-way shall be granted, issued, 

or renewed subject to such terms and conditions as the 

Secretary concerned may prescribe regarding extent, 

survey, and location, including reimbursements by the 

applicant for all reasonable administrative and other 

costs incurred (43 U.S.C. 1764).

The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 

(ANILCA) of December 2, 1980, as amended (94 Stat. 

2438; 43 U.S.C. 1635; 94 Stat. 2447; 43 U.S.C. 1637), 

modified public land survey law by authorizing that 

no ground survey or monumentation shall be required 

on any parcel selected by and conveyed to the State of 

Alaska or to a Native Corporation or Native group.

This same Act, as amended (94 Stat. 2430; 102 Stat. 

979; 43 U.S.C. 1631, 1635, 1637), provides that no 

agency or board of the Department of the Interior 

other than the BLM shall have authority to determine 

the navigability of a lake, river, or stream within an 

area selected by a Native or Native Corporation pursuant to the ANCSA or the ANILCA. The Secretary may 

issue a patent on protraction diagrams in lieu of field 

surveys. Any person or corporation receiving a patent 

on the basis of a protraction diagram shall receive any 

gain or bear any loss of acreage due to errors, if any, in 

such protraction diagram. This Act is applicable only 

to land in Alaska.

The National Forest System Lands Small Tracts Act of 

January 12, 1983 (96 Stat. 2535; 16 U.S.C. 521c-521i), 

authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to sell, exchange, 

or interchange certain National Forest System lands to 

resolve trespass situations on Federal land. Many parcels and rights-of-way were surveyed by agents of the 

United States Forest Service without receiving instructions from the BLM. Many of these Forest Service survey records are therefore not filed in the BLM survey 

recordkeeping system. The parcel and right-of-way 

surveys under the direction and control of the BLM or 

surveyed in conformance to the Manual are officially 

approved and filed.

The Alaska Submerged Lands Act of August 16, 1988, as 

amended (102 Stat. 979; 43 U.S.C. 1631), restated some 

existing public land survey laws and modified others.

Whenever the Secretary surveys land selected by an 

Alaska Native, a Native Corporation, or the State of 

Alaska pursuant to the ANCSA, the Alaska Statehood 

Act, or the ANILCA, lakes, rivers, and streams shall 

be meandered in accordance with the principles in the 

1973 edition of the Manual.

If title to lands beneath navigable waters of a lake 

less than 50 acres in size or a river or stream less than 

3 chains in width did not vest in the State pursuant to 

the Submerged Lands Act (43 U.S.C. 1301 et seq.), such 

lake, river, or stream shall not be meandered.

The Secretary is not required to determine the navigability of a lake, river, or stream that because of its size 
26

Chapter I Notes - The General Plan Manual of Surveying Instructions

or width is required to be meandered; to compute the 

acreage of the land beneath such lake, river, or stream; 

or to describe such land in any conveyance document. 

Ground survey or monumentation of meander lines is 

not required.

The specific terms, conditions, procedures, covenants, 

reservations, and other restrictions set forth in the document entitled, “Memorandum of Agreement between the 

United States Department of the Interior and the State 

of Alaska,” dated March 28, 1984, were incorporated 

and ratified as to the duties and obligations of the United 

States and the State as a matter of Federal law. For any 

plat of survey approved after December 5, 1983, water 

bodies shall be meandered and segregated from the survey, in accordance with the principles contained in the 

1973 edition of the Manual, as modified by this agreement, as the basis for determining acreage chargeability.

With respect to land in Alaska, the terms “navigable” 

and “navigability” mean navigable for the purpose of 

determining title to lands beneath navigable waters, as 

between the United States and the several States pursuant to the Submerged Lands Act of 1953 as amended 

(43 U.S.C. 1301 et seq.), the Alaska Submerged Lands 

Act of 1988 as amended, and section 6(m) of the Alaska 

Statehood Act.

The Act provides that whenever, either before or after 

the date of enactment of this section, the Secretary conveys land to an Alaska Native, a Native Corporation, or 

the State of Alaska pursuant to the ANCSA, the Alaska 

Statehood Act, or the ANILCA, which abuts or surrounds 

a meanderable lake, river, or stream, all right, title, and 

interest of the United States, if any, in the land under 

such lake, river, or stream lying between the uplands 

and the median line or midpoint, as the case may be, 

shall vest in and shall not be charged against the acreage 

entitlement of such Native or Native Corporation or the 

State. The right, title, and interest vested in a Native or 

Native Corporation shall be no greater an estate than the 

estate conveyed in the land that abuts or surrounds the 

lake, river, or stream.

The execution of an interim conveyance or patent, as 

appropriate, by the BLM, which conveys an area of land 

selected by a Native or Native Corporation that includes, 

surrounds, or abuts a lake, river, or stream, or any portion thereof, shall be the final agency action with respect 

to a decision of the Secretary of the Interior that such 

lake, river, or stream is or is not navigable, unless such 

decision was validly appealed to an agency or board of 

the Department of the Interior on or before December 

2, 1980. No agency or board of the Department of the 

Interior other than the BLM shall have authority to determine the navigability of a lake, river, or stream within 

an area selected by a Native or Native Corporation pursuant to the ANCSA or this Act. This Act is applicable 

only to land in Alaska.

The Act of November 10, 2003 (117 Stat. 1241, 1283), 

provides that the Secretary of Agriculture may authorize the expenditure or transfer of such sums as necessary to the BLM for the performance of cadastral 

surveys to designate the boundaries of National Forest 

System lands.

The Act of October 18, 2004 (118 Stat. 1357; 43 U.S.C. 

1617 note), provides that an Alaska Native owner of 

restricted land may, subject to the approval of the 

Secretary, subdivide the restricted land in accordance 

with the laws of Alaska or applicable local platting 

authority. The survey should be submitted for approval 

and filing by the BLM.
27

Chapter II

Methods of Survey

Introduction

2-1. Surveys require correct, consistent, and repeatable measurements. When conducting retracements of 

Federal interest lands, a thorough understanding of the 

gathering and reporting of measurements performed 

during prior surveys is essential. The surveyor should 

consult previous editions of the Manual, textbooks, and 

other reference sources for details on past and present 

measurement technology and techniques. The methods 

described in this chapter comprise the general framework for both the gathering and reporting of measurements for official surveys.

The measurements reported in the survey record are an 

important part of the overall survey. The results of original surveys, once filed, are considered unchangeable. In 

retracements and resurveys the measurements are subordinate to the original survey evidence; yet considerable problems can arise when erroneous survey measurements from the resurvey are incorporated into the 

official record. It is important to create survey records 

from accurate measurements to eliminate confusion and 

create a reliable record that can aid future surveyors in 

perpetuating land boundaries.

The Land Ordinance of May 20, 1785, established the 

Public Land Survey System (PLSS). The survey principles outlined in the Land Ordinance, defining the basis 

for making and reporting measurements in the PLSS, 

are still in effect today:

The geographer and surveyors . . . shall run and 

note all lines by the true meridian . . . .

The Surveyors . . . shall proceed to divide the 

said territory into townships of six miles square, 

by lines running due north and south, and others 

crossing these at right angles . . . .

The plats of the townships respectively, shall 

be marked by subdivisions into lots of one mile 

square, or 640 acres, in the same direction as the 

external lines . . . .

As the PLSS rectangular plan of survey was implemented, it rapidly became apparent that the term rectangular, with reference to a plane surface, is a generality 

that cannot be effectively maintained over a large extent 

of the surface of the earth.

The lines of the PLSS laid out according to the general 

plan cannot be “square” when referenced to a plane surface. In fact, the PLSS as implemented is orthogonal, 

with reference to an ellipsoid surface. The lines of the 

PLSS laid out can be “square,” at right angles, with reference to an ellipsoid surface.

Measurement

Basis of Distance

2-2. The distance reported is the horizontal measurement at the mean ground elevation for the line above sea 

level. Historically, distances have been measured on the 

ground surface, either horizontally or on the slope with 

vertical angle reduction to horizontal equivalent. The 

use of a different basis will not be undertaken unless 

absolutely necessary and will be thoroughly documented in the survey record.

Basis of Direction

2-3. The direction of each line of the public land surveys is determined with reference to the true meridian as defined by the axis of the earth’s rotation. The 

true meridian is a line along a meridian of longitude. 

Historically, determination of the true meridian has 

been based upon direct astronomic observation at the 

point of record and, thus, an astronomic meridian. The 

value of the angular difference between the astronomic 

and geodetic direction, caused by the deflection of the 

vertical, relates the astronomic meridian to the geodetic meridian, as properly aligned with the axis of the 

earth’s rotation. This is covered in greater detail in 

section 2-27.
28

Chapter II - Methods of Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Methods of Measurement

2-4. The primary goal of any measurement method is 

to determine the relative direction and length of the line 

between specific points, monuments, and other evidence 

of the survey. It is equally important to report the measurements properly once a line is measured. All measurements must be reduced and placed into a common 

reference system that is well defined, understandable, 

and, more importantly, consistent with the historical 

record.

The direction of lines of the PLSS has been determined 

with a variety of instruments. Historically, these include 

the magnetic needle, solar compass, transit with solar 

attachment, and direct altitude or hour angle observations on the Sun, Polaris, or other stars. The use of direct 

astronomical observations to determine direction is 

effective and still used. Only the use of the needle compass is unequivocally prohibited. Other valid methods 

for determining direction of lines include gyroscopic 

instruments, satellite receivers, orientation from the 

National Spatial Reference System (NSRS), and identifiable lines between monuments of adjoining official 

surveys.

2-5. The direction of each line of the PLSS is reported 

in bearings. Bearings are stated in terms of angular 

measure with reference to the true meridian in degrees, 

minutes, and seconds or variations thereof. For surveys of the PLSS, the basis for reporting direction is 

called mean bearing referenced to the true meridian at 

the point of record. There is a small ambiguity in this 

definition in that there is a slight difference between an 

astronomic bearing and a geodetic bearing at the same 

point. This is covered in greater detail in section 2-27.

2-6. The primary basis for reporting distances in the 

PLSS is defined as horizontal measure in chains, based 

on the U.S. Survey Foot (see section 2-43 for definition), 

at actual ground elevation. Historically, distances were 

measured with a chain tool or steel ribbon with lengths 

of 1⁄2 to 8 chains. The distances measured were made at 

the ground surface and reduced to horizontal measure. 

More recently, electronic distance measurements have 

been used that reduce slope distances to horizontal measure using zenith angles. In both cases, the proper result 

is obtained when the horizontal distance measurement 

is reported in the record at the mean ground elevation of 

the line above sea level.

2-7. An exception is surveys in the State of Alaska. 

Most of the original rectangular surveys in that State 

are based on protraction diagrams, protractions used for 

the surveys created using the North American Datum of 

1927 with distances calculated at sea level. The primary 

basis for reporting distances in Alaska is defined as 

horizontal measure in chains, based on the U.S. Survey 

Foot, at zero elevation (sea level). Resurvey distances 

are also reported on this basis.

2-8. Other exceptions exist for PLSS surveys in the 

continental United States that employ distance measurements based upon grid distances or sea level geodetic distances. The reason for such deviation from the 

general plan will be stated in the special instructions, 

and the particular basis for measurement must be clearly 

stated in the official record.

Previous editions of the Manual detail numerous 

acceptable methods of survey measurement. The dominant methods of measurement previously described are 

direct in nature, such as chaining distances along the line 

to be run. Later methods of measuring are more commonly indirect, such as the use of satellite technology to 

“measure” the distance between two points. This latter 

type of technology derives a three-dimensional vector 

rigorously defined by a specific coordinate system and 

horizontal and vertical datum. Another more traditional 

example of an indirect method of measurement is the 

use of an electronic distance meter and theodolite.

Using the equipment and direct methods of measurement 

cited in previous Manuals, a surveyor could both gather 

and report measured data accurately and in the proper 

basis. For instance, a properly adjusted solar compass or 

solar transit determined the true meridian at each instrument setup. Matched with traditional chaining, a line of 

constant bearing can be run by instrumental orientation 

without any special reduction of the survey data.

Equipment and methods that rely on indirect methods of 

measurement do not necessarily report measured values 

directly in the proper basis. It is important that the surveyor understand the difference and know how to derive 

and properly report measured data for inclusion in 

official records.

The Geodesy of Large-Scale

Cadastral Surveys

Public Land Survey System Datum

2-9. The reference system by which measurements of 

the PLSS are reported is called the PLSS datum. The 
29

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter II - Methods of Survey

geodetic realities of the system require some discussion 

of the geometric and geodetic realities that are imposed 

upon defining the PLSS datum.

A datum is the reference system by which the measurements of a survey system are reported. A datum can 

be complex and rigorously defined, such as the North 

American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83), or it can be less 

comprehensive. In PLSS surveying, it is important to 

gain an understanding of the basis in which measurements are made and reported.

The PLSS is continental in scope. One purpose of the 

PLSS is to survey large areas of land expeditiously. A key 

concept is that the system is to be laid out and reported 

according to “the mean bearing referenced to the true 

meridian at the point of record.” This requirement places 

specific constraints on the survey methods employed to 

properly layout and resurvey such a system.

2-10. The PLSS datum is comprised of meridional 

boundaries that converge toward the poles and latitudinal boundaries, similar to pure latitudinal arcs. Lines 

and most elements of the PLSS are defined in a geodetic 

sense. Most boundaries are lines of constant bearing 

measured at ground elevation.

Simple plane methods are not necessarily suitable for 

large-scale surveys. A large-scale cadastral survey is 

one in which the distinction between plane and geodetic 

computational methods is significant, and it becomes 

necessary to deal with the geodetic aspects of the survey.

For small-scale surveys, the difference between a 

geodetic system and a plane system is insignificant. 

Historically, many cadastral surveys are a mix of astronomic, geodetic, and plane methods. In a retracement, 

the surveyor must be able to distinguish between the 

methods used and discern their effect upon the reestablishment of the lines and corners of the prior survey.

True Meridian at the Point of Record

2-11. The basis for reporting direction is called true 

mean bearing. Stated in terms of angular measure 

referred to true meridian north, it is referenced to the 

true meridian at the point of record. In practical application of the concept, the point of record for determining 

the bearing of a line can be said to be the meridian at 

the midpoint of the line of sight between the end points.

For lines of any east-west extent, the true meridians 

passing through each end point of the line are not 

parallel; reference meridians are not parallel but converge towards the pole. This is a basis of bearing that is 

not orthogonal with reference to a plane surface.

2-12. The direction of a line can be described by a forward bearing based on the meridian at the beginning 

point or by a back bearing based on the meridian at the 

end point. The value prescribed for use in the PLSS is 

the mean of the two. The difference between the forward and back bearings (±180 degrees) is the angle of 

convergence of the meridians through the end points of 

the line.

Line of Constant Bearing

2-13. By statute, in the PLSS datum, the term “straight 

line” is used when describing a line of constant bearing. The term has a different meaning from that used 

in geodesy, where a straight line corresponds approximately to a line of sight or a geodesic.

Circles of latitude are often called parallels. A parallel of latitude is an east-west line. Such a line crosses 

each meridian at 90° or right angles. A parallel is a basic 

example of a line of constant bearing because it crosses 

each meridian at the same angle (line 3, figure 2-1).

Figure 2-1. Lines on exaggerated converging meridians.

line 3

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

=

90°

90°

90°

90

90

°

°

90°

90°

90°

90°

90°

line 2

line 1

back brg.

D A

B C

m 90°

Most lines in the PLSS are intended to be surveyed as 

lines of constant bearing. This is a direct result of the 

requirement that the lines be run “according to the true 

meridian,” thereby crossing each meridian at the same 

angle (lines 2 and 3, figure 2-1). Other terms used for 

such lines are rhumb lines, small circles, or loxodromes. 

Parallels of latitude are sometimes used as boundaries between countries, States, or counties. For example, 

a portion of the 49th parallel was intended to be the 
30

Chapter II - Methods of Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

boundary between the United States and Canada from 

western Minnesota to the State of Washington.

2-14. The base lines and standard parallels of the rectangular system are established on the true parallel of 

latitude; the random latitudinal township boundary lines 

are also projected on the same curve. Other examples of 

lines described as lines of constant bearing include section lines, subdivision-of-section lines, and many grant 

and reservation lines.

Two points at a distance of 20 chains apart on the same 

parallel of latitude may be said to define the direction 

of the curve at either point, without appreciable error. 

However, the projection of a line of sight so defined in 

either direction, easterly or westerly, would describe a 

great circle of the earth gradually departing southerly 

from the true parallel. The rate of departure is a function of the latitude on the earth’s surface.

Line of Sight

2-15. Some boundaries of the PLSS are defined by a “line 

of sight.” This line can be defined as the shortest distance 

between two points. Many conventional surveying instruments make measurements along the line of sight (line 1, 

figure 2-1).

This line of sight is a line of constantly changing bearing. The only exceptions are meridional lines and the 

equator. Such a line can be described by a plane intersecting the earth’s irregular surface that passes through 

the earth’s center and both end points of the line. Such 

a line is traditionally called a great circle. For practical considerations, in the PLSS datum, a line of sight is 

exemplified by the great circle, the shortest line along 

the earth’s surface between two specific end points having no angular deflections along its course.

Because of the convergence of meridians and the requirement to use the true meridian as the basis for the direction of lines, lines not along a meridian are run on constant bearing in order to intersect meridians at the same 

angle. A line of sight line passes each meridian at a different angle and hence is a line of constantly changing 

bearing; in other words, it is not a straight line. The bearing of such line is the bearing at the midpoint (point m, 

line 1, figure 2-1).

2-16. Some boundaries within the PLSS are defined as 

line of sight. The originating documents describing the 

boundary must be studied to determine whether the line 

between corners was intended to be a line of sight or 

line of constant bearing. A private land grant boundary described as running from one physical monument 

or feature to another may be by line of sight. Other 

examples of boundaries defined as line of sight include 

specifically described portions of some administrative or reservation boundaries, the south boundary of 

California (with Mexico), and the diagonal boundary 

between California and Nevada. Such a line, if reported 

in the PLSS datum, would have different bearings 

between each corner point on the line.

Curvature

2-17. By basic law, and the Manual requirements, the 

historical methods and instruments used to lay out the 

PLSS determine the bearing at frequent intervals with 

reference to converging meridians. Thus, the direct survey methods and instruments used produced boundary 

lines run at a constant bearing and adjusted for curvature as part of running the line. In other words, the true 

line between two end points is precisely such a line of 

constant bearing and is laid out inherently by direct 

methods and instruments. The distance chained was 

measured along the same curve, and the resultant measurement is that of the latitudinal arc distance measured 

at ground elevation between two points.

2-18. If a line is other than a meridian, its direction 

has an increment of curvature. This refers to the angular 

difference in the direction of the true meridians through 

each end point. The amount of curvature of PLSS lines 

is dependent on the project latitude, given that curvature 

increases towards the pole.

To visualize this type of line, refer to figure 2-1, 

which illustrates an exaggerated model of this bearing system with meridians converging towards the 

north. Line 1 is a line of sight between points A and B. 

Line 1 is also a line of constantly changing bearing, the 

chord of the line, a great circle of the earth, and intersects the meridian at different angles. The angle with 

each meridian is the bearing of line 1 at that point. 

The bearing at the midpoint of line 1 is the mean 

bearing.

The latitudinal difference between points on line 1 and 

line 2 lying on the same meridian is the adjustment 

for curvature. For resurveys of high-value land and 

resources over large areas, the adjustment for curvature 

could be significant and therefore necessary. For original surveys, the adjustment for curvature will be made 

where significant. All computations will be based upon 

principles of curvature.
31

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter II - Methods of Survey

Often referred to as the correction or adjustment for curvature, the effect can be very large at higher latitudes. 

For example:

At latitude 45° N., it is 52" (seconds) per mile of 

departure. The adjustment for curvature, at the 

midpoint of a parallel of latitude line 1 mile in 

length, at latitude 45° is 0.3 lks. dist.

For latitude 70° N., it is 2' (minutes) 23" 

(seconds) per mile of departure. The adjustment 

for curvature, at the midpoint of a parallel of 

latitude line 1 mile in length, at latitude 70° is 

0.7 lks. dist.

Convergency of Meridians

2-19. The linear amount of the convergency of two 

meridians is a function of their distance apart, the 

length of the meridian between two reference parallels, 

the latitude, and the spheroidal or ellipsoidal form of the 

earth’s surface.

The following equation is convenient for the analytical 

computation of the linear amount of the convergency 

on the parallel, of two meridians any distance apart, 

and any length. The correction for convergency in any 

closed figure is proportional to the area and may be 

computed from an equivalent rectangular area.

Curvature and convergency can be computed as 

follows:

e = Factor of eccentricity

e = 1 –

Using constants for the Clarke Spheroid of 1866 as an 

example, then:

a = 6378206.4 meters Ellipsoid semi-major axis

b = 6356583.8 meters Ellipsoid semi-minor axis

Then we find:

Rp = Radius of parallel at base latitude 

(same units as a).

Rp =

Note that:

C = Curvature in degrees for difference in departure “mλ”.

C = (180°/π) (mλ/Rp)

Finally, given a cardinal figure with the dimensions:

mλ = Measurement along the parallel.

mΦ = Measurement along the meridian.

dmλ = Linear convergency of meridians.

The formula for computation of the linear convergency 

of meridians dmλ is:

dmλ = 

The results are in the same units as the arguments, 

where the units for all arguments are the same.

Lengths of Arcs of the Earth’s Surface

2-20. All computations involving a difference of latitude for a given measurement along a meridian or the 

converse calculation, or other computations involving a 

difference of longitude for a given measurement along 

a parallel, require the computation and reporting of the 

distance as a latitudinal arc length.

Distance measurements are reduced to horizontal and 

reported at the mean elevation of the line above sea level. 

As defined within the framework of a geoid model, this 

would be analogous to a horizontal line reported at the 

mean orthometric height of a line. The length of a line 

as reported in the PLSS datum reflects the degree or 

increment of curvature applied to the line.

Geometric Effects and Apparent Misclosure

2-21. As stated earlier, the basis of bearing for the 

PLSS is not rectangular. As a result, the use of plane 

survey computations to lay out or evaluate PLSS surveys 

requires special knowledge of how to properly interpret 

and apply the results. Attempting to use plane computational methods creates a geometric effect called the 

“apparent misclosure due to meridional convergence.” 

In the PLSS datum, if all measurements for a survey 

b 2

a 2

a

tan (Φ) √ 1 – e 2

 sin 2 (Φ)

mλ mΦ

Rp

√
32

Chapter II - Methods of Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

are perfect for any unit, the survey will appear to misclose when the closure is computed using a plane coordinate system. The effect of this “apparent misclosure” 

increases with latitude. This apparent misclosure is in 

departure only. For example:

The unit bounded in figure 2-1 by points A, C, B, 

and D, which overlays the converging meridians 

is a “cardinal square.” The sides bear cardinal 

south, west, north, and east by true mean 

bearings. If the east, south, and west lines were 

section exteriors and were 80.00 chains distance 

in length, it is apparent from the exaggerated 

illustration that the north boundary must be 

shorter than 80.00 chains distance due to the 

convergency of the meridians.

Using plane computational methods for a square 

mile at a mean latitude of 40° N., the north line 

would be 1.69 links shorter in distance than 

the south line due to the convergence of the 

meridians defining its east and west sides; at 70° 

N., the north line would be 5.53 links shorter in 

distance than the south line.

This apparent misclosure is also a function of the area 

of the figure. The effect of convergency for larger or 

irregular parcels can be computed as a ratio of the value 

determined for a single section at the same mean latitude and that of the area enclosed (figure 2-2).

basic trigonometric functions. Geodetic computations 

or the use of geodetic projections eliminate many problems and computational aberrations. To properly use 

these projections, many factors must be addressed, such 

as proper conversion to and from the true meridian, to 

and from mean bearings, and between ground horizontal distances and grid or sea level distances. To properly use geodetic computations, the correction between 

mean, forward and back bearings, and the elevation of 

the lines must be considered.

An examination of any modern cadastral survey plat 

will illustrate that all the sections appear to misclose if 

computed with plane methods. This is in part due to the 

apparent misclosure and it should be noted that this is 

not a true misclosure. While the precision of reported 

bearings and distances on plats can have a small effect 

on the result, a value for convergency can be computed 

and applied to the closure computation to determine the 

true misclosure for the section considered.

Area

2-23. The areas of closed figures are computed at mean 

ground elevations. A commonly used automated method 

for area computation, the “double meridian distance” 

method, is discussed in detail in section 9-69. This 

adjustment is based upon the record data. It is not necessary to attempt to correct the figure closure for apparent misclosure due to convergence of the meridians. The 

closing error of the figure is eliminated or balanced by a 

compass rule adjustment prior to any area calculations.

Other geodetic computational methods found in textbooks can produce similarly reliable results.

2-24. When using projected grid coordinates for area 

computations, application of scale and elevation factors 

must be applied to derive proper acreages. The area of a 

regular section surveyed at a latitude of 44° 25' N. and 

a mean elevation of 6000 feet yields varying results for 

area. For example:

Using plane computations:

Plane area = 6395.7317 square chains

Plane area = 639.5732 acres

Scaled area at sea level:

Scaled area = 6396.3250 square chains

Scaled area = 639.6325 acres

Scaled area at 6000.00 feet elevation:

Scaled area = 6400.0001 square chains

Scaled area = 640.0000 acres

Figure 2-2. Apparent misclosure due to convergency of the meridians.

Another result of applying the use of plane computations 

in the PLSS datum is that each leg traversed through a 

single point produces a different coordinate value for 

the same point based on the differing paths traversed. 

This geometric effect is a result of both error propagation and the application of meridional convergence to 

the area traversed.

2-22. Using plane computational techniques within the 

PLSS creates problems due to the orthogonal nature of 

A?

A
33

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter II - Methods of Survey

As shown above, when using grid coordinate projections, the surveyor must calculate area scaled at the 

mean elevation of a closed figure to report the correct 

acreage of 640 acres.

Parallel Lines of the PLSS

2-25. In the plan of subdivision of townships, the meridional section lines are established parallel to the east 

boundary or other governing line. This is necessary to 

produce as many regular legal subdivisions as possible. 

This necessitates a slight correction on account of the 

angular convergency of meridians. Hence, parallel lines 

of the PLSS mean two lines a constant distance apart.

In the PLSS, parallel lines that are not true east and 

west will have different bearings. Meridional section 

lines west of the governing line are deflected to the left 

of the bearing of the governing line. Meridional section 

lines east of a governing boundary are given the same 

amount of correction for bearing but the deflection is 

made to the right. The correction is equal to the curvature at the mean latitude of the township per mile from 

the governing line.

The specimen original survey plat, appendix I, demonstrates this concept. The south boundary of the township 

shows the latitude of the southeast corner of the township. At this latitude, the deflection of each meridional 

section line is rounded to 1' northwest per mile from the 

governing east boundary of the township. The curvature 

applied per mile of line at this latitude is approximately 

53" per mile. The deflection is to the left of the governing line.

Elevation

2-26. The distances in almost all PLSS surveys have 

either been measured horizontally at the ground surface 

or reduced to horizontal ground distances. Generally 

PLSS distance measurements are not reduced to any 

other elevation or surface. Because of this, the elevation 

(or height above or below mean sea level) of the actual 

record lines can become relevant in a computation. 

See the exception for surveys in the State of Alaska, 

section 2-7.

For example, if the north boundary of a township varies 

3000 feet in elevation, care must be taken in the method 

used to proportion lost corners along it. This is not an 

issue when proportioning using a retracement traverse 

run with traditional methods. However, a question could 

arise if the retracement measurements are made in a system that has been reduced to a grid or to a sea level basis.

Elevation has increasing computational relevance as 

the use of satellite-based measurements and rigorously 

defined coordinate systems and geodetic coordinate 

projections achieve common use.

Deflection of the Vertical

2-27. There is a slight difference between the astronomic meridian and the geodetic meridian at a given 

point. This difference is referred to as the Laplace correction and is a result of the difference in direction of 

the local gravity vector, the normal to the geoid, and the 

normal to the reference ellipsoid. This causal factor is 

known as the “deflection of the vertical” or “deflection 

of the plumb.” As measurement techniques have evolved 

and earth centered geodetic datums have come into use, 

this difference is now readily available, whereas in the 

past it was difficult to obtain. The historical practice of 

using an astronomic meridian versus the current capability to obtain a geodetic value can create a potential 

ambiguity that must be resolved in certain cases.

Before full publication of NAD 83, it was generally 

impractical to observe, determine, or effectively use 

the Laplace correction. In addition, the basic accuracies required in most surveys make such corrections 

inconsequential.

2-28. The use of global geodetic measurement technology and execution of some large-scale surveys may 

require accounting for the Laplace correction. In particular, surveys that mix astronomic observations with 

geodetic measurements of long baselines derived from 

the geodetic meridian may require an evaluation of the 

difference. As a general rule, if direction measurement 

methods are mixed, the value of the local deflection will 

be obtained. If the difference is significant, a correction will be applied to the astronomic observations to 

place them on the same basis as the geodetic values. In 

any case, the method used to determine bearing in the 

survey must be clearly stated in the field note record. It 

should be emphasized that in most cases this factor is 

very small and generally of no concern.
34

Chapter II - Methods of Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Coordinate Systems and 

Projections

Geodetic Reference Systems

2-29. The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) defines and 

manages the NSRS throughout the United States. The 

NGS provides the cadastral surveyor with a consistent 

national coordinate system that defines latitude, longitude, height, scale, gravity, and orientation for the Nation. 

The NSRS is dynamic and subject to refinement.

In general terms, datum and reference ellipsoids are not 

cited here because different datums of North America 

produce virtually identical results when reducing the 

length and direction of a line. This is, of course, dependent on the precision or number of significant figures 

used when reporting measurements.

Cadastral surveyors should use automated computational systems as well as geographic and projected grid 

coordinate systems oriented directly to the NSRS to 

conduct official surveys.

Latitudes and Departures

2-30. Prior to the availability of automated computations, cadastral surveyors used local rectangular coordinate systems exclusively for field computations. It is 

important to understand how to properly derive and use 

local coordinates systems called “latitudes and departures” because they remain the basis of many specialized computations and adjustments applied to the surveys of the PLSS.

The mean bearing of a line is used to determine the 

north-south and east-west extent of a line. When a 

line is reduced to its cardinal equivalents, the result is 

expressed as two distances with a north-south and an 

east-west component. These two distances are called 

latitudinal difference or latitude, and longitudinal difference or departure, respectively. For example, a due 

west boundary line, which follows a parallel of latitude, 

has zero north-south (latitudinal) extent. Using either 

the forward or back bearing to compute a line connecting points along such a parallel would not give a zero 

latitude result. Therefore, the mean bearing of a line is 

used to determine the latitudinal or longitudinal extent 

of the line.

It is useful to remember that the mean bearing of a chord 

(line of sight) connecting any two points along a PLSS 

30”

65.600

107.160

172.764

172.777

65.610

31.993 (172.770)

84° 38’ 00” S. 68° 47’ 10” E. N. 68° 46’ 30” W.

N. 28° 23’ 55” W.

N. 28° 23’ 30” 

W.

40° 22’ 20”

N. 68° 45’ 50” W.

185.350 Chs.

225.298 Chs.

N. 26° 34’ 50” E.

S. 26° 35’ 05” W.

146.584 Chs.

107.152

198.186

131.086 67.102

1’ 20”

Lat. 34° 08’ 34.287”

Long. 98° 51’ 22.318” (198.188)

50”

Lat. 34° 09’ 59.870”

Long. 98° 50’ 30.797”

Lat. 34° 07’ 50.469”

Long. 98° 49’ 06.662”

S. 28° 

24’ 20” E.

S. 26° 35’ 20” W.

 54° 59’ 40”

 40° 22’ 20”

 84° 38’ 00”

180° 00’ 00”

54° 59’ 40”

rhumb line is the same as the bearing of the rhumb line 

itself (figure 2-3).

Geographic Positions

2-31. The term “geographic position” is used interchangeably with “geodetic position” and refers to a 

position, expressed as a latitude and longitude, on the 

referenced ellipsoid representing the earth.

The spheroid in general use for many years past in the 

PLSS is Clarke’s Spheroid of 1866. It is defined by the 

dimension of its equatorial axis and the ratio to this 

length of the amount it exceeds the polar axis. The 

spheroid closely approximates the shape the earth would 

have if the ocean surface were continuous. By this system, any position is defined by its latitude and longitude 

measured from the intersection of the zero meridian of 

the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, and the 

equator. Linear measurements made between geodetic 

positions must be reduced to sea level to check the theoretical distance. In the ordinary cadastral survey this 

refinement will generally not be necessary.

2-32. In the township plats of the rectangular system, 

it is the practice to give the geographic position of at 

least two corners as determined from the best available 

source. Surveyors will tie their work to the NSRS whenever practicable.

Figure 2-3. Curvature of lines of a large triangle.
35

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter II - Methods of Survey

Geodetic control has assumed increased importance to 

the cadastral surveyor with the use of protractions to 

define parcels of unsurveyed land and with the development of digital land information systems.

The surveyor, after assuring that the points of the survey are correctly positioned, will report the results of 

field observations and techniques used along with the 

mathematical uncertainty of the geographic coordinates 

computed in a manner that it is known and recorded. 

The coordinate data presented will include the correct 

datum and adjustment date or epoch of the NSRS control used. The precision with which coordinate data is 

reported will be commensurate with the accuracy of the 

field observations taken.

The field observations, techniques, and computational 

processes will be documented in such a manner that 

future surveyors can confidently replicate the position of 

the points of the survey on the face of the earth within a 

known mathematical uncertainty.

Grid Coordinate Systems and Coordinates

2-33. The local surveyor is often concerned with feet, 

rather than chains. Townsite surveys, mineral surveys, 

highway surveys, and surveys for other engineering 

projects are typically made in feet. By making use of 

the State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS), project 

engineering computations are simplified. These systems facilitate the creation of a permanent record of 

coordinate positions, provide a check on the closure of 

a survey, and include common applications that assist 

in photogrammetric, route alignment, and right-of-way 

surveys. The SPCS have also been used in the definition of mineral leasing blocks on the Outer Continental 

Shelf.

The SPCS are rectangular grids designed to fit the 

curved shape of the earth to a plane surface with as little 

distortion as possible. This is accomplished by choosing 

a limited area and a conformal projection. The Statebased plane coordinate systems, with one exception in 

Alaska, are based on either the Transverse Mercator or 

the Lambert projection. The reliable use of an SPCS 

system depends upon accurate geodetic coordinate 

determinations made relative to the NSRS. This geodetic referencing is a necessary condition for accurately 

determining usable SPCS grid positions for points in an 

official survey using plane survey methods.

2-34. Care must be taken with the use of the SPCS, 

however, due to inherent differences between these 

systems and the PLSS. The mathematical conversions 

between field measurements and plane coordinate values, for example, involve many relationships. Sea level 

factors relate ground distances to sea level or geoid 

equivalents. Elevation factors relate ground distances to 

geodetic equivalents on the ellipsoid. Grid scale factors 

relate ellipsoidal or geodetic distances to an equivalent 

on the projection, or grid surface. The mapping angle, 

or convergence angle, relates geodetic north to grid 

north. Arc to chord, or second-term corrections, relate 

observed pointings to equivalents on the grid and are 

relevant to both bearings and angles. The grid bearing is 

a true bearing only along the central meridian of a given 

SPCS zone, and a grid distance is not generally a true 

ground distance. Also, acreage on the grid surface differs from the ground surface acreage used in the PLSS.

With the availability of more efficient computational 

capabilities, performance of ellipsoidal computations 

on the geodetic datum can be done directly without the intermediate solution provided by State plane 

coordinates.

Presumably any point can be reestablished once its coordinates have been determined. However, great care must 

be exercised to ensure that the original coordinate pairs 

were produced by a process that is repeatable within a 

quantifiable accuracy standard. Repeatable coordinates 

may provide collateral evidence of a corner position, 

may constitute the best available evidence of a corner 

position, and, in some cases, may constitute substantial 

evidence of the position of an obliterated corner.

Use of Local Survey Measurements

2-35. The retracement surveyor must exercise caution 

regarding the basis of bearings when using local survey 

records as evidence. Even if the local survey is related 

to an astronomic observation, the bearings for all lines 

of the local survey may not be reported in true or mean 

bearings. Such surveys are often based upon a single 

astronomic bearing determination, which may be indicated in the “basis of bearing” statement. Generally, 

these plane surveys are related to the true astronomic 

meridian only at a single point. Inherently, this methodology cannot report true bearings on other lines if 

there is any significant east and west extent in the area 

surveyed.

2-36. The surveyor must also verify the coordinate 

basis used in local survey records. It is common to find 

local records that appear to use State plane coordinates. If the local survey is in a State plane projection, 
36

Chapter II - Methods of Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

distances and bearings must be converted to ground 

values and true mean bearing values, respectively, for 

comparison to the record. There are many cases where 

the local survey appears to be in a projection system, 

but does not use true State plane coordinates. For 

example, some local surveys are based on a State plane 

coordinate value at a single station but without proper 

reduction of ground distances to grid equivalent. Thus, 

measurements and everything except the initial coordinate pair in the survey fail to actually be in the State 

plane system. Other local systems deliberately manipulate the datum in order to obtain a scale factor of 1.0 or 

ground elevation distances.

Accuracy of Survey Measurements

2-37. Field survey measurements require the most 

stringent application of accuracy standards. Other 

cadastral services and products ancillary to the survey 

process depend on the accuracy of the official records 

of measurements. For example, the spatial depiction 

of the PLSS in a digital land information system is a 

byproduct of the abstraction of data from official survey records.

The required accuracy of survey measurements, if 

different from the Manual, is stated in the special 

instructions. Different surveys have different accuracy 

requirements. Generally speaking, the expectation for 

accuracy will be consistent with specifications of the 

survey instruments prescribed to satisfy the purpose 

of the survey. For instance, if the purpose of a survey 

requires a technology to deliver accuracies of measured 

lines within 2 centimeters, an error ellipse of 1 meter 

would suggest a blunder exists in the survey data.

The most stringent requirement in the evaluation of 

error is that the analysis of error in a data set first identifies and then excludes any blunders or systematic errors 

introduced through the improper use of the equipment 

or improper reduction of data.

National Spatial Data Infrastructure

2-38. The National Spatial Data Infrastructure 

(NSDI) is defined as the technology, policies, standards, and human resources necessary to acquire, 

process, store, distribute, and improve utilization of 

geospatial data. Geospatial data is information that 

identifies the geographic location and characteristics 

of natural or constructed features, including cadastral 

data about boundaries below, on, and above the surface 

of the earth. This information may be derived from 

remote sensing, mapping, and surveying technologies 

and records. Statistical data will be included in characterizing the spatial reliability of cadastral data at the 

discretion of the agency collecting and disseminating 

the information.

The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) 

is charged with the responsibility to develop spatial 

cadastral data content standards for the NSDI. The 

FGDC standards define the methods for reporting the 

positional accuracy of geospatial data including cadastral data. The FGDC standards are dynamic and subject to refinement.

Statistical Analysis of Survey Data

2-39. A common method of reporting the spatial reliability or accuracy of data is a byproduct of the statistical analysis of survey data. The error ellipse is the most 

common and lucid depiction of the positional accuracy 

of a survey point in a traverse or geodetic network.

Current accuracy standards for the acquisition of field 

data require cadastral data to conform to positional 

tolerance standards consistent with FGDC reporting 

standards. Each official delegated the authority to issue 

special instructions is responsible to define both the 

methods and expectation of accuracy for cadastral surveys applying these standards.

Computations in the PLSS Datum

2-40. Examples of computations affected by the geometric and geodetic effects of the PLSS datum include:

• Methods for computing or laying out a line 

of constant bearing.

• Understanding geodetic survey procedures 

and proper determination of the true mean 

bearing.

• Understanding and properly applying 

procedures for using grid coordinate 

projections.

• Methods for converting geodetic or grid 

data to the PLSS datum.

• Specialized computations in the PLSS 

datum, such as single and double 

proportion; one, two and three point 

control; and broken boundary adjustments.
37

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter II - Methods of Survey

• Attention to elevation, elevation variation, 

and variation of scale factor.

• Area computation.

Units of Direction

2-41. Bearings are reported to the level of precision 

consistent with the accuracy requirements of the survey 

and the overall precision of the measurements. Thus, 

many plats and field notes indicate bearings to only the 

nearest minute.

Units of Distance

2-42. The law prescribes the chain as the unit of linear measure for the survey of the public lands. The 

majority of the PLSS has, in fact, been surveyed and 

reported in chain units. Diversity in survey needs and 

special requirements may impose the need for surveys 

reported in feet or meters. The units required, if other 

than chains, will be specified in the special instructions 

and must be clearly stated on the plat and in the field 

notes.

The chain unit, devised in the 17th century by Edmund 

Gunter, an English astronomer, is so designed that 

10 square chains are equivalent to 1 acre. In the English 

colonial area of the United States, the boundaries of land 

were usually measured in the chain unit, but lengths of 

lines were frequently expressed in poles. One pole is 

equal to 25 links, and 4 poles equal 1 chain. The field 

notes of some early rectangular surveys in the southern States show the distance in “perches,” equivalent to 

poles. The term now commonly used for the same distance is the rod. There are some places where distances 

were recorded in 2 pole (perch) chains, where a full 

mile contains 160 perches. The retracement surveyor 

needs to be cautious when retracing such surveys, particularly in proportioning measurements.

2-43. The chain unit is defined in terms of the U.S. 

Survey Foot. The difference between the International 

Foot, as defined in the International System of Units 

(Systeme International or SI), and the U.S. Survey 

Foot is very small, on the order of 2 parts per million. 

However, this difference must be recognized when 

long distances are involved. The difference may also 

be important when dealing with some plane coordinate 

projections where values of millions of feet are used 

computationally or otherwise. Common conversions are 

shown in table 2-1.

Table 2-1. Conversions commonly used in PLSS surveying.

Units of Linear Measure

 1 chain = 100 links

 = 66 feet (U.S. Survey Foot)

 = 4 poles, perches, rods

 1 mile = 80 chains

 = 5,280 feet (U.S. Survey Foot)

Units of Area

 1 acre = 10 square chains

 = 43,560 square feet (U.S. Survey Foot)

 1 square mile = 640 acres

Metric Conversions

U.S. Survey Foot

 1 meter = 39.37 inches (exact)

 1 U.S. Survey Foot = 0.3048006096... meter

 1 link = 0.2011684023... meter

 1 meter = 3.2808333333... U.S. Survey Foot

 1 acre = 0.40468726099... hectare

International Foot (SI)

 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters (exact)

 1 SI Foot = 0.3048 meter (exact)

 1 meter = 3.2808398950... SI Foot

Land grants by the French crown were made in arpents. 

The arpent (arpen) is a unit of area, but the side of a 

square arpent came to be used for linear description. 

The values given in table 2-2 were employed with considerable uniformity, although differing slightly as to 

exactness and with certain distinctions as noted.

Table 2-2. Conversions for French units of area.

The value in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and 

northwestern Florida:

 1 arpent = 0.84625 acres (very nearly)

 The side of a square arpent = 2.909 chains = 191.994 feet

The value in Arkansas and Missouri:

 1 arpent = 0.8507 acres (very nearly)

 The side of a square arpent = 2.91667 chains = 192.500 feet

The Spanish crown and the Mexican Government 

granted lands that were usually described in linear 

varas. Table 2-3 shows the conversions most often 

needed.
38

Chapter II - Methods of Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Table 2-3. Conversions for Spanish and Mexican varas to chains and 

feet.

The value in the public domain of the Southwest:

 1 vara = 32.99312 inches = 4.1658 links

 100 varas = 4.1658 chains = 274.943 feet

The value in Florida:

 1 vara = 33.372 inches = 4.2136 links

 100 varas = 4.2136 chains = 278.100 feet

The value in Texas:

 1 vara = 33.333333 inches = 4.2088 links

 100 varas = 4.208754 chains = 277.777 feet

 36 varas = 1.5152 chains = 100.000 feet

 1900.8 varas = 80.00 chains = 5280 feet = 1 mile

 75.12 varas square = 5645.375 square varas = 1 acre

In some cases, slightly different values were employed 

in the boundary surveys of the French, Spanish, and 

Mexican land grants in the several U.S. Surveying 

Districts due to the lack of consistent standards, the disposition to continue the established local practices, and 

the use of approximate conversion factors. To ascertain 

the authority for definite equivalents, an examination 

must be made of the early surveying records and court 

opinions for the particular district of interest.
39

Chapter III

The System of

Rectangular Surveys

Introduction

3-1. The rectangular system of public land surveys 

over the public domain provides a simple and certain 

form of land identification and legal description. It has 

been used continuously since 1785. Although few of the 

original surveys now being made cover extensive areas, 

except in the State of Alaska, all facets of the rectangular system occasionally come into use. For this reason, 

and to make clear the procedures that have been followed in surveying public lands, a complete discussion 

of the system is included in this Manual.

The field procedures outlined in this chapter include 

procedures used historically as well as current methods 

for conducting an original survey. Historically, original 

surveys were made to create surveys of new areas by 

extending existing rectangular surveys into unsurveyed 

lands. This approach differs from the modern practice 

of using a protraction diagram or predetermined plan of 

survey so new surveys can be made in areas where they 

do not necessarily adjoin existing rectangular surveys.

Other procedures discussed in this chapter include creating protraction diagrams, special instructions diagrams 

where no protraction exists, and modifying approved 

protraction diagrams. Knowledge of the original field 

survey procedures used is important when resurveying or retracing an original survey. Many different procedures have evolved and the surveyor will reference 

the Manual in effect for the time of the survey being 

retraced.

General Scheme

3-2. Under the rectangular system, the unit of survey 

is the township of 36 sections. The unit of subdivision 

is the section of 640 acres. Under the general land laws, 

the unit of administration is the quarter-quarter section 

of 40 acres or the lot, either of which is often referred 

to as the smallest legal subdivision. Under mining and 

reclamation laws, the smallest legal subdivision is the 

quarter-quarter-quarter section of 10 acres. Some special statutes specified even smaller legal subdivisions, 

e.g., homestead entry surveys within National Forests 

and mining claim mill sites.

The law provides that (1) the public lands of the United 

States shall be divided by lines intersecting true north 

and south lines at right angles so as to form townships 

6 miles square; (2) the townships shall be marked with 

progressive numbers from the beginning; (3) the townships shall be subdivided into 36 sections, each 1 mile 

square and containing 640 acres as nearly as may be; 

(4) the sections shall be numbered, respectively, beginning with the number 1 in the northeast section, and 

proceeding west and east alternately through the township with progressive numbers to and including 36; and 

(5) a fair plat describing the subdivisions and marks 

shall be made and recorded at a designated office 

(Rev. Stat. 2395; 43 U.S.C. 751).

3-3. In accordance with the foregoing legal requirements, the public lands are surveyed under the method 

called the system of rectangular surveys and uses the 

following procedure:

(1) The establishment of independent initial 

points, each to serve as an origin for surveys to 

be extended in separated localities.

(2) The survey of principal meridians and base 

lines, originating at the initial points.

(3) The establishment of guide meridians 

initiated at base lines, and of standard parallels 

initiated at principal meridians, at intervals short 

enough to maintain a workable adherence to the 

legal definition of the primary unit, the township 

6 miles square.

(4) The survey of township exteriors within the 

established framework Townships are numbered 
40

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

to the north or south commencing with number 

1 at the base line, and with range numbers to 

the east or west beginning with number 1 at the 

principal meridian.

(5) The subdivision of the townships into 

36 sections by running parallel lines through 

the township from south to north and from east 

to west at distances of 1 mile. The sections are 

numbered commencing with number 1 in the 

northeast section of the township, proceeding 

thence west to section 6, thence south to section 

7, thence east to section 12, and so on, alternately, 

to number 36 in the southeast section.

3-4. By law, (1) the corners marked in public land surveys shall be established as the proper corners of sections, or of the subdivisions of the sections, which they 

were intended to designate; (2) the boundary lines actually run and marked shall be and remain the proper 

boundary lines of the sections or subdivisions for which 

they were intended, and the lengths of these lines as 

returned shall be held as the true length thereof; and (3) 

the contents of each section or subdivision of section 

returned shall be held and considered as containing the 

exact quantity expressed (Rev. Stat. 2396; 43 U.S.C. 752).

The original corners shall stand as the true corners they 

were intended to represent, even though not exactly 

where professional care might have placed them in the 

first instance. Lost corners must be reestablished in the 

identical positions they originally occupied. When the 

positions cannot be determined by existing monuments 

or other verifying evidence, resort shall be had to the official record (field notes and plat, or field notes on the plat) 

of the original survey. The law provides that the lengths 

of the lines, as returned in the official record, shall be 

held as the true lengths, and the distances between identified corner positions given in the official record constitute proper data from which to determine the position of 

a lost corner; hence, the rule that lost corners are restored 

at distances proportionate to the original measurements 

between identified positions (chapter VII).

Corners established but not marked on the original surveys (sixteenth-section corners, subdivision-of-section 

corners) will forever remain fixed in position when 

marked (1) using proper survey procedures, (2) without 

gross error in measurement, and (3) in accordance with 

substantial evidence of the position of the controlling 

corners.

3-5. In the sections that follow, the first explanations 

are with respect to ideal procedure in the rectangular 

plan. The plan must be modified in various ways in 

order to begin new work where the initial and closing 

lines already established by prior survey do not qualify 

under the current specifications for rectangularity and 

closure but cannot be changed now because of the passing of titles based on them. New survey work will avoid 

the incorporation of the discrepancies of the older lines 

in the running of new original surveys.

Initial Points

3-6. Since the organization of the system of rectangular surveys, numbered and locally named principal meridians and base lines have been established as 

listed in table 3-1. These bases and meridians are shown 

on a special map entitled “Principal Meridians and 

Base Lines Governing the United States Public Land 

Surveys” published by the BLM (figure 1-1).

The latitude and longitude coordinates given in table 

3-1 are based upon the Greenwich Meridian and the 

best available information. The horizontal datum used 

is the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). In 

some cases the coordinates shown are only an approximate value since many of the initial points were fixed in 

position by surveys that were largely completed before 

importance was attached to the matter of accurate coordinates. The geographic coordinates in table 3-1 should 

not be used in lieu of a field determination, except when 

an approximate value will satisfy all requirements.

3-7. The rectangular system was initiated in the State 

of Ohio in 1785 from a point on the west boundary of 

Pennsylvania, on the north bank of the Ohio River, in 

approximate latitude 40°38'22.051" N. and longitude 

80°31'08.500" W. NAD 83. The State boundary served 

as the first reference meridian. A number of other reference meridians and bases were employed in Ohio to 

govern particular areas for purposes of disposal. In its 

early stages the system was somewhat experimental, 

and Ohio may well be referred to as the proving ground 

for the present rectangular system of surveys. The rectangular surveys that have no initial point as an origin of 

township identification are listed in table 3-2.

Principal Meridian

3-8. A principal meridian is intended to conform 

to the true meridian, extending north or south, or in 

both directions, from the initial point as conditions 

require. Regular quarter-section and section corners 
41

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Table 3-1. Meridians and Base Lines of the United States Rectangular Surveys

Meridian Adopted

Governing surveys 

(wholly or in part)

in States of

Initial Points (NAD 83)

Latitude N. Longitude W.

° ' " ° ' "

Black Hills 1878 South Dakota 43 59 43.760 104 03 18.350

Boise 1867 Idaho 43 22 19.242 116 23 38.708

Chickasaw 1833 Mississippi and Tennessee 35 02 02.000 89 14 49.950

Choctaw 1821 Mississippi 31 52 28.932 90 14 42.408

Cimarron 1881 Oklahoma 36 30 05.266 103 00 08.589

Copper River 1905 Alaska 61 49 02.223 145 18 43.285

Fairbanks 1910 Alaska 64 51 48.503 147 38 34.683

Fifth Principal 1815 Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, 

North Dakota, and South Dakota

34 38 44.455 91 03 07.337

First Principal 1819 Ohio and Indiana 40 59 21.760 84 48 11.650

Fourth Principal 1815 Illinois 40 00 51.254 90 27 13.290

Fourth Principal Wisconsin 1831 Minnesota and Wisconsin 42 30 25.900 90 25 36.210

Gila and Salt River 1865 Arizona 33 22 37.827 112 18 21.999

Humboldt 1853 California 40 25 01.985 124 07 13.942

Huntsville 1807 Alabama and Mississippi 34 59 27.050 86 34 16.480

Indian 1870 Oklahoma 34 30 24.496 97 14 50.191

Kateel River Principal 1956 Alaska 65 26 14.088 158 45 40.380

Louisiana 1807 Louisiana and Texas 31 00 31.928 92 24 55.880

Michigan 1815 Michigan and Ohio 42 25 28.751 84 21 52.884

Mount Diablo 1851 California and Nevada 37 52 54.112 121 54 50.958

Navajo 1869 Arizona and New Mexico 35 45 06.775 108 32 14.431

New Mexico Principal 1855 Colorado and New Mexico 34 15 35.946 106 53 14.962

Principal 1867 Montana 45 47 12.824 111 39 35.576

Salt Lake 1855 Utah 40 46 10.269 111 53 28.776

San Bernardino 1852 California and Nevada 34 07 12.997 116 55 51.511

Second Principal 1805 Illinois and Indiana 38 28 09.900 86 27 20.400

Seward Principal 1911 Alaska 60 07 34.933 149 21 33.551

Sixth Principal 1856 Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, 

South Dakota, and Wyoming

40 00 07.100 97 22 09.124

St. Helena 1819 Louisiana 30 59 57.000 91 09 36.800

St. Stephens 1805 Alabama and Mississippi 30 59 52.094 88 01 21.067

Tallahassee 1824 Florida 30 26 04.148 84 16 37.559

Third Principal 1805 Illinois 38 28 25.968 89 08 40.269

Uintah Special 1875 Utah 40 25 58.379 109 56 07.418

Umiat Principal 1956 Alaska 69 23 28.279 152 00 15.186

Ute Principal 1880 Colorado 39 06 22.727 108 32 01.436

Washington 1803 Mississippi 30 59 57.000 91 09 36.800

Willamette 1851 Oregon and Washington 45 31 10.233 122 44 37.897

Wind River 1875 Wyoming 43 00 40.948 108 48 51.786
42

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

are established alternately at intervals of 40 chains, 

and regular township corners at intervals of 480 chains. 

Corners designated as meander corners are established 

at the intersection of the line with meanderable bodies 

of water. 

3-9. The survey of the principal meridian and other 

standard lines (base lines, standard parallels, and guide 

meridians), require independent verification of the accuracy of measurements made. Typically, verification of 

measurements will be done: (1) when subdivisional closings are provided in the same assignment with the establishment of the standard line, in which case the closings 

furnish a verification of the length; or (2) when the 

measurements are verified through other independent 

means such as the statistical analysis of measured data.

If the measurement error of a standard line exceeds 

2 links per 80 chains, new measurements are made to 

reduce the measurement error. If independent tests of 

the alinement of a standard line indicate that the line 

has deflected more than 0'50" from the true cardinal 

course, the source of error will be identified and corrected. These are the maximum discrepancies allowable 

in new surveys.

Base Line

3-10. The base line is extended east and west from the 

initial point on a true parallel of latitude. Standard quarter-section and section corners are established alternately at intervals of 40 chains and standard township 

corners at intervals of 480 chains. Meander corners are 

established where the line intersects meanderable bodies of water.

3-11. The manner of making the measurement of the 

base line and the accuracy of alinement and measurement are the same as required in the survey of the 

principal meridian. The determination of the alinement 

of the true latitudinal curve process is described in 

the record.

Protraction Diagrams

Plan of Survey

3-12. Protraction diagrams have been prepared for 

substantially all unsurveyed areas in the public domain. 

Such diagrams are prepared to describe unsurveyed land 

areas. A protraction diagram is not, and is not intended 

to be, a substitute for an official survey. Protraction diagrams consist of drawn lines that follow the public land 

survey system but are not an actual survey. They do not 

involve a field survey with monumentation and hence no 

monuments on the ground. They represent the plan for 

the extension of the rectangular system over unsurveyed 

lands, following the general scheme as outlined earlier. 

They are constructed based upon the following rules as 

far as practicable. For discussion on preparation of protraction diagrams see sections 3-138 through 3-157.

Standard Parallels

3-13. Standard parallels, which have also been called 

correction lines, are extended east and west from the 

Table 3-2. Public Land Surveys Having No Initial Point as an Origin for 

Both Township and Range Numbers

Survey 

(and year 

commenced)

Townships 

numbered

Ranges

numbered

Ohio River 

Survey 

(Ohio)

1785 North from Ohio 

River

West from west 

boundary of 

Pennsylvania

U.S. Military 

Survey 

(Ohio)

1797 North from south 

boundary of military grant.

West from west 

boundary of the 

Seven Ranges

West of the 

Great Miami 

(Ohio)

1798 North from Great 

Miami River

East from OhioIndiana boundary

Ohio River 

Base 

(Indiana)

1799 North from Ohio 

River

From Ohio-Indiana 

boundary and its 

projection south

Scioto River 

Base (Ohio)

1799 North from 

Scioto River

West from west 

boundary of 

Pennsylvania

Muskingum 

River 

Survey 

(Ohio)

1800 1 and 2 10

Between 

the Miamis, 

north of 

Symmes 

Purchase 

(Ohio)

1802 East from Great 

Miami River

North from Ohio 

River (continuing numbers from 

Symmes Purchases)

TwelveMile-Square 

Reserve 

(Ohio)

1805 1, 2, 3, and 4 None
43

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

principal meridian, at intervals of 24 miles north and 

south of the base line, in the manner prescribed for the 

survey of the base line.

Where standard parallels previously have been placed 

at intervals of 30 or 36 miles, and present conditions 

require additional standard lines, an intermediate standard parallel line is established to which a local name 

may be given, such as “Fifth Auxiliary Standard Parallel 

North” and run like a regular standard parallel.

Guide Meridians

3-14. Guide meridians are extended north from the 

base line, or standard parallels, at intervals of 24 miles 

east and west from the principal meridian, in the manner prescribed for running the principal meridian. The 

guide meridians terminate at the points of their intersections with the standard parallels. The guide meridian is projected on the true meridian, and the excess 

or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in the 

last half mile. At the point of intersection of the guide 

meridian with the standard parallel, a township corner 

is established. The corner typically controls one side of 

a line only, a corner of minimum control. The parallel 

is retraced between the nearest corners on the standard 

parallel east and west to determine the alinement, and 

the distance is measured and recorded to each of the 

corners (figure 3-1).

3-15. When existing conditions require that guide 

meridians be run south from the base or standard parallel lines, they are initiated at the theoretical point for 

the intersection of the guide meridian, calculated on 

the basis of the survey of the line from south to north 

initiated at the proper standard township corner. At the 

theoretical point of intersection a township corner is 

established.

3-16. Where guide meridians have been placed at 

intervals exceeding the distance of 24 miles, and new 

governing lines are required, a new guide meridian 

is established, and a local name is assigned, such as 

“Twelfth Auxiliary Guide Meridian West” or “Grass 

Valley Guide Meridian.” Auxiliary guide meridians are 

surveyed in all respects like regular guide meridians.

Township Exteriors

Regular Order

3-17. The south and east boundaries of a township are 

normally the governing lines of the subdivisional surveys. Defective conditions in previously established 

exteriors cannot be eliminated where subdivisional lines 

have been initiated from or closed upon an old boundary, but the errors of former surveys are not incorporated 

into the new. Where the previously established south 

and east boundaries cannot on that account be used to 

govern the subdivision of the adjoining township, other 

controlling lines known as the sectional correction line 

and the sectional guide meridian, or the governing section line are employed (figures 3-2 through 3-7).

Meridional Boundaries

3-18. Whenever practicable, the township exteriors are 

surveyed successively through a quadrangle in ranges of 

townships, beginning with the townships on the south. 

The meridional township boundaries have precedence 

in the order of survey and are run from south to north 

on true meridians. Quarter-section and section corners 

are established alternately at intervals of 40 chains, and 

meander corners are established at intersections of the 

line with meanderable bodies of water. A temporary 

township corner is set at a distance of 480 chains, pending determination of its final position. The temporary 

point is then replaced by a permanent corner in proper 

latitudinal position.

3-19. A meridional exterior is terminated at the point 

of intersection with a standard parallel. The excess or 

Figure 3-1. Survey of quadrangles, each embracing 16 townships 

bounded by standard lines, showing the coordinate system of numbering 

townships.

First Standar d

Base Line Base Line

Meridian We s t First Guid e

First Guid e Meridian E a s t

Meridian P rincipal

R.4W. R.3W. R.2W. R.1W.

Initial Point

R.1E.

T.1N.

T.1S.

T.2S.

T.3S.

T.4S.

T.2N.

T.3N.

T.4N.

R.2E. R.3E. R.4E.

P a r allel Nor t h

First Standar d P a r allel South
44

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Figure 3-2. Regular order of completing exteriors where the south boundary (standard parallel) and east boundary were previously surveyed.

Figure 3-3. Regular order of completing exteriors where the south, east, 

and west boundaries were previously surveyed.

Figure 3-4. Regular order of completing exteriors where the south boundary (standard parallel) and west boundary were previously surveyed.

Figure 3-5. Regular order of completing exteriors where the south boundary was previously surveyed.

We st on random, correct to true line

S TAND ARD PA R ALLEL

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th 48 0.0 0 chs .

6

7

18

19

30

31

5432 1

We st on random, correct to true line

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

E a st on random, correct to true line

S TAND ARD PA R ALLEL

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th 48 0.0 0 chs .

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

deficiency in measurement is incorporated in the north 

half mile. A corner is established at the point of intersection. The parallel is retraced between the nearest 

corners on the standard parallel east and west to determine the alinement, and the distance is measured and 

recorded to each of the corners.

3-20. In order to complete the exteriors of a township it 

often remains to establish a meridional boundary between 

previously established township corners. The meridional 

township boundary is run and, if defective conditions are 

not encountered, the corners are established from south 

to north on the line connecting the previously established township corners, at intervals of 40 chains and at 

intersections with meanderable bodies of water, marking 

the true line. By this procedure, the excess or deficiency 

in measurement is incorporated in the north half mile, 

and double sets of corners are avoided.

Latitudinal Boundaries

3-21. In order to complete the exteriors of a township, and if defective conditions are not encountered, 

the latitudinal boundary is run connecting the objective 

We st on random, correct to true line

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th 48 0 .00 chs .

Nor th 48 0 .00 chs .

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1
45

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Figure 3-7. Regular order of completing exteriors where the north 

boundary (standard parallel), south boundary, and west boundary were 

previously surveyed.

Figure 3-6. Regular order of completing exteriors where the north, south, 

and west boundaries were previously surveyed.

township corners. Corners are established from east to 

west along the latitudinal curve connecting the township corners, at intervals of 40 chains and at intersections with meanderable bodies of water, marking the 

true line. By this procedure, the excess or deficiency in 

measurement is incorporated in the west half mile, and 

double sets of corners are avoided where unnecessary.

3-22. When lines are run by the random and true 

method, the bearing of the true line is calculated from 

the falling of the random line. The falling is the distance, on the normal, by which a line falls to the right 

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th on r andom, corr ect t o true line

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

S TAND ARD PA R ALLEL

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th t o int ersection

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

or left of an objective corner. The temporary points on 

any random line are replaced by permanent corners on 

the true line, along the latitudinal curve. The true line is 

marked, and distances to important items of topography 

are adjusted to correct the true line measurement.

Official Record of Township Exteriors

3-23. The official record contains a complete record 

of the manner in which township exteriors have been 

run and established. The details of the measurement 

processes may be shown where a special purpose is 

served.

Irregular Order and Partial Surveys

3-24. Sometimes procedures will be modified and 

departure made from the ideal when creating protraction 

diagrams. The departure from the ideal order is specifically outlined by a new protraction diagram or by supplemental special instructions and diagram. Any such 

departure is always based on the principle of accomplishing the same relation of one township boundary 

to another as would result from regular establishment 

under ideal conditions. Some examples are illustrated in 

figures 3-8 through 3-13.

3-25. Where it is impracticable to establish the boundaries in full, it may be necessary to run section lines as 

offsets to township exteriors. Such lines are run either on 

cardinal courses or parallel to the governing township 

Figure 3-8. Exception to the regular order of completing exteriors; only 

the west boundary was previously surveyed.

Calc .

E a st on random, correct to true line

E a st on true line, theoretical distance

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th 48 0 .00 chs .

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1
46

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Figure 3-9. Exception to the regular order of completing exteriors; only 

the north and west boundaries were previously surveyed.

Figure 3-10. Exception to the regular order of completing exteriors; the 

only north boundary (standard parallel) was previously surveyed.

Figure 3-11. Exception to the regular order of completing exteriors; only 

the north and east boundaries were previously surveyed.

Figure 3-12. Exception to the regular order of completing exteriors; the 

south and east boundaries were previously surveyed, but part of the township is unsurveyed.

E a st on random, return on same line

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

South on r a ndom, r e turn on same line

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Calc .

Calc .

Calc .

Exteriors initiated at a theoretical point for a closing corner

We st on true line, theoretical distance

S TAND ARD PA R ALLEL

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Nor th t o int ersection

South on true line, theor e tical dist anc e

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

We st on true line, to intersectio n

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

South on r a ndom, r e turn on same line

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

boundaries, and may be established when subdividing, 

as required.

3-26. For townships not monumented in full in the 

original survey, the spacing of the monumentation does 

not change the need for meeting all other requirements. 

The positions of corners are controlled by the monumented corners and the measurements and references 

provided in the official record. Thus, what is produced 

in the field will be in true proportion to the figure represented upon the plat.

Allowable Deviation in Bearing

3-27. It is desirable that the alinement of a new latitudinal boundary (which becomes the governing south 

boundary of the township to the north) will not depart 

more than 14' from the true cardinal course. Therefore, 

the true cardinal course is made the boundary where 

the alinement would otherwise require a correction 

exceeding 14' of arc. Where the latitudinal boundary 

terminates on a new meridional exterior, the temporary township corner is adjusted to the latitude of the 

We s t

T o b e s u b d i v i d e d r e g u l a r l y

U n s u r v e y e d

N o r t h

To be esta blishe d

when subdividing

31

30

19

3 2 1
47

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Figure 3-13. Exception to regular order of completing exteriors; the south 

and west boundaries were previously established, but part of the township 

is unsurveyed.

opposite township corner. But, where both meridional 

boundaries have been previously surveyed, a township 

corner is established at the point of intersection of the 

true cardinal course latitudinal line with the meridional 

boundary, or its projection to the north or south.

3-28. A true cardinal course meridional boundary 

becomes the true line if the falling plus the correction 

for parallelism of the meridional subdivisional lines 

results in calculated bearing (in the northernmost miles 

of the latter lines) in excess of 14' from cardinal (table 

3-3). The bearing of a governing east boundary must, 

therefore, fall within certain extremes suited to the latitude of the township.

3-29. The 14' limit for exteriors applies only to the 

establishment of new boundaries. A previously established boundary, every part of which is within 21' of cardinal, is not considered defective in alinement. Even in 

the case of new exteriors, where the surveyor who establishes the line also subdivides the township of which it 

is the governing boundary, the margin of 14' may be 

exceeded to a limited extent if the existing conditions 

favor keeping within the 21' limit in the subdivisional 

survey. Therefore, the 14' limit facilitates the establishment of all subdivisional lines within the prescribed 

definite limit of 21' from cardinal (figure 3-14).

Completion of Partially Surveyed Exteriors

3-30. Where the end portions of a township exterior 

have been previously surveyed and fixed in position by 

use, the fractional unsurveyed middle part is completed 

by establishing a connecting line between the existing 

corners, regardless of the deviation from cardinal direction. The excess or deficiency in measurement is incorporated as a general rule in the north or west half miles, 

as the case may be, thereby permitting the subdivisional 

lines to be extended as usual from south to north or 

from east to west (figure 3-15).

3-31. Where a fractional part of an exterior remains 

unsurveyed at either end of the line, a connecting line 

from the previously established terminal corner toward 

the objective township corner becomes a true line where 

the calculated bearing of any subdivisional line governed by the exterior comes within 14' from cardinal 

direction. If this condition cannot be met, or if no objective township corner has been previously established, 

the partially surveyed exterior is completed on a true 

cardinal course. In either case, the excess or deficiency 

in measurement is generally incorporated in the north 

or west half mile.

Aliquot Parts in the Rectangular System

3-32. Relative to rectangular surveys the square mile, 

or section, is the unit of subdivision. The regular township includes 36 sections in all, 25 of which are regular 

sections returned as containing 640 acres each, subdivided into regular “aliquot parts,” based on midpoint 

protraction and intersections. Irregular sections against 

the north and west boundaries, except section 6, contain regular aliquot parts returned as totaling 480 acres 

with four additional regular lots returned as containing 

40 acres plus or minus the excess or deficiency in 

measurement in each section. Section 6 contains regular aliquot parts returned as totaling 360 acres with 

seven additional regular lots, each returned as containing 40 acres plus or minus the excess or deficiency in 

measurement.

The aforementioned section returned as containing 

640 acres is termed “regular” with aliquot part legal 

subdivisions, such as a half-section, a quarter-section, 

a half-quarter section, or a quarter-quarter section. The 

smallest legal subdivision for purposes of disposal under 

the general land laws is 40 acres unless otherwise specified in a given law. The lots of sections, for purposes of 

disposal under the public land laws, are termed “legal 

subdivisions” and are the smallest legal subdivision unit 

where applicable.

3-33. In theory, aliquot parts can be divided ad infinitum. The common practice is to subdivide to a four 

E a st on random, correct to true line

Nor th on true line t o theor etical

latitude of NW. Corner of Tp .

P a r allel t o S. bdy.

P a r allel t o E . bdy.

T o b e s u b d i v i d e d

r e g u l a r l y

U n s u r v e y e d

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1
48

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

component description. Aliquot parts with five components or more may be platted as lots to avoid complex 

descriptions subject to error (section 9-90).

Rectangular Limits

3-34. It is essential to understand the definite relationship between rectangularity as contemplated by law 

and the unit of subdivision resulting from a survey on 

the earth’s curved surface. The ideal section is allowed 

to give way to one that is termed “regular” (see section 

2-21 for apparent misclosure). The amounts by which 

a section, or its aliquot parts, may vary from the ideal 

section and still be considered regular are referred to as 

the rectangular limits:

(1) For alinement, the section’s boundaries will 

not exceed 21' from cardinal in any part, nor will 

Figure 3-14. The adjustment in the direction of the meridional lines of a subdivisional survey on account of convergency of meridians and also the 14’

limit of the rectangular “safety zone.”

Latitude 25° N.

Latitude 70° N. N0°14 ’ E .

N .0°14 ’ E .

N .0°13 ’ E .

N .0°12’ E .

N .0°12’ E .

N .0°12’ E . R.&T.

R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.

N .0°12’ W.N .0°12’ W.

N .0°13 ’ W.

N .0°13 ’ W.

N .0°14 ’ W.

N .0°14 ’ W. R.&T.

R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.

N .0°16 ’ E .

N .0°14 ’ E .

N .0°12’ E .

N .0°10’ E .

N .0°08 ’ E .

N .0°06 ’ E . R.&T.

R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.

N .0°0 4 ’ W.

N .0°06 ’ W.

N .0°08 ’ W.

N .0°10’ W.

N .0°12’ W.

N .0°14 ’ W. R.&T.

R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.R.&T.

6

7

18

19

30

31

12

13

24

25

36

5432

32 33 34 35

1 6

7

18

19

30

31

12

13

24

25

36

5432

32 33 34 35

1

6

7

18

19

30

31

12

13

24

25

36

5432

32 33 34 35

1 6

7

18

19

30

31

12

13

24

25

36

5432

32 33 34 35

1

Table 3-3. Applying corrections for convergency within a township

Latitude 25° N.

1st Mi. Mer. Subdv. N. 0° 14' E.

Corr. for Conv. + 00

E. bdy. may be N. 0° 14' E.

5th Mi. Mer. Subdv. N. 0° 14' W.

Corr. for Conv. – 02

E. bdy. may be N. 0° 12' W.

Latitude 70° N.

1st Mi. Mer. Subdv. N. 0° 14' E.

Corr. for Conv. + 02

E. bdy. may be N. 0° 16' E.

5th Mi. Mer. Subdv. N. 0° 14' W.

Corr. for Conv. – 10

E. bdy. may be N. 0° 04' W.
49

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

the opposite (regular) boundaries of a section 

vary more than 10'30".

(2) For measurement, the distance between 

regular corners is to be normal according 

to the plan of survey, with certain allowable 

adjustments not to exceed 25 links in 40 chains.

Township exteriors, or portions of exteriors, are 

considered defective when they do not qualify 

within the above limits. It is also necessary, in 

order to subdivide a township regularly, to set a 

third limit, as follows:

(3) For position, the corresponding section 

corners upon the opposite boundaries of the 

township are to be so located that they may be 

connected by true lines that will not deviate 

more than 21' from cardinal.

3-35. A previously established exterior is not defective if the above limits are satisfied. If the rectangular 

Figure 3-15. Representative cases of incomplete township exteriors showing methods for completion.

S u b d i v i s i o n s t o b e c o m p l e t e d

S u b d i v i s i o n s t o b e c o m p l e t e d

T o b e s u b d i v i d e d

T o b e s u b d i v i d e d

We st on random , correct t o true

line regardless of bearing

Fr actional measure on We s t

E a st to intersection

Fr actional measure on We s t Fr actional measure on North

North t o in t e rsection

Fr actional measure on North

North t o random, correct t o

true line regardless of bearing

Fr actional measure on North

South on random , correct t o

true line if regula r

We st on random , correct t o true

line if regular

Fr actional measure on We s t

S TAND ARD PA R ALLEL

North on random , correc t

t o true line if regular

Fr actional measure on North
50

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

limits have already been exceeded, or the danger zone 

is likely to be reached at an early stage in the subdivisional survey, the necessary corrective steps are taken 

before subdividing.

3-36. The rectangular limits should not be confused 

with the allowable error of closure discussed under 

sections 3-50 and 3-215. When the allowable error of 

closure is exceeded, in the township exteriors, generally the rectangular limits cannot be met in the subsequent township subdivision. Typically corrective steps 

are required wherever the maximum allowable error of 

closure is exceeded.

The rectangular limits and limits of closure discussed 

in this chapter pertain to original surveys. They reflect 

the minimum requirements for original surveys and 

ensure that rectangularity is maintained and that surveyed lines can be safely incorporated into later new 

surveys. The desired result is to return a maximum 

number of regular sections within the township.

Retracements and Resurveys Before 

Subdividing

3-37. If there is reason to question the accuracy of 

previously surveyed township exteriors or the condition of the corner monuments, the special instructions 

should call for the surveyor to reestablish lost corners, 

remonument dilapidated corner monuments, determine the direction and length of all lines, furnish data 

needed for the computation of areas of irregular parts, 

and recommend any improvements indicated for the 

plan of subdivision.

3-38. For townships with protraction diagrams, where 

rectangular limit requirements can be met, original 

surveys should follow the plan outlined by the protraction diagram. Where field conditions reveal that the 

rectangular limit requirements cannot be maintained, 

and the corners are not fixed in position by use, the 

protraction diagram should be abandoned and a new 

plan for survey provided by a new protraction diagram 

or by supplemental special instructions and diagram.

3-39. All resurvey data are embodied in the official 

record, field notes and plat, or shown upon the plat only 

of the survey unless the retracement results are in substantial agreement with the record of the original surveys. In the latter case, a statement to the effect is made 

in the field notes or on the plat, and the original record 

governs the data placed on the plat.

Defective Exteriors

3-40. Township boundaries already established may 

be defective in alinement, measurement, or position. 

A defective boundary not previously closed upon and 

from which subdivisional lines have not been initiated 

is obliterated after being superseded by survey of a 

new boundary and connection of the old with the new 

monuments. If it is known that a mineral survey, homestead entry survey, small holding claim, right-of-way, 

reservoir, or other survey has been connected with a 

corner of an exterior subject to rectification, the fact 

is stated in the special instruction. In such a case the 

marks “AM” (signifying “amended monument”) are 

added to the original corner monument, the monument is buried in place, if practicable, and the old corner is connected by course and distance to the new. A 

record of the connection is placed in the official record 

together with a full description of the monument and 

its accessories. Where a special purpose is served, the 

position of the old monument is shown on the plat of 

the survey.

3-41. If a boundary is defective in measurement or 

position and is not subject to rectification, the location of the original corners cannot be changed, but 

the marks on the monuments and the marks upon (or 

position of) the accessories are appropriately altered 

to stand only for the sections of the previously established surveys. New corners to control the surveys of 

the adjoining township are established on the old line 

at regular distances of 40 and 80 chains. Where new 

corners are placed on an oblique exterior, whose bearing departs more than 30' from cardinal, they are so 

located for measurement that the cardinal equivalents 

are 40 and 80 chains.

3-42. Where subdivisional lines have been initiated from or closed upon one side of only a portion 

of a township boundary, the remaining portion may be 

superseded if it is found to be defective.

3-43. The position of the new exteriors, or of corners 

set on defective township boundaries in the new survey, 

will be established by an actual rerunning of the lines. 

Data acquired in surveying subdivisional lines intersecting a defective exterior is not acceptable in lieu of 

retracement or dependent resurvey.

3-44. The south boundary of a township is regularly 

the governing latitudinal boundary unless defective in 

alinement. If the boundary is defective in measurement 
51

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

and not subject to rectification, the original corners are 

changed to refer only to the sections of the township 

to the south. New corners of two sections and quartersection corners of sections of the township to the north 

are established at regular intervals of 40 chains, counting from the east, and the excess or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in the west half mile. If the 

south boundary is defective in alinement, a sectional 

correction line or a governing section line is required. 

Subdivision of the sections between the defective 

boundary and the sectional correction line is covered 

in section 3-112.

3-45. The east boundary of a township is regularly 

the governing meridional boundary unless defective in 

alinement. If the boundary is defective in measurement 

and not subject to rectification, the original corners are 

changed to refer only to the sections of the township 

to the east. New corners of two sections and quartersection corners of the sections of the township to the 

west are established at regular intervals of 40 chains, 

counting from the south, and the excess or deficiency in 

measurement is incorporated in the north half mile. If 

the east boundary is defective in alinement, a sectional 

guide meridian or a governing section line is required. 

Subdivision of the sections between the defective 

boundary and the sectional guide meridian is covered 

in section 3-112.

3-46. New east and south boundaries of a township 

become the meridional and latitudinal boundaries of 

the townships to the east and south respectively. Where 

doubt exists as to how unsurveyed lines may relate 

to new lines, the corners are established only for the 

sections of the townships of which the new lines are 

the governing boundaries. The corners of the sections 

upon the opposite side are established at the time of 

subdivision of the adjoining townships if the original 

corners are found to be defective in position. If regular 

connections can be made at that time, the marks on the 

original monuments are altered to signify corners of 

maximum control.

3-47. Where the previously established north or west 

boundaries are defective in measurement or position and 

subdivisional surveys have been initiated from them, 

the original corners are changed to refer only to sections to the north or west, respectively. Section corners 

are established when subdividing. New quarter-section 

corners are placed on the old line at the mean distances 

between the new section corners, or at 40 chains from 

one direction, depending upon the plan of subdivision 

of the section. Where the previously established north 

or west boundaries are defective in alinement but not 

in measurement or position, no changes are required. 

The section lines of the township that is being subdivided are connected regularly to the original corners. 

Excess or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in 

the north and west half miles.

3-48. Figures 3-16 through 3-23 illustrate the guiding principles involved in establishing new governing 

boundaries where the previously surveyed exteriors 

We st on random, correct to true line

S. bdy. def ective in measur emen t . Double set of corners

Nor th 48 0 .00 chs .

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d P a r allel t o E . bdy.

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-17. Rectification of a fixed south boundary defective 

in measurement.

We st to intersectio n

Sectional corr ection line

South bdy. def e ctive in alinement

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

Double set of corner s

P a r allel t o E . bdy.

Nor th t o int ersection.

31 32 33 34 35 36

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-16. Rectification of a fixed south boundary defective 

in alinement.
52

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

We st on random, correct to true line. Double set of corner s Sectional guide meridian P a r allel t o sectional guide meridian E . b d y . d e f e c t i v e i n a l i n e m e n t

Nor th 48 0 .00 chs.

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

31

30

19

18

7

36

25

24

13

12

6 5 4 3 2 1

We st to intersectio n

Nor th t o int ersection

E . bdy. def ective in measu r e ment. Double set of corners

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d P a r allel t o E . bdy.

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-18. Rectification of a fixed east boundary defective in alinement.

Figure 3-19. Rectification of a fixed east boundary defective 

in measurement.

Figure 3-20. Rectification of a south boundary defective in alinement 

where both the south and west boundaries are fixed in position.

Figure 3-21. Rectification of a west boundary defective in measurement 

where both the south and west boundaries are fixed in position.

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

S o u t h b d y . d e f e c t i v e i n a l i n e m e n t

Nor th t o int ersection

Double set of corner s

E a st on random, return on same line P a r allel t o E . bdy.

Sectional corr ection lin e

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

32 33 34 35 36

E a st on random, return on same line

Nor th t o int ersection

W. bdy. def ective in measur emen t . Double set of corner s

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d P a r allel t o E . bdy.

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

are defective. Each figure illustrates a simple condition 

affecting one boundary only, and the examples are taken 

only from the regular order of procedure. Figure 3-24 

shows a series of conditions that might occur in the field. 

Combinations of defective conditions are best analyzed 

by breaking them down into the several simple defective 

conditions. The same holds true in the establishment of 

township exteriors under an irregular order of procedure. 

Where extraordinary conditions are encountered that 

cannot be solved in this manner, the surveyor will report 

the facts to the proper administrative office, which will 

issue appropriate instructions.

3-49. The rules for completion and rectification of 

township exteriors are intended to secure the most direct 

return to normal procedure. The preliminary retracements and resurveys may show that some modification 

will obtain better results. Approval of the modified plan 

will be obtained from the proper administrative office. 

Each case should be treated on its own merits.
53

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Figure 3-22. Rectification of an east boundary defective in measurement 

where the east and south boundaries are fixed in position.

Figure 3-23. Rectification of a south boundary defective in measurement 

where the south, north, and west boundaries are fixed in position.

We st to intersection

E . bdy. def ective in measur emen t . Double set of corner s

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d P a r allel t o E . bdy.

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

N. bdy. def e ctive in position. Double set of corners

S. bdy. def ective in measur e ment. Double set of corner s Nor th t o int ersection

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d P a r allel t o E . bdy.

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-24. Various defective boundaries, showing methods for completing exteriors.

Standard P a r allel def ective in measur e ment

O riginal corners alt e r ed t o angle point s

P r

e v i o u s l y S u b d i v i d e d

P r e v i o u s l y S u b d i v i d e d

Fr actional measu r e on Nor t h

South t o int ersection

Sectional guide meridian

P a r allel t o E a st bdy.

P a r allel t o sectional guide meridian

We st to intersection

Fr actional measu r e on We s t

We st on random, correct to true

line r e gar dle s s of bearing

Fr actional measu r e on We s t

Fr actional measu r e on Nor t h

Nor th on r andom, corr ect t o true

line r e gar dle s s of bearing

E a st to intersection

Fr actional measur e on We s t

Fr actional measur e on Nor t h

Nor th t o int ersection

Nor th t o int ersection

Fr actional measur e on Nor t h

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

T o b e S u b d i v i d e d

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

31

30

19

18

7

25

24

13

12

6 5 4 3 2 1
54

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Tables of Latitude and Departure

and Error of Closure

3-50. Upon the completion of the survey of one or 

more township exteriors closing the figure of either a 

regular or irregular township, a table of latitudes and 

departures will be prepared with allowance for convergency of meridians. The maximum allowable error of 

closure is 1/4000 of the perimeter in either latitude or 

departure. If the limit is exceeded, additional retracements or other corrective steps may be necessary to perfect the survey. A demonstration of the closing errors, 

including every part of any closed figure embracing 

township exteriors, will be returned with the field tablets, computation sheets, and survey data files. Together 

with proper field procedures the error of closure can 

be a test of the accuracy of the alinement and measurement of the township exteriors (section 3-215). For 

allowable error of closure of a new survey against an 

official survey record see section 3-217.

Subdivision of Townships

Regular Boundaries

3-51. The boundaries of a township are within satisfactory governing limits for control of the subdivisional 

survey when the lines may be theoretically projected 

from the boundaries without closely approaching the 

rectangular limits. The danger zone has been placed at 

theoretical bearings exceeding 14' from cardinal, and 

the corresponding danger zone in respect to lengths 

of lines placed at theoretical adjustments exceeding 

33 links per mile.

Meridional Section Lines

3-52. Meridional section lines have precedence in 

the order of survey. They are initiated at the section 

corners on the south boundary of the township and 

are run north parallel to the governing east boundary. 

Meridional section lines are numbered counting from 

the east and surveyed successively in the same order. 

If the east boundary is within limits, but has been 

found by retracement to be imperfect in alinement, the 

meridional section lines are run parallel to the mean 

course ascertained by inverse from the most southerly 

to the most northerly corners as recovered and/or reestablished on the governing boundary. Regular quartersection and section corners are established alternately 

at intervals of 40 chains as far as the northern-most 

interior section corner.

3-53. A meridional section line is not continued north 

beyond a section corner until after the latitudinal sectional line connecting east has been surveyed. In the 

case of the fifth meridional section line, both latitudinal section lines connecting east and west are surveyed 

before continuing with the meridional line beyond a 

section corner. The successive portions of the meridional lines are surveyed as convenient, but none should 

be carried beyond uncompleted sections to the east.

3-54. In the north tier of sections, the meridional 

section lines are connected to the objective section 

corner on the north boundary of the township. The 

quarter-section corners are established at a distance of 

40 chains from the south, on the true line connecting the interior section corner and the objective section corner on the north boundary of the township. By 

this procedure, the excess or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in the north half mile, and double 

sets of corners are avoided where unnecessary. See 

section 3-104 for incorporation of the excess or deficiency when smaller subdivisions are to be protracted 

against the north boundary of the township.

3-55. Where the north boundary of the township is 

a base line or standard parallel, the last miles of the 

meridional section lines are continued as true lines parallel to the east boundary of the township. Permanent 

quarter-section corners are established at 40 chains 

from the south, and section corners are established at 

the points of intersection with the north boundary. The 

distances are measured and recorded to the nearest corners on the base line or standard parallel east and west 

in each case. New quarter-section corners for the sections of the township being subdivided are established 

on the line intersected and at mean distances, longitudinally, between the section corners, or at 40 chains 

from one direction, depending on the plan of the subdivision of the section.

Latitudinal Section Lines

3-56. The latitudinal section lines, except in the west 

range of sections, are run between the objective section 

corners. The quarter-section corners are established on 

the true latitudinal curve connecting the objective section corners, at the midpoints, and the true lines are 

marked.

3-57. In the west range of sections the latitudinal 

section lines are connected to the objective section corners on the west boundary of the township. The quartersection corners are established at a distance of 
55

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

40 chains from the east, on the true latitudinal curve 

connecting the interior section corner and the objective 

section corner on the west boundary of the township. 

By this procedure, the excess or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in the west half mile, and double 

sets of corners are avoided where unnecessary. See section 3-104 for incorporation of the excess or deficiency 

when smaller subdivisions are to be protracted against 

the west boundary of the township.

Survey Record

3-58. The field notes describing the survey of subdivisional lines are compiled in ranges of sections beginning with the easternmost, and the west two ranges are 

compiled by alternating with the adjoining east and 

west sections (figure 3-25). The official record contains 

a complete record of the manner in which the subdivisional lines are run and established. The details of the 

measurement processes may be shown where a special 

purpose is served.

Accumulated Error

3-59. Error in the alinement of the meridional section 

lines is partially incorporated into the measurement of 

the latitudinal lines, which will be within the rectangular limits for measurement (section 3-34), except in 

the west range of sections where the convergency of the 

meridional lines is provided for. The accumulated error 

in alinement for the 5 miles of true meridional line is 

incorporated in the sixth mile, connecting the northernmost interior section corner with the objective section 

corner on the north boundary of the township. Here the 

true line will be within the prescribed rectangular limits 

for alinement (section 3-34).

The slight, ordinary errors in the measurement of the 

meridional lines are incorporated into the adjustment of 

the bearings of the latitudinal section lines. The accumulated error in measurement in running north is incorporated in the last half mile. Here the meridional distance is checked by a calculated closing around the last 

section, and the latitudinal error will not exceed a value 

greater than what is allowed to attain the prescribed 

limits of closure (sections 3-50 and 3-215).

3-60. The surveyor should discriminate carefully 

between the rectangular limits for subdivision and the 

limits of closure. One or both of these requirements 

will be exceeded if the accumulated error is excessive 

in either alinement or measurement. Cumulative error 

must be guarded against and avoided, and the prescribed 

order of survey furnishes continuous checks upon the 

accuracy of all lines. Testing for each of these requirements within every new section provides a continuous 

check upon the accuracy of all lines so that cumulative 

error can be identified and avoided before the allowable 

limits within a subdivision are exceeded.

Irregular Boundaries

3-61. Where either of the governing boundaries of 

a township is disqualified as a controlling line upon 

which to initiate a subdivisional survey, the necessary 

retracements and resurveys or alterations are made 

before subdividing (section 3-37).

3-62. The specific plan described below may be 

modified where conditions justify a change. The basic 

requirements are (1) adherence to the normal rectangular plan where practicable; (2) a normal location and 

an area of 640 acres each for granted lands that are 

identified by the survey (the school sections, Alaska 

native corporation conveyances, etc.); (3) the maximum 

number of regular sections of 640 acres each, or aliquot 

parts of sections; (4) avoidance of two sets of corners 

when one set is ample for subdivisional requirements; 

and (5) simplicity of survey, most readily understood 

by the public.

Sectional Guide Meridian

3-63. If the east boundary of the township is defective in alinement, and cannot be rectified, the corners 

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

8 9 10 11 12

17 16 15 14 13

20 21 22 23 24

29 28 27 26 25

32 33 34 35 36

60 44 33 22 11

59 58 43 32 21 10

57 42 31 20 9

56 55 41 30 19 8

54 40 29 18 7

53 52 39 28 17 6

51 38 27 16 5

50 49 37 26 15 4

48 36 25 14 3

47 46 35 24 13 2

45 34 23 12 1

Figure 3-25. Sequence of numbers on section lines showing normal 

order of subdivision.
56

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

on the north boundary will not be properly related to 

those on the south boundary, even though the measurement of the north boundary is not defective. The 

north boundary is then said to be defective in position 

(figure 3-26). The first meridional line is projected as 

a sectional guide meridian due north to an intersection with the north boundary, where a section corner 

is established and the distances are measured and 

recorded to the nearest corners on the township line 

east and west. The intermediate quarter-section 

and section corners are established alternately at 

regular intervals of 40 chains, counting from the 

south unless the south boundary of the township is 

itself defective in alinement. The remaining meridional lines are established parallel to the sectional guide 

meridian.

3-64. Where, as shown in figure 3-27, the north boundary is not defective in position (nor within the danger 

zone) with reference to the corners on the south boundary (errors in alinement of the east boundary being 

compensable), the first meridional section line is established to intersect the objective section corner on the 

north boundary. The remaining meridional section lines 

are run parallel to the one first established, in the usual 

manner, to section corners established at the point of 

intersection or the objective section corners on the north 

boundary of the township as the case may be.

3-65. The excess or deficiency in measurements of 

the latitudinal section lines in the first range of 

sections is incorporated in the east half mile. Elsewhere, 

unless the south boundary is defective in alinement, the 

latitudinal section lines are run in the usual manner.

Sectional Correction Line

3-66. If the south boundary of the township is defective in alinement and cannot be rectified so that the west 

boundary is defective in position, a sectional correction 

line is established (figure 3-28). This line is surveyed 

Figure 3-26. Projection of the first meridional section line as guide 

meridian where defective alinement of the east boundary leaves the north 

boundary defective in position.

N. bdy. def e ctive in position. Double set of corners

South bdy. r egula r

We st bdy. regular

Sectional guide meridian

Nor th t o int ersection

E a s t b d y . d e f e c t i v e i n a l i n e m e n t

P a r allel t o sectional guide meridian

31

30

19

18

7

36

25

24

13

12

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-27. Projection of the first meridional section line as governing 

section line where the defective east boundary does not leave the north 

boundary defective in position.

N. bdy. r egular

Governing section line

Calculated course R.&T.

R.&T.

E . bdy. def e ctive in alinement

P a r allel t o governing section line

S. bdy. r egular

W. bdy. r egular

31

30

19

18

7

36

25

24

13

12

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-28. Projection of the first latitudinal section line as sectional 

correction line where defective alinement of the south boundary leaves the 

west boundary defective in position.

S. bdy. def e ctive in alinement

Sectional corr ection line

We st to intersection

W. bdy. def e ctive in position. Double set of corners

P a r allel t o E . bdy.

N. bdy. r egular

E . bdy. r egular

R.&T.

6

7

18

19

30

31 32 33 34 35 36

5432 1
57

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

and 31 is placed at 40 chains from the east. The quartersection corners on the meridional section lines in the 

south tier of sections are established at 40 chains south 

from the corners on the sectional correction line. The 

remaining subdivisional lines are continued from the 

sectional correction line in the usual manner.

Partial Irregularity

3-69. Where the south part of the east boundary, or 

the east part of the south boundary, is regular, and the 

balance is defective in alinement and not subject to rectification, the subdivisional survey is made regular as 

far as possible. The initial point for the sectional guide 

meridian, or for the sectional correction line, is determined by existing conditions. The first meridional section line is continued as a sectional guide meridian if 

the north part of the east boundary is defective in alinement and the north boundary is therefore defective in 

position (figure 3-31).

3-70. If the north boundary is not defective in position 

(nor within the danger zone), the first meridional section line is established to intersect the objective section 

corner on the north boundary of the township. The same 

principle is observed if the west part of the south boundary is defective in alinement, and the west boundary is 

not defective in position (nor within the danger zone). If 

the west boundary is defective in position, the sectional 

correction line is established on the true latitudinal 

curve (figure 3-31).

on a true latitudinal curve initiated at the first regular 

section corner on the east boundary and projected to 

an intersection with the west boundary of the township, 

where a section corner is established and the distances 

are measured and recorded to the nearest corners on 

the range line north and south. The intermediate 

quarter-section and section corners are established at 

regular intervals of 40 chains, alternately, counting from 

the east.

3-67. Where, as shown in figure 3-29, the west boundary is not defective in position (nor within the danger 

zone) with reference to the corners on the east boundary (errors in alinement of the south boundary being 

compensable), the first latitudinal section line is established to intersect the objective section corner on the 

west boundary.

Figure 3-29. Projection of the first latitudinal section line as governing 

section line where the defective south boundary does not leave the west 

boundary defective in position.

Governing section line

Calculated course

S. bdy. def e ctive in alinement

W. bdy. r egular

R.&T.

N. bdy. r egular

E . bdy. r egular

P a r allel t o E . bdy. R.&T.

31

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

32 33 34 35 36

Figure 3-30. Projection of both the sectional guide meridian and sectional 

correction line where combination of defective conditions exists.

S. bdy. def e ctive in alinement

N. bdy. def e ctive in position. Double set of corners

Sectional corr ection line

We st to intersection

Sectional guide meridian

Nor th t o int ersection

W. bdy. def e ctive in position. Double set of corners

E . bdy. def e ctive in alinement

P a r allel t o sectional guide meridian

31

30

19

18

7

25

24

13

12

6 5 4 3 2 1

32 33 34 35 36

3-68. The section corners on the sectional correction 

line are established at the points of intersection of the 

meridional section lines alined in the normal manner. 

Thereafter, the quarter-section corners on the sectional 

correction lines are established at the usual midpoints 

except in the east and west ranges of sections.

Referring to figure 3-30, the quarter-section corner 

between sections 25 and 36 is established at 40 chains 

from the west if the east boundary is defective in alinement. Otherwise it is fixed at the usual midpoint position. The quarter-section corner between sections 30 
58

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

the quarter-section corners on the latitudinal section 

lines are placed at the normal midpoint position. The 

sections adjoining the south boundary of the township 

are not regular unless the meridional lines are established at 80 chains in length, and the sections are otherwise in conformity with the usual rectangular limits. 

Exceptions are noted in sections 3-80 and 3-83.

Intersecting and Terminating Section Lines

3-74. A different type of intersection occurs where 

the lines of the rectangular system intersect or terminate on the boundaries of special surveys, including 

reservations or grants, State boundaries, U.S. Surveys, 

or the lines of various kinds of claims.

A corner of minimum control is normally established 

and monumented where a section line terminates at 

the intersection with a special survey. It is necessary to 

retrace the intersected boundary to the nearest corner 

in each direction to find and record the alinement, distances, and assure placement of the monument at the 

intersection.

3-75. Quarter-section corners are established between 

section corners for sections terminating on a reservation or grant boundary when needed to provide control 

for the survey of the adjacent public land survey system 

or for the identification of Federal interest lands.

3-76. The Bureau of Land Management has no general authority to survey or resurvey State boundaries. 

However, quarter-section corners should be established 

and monumented between section corners for sections 

terminating on State boundaries when needed to provide control for the survey of the adjacent public land 

survey system or for the identification of Federal interest lands. Although the corners themselves are monumented, State names will not be marked on the monuments unless specifically sanctioned by appropriate 

authority (sections 4-27 and 6-31).

3-77. A corner of minimum control monument may 

also be set when a nonterminal section line intersects 

the line of a surveyed mineral claim, forest homestead 

claim, small holding claim, U.S. Survey, or the like. In 

some instances, monumented corners may be needed 

for administrative, operational, litigation purposes, or 

to provide an interval of monumentation of 45 chains 

or less (section 10-36), in which event they should be 

provided for in the special instructions.

Where a line of the rectangular survey crosses a surveyed claim, the bearing of the intersected claim line 

Survey Record

3-71. The official record of subdivisional surveys 

including a sectional guide meridian, a sectional correction line, or other governing section line, is compiled in the usual order and appropriate explanatory 

remarks added to show the method and order of procedure used to establish the lines.

Summary

3-72. A sectional guide meridian is created when the 

east boundary is defective to the point where the north 

boundary of the township is defective in position and 

double sets of corners are required on the north boundary (cannot be rectified with township to the north) 

(figures 3-26, 3-30, and 3-31). A sectional correction line 

is created when the south boundary is defective to the 

point where the west boundary of the township is defective in position and double sets of corners are required 

on the west boundary (cannot be rectified with township 

to the west) (figures 3-28, 3-30, and 3-31). “Governing 

section lines” are created when the defective conditions of the governing boundaries (east and/or south) 

do not create defective conditions along the north and/

or west boundaries that would require double corners 

(figures 3-27 and 3-29).

3-73. The object of the plan is to secure the maximum number of regular sections. The sections adjoining the east boundary are regular if they conform to 

the usual rectangular limits. Where that is the case, 

Figure 3-31. Projection of both the sectional guide meridian and sectional 

correction line in case of partial irregularity.

N . b d y . d e f e c t i v e i n p o s i t i o n . D o u b l e s e t o f c o r n e r s

Sectional corr ection line

We st to intersection

Sectional guide meridian

Nor th t o int ersection

P a r allel t o E . boundary

P a r t o f E . b d y . d e f e c t i v e

i n a l i n e m e n t

P a r t o f E . b d y . r e g u l a r

P a r t o f S . b d y . d e f e c t i v e

i n a l i n e m e n t P a r t o f S . b d y . r e g u l a r

R egula r

W. b d y . d e f e c t i v e i n p o s i t i o n . D o u b l e s e t o f c o r n e r s

P a r allel t o first meridional section line

31

30

19

18

7

13

12

6 5 4

32 33

3 2 1
59

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

and the distance to the nearest corners are determined 

and described. In the case of a claim or conveyance 

located entirely within a section, a connection is made 

from a regular corner of the section to a corner of the 

claim or conveyance for inclusion in the official record.

Since the accuracy of lotting in the section and management of the remaining Federal interest lands depend on 

a correct location of the claim or conveyance, it may be 

desirable to retrace one or all of the claim or conveyance lines. If a multiplicity of claims or conveyances 

exists, their treatment will be covered in the special 

instructions.

3-78. If a survey is concluded upon an irregular 

boundary at variance with the lines of legal subdivision, or if the survey is continued on a blank line to 

acquire a definite location upon the opposite irregular 

boundary, but without monumenting the rectangular 

survey between the irregular boundaries, a monument 

is required at the point of intersection of the regular 

with the irregular line. However, if the survey is continued across the reservation or grant for the purpose 

of establishing and monumenting a full complement of 

corners for the control of the subdivision of a section 

so invaded, the point of intersection is determined but 

a monument may not be required.

3-79. Monuments established where a line intersects a 

boundary already fixed in position will thereafter control the direction of and the proportioning along the 

intersecting line. A failure to place the monument at 

the point of intersection does not alter the position of 

the line intersected but may cause interested parties 

to rely on the faulty position and engender confusion. 

Care should be taken to avoid this result. The line intersected will be retraced between the first corners to the 

right and left. Determination of the point of intersection by calculation alone is not permissible. Once a corner is monumented at the point of intersection, without 

gross error, it will ordinarily be accepted as control for 

both lines. Subsequent technical repositioning of the 

line closed upon will be avoided.

Irregular Townships

3-80. The regular procedures described for subdividing regular townships cannot always be adopted. 

A township invaded by a large meanderable body of 

water, impassable objects, or a State, reservation, or 

grant boundary may lack a full linear south or east 

boundary. This may require controlling section lines to 

be established as offsets from the township exteriors, 

with the section lines south and east of these controlling lines being projected to the south and east. The 

excess or deficiency in measurement and the resulting 

lots are placed against the irregular boundary. If only 

the north or west part of a township is involved, no 

departure from the regular order of subdivision is necessary since the excess or deficiency in measurement, 

and the resulting lots, will be placed to the north and 

west against the irregular boundary.

3-81. Where no part of the south boundary of a township can be regularly established, the subdivision may 

proceed from north to south and from east to west, 

incorporating the excess or deficiency in measurement 

and areas against the west boundary and the meanderable stream or other boundary limiting the township 

on the south. If the east boundary is without regular section corners and the north boundary has been 

run eastwardly as a true line, with section corners 

at regular intervals of 80 chains, the subdivision of 

the township may be made from west to east. In that 

case the excess or deficiency in measurement and 

areas are incorporated in the irregular east boundary. 

However, if the north boundary of section 6 is irregular, a sectional guide meridian, initiated at the easternmost regular section corner on the north boundary, is 

projected to the south to take the place of a governing east boundary. The subdivisional survey is then 

projected from north to south and from east to west, with 

the excess or deficiency in measurement and resulting 

lots on the east, south and west boundaries of the township. Figures 3-32 through 3-37 illustrate the principles 

that control the subdivision of irregular townships.

A u xiliary base

A u xiliary base

31

30

32

29

33

28 27 26 25

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-32. Use of auxiliary base.
60

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

A u xiliary base

31 32 33 34 35 36

30

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-34. Use of auxiliary base.

31

30

19

15

20 21

16

2

10 11

1

Figure 3-35. Regular subdivision of an irregular township.

8 0. 0 0

6 5 4 3

7 8 9 10

18 17 16 15

Figure 3-36. Subdivision from north to south and from west to east.

Fr a c .

Sectional

guide meridian

31 32

30

19

18

7

22

15 14

11

6

29 28 27

2

Figure 3-37. Subdivision from north to south and from east to west.

A u xiliary base

A u xiliary base

31

30

34 35

26 25

19

18

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

Figure 3-33. Use of auxiliary base.

3-82. In the case of irregular townships the sections 

bear the same numbers they would have had if the 

townships were regular. That is, the section numbers 

are those relating to the governing boundaries.

Extension and 

Completion Surveys

3-83. Original surveys sometimes involve the continuation of the subdivisional survey of townships previously subdivided in part only. These surveys include 

the completion of partially surveyed sections (section 

3-125), of sections containing outlying areas protracted 

as surveyed, or of protracted section lines. If defective 

conditions are encountered in the previously established 

surveys, the problems concerning the procedure to be 

adopted multiply rapidly and require the greatest skill 

on the part of the surveyor. In the construction of new 

township plats the former practice of platting sections 

containing outlying areas protracted as surveyed has 

been abandoned as unsatisfactory and inconsistent with 

the surveying laws.
61

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

3-84. In Alaska, platting sections protracted as surveyed is done to accommodate the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) selections. Dashed 

lines represent the section lines and indicate which 

lines were not run and marked, and the distances given 

are parenthetical distances.

Akin to extension and completion surveys are townships in Alaska, often called “Tract A” townships, 

surveyed to accommodate State of Alaska land selections. The township exteriors are run and marked with 

a minimum of 2-mile monumentation. No interior section lines are run and marked, or protracted. Sections 

do not exist within these types of townships.

3-85. It is often necessary to depart from the general 

scheme. The possible combinations are too numerous 

to describe in detail. The complexities multiply with 

various combinations of valid existing rights, questions of accuracy of previously surveyed lines, and 

the condition of the corner monuments. The surveyor 

is reminded that the principles outlined in the Manual 

are in conformance with due process of law and bona 

fide rights as to location standards. See sections 3-24 

through 3-26 for original survey situations and chapters 

V, VI, and VII for resurvey situations. When application of the general rules do not meet the due process of 

law and bona fide rights as to location standards, then 

exceptions to the general rules must be applied. Such 

exceptions to the general rules may be applicable in 

(1) townships with improvements, use or occupancy; 

(2) townships with significant riparian rights; or 

(3) townships without improvement, use or occupancy but with uneven distribution of valuable natural 

resources.

3-86. Most original surveys that are now to be 

extended or completed were executed many years ago 

when the remaining areas were considered wastelands. 

Due to the ravages of time and the inferior monumentation of many early surveys, obliteration may be so far 

advanced that dependent resurveys are needed to identify and remonument the limiting boundaries of the 

area to be surveyed. The surveyor often must retrace 

additional lines that are not the boundaries of sections 

containing the new areas to be surveyed. In such cases, 

only the positions of corners that control the location of 

Federal interest land should be monumented. Identified 

original corners adopted as control in reestablishing 

corners of the Federal interest land are to be rehabilitated or remonumented, as necessary. Corner restorations are made in accordance with the provisions of 

chapter VII.

3-87. The official record of necessary resurveys shall 

include an explanation of their purpose and extent, 

including all needed historical references to the related 

prior surveys. The detail is written in the usual field 

note record form, following the introductory statement.

The plat, in addition to the usual data, may carry a 

marginal memorandum or diagram that clearly defines 

what lines of the prior survey have been retraced as 

a basis for extending the new lines. If no changes are 

made in the former lottings and areas in the dependently resurveyed portions, state that the lottings and 

area remain as shown on the plat or plats approved 

_____________ (date or dates).

Extension or Completion of

Partially Surveyed Sections or

Sections Containing 

Outlying Areas Protracted as Surveyed

3-88. In extending or completing fragmentary surveys, 

consideration is given to the completion of (1) partially 

surveyed sections, and (2) sections containing outlying 

areas protracted as surveyed, returned on the previous 

plat. In such cases, it is usually necessary to complete 

the survey of each section in such a way as to protect 

acquired rights. The procedure adopted shall fix and 

mark the remaining quarter-section corners and the controlling corners not marked in the previous survey in a 

position that will control the center and other controlling 

lines as necessary to retain the form of the original areas 

within reasonable limits. If there are no valid existing 

rights or other interests to be protected as to location, it 

is not necessary to complete the survey of the section in 

a manner consistent with the previous plat.

3-89. The new quarter-section and controlling corners 

are regarded as reasonably fixed when (1) the new measurements produce subdivisions that meet or exceed 

the prescribed limits of closure, (2) the alinement does 

not exceed the rectangular limit of 21' from a cardinal course, and (3) the measurement does not exceed 

the rectangular limit of 25 links from 40 chains, or in 

proportion when the opposite portion of the section 

boundary was returned as more or less than 40 chains. 

This concession as to limits is made in the interests of 

simplicity where the rectangularity of both old and new 

surveys can thus be maintained.

3-90. The position of the corresponding corner on a 

new opposite boundary is controlled from only one 

direction if the old opposite distance was made to count 

from one direction only. If the old opposite distance 
62

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

was made to count from two directions, the position 

of the new opposite corresponding corner is controlled 

from the two directions. The lengths of the two portions of the new line are made proportional to the two 

parts of the old opposite boundary.

3-91. If an original survey is within rectangular limits and valid existing rights or other interests is to be 

protected as to location, then the survey of a partially 

surveyed section, or a section containing outlying areas 

protracted as surveyed, is completed on the same plan 

begun in the original survey. When irregularity develops, the simplest method of survey that will correct 

any irregularities and provide an early resumption of 

regularity in the new subdivisional lines is adopted. 

The general rule is that each completed section will 

have four regular boundaries without offsets, with 

four governing section corners and four controlling 

quarter-section corners in such position as to maintain 

the integrity of the areas shown upon the original plat.

3-92. Modification of the general rule is necessary 

where extending or completing each of two sections 

in the above manner would cause an overlap or hiatus. 

In such a case each section is completed theoretically 

without regard to the other, and the position of each 

center line and other controlling lines is fixed. The most 

reasonable position for a common boundary between 

the two sections is then determined, and the new quarter-section corners are fixed at points that maintain the 

center lines in their positions. If the theoretical position 

for each quarter-section corner falls within 25 links of 

a common point, with allowance for variance in length 

of the center line, one corner may be fixed, which will 

secure maximum regularity in both sections.

3-93. The possible combinations of uncompleted 

sections are too numerous to discuss fully here. 

Directions must be given in the special instructions for 

the cases involved in an assignment, and surveyors will 

seek advice from the proper administrative office when 

irregularities develop. A diagram showing the exact 

field conditions should always accompany their reports.

3-94. Modification of the general rule for extending 

or completing sections is necessary, by Department 

decision, when a good faith location by local survey 

is followed by good faith use and occupancy; Algoma 

Lumber Co. v. Kruger, 50 Pub. Lands Dec. 402 (1923). 

A local survey made for the purpose of marking on 

the ground a protracted line, platted but not run by 

the Government, where executed within the allowable limit of error for an original survey of that date, 

and relied upon by an owner under title passed by the 

United States in the placing of improvements upon 

the patented land, will not be disturbed, but it will be 

adopted by the Government as a boundary for closure 

of the survey of the adjoining public land.

3-95. The best test of the fitness of a proposed method 

for the completion of partially surveyed sections, or 

sections containing outlying areas returned as surveyed is to plat the subdivisional lines by protraction, 

therefore, the regular rules for subdivision of sections 

are applicable. The position of the new quarter-section 

corners, established to control the subdivision of the 

section in question, shall permit the center lines to 

the opposite corresponding original quarter-section 

corners to be connected in harmony with conditions 

shown on the original plat, disregarding the effect upon 

the subdivision of the newly surveyed land. Likewise, 

the lines connecting the sixteenth-section corners on 

the opposite corresponding boundaries of a quartersection shall conform to the conditions represented on 

the original plat. When the subdivision-of-section lines 

are platted, the section is satisfactory if the integrity of 

the original areas is in no way violated.

3-96. The following guidelines should be followed in 

platting:

(1) The new areas should be complementary to 

the original areas by extending the subdivisionof-section lines as already protracted upon the 

original plat. If poorly shaped lots or lots of too 

great or too little area result, then departure is 

indicated.

(2) In the interest of regularity and simplicity 

of platting, the same meridional limit may be 

permitted as is ordinarily allowed in latitudinal 

section lines. A section may be considered 

regular if its boundaries do not depart more 

than is allowed to achieve rectangular limits 

for both alinement and measurement between 

the section and quarter-section corners (section 

3-34). Such regular sections may be subdivided 

into quarter-sections and quarter-quarter 

sections as far as possible. An irregular section 

having three regular boundary lines may be 

subdivided in accordance with the usual rules 

for subdividing sections along the north and 

west boundaries of a regular township. An 

irregular section having two adjacent regular 

boundary lines may be subdivided by the same 

manner in which section 6 of a regular township 

is treated (e.g. sections 3-32, 3-54, and 3-57). 

All other sections should be treated as irregular, 
63

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

with subdivision-of-section lines protracted 

to midpoints on the boundaries of the quartersections, except as a calculated proportional 

position for a sixteenth-section corner is made 

necessary by the showing of the original plat.

(3) All new lots are numbered beginning with 

the next higher number in the series shown on 

the previously approved plat, and proceeding 

in the usual order. The new series may begin 

with No. 1 if the irregular parts of the original 

area are not designated by lot number.

Completion of Township Subdivision

3-97. If no irregularities are found in the previously 

established lines the new survey may proceed normally. 

If defective conditions are encountered, the irregularities are not extended into unsurveyed sections any farther than necessary to incorporate the resulting excess 

or deficiency in measurement into suitable lots adjoining the former surveys. Preference should be given to 

extending all surveys from south to north and from east 

to west. If a better control is available by reversing the 

procedure in one or both directions, resulting in a simpler survey by minimizing the number of extra corners 

as well as lots, reversal of the procedure is warranted. In 

the event that the previously surveyed subdivision lines 

are defective, the new section lines may serve the function of a sectional guide meridian or a sectional correction line as required. The corners, from which the new 

surveys are initiated, are established as corners of four 

sections, or of two sections as appropriate. Where new 

section lines cannot be connected regularly with the 

previously established section corners without exceeding the rectangular limits in alinement (section 3-34), a 

section corner is established at intersection with the line 

of the old survey. The excess or deficiency in measurement of the intersecting section lines is incorporated 

adjacent to the old surveys. The original lines forming 

the boundary of the lands to be surveyed are retraced 

as already provided and the marks upon the original 

corners are appropriately modified as necessary. New 

quarter-section corners marked to control the subdivision of the new sections are established on the original 

lines at midpoints between the section corners, or at 

40 chains from one direction, according to the manner 

in which a new section is subdivided.

3-98. There are often two or more ways in which a 

subdivision may be completed, but careful study of a 

sketch plat representing existing conditions will generally reveal the superiority of one method over another 

(figures 3-38 and 3-39).

Figure 3-38. Example showing completion of sections containing outlying areas protracted as surveyed and completion of subdivisional lines of a township with necessary lottings. On an actual plat, an area will be returned for each lot and each section.

4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

1

2

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

4 4 4 4

4

1

2

3

4

5

5 5 5

5

6

6 6 6

6

10

10 10 10

13

40 4 5

6

11

12

7

10

40 80

160 160 160 40

8

40

40 40 40 80

160

160 160

160

160 160 80

80 80

80

80

80 80

40

40

7

40

40

40

80

13

1 1 1

1

1

2 1

1 2 1 1

1

1 2 2

2

2 4 3 4 4 3

3

5 5

5

5

6 6

6

6

8

8 8

8

7

7

7

7

40

40

40

80

80

80

80

80

160

160

160

160

160

160 160

160

11 11

11 12 13

9

9

9

10 10

10

3 4

8 7 6 5

9 10 11

2 2 2

2

2

3 3 3

3

3

40

9

40

14

40

3 2 1 1

1

2

2

3

3

3

3

4

4

5

6

8 7

4 40

40

6

5

4

1

9

9 9 9

11

11 11 11

12

3

8

8 8 8

8

4

7

7 7 7

7

Sec. 6 Sec. 5 Sec. 4 Sec. 3 Sec. 2 Sec. 1

Sec. 11 Sec. 12

Sec. 9

Sec. 7 Sec. 8

Sec. 18 Sec. 17

Sec. 16 Sec. 15 Sec. 14 Sec. 13

Sec. 24

Sec. 25

Sec. 31 Sec. 32 Sec. 33 Sec. 34 Sec. 35 Sec. 36

Sec. 23

Sec. 26

Sec. 22

Sec. 27

Sec. Sec. 20 Sec. 21 19

Sec. 30 Sec. 29 Sec. 28

Sec. 10

Previously surveyed and returned
64

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Subdivision of Sections

3-99. Title 43 U.S.C. 752 and 753 (Rev. Stat. 2396 and 

2397) contain the fundamental provisions for the subdivision of sections into quarter-sections and quarterquarter sections. Sections are not subdivided in the field 

by Bureau of Land Management cadastral surveyors 

unless provision is made in the special instructions, but 

certain subdivision-of-section lines are protracted upon 

the official plat.

In the public land survey system a corner is fixed in 

position by operation of law. Corners marked in official 

surveys followed by use are fixed in position by monuments. Only a small portion of corners are marked on 

the ground in original surveys. Subdivision-of-section 

corners are generally not marked. Their positions are 

fixed on the plat by protraction. Their positions are 

fixed on the ground by the survey process of running 

(and marking) line between marked corners, and setting 

monuments.

3-100. The lands included in an entry or selection are 

identified on the ground by marked and fixed monuments, or by corner positions fixed by measurement 

and reference established in the survey. A United States 

patent grants to the entryman title of ownership to an 

area defined on the ground by those fixed monuments 

and related by description and outline to the protractions on the official plat. The land included in an interim 

conveyance, lease, order, proclamation, reservation, 

selection, tentative approval, or withdrawal, and related 

by description and outline to the official plat, is also 

identified on the ground in the same manner.

Subdivision of Sections by Protraction

3-101. The following sections address the procedures 

to be followed by the draftsperson after receiving the 

field returns from the field surveyor. The subdivision of 

sections into aliquot parts, lots, parcels, and other parts 

is performed in the appropriate office section of the 

respective cadastral survey offices.

3-102. The draftsperson is first, to plat each section 

in accordance with the field notes, and second, to subdivide each section as nearly as possible in conformity 

with the uniform plan, including connecting by straight 

lines opposite corresponding corners, incorporating 

excess or deficiency against the township boundary, 

creating as many aliquot part legal subdivisions as possible and following other lotting principles as stated in 

Figure 3-39. Example showing completion of subdivisional lines of a township where sections containing outlying areas protracted as surveyed returned 

earlier have been cancelled. On an actual plat, an area will be returned for each lot and each section.

5 6 7

12 11 10 40 40

40 40 8

1

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4 5 6 7 1

1

2

2

3

3 4 4

14

13

9

40 1040 1140 1240

5

4 3 2 1

40 640 740 840

80 80

80 80

80 80

80 160

80 160 160 160 160 80

80 160 160 160 160 160

160 160 160

80 160

80 160

80 160

80 160

80

160

80

160

40 80

40 80 40

80

80 160 160 160 160 80

40 80 80 80 80 40

9

40 1040 1140 12

40

5

4 3 2 1

40 640 740 840

5 6 7

2

3 4

6 5

7 8

9

13 14

16 15

Sec. 7

Sec. 3 Sec. 2 Sec. 1

Sec. 10 Sec. 11 Sec. 12

Sec. 14 Sec. 13

Sec. 23 Sec. 24

Sec. 18

Sec. 19 Sec. 20 Sec. 21

Sec. 30 Sec. 29 Sec. 28

4 3 2 1

5 6 7

12

13

14

1

2

3

4 5 6 7 1

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

11 10 40 40

40 840

9

40

40

4 3 2 1

6 7

11 10 40 40

40 840

9

40

40 5

12

40

40

4 3 2 1

6 7

11 10 40 40

40 840

9

40

40 5

12

40

40

4 3 2 1

P r e viously Subdivided
65

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Figure 3-40. Examples of subdivision by protraction.

Mid-point

Frac.

Frac. or

20.00

20.00 20.00

20.00

20.00

20.00

20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

Frac.

Frac.

Frac.

Frac.

20.00 40.00

40.00

40.00 40.00

40.00 40.00

Frac. 20.00

20.00

Frac. 20.00

17.88

17.96

20.00 20.00 20.00

18.20

18.12

20.00 20.00

20.00 20.00

20.00

18.04 20.00

20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

20.00 20.00 20.00 20.56

20.00 20.00 20.00 20.27

20.42

20.13

40.00

Frac. 20.00

Frac. 20.00

40.00

20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

Mid-point

Mid-point

Mid-poin t Mid-point Mid-poin t

Mid-poin t Mid-point

Showing regular subdivision of sections.

Showing areas. Showing calculated distances.

S.8 9°50’ W.

N .0 °16 ’ W.

N o

N.8 9°52’ W.

r t h

7 8 . 2 0

8 0.56

8 0. 0 0

7 7. 8 8

35.96 40.42 40.70

36.00

36.16

36.32

40.98

4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1

5

6

7

1

2

Sec. 7

Sec. 6

Sec. 8

Sec. 6 Sec. 5

3

4

4 3 2 1

5 40 80

80 160

626.51

6

7

Sec. 6

4 3 2 1

5

6

7

the Manual and outlined in 43 U.S.C. 752(2)(cl. 2) and 

753(cls. 1 and 3).

3-103. Upon the plat of all regular sections, the boundaries of the protracted quarter-sections are shown by 

dashed straight lines connecting the opposite corresponding quarter-section corners. Referring to figure 

3-40 the sections bordering the north or west boundary 

of a regular township, excepting section 6, are further 

subdivided by protraction into parts containing two 

half-quarter sections and four regular lots. Section 6 

has regular lots protracted against both the north and 

west boundaries, and so contains two half-quarter sections, one quarter-quarter section, and seven regular 

lots. The position of the protracted lines and the order 

of lot numbering are shown in figure 3-40. The lots are 

numbered in a series progressively from east to west or 

from north to south in each section. The lots in section 6 
66

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

are numbered commencing with No. 1 in the northeast, 

thence progressively west to No. 4 in the northwest, and 

south to No. 7 in the southwest.

3-104. Subsequent to the filing of the official plat, 

further subdivision of lots can only be accomplished 

by survey or supplemental plat. However, when it is 

administratively advantageous and prior to the official filing, the legal subdivisions adjoining the township exterior can be protracted into smaller than the 

customary lots. For example and again referring to 

figure 3-40, the sections bordering the north or west 

boundary of a regular township, excepting section 

6, can be further subdivided by protraction into parts 

containing two half-quarter sections, four half-quarterquarter sections, and four regular lots. In this example the north-north or west-west sixty-fourth section 

corners are established at 10 chains distant from the 

interior sixteenth-section corners, and the excess 

or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in 

the last distance to the township exterior. The same 

pattern is applied to section 6 on both its north and 

west boundaries.

3-105. The quarter-quarter sections are aliquot parts 

of quarter-sections based upon midpoint protraction. 

These lines are not indicated upon the official plat.

Sections are subdivided to contain as many aliquot parts 

as possible, but a departure from this practice is made 

where it would result in poorly shaped lots. In the case 

of the regular lots along the north and west boundaries 

of a township, and in other cases where a lot has a full 

normal width of 20 chains in one direction, it is generally advisable to avoid areas of less than 10 or more 

than 50 acres. In the instance of irregular lots along a 

meander line or other irregular broken boundary, where 

the width of the lot in both directions may be considerably less than 20 chains, resulting in lots of more compact form, it is generally better to avoid an area of less 

than 5 or more than 45 acres. Extreme lengths or narrow 

widths should be avoided. The longer direction should 

extend back from a meander line or claim boundary 

rather than along it. It is inconsistent that a lot lay partly 

in two sections, and it is generally better, when consistent with other rules, to avoid lots extending from one 

quarter-section into another quarter-section.

3-106. Sections that are invaded by meanderable bodies of water or by approved claims at variance with the 

regular legal subdivisions are subdivided by protraction into as many aliquot parts as possible and then 

lots, as may be necessary to form a suitable basis for 

the administration of the Federal interest lands and 

to describe the latter separately from the segregated 

areas.

3-107. The meander line of a body of water and the 

boundary lines of private claims are platted in accordance with the lines run or connections made in the field. 

The sections invaded are subdivided by protraction as 

nearly as possible in conformity with the uniform plan. 

The subdivision-of-section lines are terminated at the 

meander line or claim boundary, but for platting purposes, the position of the subdivision-of-section lines 

is controlled as though the section had been completed 

regularly. In the case of a section whose boundary lines 

are in part within the limits of a meanderable body of 

water or within the boundaries of a private claim, the 

section lines are, for the purpose of uniformity, completed in theory and the protracted position of the subdivision-of-section lines is controlled by the theoretical 

points so determined.

3-108. The method of subdivision by protraction of 

fractional sections into lots is first, in accordance with 

the field notes, and second, as nearly as possible in conformity with the uniform plan for fractional sections. 

Protraction of subdivision-of-section lines will be made, 

as nearly as possible, in conformity with the procedures 

outlined for fractional sections in 43 U.S.C. 752(2)(cl. 

3) and 753(cls. 2 and 4). Only in limited cases is there 

a significant difference between the two methods. See 

section 3-118 for subdivision of fractional sections by 

survey.

3-109. To visualize a uniform system for numbering 

lots of invaded sections and fractional sections, imagine the section divided by parallel latitudinal lines into 

four tiers, numbered from north to south. Then, beginning with the eastern lot of the north tier, call it No. 1, 

and continue the numbering west through the tier, then 

east in the second, west in the third, east in the fourth 

tier, until all lots have been numbered. These directions 

are maintained even though some of the tiers contain 

no lots. A lot extending north and south through two or 

part of two tiers is numbered in the tier containing its 

greater area. This method of numbering applies to any 

part of a section. A section that has been partly surveyed 

at different times will have no duplication of lot numbers (figure 3-41).

Elongated Sections

3-110. Prior to the 1973 Manual, when the length or 

width of a township exceeded 480 chains to such an 
67

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Meanderable River. Meanderable Lake.

Mineral Claims. E. bdy. defective in alinement.

S. bdy. defective in alinement. E. & S. bdrs. defective in alinement.

3 2 1

9 8 7

6 5

4

12

9

10

8

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

11

14 13

1

2

3

7

1 1

4

3

2

2

3

4

1 2 3 4 4 5 6

Figure 3-41. Examples of subdivision by protraction.
68

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

extent as to require two or more tiers or ranges of lots 

adjoining the north or west boundary, the usual past 

practice was to lot all of the area beyond the regular 

legal subdivisions. Beginning with the 1973 Manual and 

in order to avoid possible confusion of descriptions, the 

lotting should be extended throughout the elongated half 

of the section as shown in figures 3-42 and 3-43. This 

will also apply to the platting of resurveyed sections 

insofar as Federal interest land is involved. Sections in 

excess of 120 chains are avoided by the creation of halftownship or half-range numbers. This cannot be done 

where the elongated sections are situated in the interior 

of a township as the result of partially completed but 

grossly irregular former subdivisions. Lotting will then 

be extended as necessary.

3-111. If it has been necessary to establish a sectional 

guide meridian or a sectional correction line, lots may 

result along the east or south boundary of the township. 

The sections bordering the defective boundaries are 

subdivided on the same plan as sections bordering the 

north and west boundaries of a normal township.

Order of Procedure in

Subdivision of Sections by Survey

3-112. The method of subdivision of section by survey is established during the survey of the section exterior and a subdivision of section by protraction, when 

applicable.

The subdivision of section by survey is performed during the field work by the field surveyor. The surveyor 

is guided by special instructions, the official plat(s), 

and the general plan of the rectangular survey system. 

When there is evidence of a prior survey or diagram, 

or use or occupancy within a section, the instructions 

outlined in chapters V and VI will be applicable and a 

corresponding plan of subdivision is proper.

3-113. Since the corners marked and fixed, or fixed by 

measurement and reference, in the original survey are 

controlling, it is essential that these corners be found, 

located, or properly restored, before the actual field 

work involving the subdivision of section is undertaken. 

The section boundaries should be retraced to develop 

the actual bearings and lengths of the lines between the 

marked corners.

The order of procedure is: First, identify or reestablish the marked corners on the section boundaries, 

including determination of the points for the necessary 

sixteenth-section corners. Next, fix the boundaries of 

20.00 20.00 20.00

Mid-point Mid-point

20.00

Frac.

20.00 20.00

20.00

Frac. 20.00 20.00 20.00

Frac. 20.00 20.00 20.00

40.00

40.00

(SW1⁄4) (SE1⁄4)

Sec. 1

4 3 2 1

5 6 7 8

12 11 10 9

13 14 15 16

Figure 3-42. Extension of lotting in an elongated section. On an actual 

plat an area will be returned for each lot and the section.

Figure 3-43. Extension of lotting in an elongated section. On an actual 

plat an area will be returned for each lot.

20.00 20.00 20.00

Mid-point Mid-point

Frac.

Frac. 20.00 20.00 20.00

Frac. 20.00 20.00 20.00

20.00 20.00 20.00

20.00

Sec. 7

4 3 2

5 6 7

12 11 10

15

1

8

9

13 14 16
69

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Subsequent to the establishment of quarter-quarter 

or sixteenth-section corners, the center lines of the 

quarter-section shall be run as straight lines between 

opposite corresponding quarter-quarter or sixteenthsection corners on the quarter-section boundaries. The 

point of intersection of the lines thus run and fixed will 

be the legal center of a quarter-section.

Subdivision of Fractional Sections by Survey

3-118. By law a fractional section is (1) a section 

containing outlying areas protracted as surveyed, or 

(2) an invaded section in which at least one quartersection corner has not been or cannot be fixed. The 

method of subdivision by survey is outlined in 43 

U.S.C. 752(2)(cl. 3) and 753(cls. 2 and 4). By rule the 

procedure for subdivision of the fractional section is to 

be as nearly as possible in conformity with the official 

survey.

3-119. The law presumes that a corner has not been 

fixed when: (1) the section line on each side of the 

corner position has not been actually run (figure 3-44) 

or, (2) the section line has been actually run but at least 

one corner on either side, on the section line at issue, 

has not been monumented (figure 3-45). The rule presumes that a section line has been actually run when 

a bearing and distance of the line is returned in the 

official survey record.

the quarter-sections and then form the quarter-quarter 

sections or lots by equitable and proportionate division 

(see section 10-5).

Subdivision of Sections into

Quarter-Sections by Survey

3-114. To subdivide a regular section into quarter-sections, run straight lines from the fixed quarter-section 

corners to the opposite corresponding quarter-section 

corners. The point of intersection of the lines thus run 

and fixed will be the corner common to the several 

quarter-sections, or in other words, the legal center of 

the section. This method of subdivision is outlined in 43 

U.S.C. 752(2)(cl. 2) and 753(cls. 1 and 3). In this application, “straight lines” implied “lines of constant bearing” 

(43 U.S.C. 752(2)).

3-115. The quarter-section corners upon the lines terminating on the north and west boundaries of a regular 

township were established originally at 40 chains to the 

north or west of the last interior section corners. The 

excess or deficiency in measurement was incorporated 

into the legal subdivision next to the township or range 

line, as the case may be. If such legal subdivision corners, usually quarter-section corners, are lost they shall 

be reestablished by proportionate measurement based 

upon the official record.

3-116. Where there are double sets of section corners 

on township and range lines, the quarter-section corners 

on the township line for the sections south of the township line and on the range line for the sections east of 

the range line historically were not marked in the original surveys. In subdividing such sections new quartersection corners are required. The new corners shall be 

placed as to suit the calculations of the areas that adjoin 

the township boundary, as indicated upon the official 

plat, adopting proportional measurements where the 

new measurements of the north or west boundaries of 

the section differ from the record distances.

Subdivision of Quarter-Sections by Survey

3-117. Preliminary to the subdivision of quartersections, the quarter-quarter or sixteenth-section corners shall be fixed as nearly as possible equidistant or 

proportionate measurement from two corners which 

stand on the same line, and between the quarter-section 

corners and the center of the section. On the last half 

mile of the lines terminating on township boundaries, they should be placed at 20 chains, proportionate 

measurement, counting from the regular quartersection corner.

West

8.73

East

25.45 MC

40

80 80

160 160

1

 2 35.02

11.40

3 

21.85

MC

Lake

Sec. 22

588.27

Figure 3-44. Fractional section. No bearing and distance returned 

between the meander corners.
70

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

3-120. The law provides that where no opposite corresponding quarter-section corners have been or can be 

fixed, the subdivision-of-section lines shall be ascertained, by running a line from the monumented corners 

due north and south, or east and west, as the case may 

be, to the water-course, reservation line, or other external boundary of such fractional section, as represented 

upon the official plat.

Under this subdivision-of-section method, the law presumes the section lines actually run and marked in the 

survey are due north and south, or due east and west 

lines, but usually this is not the case. Hence, in order 

to carry out the spirit of the law, it will be necessary 

in running the center lines through fractional sections 

to adopt mean courses, as ascertained from opposite 

corresponding section lines. Where an opposite corresponding section line does not exist, or the center line 

is platted parallel to one section boundary, run the center line parallel to the corresponding east, south, west, 

or north boundary of the section, as conditions may 

require.

3-121. The mean and parallel courses are based upon 

the weighted mean bearing of the controlling section 

line(s), equal to the bearing of the accumulated latitudes 

and departures of the controlling line(s) (figure 3-46).

This subdivision-of-section method is also used when 

the evidence conclusively shows that the meander corner, as well as closing or equivalent corners, was actually established as a terminal corner.

3-122. The basic principles outlined generally give 

satisfactory results except in special cases. The rules 

cannot be elaborated to rectify conditions that are at 

gross variance with the representations of the official 

survey record.

Examples of special cases that may warrant modification of the basic subdivision-of-section methods are situations where (1) the prescribed method does not result 

in lines and corners that represent the conditions on the 

official plat; or (2) a good faith rule occupation (section 

6-35) has been established in reliance on a subdivisionof-section method reasonably consistent with the controlling survey plat(s). In such cases a corresponding 

modified plan of subdivision of section is proper.

Subdivision of 

Fractional Quarter-Sections by Survey

3-123. By law, for subdivision purposes, a fractional 

quarter-section is within (1) a section containing 

outlying areas protracted as surveyed, or (2) an invaded 

section in which at least one quarter-quarter-section 

corner of the quarter-section has not been or cannot 

be fixed.

3-124. The subdivision-of-section lines of fractional 

quarter-sections shall be ascertained by running from 

properly established quarter-quarter or sixteenthsection corners with courses governed by the conditions represented upon the official plat. This can generally be accomplished by running due north and south, 

or east and west lines, as the case may be, to the watercourse, reservation line, or other external boundary of 

such fractional quarter-section.

In running the center lines through fractional 

quarter-sections it is necessary to adopt mean courses, 

as ascertained from opposite corresponding section and 

subdivision-of-section lines, or run parallel to a boundary of the section or quarter-section, as conditions 

require (figure 3-46).

Survey of Partially Surveyed Sections

3-125. In rare cases portions of the section boundaries 

are impassable or so insecure that acceptable monumentation is impracticable, or there is an administrative 

Figure 3-45. Fractional section. The section corner was not monumented. N. 0° 02’ W. N. 0° 02’ W.

40.0

0

80.0

0

26.4

5

MC

MC

MC

Lake

2

31.23

4

34.12 3

12.16

40 40

160

160

1

48.92

Sec. 15

526.43

25.8

4 13.55
71

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Figure 3-46. Weighted mean bearing example.

N. 0° 10’ W.

28.1

5

N. 0° 10’ W.

28.15

N. 0° 16’ W.

WGT. MEAN BR

N. 0° 21’ 

G.

W.

40.1

6

N. 0° 15’ W.

33

.9

6

20

N. 102.269

E. -0.475

L = 28.150

D = -0.082

L = 33.960

D = -0.148

L = 40.159

D = -0.245

| D |

N. 74.119

E. -0.393

| C |

N. 40.159

E. -0.245

| B |

0.00

0.00

| A

N. 0° 21’ 

|

W.

40.1

6

N. 0° 15’ W.

33.9

6

Diagram 1

(Measured)

(not to scale)

Diagram 2

(Measured)

(not to scale)

R A N C H O C A D A S T R E

Problem: Compute the weighted mean bearing of the N-S center line of fractional section 20.

The data shown in diagram 1 is measured data.

Traverse Method:

1) Traverse from | A | to | B | to | C | to | D |

. See diagram 2.

2) Inverse from | A | to | D |.

3) The bearing | A | – |D | is N. 0° 16’ W. = the weighted mean bearing.

Proportion Method:

1) The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 19 and 20 was recovered. First compute the inverse for

the sec. line:

N. 0°18’ 12” W. 74.12

2) Compute the difference in bearings between the east and the west section lines:

N. 0° 18’ 12” W. – N. 0° 10’ W. = 8’ 12” = 492”

3) Compute the sum of the lengths of the east and the west section lines:

28.15 + 74.12 = 102.27

4) Compute the correction factor | K |

. Use the shorter (east) line:

28.15 / 102.27 = 0.2753 = K

5) Compute the correction to the bearing of the west line:

492” X 0.2753 = 135.45” = 2’ 15”

6) Compute the weighted mean bearing by, in this case, subtracting the correction from 

the bearing of the longer line:

N. 0° 18’ 12” W. - 0° 02’ 15” = N. 0° 16’ W. = the weighted mean bearing.

Mathematically, the weighted mean bearing will be closer

to the bearing of the longer line than of the shorter line,

therefore, the computed correction using the shorter line

is applied to the bearing of the longer line.
72

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

U n s u r v e y e d

N.0 °03’W.

8 0. 4 0

N.89°48’W.

S.89°45’E.N.0°11’E.

N.89°48’W.

S.89°45’E.N.0°11’E.

8 0. 0

0

N.0°02’W.

40.00

19.98

20.08

19.98

39.96

20.08

20.00

19.98

Sec. 27

480

160

80 160

40

40

Figure 3-47. Rectangular boundaries of a partially surveyed regular 

section.

Figure 3-48. Rectangular boundaries of a partially surveyed regular 

section.

2 0. 0 0

N.89°56’W.

N.

0°10’W.

N.89°56’W.

S.89°59’W.

N.

0°10’W.

8 0. 0

0

N.0 °03’W.

20.00 40.00

60.00

20.04 20.04

40.08

39.94

39.94

Unsur veyed

Sec. 9

80

80

160

320

reason not to survey portions of the boundaries and 

yet a need exists for survey of the accessible area. 

These unsurveyed areas may be within sections on a 

protraction diagram, within sections or protracted 

blocks on an amended protraction diagram, or within 

an area where no protraction diagram exists. Since 

rules covering every set of conditions cannot be given, 

the methods to be used are set forth in the special 

instructions.

Although the running of traverse lines on the margin 

of impassable areas has been largely discontinued, such 

a survey is sometimes called for where rectangular 

boundaries cannot otherwise be completed within the 

section. The method must be authorized in the special 

instructions and supported by ample justification. In 

such surveys the angle points of the traverse line are 

given serial numbers in each fractional section, and 

the points are monumented. The subdivision-of-section 

lines are protracted only, unless a definition upon the 

ground is justified.

3-126. For sections within protraction diagrams, 

where rectangular limit requirements can be met, original surveys of the subdivision-of-section lines should 

follow the plan outlined by the protraction diagram. 

Where field conditions reveal that the rectangular limit 

requirements cannot be maintained, and the corners are 

not fixed in position by use, the protraction diagram will 

be abandoned and a new plan for survey provided by 

a new protraction diagram or by supplemental special 

instructions and diagram.

For sections within amended protraction diagrams the 

aliquot part corners are monumented at the latitude and 

longitude shown on or computed from the protraction 

diagram.

For areas within a protracted block the special instructions will set forth the plan for surveying the required 

areas, and the amended protraction diagram will be 

modified to reflect the new survey. When surveyed a 

protracted block will normally become a section containing the normal aliquot parts with the excess or deficiency against the previously surveyed boundary.

3-127. Figures 3-47 and 3-48 show rectangular boundaries of partially surveyed regular sections.

3-128. Figures 3-49 and 3-50 show rectangular boundaries of partially surveyed irregular sections where lottings are indicated. In figure 3-49 the whole closing 

error in latitude is incorporated as normally in the north 

tier of lots. In figure 3-50 the whole closing error in 

departure is incorporated as normally in the west range 

of lots.

3-129. The field notes show only the true line courses 

and distances, the usual topography, the description 

of monuments, and a description of the difficulties or 

administrative need that warranted an elimination of 

parts of the section or sections.
73

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

3-130. To subdivide a partially surveyed section, 

the remaining subdivision-of-section lines within the 

surveyed area are determined by running straight lines 

between the nearest fixed corners for the sectional 

center lines.

The remaining interior sixteenth-section corners on 

the sectional center lines are at midpoints between 

the exterior quarter-section corners and the center 

quarter-section corner, except within the sections normally fractional. The center lines of the quarter-sections are completed on a similar plan. In all sections 

normally irregular, the excess or deficiency in measurement is incorporated in its normal position as shown on 

the protraction diagram.

Subdivision of Sections by Local Surveyors

3-131. The function of the local surveyor begins when 

employed as an expert to identify lands that have passed 

into private ownership. This may be a simple or a most 

complex problem, depending largely upon (1) the condition of the original monuments as affected principally 

by the lapse of time since the execution of the original survey, the inferior monumentation of many early 

surveys, or the workmanship of the original surveyor; 

(2) the degree of irrelation between original corners; 

(3) the use and occupancy of the land; (4) the degree 

to which local surveys conform with the law, methods, 

and the exercise of ordinary intelligence under existing conditions; and (5) the presence of nonofficial surveys administered by Federal agencies, their employees, 

or agents.

3-132. The work of the local surveyor usually includes 

the subdivision of the section into the legal subdivisions 

shown upon the approved plat. In this capacity, the local 

surveyor is performing a function contemplated by law. 

He or she cannot properly serve the client or the public 

unless familiar with the legal requirements concerning 

the subdivision of sections.

3-133. In the event that the original monuments have 

become obliterated or lost, the local surveyor cannot 

hope to effectively recover the corner positions without a full understanding of the record concerning their 

original establishment and other evidence of establishment, subsequent recovery, or reestablishment. Nor can 

the local surveyor hope to legally restore or weigh evidence of subsequent corner location, use, or occupancy, 

until he or she has mastered not only the principles 

observed in the execution of the original survey, and 

later local practices, but also the principles upon which 

the courts and authorized administrative officials having 

jurisdiction over such matters have based their rulings.

3-134. The cadastral surveyor is required to establish the official monuments so that a proper foundation 

is laid for the subdivision of the section, whereby the 

officially surveyed lines can be identified and the subdivision of the section controlled as contemplated 

by law.

Figure 3-50. Rectangular boundaries of a partially surveyed irregular 

section adjoining the west boundary. Formerly protracted block 44 per the 

protraction diagram.

20.00

N.89°50’W.

N.0°16’W.

N.0°16’W. S.89°50’E.

N.89°50’W.

N.0°16’W.

S.0°11’E.

20.00

42.49 42.35

40.00

20.00

West

19.97

20.00

40.00

20.00

20.03 20.03

40.06

21.2

8

(21.14)

20.00

40.00 (20.00)

81.14

Unsur veyed

Sec. 3

40 80

40 40

80

2 1

364.84

Figure 3-49. Rectangular boundaries of a partially surveyed irregular 

section adjoining the north boundary. Formerly protracted block 39 per the 

protraction diagram.

N.89°40’W. 36.22

S.0°04’E.

S.0°04’E.

39.8

6

S.89°52’E. 76.01

N.89°40’W.

32.09

32.23

32.37

40.00

40.00

(16.22) (20.00)

(16.01) (20.00)

60.00

(20.00) (20.00) 20.00

South

19.93 19.93

20.00

Unsur veyed

Sec. 18

80

1 80

2

3 40

296. 69
74

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

The local surveyor, who may be employed by a claimant, entryman, or owner to run subdivision-of-section 

lines and mark said corners, shall correlate the conditions as found upon the ground with those shown upon 

the official plat.

3-135. The Bureau of Land Management assumes 

no control or direction over the acts of local and 

county surveyors in the matters of subdivision of sections, evaluation of evidence of corner locations, and 

reestablishment of lost corners of original surveys 

where the lands have passed into private ownership, nor 

will the Bureau of Land Management issue instructions 

in such cases. It follows the general rule that disputes 

arising from uncertain or erroneous location of marked 

or unmarked protracted corners originally fixed by 

the United States are to be settled by the proper local 

authorities or by amicable adjustment. The Bureau of 

Land Management desires that the rules controlling the 

acts of its own cadastral surveying service, and other 

surveyors under its direction and control, be considered 

by all other surveyors as merely advisory and explanatory of the principles that should prevail in performing 

such duties. The Bureau of Land Management does not 

assume control, direction over, or responsibility for the 

acts of Federal employees performing or administrating surveys not authorized by the appropriate Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor.

3-136. The rules for subdivision of sections by survey 

are based on the laws governing the survey of the public 

lands. Some cases are not covered by these rules, and 

when inquiry is made, the Bureau of Land Management 

will offer advice. The letter of inquiry should contain a 

description of the particular tract or corner, with reference to principal meridian, township, range, and section 

of the public surveys, together with a diagram showing 

conditions found.

Summary

3-137. When any claimant, entryman, or owner has 

acquired bona fide rights as to location per 43 U.S.C. 

772 to certain legal subdivisions, that claimant, entryman, or owner has rights as to the location of the identical ground location as represented by the same subdivisions upon the official plat, controlled by monuments on 

the ground. It is a matter of expert or technical procedure to mark out the legal subdivisions called for in an 

entry, claim, patent, selection, or order, and entrymen are 

advised that a competent surveyor should be employed.

In marking the corners of subdivisions-of-section, the 

surveyor shall identify the section boundaries, run and 

mark the section center lines, and fix the legal center 

of the section in common, in order to determine the 

boundaries of the affected quarter-sections. Then, if the 

boundaries of quarter-quarter sections, or lots, are to be 

run and marked, the boundaries of the quarter-section 

shall be measured, and the sixteenth-section corners 

fixed and marked in accordance with the proportional 

distances represented upon the approved plat. Finally, 

the quarter-section center lines are run and marked and 

the legal center of the quarter-section duly fixed.

Thus will be produced in the field the figure represented 

upon the plat, as nearly as possible, every part of the former in true proportion to the latter, where the elements 

of absolute distance and area have given way to corresponding proportional units as defined by the running 

and marking of lines between fixed monuments established in the original or controlling survey. Examples 

are provided in figure 3-51.

The law presupposes the fact taught by experience that 

measurements of lands cannot be repeated with absolute precision and that the work of no two surveyors 

will exactly agree. The governing law, 43 U.S.C. 752(2), 

states that “boundary lines which have not been actually 

run and marked shall be ascertained, by running straight 

lines from the established corners to the opposite corresponding corners.” The protracted position of the legal 

subdivision corner on the survey plat is merely the first 

step in fixing the position of a corner. The corner position is fixed by the running and marking of the lines.

A decision to set aside previously fixed local survey 

legal subdivision corners must be supported by evidence 

that goes beyond mere demonstration of technical error, 

reasonable discrepancies between former and new measurement, and less than strict adherence to restoration 

and subdivision rules. Were the Federal Government 

obliged to open the question as to the location of a particular tract or tracts over technical differences or reasonable discrepancies, controversies would constantly 

arise, and resurveys and readjudication would be interminable. The law gives these activities repose.

It is unlawful for the surveyor to impair bona fide rights 

as to location. Proof of impairment of bona fide rights 

as to location per 43 U.S.C. 772, when lines have been 

run and marked and corners marked and fixed by local 

survey, must be positive evidence of an intentional 

departure from the legal principles governing recovery of original corner location, reestablishment and 

establishment of corner location, or subdivision of a 

section. Where the evidence of an extant subdivision-of-
75

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys 20.00 20.00 20.00 22.60 40.00 20.00 22.4

6

40.00 20.00 22.3

2

20.80 20.00 20.00 20.00

19.98 19.98 20.03 22.63

19.96 19.96 20.01 2

2.47

19.95 19.95 19.98 2

2.30

20.76 19.96 19.97 19.97

20.87 19.98 20.01 20.01

21.02 20.04 20.01 20.01

20.07 20.07 20.16 20.16

20.11 20.11 20.09 20.09

20.12 20.12 20.10 20.10

18.24 20.09 20.12 20.12

18.27 20.05 20.09 20.09

18.32 20.03 20.14 20.14

20.89 20.00 40.00

20.98 20.00 40.00

20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00

40.00 40.00

40.00 40.00

18.15 20.00 40.00

18.22 20.00 40.00

18.29 20.00 40.00

19.96 19.96 19.99 19.99

20.02 20.02 19.97 19.97

20.01 20.01 19.98 19.98

20.02 20.02 20.06 20.06

20.04 20.04 20.07 20.07

20.08 20.08 20.06 20.06

40.00 40.00

40.00 40.00

40.04

40.07

40.10

40.00 40.00

40.04

40.07

40.10

Official measurements. Retracements.

4 3 2 1

5

6

7

4 3 2 1

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

Figure 3-51. Examples of subdivision by survey showing relation of official measurements and calculated distances to retracements and indicating 

proportional distribution of differences.
76

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

section survey indicates (1) a good faith attempt to relate 

it to the original controlling survey, (2) conformance 

as nearly as possible to legal subdivision principles, 

(3) reasonable accuracy standards for that time and place, 

(4) sufficiency for identification of the legal subdivisions, 

and (5) without fraud or gross error, the statutory intent 

of stability of boundaries and title to lands will have 

been met. 

Cadastral surveyors conducting resurveys must recognize that they are responsible for locating the limits of 

Federal interest lands and protecting the interests of the 

United States and of the general public as well as protecting the bona fide rights of the private landowner. The 

surveyor must act in an impartial manner when evaluating the local survey evidence. A rule works in favor 

of and against all parties of interest equally. The final 

record should be transparent and complete.

Protraction Diagrams

Protraction Diagrams—Plan of Survey

3-138. Official protraction diagrams are intended to 

provide a basis for the administration and management of unsurveyed Federal lands for all purposes 

short of conveying title. Such protractions can become 

the basis of land location for leasing purposes and for 

various administrative boundaries, including wilderness, National Recreation Areas, special use areas, 

withdrawals, and selections. For further discussion on 

protraction diagrams and water boundaries see section 

8-196. For further discussion on plats of protraction 

diagrams see section 9-114.

Protraction diagrams should not be treated as “protracted subdivision township surveys.” The latter typically have run and marked exterior township lines and 

protracted section lines. The protracted section lines 

are represented as dashed lines indicating that they 

were not run and marked and the distances given are 

parenthetical distances.

3-139. The State of Alaska or an Alaska Native 

Corporation can elect to receive patent to certain lands 

in Alaska on the basis of protraction diagrams (43 

U.S.C. 1635(c)(3) and 1637). In addition, protraction 

diagrams are used to describe certain lands selected 

by the State of Alaska. Upon tentative approval of such 

selection by the Secretary of the Interior, subject to 

valid existing rights, all right, title, and interest of the 

United States in and to such lands is deemed to have 

vested in the State as of the date of tentative approval 

(43 U.S.C. 1635(c)(1)).

Protraction diagrams are also used to describe certain lands to be conveyed to an Alaska Native, Native 

Corporation, or Native group. Subject to valid existing 

rights and such conditions and reservations authorized 

by law as are imposed, the force and effect of such an 

interim conveyance shall be to convey to and vest in 

the recipients exactly the same right, title, and interest 

in and to the lands as the recipients received had they 

been issued a patent by the United States (43 U.S.C. 

1621(j)(1)). In other words, an interim conveyance vests 

the same rights, title, and interests as would have been 

received if issued a United States patent.

Upon survey of lands covered by an interim conveyance, 

a patent is issued to the recipient. The boundaries of the 

lands as defined and conveyed by the interim conveyance cannot be altered but may be redescribed, if need 

be, in reference to the plat of survey. The Secretary shall 

make appropriate adjustments to assure that recipients 

receive their full entitlement.

3-140. The locations depicted on the protraction diagrams are based on the best available evidence; however, the precise location for many claims and special 

surveys are uncertain. As a result, there are special survey parcels and leases described by legal subdivisions 

that are actually located miles from the location shown 

on the protraction diagram.

The process of surveying a protracted tract or legal subdivision while protecting its location based upon the protraction diagram can involve extensive work. First, all 

the corners on the exterior of the unsurveyed area controlling the corners to be established must be found or 

reestablished by dependent resurvey. Second, using the 

protraction diagram as the record, the protracted township corners must be located. Only then can the location 

and establishment of the needed township subdivision 

lines take place, followed by the needed monumentation.

Amended Protraction Diagrams

3-141. Protraction diagrams developed in two forms. 

Previous to 1993 corner positions were defined by bearing and distance with reference to the exterior boundary of the protraction. Subsequently, the process was 

amended and corner positions are now defined by geographic coordinates, defining all interior rectangular 

corners and corners necessary to protect prior existing 

rights and special areas. The revised procedure adds 
77

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

more stability to land location and corner positions 

within protraction areas, allows a more economical corner position location procedure, and uses new developments in geographic position determinations. Any existing diagram revised or new diagram created by this procedure is referred to as an amended protraction diagram 

(see specimen plat, appendix V).

The surveyed exterior boundaries are as depicted on the 

latest official surveys. The interior portion of the diagram is constructed to produce the maximum number 

of regular sections following the general scheme, and 

an initial point for the interior subdivision is placed to 

accomplish this goal. Coordinate values, called the Plan 

Of Survey Coordinates (POSC), are published on the 

amended protraction diagram and determined for all 

interior section corners as well as corners of existing 

withdrawals and valid existing rights that fall in protracted blocks.

Protracted Blocks

3-142. Protracted block is a designation for an area 

of uncertain acreage that lies between the coordinatebased interior and an existing surveyed line that is a 

boundary of the protraction or the boundary of a special 

survey within the protractions. Protracted blocks provide a buffer between protracted section corners defined 

by the POSC and any existing survey lines. These blocks 

are configured and dimensioned the same way as a section that is adjacent to an existing surveyed boundary. 

A protracted block will not be described as less than a 

full block and will not be lotted or subdivided until surveyed. Protracted blocks will be large enough to ensure 

that protracted sections do not invade existing survey 

lines, including special surveys. In order to avoid confusion with section numbers, the protracted blocks are 

designated beginning with number 37 or the next number above the highest protracted number already used.

3-143. Since the actual position of the existing survey 

on the ground is uncertain; the area of the protracted 

block is also uncertain and is shown in parentheses on 

the plat. The boundaries of a protracted block are normally formed by (1) a protracted line between two POSC 

corners, (2) the existing surveyed line on the outboundary of the protraction, and (3) two protracted lines. The 

protracted lines are designated either as bearing, or as 

random and true, from the POSC corner points within 

the protraction to the existing protraction outboundary.

The protracted block may be bisected by a meanderable body of water or special survey, creating two or 

more separate parcels of land within the boundaries 

of the block. Normally these separate parcels will be 

combined to form a single protracted block. This single 

block is made up of every parcel within the block not 

included in the meanderable water body or special survey, even those too small to appear on the amended protraction diagram, such as islands, gaps between special 

surveys or within a group of mineral surveys. However, 

if the configuration of the parcels or the accuracy of the 

location of the existing special surveys or water body 

warrants, it is acceptable to create more than one protracted block.

3-144. When protracted lines close on an interior corner or a terminal line, it will be necessary to use a random and true line instead of a designated bearing line.

If a line is projected on a bearing from a POSC to an 

existing boundary corner, and a line is projected on 

a bearing from another POSC to the same existing 

boundary corner, they might meet before intersecting 

the existing corner. Therefore, one of the lines is run 

random and true to the existing corner. The random and 

true lines are labeled R/T on the plat.

Developing Amended

Protraction Diagrams

Guidelines for Preparing Amended 

Protraction Diagrams

3-145. Amended protraction diagrams represent the 

plan for extending the rectangular survey system over 

unsurveyed Federal lands based upon assigned latitudes 

and longitudes for protracted corners, designated bearings for lines intersecting previously surveyed boundaries, and designated random and true lines connecting 

protracted corners with previously surveyed corners. 

The goal is to stabilize the interior of the protraction 

by assigning coordinates to section corner positions, 

called Plan of Survey Coordinates, and to create the 

maximum number of regular sections in the protracted 

area consistent with existing conditions. It is important 

to understand that these protraction diagrams do not 

absolutely fix corner positions, but are a plan of survey for defining corner positions more accurately than 

existing protraction diagrams whose accuracy and 

completeness vary considerably. The inherent imperfection of field survey procedures result in minor variations in positions when corners are established and 

monumented on the ground during the official survey. 
78

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Significant deviations between the amended protraction diagram and the field survey will be addressed in 

the special instructions at the time protraction areas 

are surveyed. Where possible, an amended protraction 

diagram should be consistent with the location of the 

original protraction diagram.

3-146. The amended protraction diagram standards 

have been designed to be extremely flexible. The 

amended diagram can be based on the existing diagram, 

on a selected point within the township usually near the 

southeast corner of the protraction, or on a combination of the two. By this process as many corners as possible within the protraction will have POSC latitude and 

longitude coordinates that will allow protraction-based 

descriptions to be located on the surface of the earth 

to a high degree of reliability. Unlike existing protraction diagrams in which corners could move every time 

a different bearing, distance, or position is found on 

the exterior protraction boundaries, amended protraction diagram protracted corner positions are not dependent on the position of an existing corner or surveyed 

line once its POSC have been determined. Protracted 

blocks, which are areas with uncertain acreage, will 

be used to form a buffer between the coordinate-based 

interior and the previously surveyed lines of the exterior 

perimeters. Therefore, even when the positions of the 

existing surveyed lines forming the protraction boundaries are uncertain, the plan of survey for the protracted 

area would not change, since POSC have been assigned 

to corners within the protraction.

3-147. Areas within an amended protraction diagram remain unsurveyed until such time as there is an 

approved official survey that returns the land as surveyed. The POSC represent the latitude and longitude 

at which the corners will be placed if a survey is done 

and are perfect positions on the surface of the earth. If 

there is a need to determine the position of a protracted 

corner for some administrative purpose, but not a need 

for an official survey, the position of the corner can be 

estimated accurately based on the control available at 

the time. But, it is only an estimate since the corner 

has still not been established and the land continues 

to be unsurveyed. At such time as an official survey is 

required, special instructions will be prepared specifying the control to be used, normally the nearest control 

and the latest adjustment.

3-148. As the coordinate values for the geographic 

position of the available control stations are refined, 

slight changes in the control coordinate values occur. 

The POSC do not change when the geographic 

position of the control changes slightly because the 

POSC are calculated based on the initial point of the 

protraction, not on the geographic position of existing 

control corners.

3-149. The first step in creating an amended protraction diagram is to determine the most reliable coordinates (latitude and longitude, State plane, etc.) for the 

surveyed boundaries of the protraction, any existing 

special surveys within the protraction, and the shoreline of meanderable waters within the protraction. The 

coordinates of the exterior boundaries may be generated by the Geographic Coordinate Data Base (GCDB) 

process, or any reliable source. As part of this process, 

it may become apparent that certain previously surveyed lines or whole townships should be evaluated for 

cancellation. Unpatented mineral surveys that are no 

longer valid should be canceled. If necessary, these surveys will be canceled at this time and the protraction 

diagram extended to include the canceled area. Since 

the protracted blocks are a buffer between the corners 

with POSC and the existing surveys, accurate coordinates for the monumented positions along the outboundaries are desirable but not essential. Protracted 

blocks are generally the same size as a section, but may 

be larger or smaller depending on the reliability of the 

existing surveys. Where existing surveys are known 

to be reliable, protracted blocks may be less than a 

section, but where the existing surveys are extremely 

unreliable and large discrepancies with the record are 

found, protracted blocks can be enlarged to ensure that 

protracted sections do not invade existing survey lines.

The next step is to decide on the procedure to be followed. There are two basic methods: (1) using the 

plan of survey of the existing protraction diagram, or 

(2) creating a new protraction from a selected initial 

point, usually near the southeast corner of the protraction.

Determining the Outboundaries of the 

Amended Protraction Diagram

3-150. The coordinates of the existing corners forming 

the outboundaries of the protraction may be determined 

by (1) GCDB coordinates, (2) mapping coordinates, or 

(3) a combination of GCDB and mapping coordinates. 

Interagency and intergovernmental cooperation, coordination, and consultation is critical for protraction diagram construction where the land status is mixed, Indian 

land is involved, water bodies are to be segregated, or 

the data will be integrated into mapping and geographic 

information systems. The identification of all existing 

leases, withdrawals, administrative boundaries, and 
79

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

other interests with a fixed position that are to be protected will be done at this planning stage.

The existing surveys will be evaluated. Surveyed lines 

extending into or across the protraction will normally 

be canceled to allow for a greater number of POSC corner points. There may be some areas where whole townships will be canceled because of improperly executed, 

grossly erroneous, or fraudulent surveys.

The outboundaries of the protraction will follow the 

boundary of the land previously returned as surveyed 

but not canceled and may include subdivision-of-section 

lines on partially surveyed sections.

Coordinates of the corners along the outboundaries of 

the protraction will be calculated; however, those values 

should not be shown on the plat. The plat will show a 

heavy-weight line for previously surveyed lines, and no 

coordinates or tick marks will be shown for the existing 

corners on the plat(s).

Construction of the Amended 

Protraction Diagram

3-151. All POSC section corners within the protracted 

areas will be assigned geographic coordinates. These 

coordinates will be computed to establish intervals of 

80-chain horizontal distances at ground or mean ground 

elevation on all township boundaries and subdivisional 

lines, except for lines intersecting previous surveys. See 

sections 9-114 through 9-118 for construction of plats of 

protraction diagrams.

Method 1 (Dependent)

3-152. The land status will be checked to determine 

if there is a need for the amended protraction diagram 

to protect the existing protraction either wholly or 

partially. Where withdrawals, administrative boundaries, or selections follow the protraction or where 

there is extensive leasing, it is desirable to follow the plan 

of survey established by the existing protraction diagram. 

The decision should be confirmed by the approving official prior to beginning construction of the diagram.

3-153. POSC corner positions within the protraction 

that are dependent on existing corners on the protraction outboundary are computed from the coordinate 

position of the existing corner and held fixed. The line 

from the POSC corner to an intersection with the existing boundary is shown with a designated bearing. Even 

though the POSC position is determined from the existing corner on the outboundary, the line shown on the 

final protraction diagram may not actually intersect the 

existing corner depending on the accuracy of the coordinates determined for that existing corner. The POSC 

are based on those previously determined coordinates, 

however, and they will be used in future surveys to 

determine the POSC corner position regardless of what 

occurs on the outboundary. Even if more accurate coordinates are determined later for the outboundary corner, 

the connecting line from the protracted section corner 

will still be surveyed to an intersection with the existing 

boundary. All POSC corner positions that are dependent upon existing corners should be computed first, followed by those independent of the existing boundaries 

and beyond the buffer or protracted blocks.

Method 2 (Independent)

3-154. When there is no need to follow the existing 

protraction diagram or when no protraction exists, an 

initial point will be selected, usually near the southeast 

corner of the amended protraction diagram, from which 

all other POSC within the protraction will be computed. 

In a regular township, the initial point would be the 

southeast corner of section 26 and would be positioned 

1 mile from the east boundary and 1 mile from the south 

boundary. In this type of protraction there is no need 

for base lines, principal meridians, standard parallels, 

guide meridians, sectional correction lines, or sectional 

guide meridians because convergency is accounted for 

in each township and any error in the existing surveys 

is accounted for in the buffer created by the protracted 

blocks. Lines of designated bearing or random and true 

lines will be extended from the POSC corners within 

the protraction to the existing surveyed lines forming 

the protraction outboundary.

Method 3 (Combination)

3-155. In large protractions, a combination of methods 

1 and 2 may be appropriate. If only a portion of the protracted area has conditions that require conformity with 

the existing protraction diagram (method 1), the rest of 

the area could be protracted using method 2.

General Rules on 

Surveying Amended 

Protraction Diagrams

A Plan of Survey

3-156. To survey any portion of an unsurveyed area 

shown on an amended protraction diagram, follow the 
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

method and order of procedure in the special instructions and the general rules set out herein to execute the 

survey. The special instructions will address the control to be used, latitude and longitude of control, general field methods, and special methods that may be 

required.

General Rules

3-157. The following general rules are intended as 

guidelines for the preparation of the special instructions and the execution of field surveys. Special procedures protecting valid existing rights and conforming to fixed corners while maintaining the intent of the 

protraction must be developed and set out in the special 

instructions. It may be necessary to modify portions of 

the protraction to resolve unforeseen conditions. The 

key point of the General Rules is that they are flexible 

and may be modified by the special instructions due 

to technological changes in survey methods, conditions 

on the ground, and the complexity of the protraction 

diagram:

(1) When section corners are to be 

monumented, based on an amended protraction 

diagram, the best available control stations 

should be selected and the latest adjustment 

or epoch of the North American Datum 

1983 (NAD 83) coordinate values will be 

used to determine the position of the corner 

points.

(2) When a subsequent survey is to be done 

and a newer NAD 83 adjustment is available 

with differing control coordinate values for 

the same control stations, the latest NAD 83 

coordinate values should be used to position 

the corner points. These latter positions 

could differ slightly from the corner positions 

monumented in an earlier survey. Once a 

corner point is monumented, approved, and 

filed in an official survey, it is fixed in position, 

similar to a corner monumented in an original 

survey under the public land survey system.

(3) When appropriate, the corner points are 

positioned using the current Federal standards 

and guidelines in place for geospatial 

positioning accuracy as it pertains to geodetic 

control networks referenced to the National 

Spatial Reference System or the equivalent, 

and any BLM supplemental accuracy standards 

and guidelines consistent with the Federal 

Geographic Data Committee Standards for 

geospatial data. The positioning of corners 

should meet the defined minimum accuracy 

standards and guidelines adopted by the BLM 

when establishing corners based on their 

protracted latitude and longitude, independent 

of other corners within the protraction.

When establishing several adjacent corners in 

a single survey with surveyed lines between 

corners, for reporting geographic data on the 

plat at least two monuments will be established 

that meet the accuracy classification level 

for Federal Geographic Data Committee 

Standards. This will provide relative control 

for the other corners. The survey standards and 

guidelines or survey measurement methods 

prescribed will be specified in the special 

instructions. Any standards and guidelines 

should be consistent with the accuracy 

specifications of the technology used and the 

most current specifications generally accepted 

by the professional survey community.

(4) Latitude and longitude are shown only for 

section corners on the amended protraction 

diagrams. The latitude and longitude for any 

aliquot part corner within the protraction 

computed from the section corner values, 

lottings, and areas may be shown on the diagram.

(5) Aliquot part corners down to 1/1024th

section corners may be established at their 

protracted latitude and longitude coordinate 

without reference to other corners where 

no areas are to be returned, except under 

the conditions specified in General Rule (4) 

herein. Where areas will be returned within 

a section, all four section corners will be 

monumented. Where controlling corners 

have been established and are within limits 

for rectangularity, corners will be established 

at proportionate distance or intersection as 

appropriate, not at the protracted latitude and 

longitude.

(6) Bearing and distance ties to previously 

established corners of the same section within 

the protraction are desirable and are required 

where new aliquot part corners are established 

along the line surveyed. Ties between section 

corners are not normally necessary unless 

corners are required along the line, in which 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

case rectangularity will be ensured and corners 

placed appropriately.

(7) Intersecting lines and random and 

true lines normally form the boundaries of 

protracted blocks. Once the protracted corner 

is established by latitude and longitude from 

which the intersecting line is to be initiated, the 

line will be surveyed on the protracted bearing 

to an intersection with the existing surveyed 

line, random and true line, or water boundary. 

In a like manner, random and true lines will 

be surveyed from the established protracted 

corner to the existing corner designated on 

the amended protraction diagram. Where 

rectangular limits can be achieved in 

intersecting a corner on the boundary of the 

protraction block, the intersected corner will 

control the alinement of the intersecting line 

(section 3-34). Where there is a large misclosure 

in the exterior boundary of the protraction, it 

may be necessary to modify the plan of survey 

to avoid poorly shaped parcels.

(8) When surveyed, a protracted block 

will normally become a section containing 

the regular aliquot parts with the excess or 

deficiency against the previously surveyed 

boundary.

(9) When portions of the unsurveyed 

protracted areas are surveyed, it may not be 

necessary to create a new amended protraction 

diagram for the remaining unsurveyed areas. 

Since there will normally be no changes in 

the protracted latitude and longitude of other 

corners in the protraction, an appropriate 

notation to this effect on the amended 

protraction diagram is sufficient.

(10) In some cases, local or administrative 

surveys have been performed within the 

protracted area, prior to the official survey, 

to locate and mark lease boundaries, 

administrative boundaries, the extent of 

mineral interests, or to segregate meanderable 

water bodies for acreage chargeability. 

Positions established by these surveys have no 

official standing but, at the discretion of the 

appropriate BLM Chief Cadastral Surveyor, 

should be accepted as corner positions when 

they are in substantial conformity with the 

amended protraction diagram.

Meandering

3-158. This discussion on meandering pertains to 

original surveys and new meanders. Meandering pertaining to resurveys and associated water boundaries 

are discussed in chapter VIII.

3-159. The traverse that approximates the margin of 

a permanent natural body of water, e.g., the bank of 

a stream, lake, or tidewater, is termed a meander line. 

Numerous decisions in the United States Supreme Court 

assert the principle that, in original surveys, meander lines are run, not as boundaries of the parcel, but 

(1) for the purposes of ascertaining the quantity of land 

remaining after segregation of the bed of the water 

body from the adjoining upland, (2) for defining the 

sinuosities of the water body for platting purposes, and 

(3) for closing the survey to allow for acreage calculations. The ordinary high water mark (OHWM), or line 

of mean high tide (line of MHT) of the stream, or other 

body of water, and not the meander line as actually run 

on the ground, is the actual boundary.

3-160. Properly executed meanders create certain 

riparian rights in the upland parcel. Chief among these 

rights is that ownership of the upland follows subsequent lateral change in location of the bed through slow 

and imperceptible processes, such as accretion, erosion, 

and reliction. When by action of water the bed of the 

body of water changes, the OHWM changes, and the 

ownership of adjoining land progresses with it (Lane v. 

United States, 274 F. 290 (5th Cir. 1921); aff’d. 260 U.S. 

662 (1923)).

3-161. Meander lines will not be established at the 

segregation line between upland and swamp or overflowed land, but rather at the OHWM or line of MHT 

between the swamp or overflowed lands and the water 

body. Meanders between the swamp or overflowed 

lands and the upland are a common source of errors in 

older original surveys (section 3-211).

Ordinary High Water Mark and

Line of Mean High Tide

3-162. All lands beneath navigable waters and other 

important rivers and lakes are to be segregated from 

the upland. Meanders are run along the OHWM for 

inland waters, and along the line of MHT for tidewater.

The general rule is that when the Federal Government 

conveys title to a lot fronting on a navigable body of 
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water, it conveys title to the water’s edge, meaning the 

OHWM or line of MHT. Such riparian boundaries are 

ambulatory, not fixed in position. When an exception to 

the general rule is shown, the consequence is that the 

meander line becomes fixed and can become a fixed 

and limiting property boundary. Meander lines may be 

held fixed because of (1) an avulsive change, (2) gross 

error or fraud, (3) substantial accretion after survey but 

before entry, or (4) where the facts and circumstances 

disclose an intention to limit a grant or conveyance 

to the actual traverse lines. But the mere fact that an 

irregular or sinuous line must be run, as in the case of 

a reservation boundary, does not entitle it to be called 

a meander line except where it closely follows the bank 

of a stream, lake or tidewater.

3-163. Practically all inland bodies of water pass 

through an annual cycle of changes and multiyear 

cycles of drought and wet years. The OHWM is found 

between these extremes. In regions of broken topography, especially when bodies of water are bounded by 

sharply sloping lands, the horizontal distance between 

the margins of the various water elevations is comparatively slight, and the surveyor does not experience much difficulty in determining the horizontal 

position of the OHWM. However, where the meanderable bodies of water are bordered by relatively flat 

lands, the horizontal distance between the successive 

levels can be significant and the proper line difficult to 

measure.

3-164. For inland waters, the OHWM normally used 

is the line below which the water impresses on the soil 

by covering it for sufficient periods to deprive it of terrestrial vegetation, and the soil loses it value for agriculture, including grazing of livestock. Terrestrial vegetation is to be distinguished from aquatic and wetland 

vegetation in that the same vegetation can be found at 

higher and drier sites. At this level a definite escarpment, and often a change in character in the soil, is generally traceable, at the top of which is the true position 

for the meander line. A pronounced escarpment, the 

result of the action of storm and flood waters is often 

found above the principal water level and is separated 

from the OHWM by the storm or flood beach.

3-165. Some areas of riverbank or lakeshore lack vegetation of any kind or escarpments that can be used to 

identify the OHWM for use in meandering. In those 

situations, an identifiable OHWM is identified between 

sites where vegetation capable of identification exists 

on either side of the barren area. Reliance on elevations 

to extend a continuous line projected on the bank that 

is parallel in height to the water surface of the river or 

lake is a common method.

3-166. The ordinary low-water mark is the point to 

which nontidal waters recede, under ordinary conditions, at their lowest stage. It is usually identified by a 

shelf in the bank. The shore is the space between the 

margin of the water at the ordinary low water mark 

and the OHWM (Alabama v. Georgia, 64 U.S. 505 

(1859)).

The Vegetation Examination

3-167. The vegetation examination is conducted in 

the field to determine whether the grass, tree, shrub, or 

plant is aquatic or terrestrial vegetation.

Aquatic vegetation is any one of a variety of plants that 

must grow in water; they are obligated to grow with 

their roots in water. Many aquatic plants have hollow 

stems so as to stand upright in still water and others 

have floats in order to stay on the water surface. If a 

given plant is not found higher up on the bank, it is 

probably an aquatic species.

Transitional species, such as buttonwood, water oak, 

or cypress, are upland or terrestrial species that exist 

in very wet environments. There have been claims that 

cypress trees are aquatic plants. A number of court 

cases have used cypress as an upland indicator of the 

OHWM, however a mature cypress may no longer be a 

good indicator of OHWM.

Terrestrial vegetation is distinguished from aquatic vegetation by the location in which it grows. If vegetation 

type “A” is found along the water’s edge—or even in 

the water—and type “A” is also found growing at sites 

situated more toward higher, drier ground (upland), 

then “A” is a terrestrial species. A good rule of thumb 

is to determine if the plant is part of a self-reproducing 

stand of woody vegetation and not a seasonal plant 

that can sprout and mature in the few months when 

the water is unseasonably low. Trees, shrubs, and other 

woody-stemmed plants are generally terrestrial. 

A small pocket of an aquatic type plant growing in 

low places not in the riverbed is also not an indicator 

of the OHWM and does not indicate that the OHWM 

should be moved toward upland to include that pocket 

of aquatics. It is the most water-ward location of the 

terrestrial species that is determinative. A small pocket 

of terrestrial vegetation at a small area near the water’s 

edge, for example, may be enough to identify that area 

as being a part of the upland.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Care must be taken with the evaluation of nonnative invasive species, because when introduced they can change 

or fix the previous natural indicators of the OHWM.

The Soils Examination

3-168. The soils examination is the next complementary examination. The leading court opinions regarding 

OHWM with reference to soils did not rely on or intend 

the use of laboratory tests of soils for this purpose. 

Accordingly, when a court decision dated before the 

1940s refers to the character of the soil, it usually refers 

to the presence and shape of banks on rivers, shelving 

along lake shores, presence of sandbars and gravel bars, 

and other physical forms or manifestations of soil.

Extended inspection along a river boundary will usually 

result in some sort of correlation between the types of 

vegetation and the presence of banks or natural levees. 

The tests for vegetation and the test for soils can thus 

become complementary.

It is sometimes difficult to find a defensible OHWM 

because of conflicting evidence. When that occurs it 

is necessary to go upstream or downstream to locate 

another bank or banks where the OHWM is clear and 

convincing using vegetation and soils and then correlate 

that height of the OHWM above the surface of the flowing water in the difficult location.

Also a chemical soil test could be used provided that it 

is definitive. Soils that have been submerged for a long 

period of time are chemically different from upland 

soils, so it is important to establish the time period when 

that soil’s particular chemical properties developed. 

Flooding that created a particular soil formation centuries before the original survey and grant should have no 

bearing on a present-day OHWM determination.

The Litter Examination

3-169. Litter is the rubbish, twigs, and other floatable 

material found in a rough alinement at the reach of 

the highest waves that wash up on the shore. Logs and 

stumps generally do not wash up along the litter line. 

They are usually stranded below and toward the water 

from the litter line.

The litter line along a river boundary is mostly parallel and higher in elevation than the OHWM determined 

by the vegetation and soils test. On a lake shore, particularly, the presence of litter may correlate with the 

other tests and be useful for OHWM determination. The 

presence of litter does not indicate the OHWM directly. 

Instead, the height of the litter above the water surface 

may be useful in correlating the OHWMs along the 

bank or shoreline.

The Agricultural Test

3-170. The agricultural test is another complementary test. The items to consider include cattle or sheep 

raising, mowing of wild hay or collection of wild rice, 

and the raising of typical crops of the region, including 

grains or tubers. In essence, the agriculture test is simply a vegetation test that is restricted to valuable crops.

3-171. For tidal waters, the shore, also called the tideland, is the space between the line of mean lower low 

tide and the line of MHT (section 3-204). For tidal 

water, in the interest of certainty, the line of MHT is the 

average elevation of all the high tides occurring over a 

period of 18.6 years. Because it is based on elevations, 

meanders along the tidelands are run either by reference to tide gages and their reported elevations or by 

observation of physical conditions abutting the shore. 

Special instructions will provide guidance in selecting 

the method to be used.

3-172. Individual States may develop their own rules 

for determination of their own boundaries as against 

private owners but such State laws cannot generally act 

to reduce Federally owned areas or otherwise alter the 

boundaries of Federal land.

See Chapter III Notes for case studies on placement of 

the OHWM.

Meanders

3-173. A meander corner is established at every point 

where a standard, township, or section line or special 

survey boundary intersects the OHWM of a navigable 

stream or other meanderable body of water. For tidal 

waters, the meander corner is established at the intersection of the surveyed line with the line of MHT. 

Meander corners are a controlling monument on the 

surveyed line and shall be treated similarly to other 

regularly established monuments such as section or 

quarter-section corners and tract corners for dependent 

resurvey purposes.

3-174. A “special meander corner” (SMC) is established at the intersection of the OHWM or line of 

MHT with a run and marked subdivision-of-section 

line. “Auxiliary meander corners” (AMC) are used 
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

where there is no intersection of a surveyed line with 

the OHWM or line of MHT, as in the case of a meanderable lake found completely within a section not 

requiring subdivision. Auxiliary meander corners are 

also established at the intersection of avulsed lands 

with riparian lands, at the intersection of omitted land 

parcels with riparian lands, at the intersection between 

fixed and limiting original meanders and the current 

meanders, on the meander line of a previously unsurveyed island not intersected by a surveyed line, and at 

other intersections of riparian boundaries where use of 

a special meander corner is not appropriate.

3-175. No monument should be placed in a position 

exposed to the beating of waves and the action of ice in 

severe weather. In such cases a witness corner should 

be established at a secure point near the true point for 

the meander corner. The distance across the body of 

water, from the true point, is ascertained and reported 

in the survey record.

3-176. It is not practicable in public land surveys to 

meander in such a way as to follow and reproduce all 

the minute windings of the ordinary high-water mark, 

even though technology allows for a much more precise 

location at the time of the survey. The United States 

Supreme Court has given the principles governing the 

use and purpose of meandering shores in its decision in 

a noted case as follows:

Meander lines are run in surveying fractional 

portions of the public lands bordering upon 

navigable rivers, not as boundaries of the tract, 

but for the purpose of defining the sinuosities 

of the banks of the stream, and as the means of 

ascertaining the quantity of land in the fraction 

subject to sale, and which is to be paid for by 

the purchaser.

In preparing the official plat from the field 

notes, the meander line is represented as the 

border line of the stream, and shows, to a 

demonstration, that the watercourse, and not 

the meander line, as actually run on the land, is 

the boundary (Railroad Co. v. Schurmeier, 74 

U.S. 272 (1868)).

There is no requirement that the meander line very 

closely approximate the OHWM such that every small 

indentation and projection is depicted by angle (often 

called meander) points on the traverse. An excessive 

number of angle points are not necessary as the true 

riparian boundary constantly changes through the 

processes of accretion and erosion. The intent is to 

show the general configuration of the water line. As 

a result, it is expected that when choosing the angle 

points, the meander courses may cross either water 

or land during the process to minimize the number 

of angle points. Effort should be made to balance the 

amount of water and land crossed to return accurate 

acreage.

Depending upon the terrain, meander courses may be 

as short as a chain or as long as twenty chains or longer. 

Meander lines may be surveyed by any reliable method 

of measurement that can determine bearing and distance or coordinates that may be mathematically converted to courses. The angle points along the traverse 

are not normally monumented.

3-177. Meanders are reported as a traverse from the 

beginning meander corner to the ending meander corner. The traverse is comprised of a series of meander 

courses running between angle points. These meander 

points are chosen at obvious breaks in the shoreline at 

the OHWM, line of MHT, or other required riparian 

line. Whether the angle points are measured by traditional traverse methods or by individual coordinate 

determination is immaterial.

The surveyor commences at one of the meander corners, 

follows the OHWM, and determines the length and true 

bearing of each course, from the beginning to the next 

meander corner. For tidal waters, the surveyor follows 

the line of MHT. All meander courses refer to the true 

meridian and are determined to the accuracy outlined 

in this Manual or, if more accuracy is necessary, as 

outlined in the special instructions.

3-178. The survey record of meanders shows the corner from which the meanders commenced, the true 

bearing and horizontal distance of each course, and the 

corner upon which the last course closed. The meanders may be reported in a separate section of the field 

notes segregated by section or tract. Meander line field 

notes may be placed on the plat.

3-179. The following items will be noted along the 

meander line in the field notes or on the plat: (1) all 

streams flowing into a river, lake, ocean, or meanderable bayou, with the width at their mouths and their 

course; (2) the position, size, and depth of springs, and 

whether the water is pure or mineral; (3) the heads and 

mouths of all bayous; (4) all islands, rapids, and bars, 

with intersections to the upper and lower ends; (5) the 

height of the banks of lakes, streams, and tidelands, the 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

height of falls and cascades, and the length and fall of 

rapids; and (6) artificial structures and other notables 

such as improvements in both land and water areas. 

Except for original survey meander lines, the above 

items may be noted when administratively necessary.

3-180. Where it is impossible or impracticable to measure the meander line along the required riparian line 

due to physical impossibility, safety or cost, the official 

survey record will state the true location, noting the 

offset from the line measured.

3-181. Whenever the Secretary surveys lands selected 

by an Alaska Native, an Alaska Native Corporation, or 

the State of Alaska pursuant to the ANCSA, the Alaska 

Statehood Act, or the Alaska National Interest Lands 

Conservation Act (ANILCA), lakes, rivers, and streams 

shall be meandered in accordance with the principles 

in the 1973 edition of the Manual (43 U.S.C. 1631(a)(1)). 

Navigability investigations in Alaska are described in 

section 8-56.

Rivers and Tidewater

3-182. Facing downstream, the bank on the left hand 

is termed the left bank and that on the right hand the 

right bank. These terms will be universally used to distinguish the two banks of a river or stream.

Navigable rivers and bayous are meandered on both 

banks, at the ordinary high-water mark, by taking 

the general courses and distances of their sinuosities 

for that portion that is navigable. For rivers classed as 

nonnavigable, when duly authorized, the bed acreage 

is segregated where the average right-angle width is 

3 chains and upwards. This width is chosen as a practical guideline to balance the cost of meandering all rivers against the value of the excluded acreage.

3-183. In selected lands in Alaska, by law, all nonnavigable inland rivers where the average rightangle width is 3 chains and upwards are meandered 

on both banks, at the ordinary high-water mark 

(43 U.S.C. 1631).

3-184. Tidewater streams, inlets, and bayous are 

meandered at the line of MHT up to the point of tidal 

influence or where they still allow free travel by customary watercraft, whichever is farther downstream. 

Tidewater inlets and bayous are meandered, when 

duly authorized, where the average right-angle width 

is 3 chains and upwards, and they no longer allow free 

travel by customary watercraft. Oceans, gulfs, bays, 

bayous, straits, and other tidally influenced waters are 

meandered at the line of MHT.

Lakes

3-185. All navigable lakes are meandered. 

Nonnavigable lakes are not meandered except for 

lakes of the area of 50 acres and greater when duly 

authorized. However, in selected lands in Alaska, nonnavigable lakes of the area of 50 acres and greater are 

meandered, but the area of such nonnavigable lakes is 

nonchargeable area (43 U.S.C. 1631).

3-186. Exceptions to the general size rule are shallow 

or poorly defined “lakes” that are actually pools that 

collect because of permafrost and lack of drainage or 

are seasonal. These “lakes” will not be meandered even 

when larger than 50 acres.

3-187. In the case of meanderable lakes that are 

located entirely within the boundaries of a section, a 

quarter-section line, if one crosses the lake, is run from 

opposite quarter-section corners. At intersection with 

the OHWM, one or more special meander corners are 

established, and the course and distances recorded.

If a meanderable lake is located entirely within a 

quarter-section, and if, during the subdivision of the 

quarter-section, a quarter-quarter section line crosses 

the lake at intersection(s) of the line with the OHWM, 

a special meander corner or corners are established and 

the course and distances recorded.

3-188. If a meanderable lake is found to be located 

entirely within the boundaries of a section and it is 

impracticable to run a subdivision-of-section line 

across the lake, an “auxiliary meander corner” is established at some suitable point on the OHWM and a connecting line is run from the monument to a regular corner on the section boundary. The course and length of 

the direct connecting line are shown on the plat of the 

survey.

3-189. The meander line of a lake lying within a 

section is initiated at the established special or auxiliary meander corner, as the case may be, and continued around the margin of the lake at its OHWM, to a 

closing at the point of beginning. All proceedings are 

fully entered in the official record. When the section 

is not monumented, a connecting line is run from the 

auxiliary meander corner to a suitable monumented 

point within the township. If there are numerous lakes 

within the township, and showing the connecting lines 
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

will clutter the plat, the lines need not be shown on 

the plat.

3-190. Artificial lakes and reservoirs are not segregated from the Federal interest lands, unless specifically provided for in the special instructions, but the 

true position and extent of such bodies of water are 

determined in the field and shown on the plat.

Islands and Sandbars

3-191. For official survey purposes, an island is defined 

as a body of upland that is completely surrounded by 

water when the water is at the OHWM for inland waters 

or at the line of MHT for tidal waters. In those States 

that recognize the low water mark as the boundary and 

where State law appropriately serves as the source of 

law for the question, the water at low water mark may be 

the height of water defining the body of upland.

3-192. A gravel bar or sandbar is a formation of soil on 

the bed of a lake or river that rise above the OHWM but 

consists of loose and unconsolidated material considered liable to be washed away during subsequent high 

water seasons and, most important, is devoid of woody 

vegetation.

Islands form in rivers by several different processes as 

follows:

(1) By deposit of alluvial material onto 

the bed of the river during high flow events 

that consolidates and supports terrestrial 

vegetation;

(2) By the river cutting across a vegetated 

point bar;

(3) By an avulsive change where a new 

channel is washed out around an existing area 

of upland;

(4) By marked scour of the river bed around a 

submerged area; and/or

(5) By the result of human activity in the 

river.

3-193. Every island above the OHWM of any meanderable body of inland water or above the line of MHT 

of tidal water, except islands formed in navigable bodies 

of water after the date of the admission of a State into 

the Union, is locatable by survey and should be meandered and shown on the official plat.

3-194. All islands will be meandered if practicable. In 

passing islands not to be meandered, estimated ties to 

their upper and lower ends will be reported to establish 

their location. Such islands are to be exhibited on the 

plat as accurately as practicable.

3-195. Even though the United States has parted 

with its title to the adjoining mainland, an island in a 

meandered body of water, navigable or nonnavigable, 

in continuous existence since the date of admission of 

the State into the Union and omitted from the original 

survey, remains as unsurveyed public land of the United 

States. As such, the island is subject to survey. Such 

islands were not a part of the bed at the date of statehood, and therefore their title remained in the United 

States, subject to survey and disposal when identified. 

The right that attaches to the riparian parcels along the 

meander line of the mainland pertains only to the bed 

of the water body, to access to the water, and to such 

islands in nonnavigable water bodies formed within 

the bed subsequent to the disposal of the title (sections 

8-158 through 8-165).

If the patent conveyed these lands to the State 

we are not concerned with their subsequent 

disposal, for that is a question of local law. But 

did the patent include them? This, of course, is 

a Federal question. Francis Levee District, 232 

U.S. 186, 196 (1914); United States v. Oregon, 

No. 13, original, 295 U.S. 1, 27 (1935).

Whether an island in a meandered nonnavigable water 

body is subject to survey after the United States has 

parted with its title to the adjoining mainland has been 

subject to inquiry. The U.S. Supreme Court rulings on 

the subject, however, have consistently held that Federal 

law governs the intent and whether lands were conveyed 

or remain Federal, subject to survey.1

1 The Supreme Court in State of California, ex rel. State Lands 

Commission v. United States, 457 U.S. 273 (1982), held that whenever 

the United States has a claim to unsurveyed lands then Federal law will 

apply. State law should only apply when the dispute is between private 

parties see Oregon ex rel. State Land Board v. Corvallis Sand & Gravel 

Co., 429 U.S. 363 (1977). Without reference to the Supreme Court decision in State of California, ex rel. State Lands Commission supra, two 

circuit courts have reach two different conclusions, first in Koch v. United 

States, 47 F. 3d 1015 (10th Cir. 1995) the court held that unsurveyed 

islands in nonnavigable water passed to the littoral owner under State 

law as a portion of the bed of the nonnavigable water. In Wolff v. United 

States, 967 F. 2d 222 (6th Cir. 1992), the Court held that State law would 

determine what was intended to be conveyed by the Federal government 

and if the intent of the Federal grant is unclear then State law will control 

the title to unsurveyed islands regardless of the navigable character of 

the water. However, Article IV, Section III, Clause 2 of the United States 

Constitution provides that Congress will make the rules concerning disposition of Federal lands.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

3-196. The proof of the time of formation of islands is 

often difficult. It is the practice to make a careful examination of the history of an island in relation to the question of its legal ownership. Proof of island formation 

prior to the date of statehood is most readily presented 

in the form of historical maps and tree corings taken 

from the island that are accompanied by a professional 

correlation of the tree ring counts to the age-dating of 

the trees presently growing on the island.

Other means of presenting evidence of the age of islands 

comes from:

(1) the presence of fire pits correlated with 

prehistoric Indian dwellings;

(2) measurement of certain species of lichen 

diameters found on the island and correlated 

to similar lichens on datable grave markers, 

bridges or other structures of known date of 

construction;

(3) lead cesium dating of mollusks;

(4) identification of spores and pollen 

from introduced species whose date of 

introduction can be determined; identification 

of carbon layers from recorded fires; and

(5) overlays from historic records capable 

of showing the rate of changes in island 

configuration.

3-197. Islands that have been given well-known proper 

names are so identified, both in the field notes and 

on the plat. Sometimes there are a number of islands 

in the same section without proper names. Their identification can be uncertain unless the following rule 

is applied:

Where there are several unnamed islands within 

the same section, these will be referred to in the 

official record (when surveyed) according to the 

lot number (Island designated as lot No. ) that 

is assigned on the plat, excepting that islands 

that are crossed by section line boundaries, 

or by a centerline of the section, are readily 

identified by location.

3-198. The usual township, section, quarter-section, 

and meander corners are established on an island. Any 

township boundary or section line intersecting the 

island is extended as nearly in accordance with the plan 

of regular surveys as conditions permit. If an island falls 

in two or more sections, the lines between the sections 

should be established in their proper theoretical positions based on suitable field methods.

If an island falls entirely in one section, and is large 

enough to be subdivided (over 50 acres in area), the subdivision is accomplished by the protraction of suitable 

subdivision-of-section lines in their correct theoretical 

position. A corner will be located at the intersection 

with the OHWM. At the point thus determined a “special meander corner” is established.

In the case of an island falling entirely in one section and too small to be subdivided, a suitable field 

determination is made to locate on the OHWM of the 

island an intersection with the theoretical position of any 

suitable subdivision-of-section line. At the point thus 

determined a “special meander corner” is established.

If an island falls entirely in one section and it is impracticable to locate an intersection with the OHWM with the 

theoretical position of any subdivision-of-section line, 

an “auxiliary meander corner” is established. The corner will be located at any suitable point on the island’s 

OHWM, and a connecting line run from the monument 

to any regular corner. The direct course and length of 

the connecting line is given in the field notes and shown 

on the plat.

3-199. Under special circumstances where administration or disposal requires no subdivision, an island is 

given a tract number within a township. In such cases, 

the section lines need not be extended to the island.

3-200. Agricultural upland within the limits of swamp 

and overflowed lands should be so classified and shown 

on the plat accordingly, but such land is not meandered 

as an island (section 3-211).

3-201. An unsurveyed island that was formed prior to 

statehood and found to be Federal interest land may be 

conveyed to States or their political subdivisions according to section 211(a) of the Federal Land Policy and 

Management Act (43 U.S.C. 1721(a)). Surveys intended 

for such islands will be conducted as if the island were 

to be patented to an individual and not conveyed without an official survey.

Original Survey of 

Federal Lands along Tidelands

3-202. Tidelands are coastal areas situated above the 

line of mean lower low tide and below the line of MHT, 
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

particularly as they are alternately uncovered and covered by the ebb and flow of the daily tides. As a part of 

the lands beneath navigable waters, such lands belong 

to the States by right of sovereignty (Pollard’s Lessee 

v. Hagan, 44 U.S. 212 (1845)).

Tidelands are mentioned here to stress their distinction from swamp and overflowed lands. Coastal 

“salt marshes” that are covered by the daily tide are 

tidelands to be segregated and not subject to survey. 

On the other hand, coastal marshes that are not covered by the daily tide are swamp and overflowed lands 

within the meaning of the grants and are subject to 

survey.

3-203. Meander corners are established at the line of 

MHT along the margin of tidewaters. The sites selected 

for meander corners along the coastal margin are ideally at the point where the long continued presence and 

action of tide and surf has completely suppressed the 

growth of terrestrial vegetation through its effect on the 

plants and the soil, and in many locales, is identical 

with a point on the line of MHT.

For title purposes, along shorelines, the meander line 

is not a boundary; the actual boundary is the line of 

MHT, however for practical matters, the line of suppressed terrestrial vegetation suffices for acreage determinations of the upland (Udall v. Oelschlaeger, 389 

F.2d 974 (D.C. Cir. 1968), cert. denied, 392 U.S. 909 

(1968)).

Tidewaters are segregated from the upland by a meander line at the line of MHT. This meander line differs 

from the meander lines described for inland water bodies only in that it approximates the line of MHT rather 

than the OHWM of an inland river or lake.

Offshore Islands and Offshore Rocks

3-204. Offshore islands and offshore rocks are those 

land forms lying offshore above the line of MHT. They 

may be identified as protracted blocks in a protraction 

diagram. They are to be located by auxiliary meander 

corners, special meander corners, or meander corners 

established on the line of MHT. Except in those States 

that have conveyed lands below the line of MHT, lowtide elevations are not located. The monumentation, ties, 

meandering, subdivision, and platting are the same as 

described for islands, except as noted.

Any township boundary or section line that will intersect an offshore island or offshore rock is extended as 

nearly in accordance with the protraction diagram or 

plan of regular surveys as conditions permit, and the 

usual township, section, quarter-section, and meander 

corners are established. If one falls in two sections 

only, the line between the sections will be established 

in its proper theoretical position based on suitable field 

methods.

3-205. Auxiliary meander corners on offshore islands 

and rocks are to be connected to a regular public 

land survey system corner by a measured course and 

distance. Meanders are continued around the island 

or rock at the line of MHT or, in the case of an inaccessible rock, at an elevation equivalent to the line of 

MHT along the coast. Where numerous small isles, 

rocks, or pinnacles, essentially circular in configuration, need to be identified for purposes of extending 

jurisdiction, it is appropriate to establish an auxiliary 

or special meander corner at the center of mass and call 

for, as an example, a 15-foot diameter pinnacle, 30 feet 

high, without attempting to return meanders around the 

feature.

Congressional Legislation Specific to 

Cadastral Survey Procedures in Alaska

3-206. All surveys of Federal interest lands in Alaska 

are to be conducted in accordance with the requirements of this Manual, except for variations of the 

requirements created by the Alaska Statehood Act, the 

ANCSA, the ANILCA, and other Congressional Acts 

specific to Alaska only, or except for specific contractual obligations approved under the survey authority of 

the Secretary to address special conditions in Alaska. 

Such variations, however, will be described in the special instructions and complied with during execution 

of the work.

The 1953 Submerged Lands Act, 67 Stat. L. 29; 43 

U.S.C. 1301 et seq., is applicable to Alaska, and the 

State of Alaska has the same rights as other States 

to submerged lands within its borders (see 43 U.S.C. 

1631(d) and section 6(m) of the Alaska Statehood Act, 

79 Stat. L. 339, 343).

Use of Remote Sensing Techniques

3-207. Where conditions are favorable, meander lines 

may be surveyed by the use of remote sensing techniques after the meander corners have been established 

in the regular manner. The official record will state 

what lines were so determined and all pertinent data 

regarding the technique.
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Swamp and Overflowed Lands

3-208. The acts of Congress that granted to certain States the swamp and overflowed lands within 

their respective boundaries were listed in section 1-17. 

Swamp and overflowed lands are also discussed in sections 3-161, 3-200, and 3-202.

The grant of these lands is one in praesenti passing an 

inchoate title to the lands as of the date of the grant, 

but requiring identification of the lands by survey and 

selection or patent to render the legal title (United States 

v. Byrne, 291 F.3d 1056 (2002); cert. denied, Aria v. 

United States, 537 U.S. 1088 (2002)).

However, the rights of the State or grantees of the State 

are not defeated if the Government does not make 

the identification; the State or grantees of the State 

can identify the lands in any other appropriate mode 

(Wright v. Roseberry, 121 U.S. 488 (1887)). When perfect title is vested, it relates back to the date of the grant. 

The lands are surveyed as public lands and subject to 

classification at that time. The character of the land is 

as of the date of the grant, not the date of survey. The 

United States did not retain the mineral estate to these 

lands.

In San Francisco Savings Union, et al. v. Irwin, 28 F. 

708 (C.C.D. Cal. 1886), aff’d, Irwin v. San Francisco 

Savings Union, et al., 136 U.S. 578 (1890), the Court 

stated:

The act of 1850 grants swamp and overflowed 

lands. Swamp lands, as distinguished from 

overflowed lands, may be considered such as 

require drainage to fit them for cultivation. 

Overflowed lands are those which are subject 

to such periodical or frequent overflows as to 

require levees or embankments to keep out the 

water, and render them suitable for cultivation.

3-209. Swamp lands include marshes and intermittent 

ponds that do not have effective natural drainage, such 

as to require drainage to fit them for cultivation, particularly where such conditions are long continued.

Overflowed lands are subject to such periodical or frequent overflows as to require levees or embankments to 

keep out the water and render them suitable for cultivation. Overflowed lands are different from “overflow 

lands.” The latter has reference to a temporary condition 

which may or may not exist at any given time. The former is in reference to a permanent condition.

3-210. It has already been emphasized in section 3-161 

that meander lines will not be established between the 

upland and the swamp and overflowed lands. Riparian 

rights, which are applicable within the beds of lakes, 

streams, and tidal waters, are not enforceable across 

swamp and overflowed lands owned by another. In 

other words, the boundary between the ocean, lake, or 

river bed and the upland lies between that bed and the 

swamp and overflowed lands, not between the swamp 

and overflowed lands and the higher land. The survey of 

meander lines at the margin of swamps in the past has 

been a significant cause of the erroneous omission of 

lands from survey. Prior to the swamp and overflowed 

lands grants, these lands were generally not considered 

desirable by settlers and were often segregated from the 

upland by survey and platting.

3-211. The following rules should be followed in making surveys or field examinations of swamp and overflowed lands:

(1) According to 43 U.S.C. 984 (Rev. Stat. 

2481), any legal subdivision, quarter-quarter 

section or comparable lot, shall be included 

in the category of swamp and overflowed 

lands if the greater part is “wet and unfit for 

cultivation.”

(2) “Wet and unfit for cultivation” is 

interpreted to mean that the land must have 

been so swampy or subject to overflow during 

the planting, growing, or harvesting season, in 

the majority of years at or near the date of the 

grant, as to be unfit for cultivation in any staple 

crop of the region in which it is located without 

the use of some artificial means of reclamation 

such as levee protection or drainage ditches.

(3) A subdivision that becomes swampy or 

overflowed at a season of the year when this 

condition does not interfere with the planting, 

cultivating, or harvesting of a crop at the proper 

time and by the ordinary methods is not “made 

unfit for cultivation” and does not qualify under 

the swamp land grant.

(4) Tame grass or hay, when produced by the 

ordinary methods of preparing the ground, is 

considered a staple crop, as well as the cereals, 

cotton, or tobacco.

(5) In the administration of the swamp acts, 

the States have been allowed optional methods 
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

of preparing the lists of subdivisions that are to 

be identified as swamp and overflowed within 

the meaning of the acts. The surveyor must 

determine the position and extent of the swamp 

and overflowed land within the area under 

survey regardless of the methods employed by 

the States in asserting claims.

(6) Alabama, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan, 

Minnesota (excepting as to lands within the 

Indian reservations), Mississippi, Ohio, and 

Wisconsin have elected to base their swampland 

lists on the field note record. In these States it is 

imperative that the field notes include a specific 

list of the subdivisions each of which is more 

than 50 percent wet and unfit for cultivation, 

regarding such character as at the date of the 

passage of the granting act.

Arkansas, by the Act of April 29, 1898 (30 

Stat. L. 367; 43 U.S.C. 991), relinquished 

all right, title, and interest to the remaining 

unappropriated swamp and overflowed lands 

within its boundaries.

(7) In California, under 43 U.S.C. 987 (Rev. 

Stat. 2488), the swampland lists are based upon 

the representations of the plat of survey, and in 

this State it is imperative that the plats correctly 

show the conditions in this respect. Many early 

swamp and overflowed segregation maps and 

surveys were conducted under State authority 

and examined by the United States Surveyor 

General. Where they were found to conform 

to the Manual and related survey rules, the 

Surveyor General constructed and approved 

township plats based upon these surveys. They 

were then forwarded to the Commissioner of 

the GLO for approval.

(8) The selection of swamp lands in Florida, 

Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Oregon, and 

in Indian reservations within Minnesota, 

is based upon investigations and reports by 

representatives of the State and of the BLM, but 

this does not set aside the Manual requirements 

for the usual complete showing of the character 

of the land.

3-212. It is always important to note any marked 

changes in the water level and drainage conditions of 

the region and to ascertain the situation as of the date of 

the granting act. It is desirable to secure the testimony 

of persons who have known the lands for long periods. 

The most convincing evidence of the land’s character 

at the date of the granting act is the older native timber, 

as the varieties reflect their site conditions with great 

certainty.

This line of investigation requires an inquiry into the 

habitat of the forest species that are found, particularly 

as to whether the usual range of the tree is within low 

wet ground, as for example the cypress, tupelo, sweet 

gum, water ash, water locust, and red bay of the southern latitudes, and the tamarack, white cedar, black 

spruce, swamp spruce, and black ash of the northern 

latitudes of the United States. The presence of any of 

the species named indicates the possibility of swamp 

land, and while conclusive with some of them, others of 

the species named have a wider range and may be found 

associated with upland varieties. If upland varieties are 

present the plain inference will be that the site conditions are that of upland, even though a forest species 

may favor moist rich soil.

3-213. When conducting an original survey of public 

lands, the surveyor must notify appropriate BLM land 

status officials by memorandum with a tabulation of 

the subdivisions classified as swamp and overflowed 

lands. Any indications of swamp and overflowed lands 

referred to in the official record shall be called to the 

attention of the Land Office at the time when the plats 

are transmitted to be filed in order that the notice will 

contain a statement to that effect. The showing made by 

the official record as to the swamp and overflowed or 

not swamp and overflowed character of the land can be 

overcome by proof by the State or other applicants.

3-214. The silence of the official record respecting the 

character of the land will be treated presumptively as a 

statement that the land is dry or not swamp and overflowed. In the States having a swamp land grant swamp 

and overflowed lands are the exception and not the rule. 

It is the practice in public surveys to make special notation of the swamp and overflowed lands rather than of 

the dry or nonswampy lands.

Limits of Closure for

Original Surveys

3-215. Under the general subjects of “township exteriors” (section 3-17) and “subdivision of townships” 

(section 3-51), certain definite limits were prescribed 

beyond which previously established surveys are 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

classed as “defective,” or where, in the case of new 

surveys, corrective steps are required. Such limits are 

referred to as the “rectangular limit.” A more general 

requirement known as the “error of closure” together 

with proper field procedures can be applied as a test 

of the accuracy of the alinement and measurement of 

all classes of lines embraced in any closed figure incident to the Federal land surveys. Corrective steps are 

required wherever this test discloses an error beyond 

the allowable limit.

The “error of closure” of a survey is defined in 

general terms as the ratio of the length of the line 

representing the equivalent of the errors in latitude 

and departure to the length of the perimeter of the figure constituting the survey. However, with due regard 

for the controlling coordinate governing lines of a 

rectangular survey, accuracy in latitude is not permitted to offset gross error in departure, or vice versa. A 

double test is therefore applied to United States rectangular surveys in place of the one expressed in general 

terms.

The “limit of closure” set for the public land surveys 

may now be expressed by the fraction 1/2828, provided 

that the limit of closure in neither latitude nor departure exceeds 1/4000. Where a survey qualifies under 

the latter limit, the former is bound to be satisfied. An 

accumulative error of 2 links per mile of perimeter, in 

either latitude or departure, will not be exceeded in an 

acceptable survey.

The latitudes and departures of a regular section will 

each close within 8 links; of a regular range or tier of sections, within 28 links; and of a regular township, within 

48 links. The boundaries of each fractional section 

including irregular claim lines or meanders, or the 

meanders of an island or lake in the interior of a section, should close within a limit to be determined by the 

fraction 1/4000 for latitude or departure considered separately. The same rule applies to all broken or irregular 

boundaries. All closings will be computed in the field.

Stricter limits of closure or rectangular limits will 

be specified in the special instructions for classes of 

surveys where higher accuracy is indicated by the 

values involved.

3-216. The issues of “rectangular limits,” “limits of closure,” “accuracy standards,” and “correct plat representations,” individually or collectively can bear upon the 

dependability of the record direction and length of lines 

of older approved surveys. The question arises as to what 

extent those values can be incorporated safely into new 

surveys. When terrain, land use, and other relevant factors are given due weight, good judgment determines the 

limits of tolerance for each given situation.

3-217. Instances occur where all original corners may 

be fully identified and in a good state of preservation, but 

the previously established lines present defective conditions that exceed current allowable limits. In such cases 

the retracements of the section boundaries necessary to 

determine the factors entering into the error of closure 

and to furnish suitable data for the calculation of the 

areas of the resulting units embraced in the survey will 

be reported to the designated official. If it is determined 

that additional retracements or dependent resurveys are 

necessary, these will be provided for by supplemental 

special instructions.

When a new survey does not close against the latest official record within the current limits of closure, either 

additional surveying of the record lines or another independent verification of the new measurement is necessary. Generally, new acreage will not be assigned to legal 

subdivisions that do not close within the current limits 

of closure.

Marking Lines 

Between Corners

3-218. The survey is marked upon the ground in the 

following ways:

(1) The regular corners of the Federal land 

surveys are marked by fixed official monuments 

as described in chapter IV.

(2) The relationship to natural topographic 

features is recorded in the official record as 

described in chapter IX.

(3) Where administratively required or 

requested, the locus of the lines can be marked 

upon forest trees by blazing and by hack marks 

(figures 3-52 and 3-53). In the case of resurveys 

in areas of mixed Federal and alienated lands, it 

may be necessary to restrict the blazing to trees 

on Federal land. The surveyor on the ground 

should apply good judgment in particular cases 

not covered by the special instructions. Where it 

has been determined that lines will be marked, 

the methods discussed here are intended to 
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

fix the locus of the lines permanently with the 

minimum environmental impact and maximum 

utility.

(4) Where administratively required or 

requested, whether forested or not, the lines 

are marked upon the ground by posts, posts 

with officially designated signs, tags, or other 

approved marking material.

3-219. A blaze is a smoothed surface cut upon a tree 

trunk at about breast height. The bark and a small 

amount of the live wood tissue are removed with an axe 

or other cutting tool, leaving a flat surface that forever 

brands the tree. The size of the blaze depends somewhat 

upon the size of the tree, but should not be made larger 

than the surface of the axe blade. A blaze 5 or 6 inches in 

height and from 2 to 4 inches in width is usually ample.

A hack is a horizontal notch cut well into the wood, also 

made at about breast height. Two hacks are cut to distinguish them from other, accidental marks. A vertical 

section of the finished hack marks resembles a double-V 

extending across a tree from 2 to 6 inches depending 

upon the diameter of the tree.

The blaze and hack mark are equally permanent, but 

so different in character that one mark should never be 

mistaken for the other. The difference becomes important when the line is retraced in later years.

Trees intersected by the line have two hacks or notches 

cut on each of the sides facing the line, without any 

other marks whatever. These are called line trees when 

the species, diameter and distance are reported in the 

survey record. By past practice some surveys called 

these sight trees or station trees. A sufficient number of 

other trees standing within 50 links of the line, on either 

side of it, are blazed on two sides quartering toward the 

line, in order to render the line conspicuous and readily 

traced in either direction. The blazes are made opposite 

each other coinciding in direction with the line where 

the trees stand very near line and approaching nearer 

each other toward the line the farther the line passes 

from the blazed trees (figure 3-54).

The lines should be so well marked as to be readily followed and the blazes plain enough to leave recognizable scars as long as the trees stand. This can be accomplished by blazing just through the bark into the live 

wood tissue. The blazes should be narrow so that they 

will heal before decay begins, and special care should 

be taken not to loosen the cambium layer around the 

blaze, since this will prevent overgrowth.

3-220. Lines marked with posts and other markers to 

render the line conspicuous should be readily traceable 

in either direction. These lines should be especially well 

marked near ridges, creeks, within distances of 5 chains 

of corner monuments and within 2 chains of arteries of 

travel.

Blazing and posting are marked only with reference 

to the established true line. Where lines are run by the 

“random and true” line method, the marking of line is 

accomplished by returning over the line after all corrections or adjustments to the final line are definitely 

known. True line intersections with line trees will be 

made with precision, and distances thereto accurately 

measured.

Figure 3-52. Figure 3-53. Hack marks on a line tree.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

furnish important evidence by which the locus 

of the survey becomes practically unchangeable 

as contemplated by law.

3-222. Chapter IX and appendixes I through V provide minimum requirements for creating the official 

record for surveys. The specimen field notes and plats 

are intended to standardize the form of record. Special 

matters relating to these subjects are discussed in chapter IX. The technical and topographical features that 

are to be carefully observed and recorded in the field 

during the progress of the Federal interest land survey 

are:

(1) The material of which corner monuments 

are constructed, their dimensions and markings, 

depth set in the ground, and their accessories.

(2) The nature and material of construction of 

corner monuments that are found; condition; 

dimensions and markings; height above the 

ground; accessories; and a statement with 

respect to the known record, but if there is no 

known record, a statement to that effect.

(3) The kind and diameter of bearing trees, 

the course and distance from their respective 

Summary of Objects to be 

Noted and Sketches

Official Record

3-221. The official record (field notes and plat) of a survey furnishes a technical record of the procedures used. 

It also serves as a report on information about connections showing the relation of the rectangular surveys to 

other surveys, to natural objects, and to improvements. 

The connections can, through geodetic ties, provide the 

means of obtaining land information indirectly through 

the use of remote sensing, maps, or other sources. A 

triple purpose is thus served:

(1) The technical procedure is made a matter 

of official record.

(2) The purpose of the survey, along with 

general information relating to improvements, 

infrastructure, and land tenure, is incorporated 

with the survey results.

(3) The positional relationships between the 

corners, and features and objects recorded 

Figure 3-54. Marking a line through timber.
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Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

corners, and the markings; all bearing objects 

and marks thereon, if any; and the position of 

witness corners relative to the true corners.

(4) The course and length of every line run, 

the method employed, and all necessary offsets 

therefrom.

(5) The form, location, and description of the 

evidence used and bearing upon items 1 thru 4.

(6) A complete description of ties to the 

National Spatial Reference System and related 

geodetic networks.

Additional Information

3-223. In addition, the following information is furnished to the extent that it is administratively required 

for the proper management of the lands to be surveyed:

(1) Line trees. The species, diameter, and 

distance on line to trees that line intersects and 

their markings.

(2) Intersections by line of land objects. 

The distance at which the line intersects the 

boundary lines of a reservation, townsite, 

special survey, or private claim, noting the 

exact bearing of such boundary lines, and the 

distance to the nearest boundary corners in both 

directions; the right-of-way and center lines of a 

railroad, canal, ditch, electric transmission line, 

or other right-of-way, noting the bearing of the 

center line and the width of the right-of-way on 

line, if only the center is noted; and the change 

from one character of land to another, with the 

approximate bearing of the demarcation, and 

the ascents and descents over the principal 

slopes traversed, with the slope direction; the 

distance to and the direction of the principal 

ridges, spurs, divides, rimrock, precipitous 

cliffs, etc.; the distance to where the line enters 

or leaves timber, with the approximate bearing 

of the margin, and the distance to where the line 

enters or leaves dense undergrowth. The amount 

of ascent or descent is only required where it 

will be of significant value to later surveyors. 

The slope on which a corner is situated should 

be shown.

(3) Intersections by line of water objects. 

Unmeandered rivers, creeks, and smaller 

watercourses that the line crosses; the distance 

measured on the true line to the center in the 

case of smaller streams and to both banks in the 

case of larger streams; the course downstream 

at points of intersection; and their widths on 

line, if only the center is noted. Intermittent 

watercourses, such as ravines, gulches, arroyos, 

draws, dry-drains, etc., with their downstream 

course.

(4) The land’s surface; whether level, rolling, 

broken, hilly, or mountainous.

(5) The soil; whether rocky, stony, gravelly, 

sandy, loam, clay, etc.

(6) Timber and its density; the several kinds of 

timber and undergrowth, in the order in which 

they predominate.

(7) Bottom lands to be described as upland or 

swamp and overflowed, as contradistinguished 

under the law, noting the extent and approximate 

position of the latter and depth of overflow at 

seasonal periods. The segregation of bottom 

lands fit for cultivation without artificial drainage, 

from the swamp and overflowed lands, where 

the latter are subject to selection by the States, is 

always accomplished by legal subdivision. Each 

of the smallest legal subdivision is classified as 

all upland or all swamp and overflowed land 

accordingly as more than half of the same is 

of the character of the one or of the other class 

of lands.

(8) Springs of water, whether fresh, saline, or 

mineral, with the course of the stream flowing 

therefrom. The location of streams, springs, or 

water-holes, which because of their environment 

may be of value in connection with the 

utilization of public grazing lands, and which 

may be designated as public watering places, 

will be specially noted.

(9) Lakes and ponds, describing their banks, 

tributaries and outlet, and whether the water is 

pure or stagnant, deep or shallow.

(10) Improvements; towns and villages; post 

offices; occupancy; houses or cabins, fields, or 

other improvements; mineral claims; millsites. 

United States location monuments and all other 

official monuments not belonging to the system 

of rectangular surveys to be located by bearing 
95

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

and distance or by intersecting bearings from 

given points.

(11) Coal banks or beds, ore bodies, with 

description as to quality and extent; mining 

surface improvements and underground 

workings; and salt licks. Reliable information 

that can be obtained respecting these objects, 

whether on the line or not, should appear in the 

general description.

(12) Roads and trails, with descriptions and 

their directions, whence and whither.

(13) Rapids, cataracts, cascades, or falls 

of water, in their approximate position and 

estimated height of fall in feet.

(14) Stone quarries and ledges of rocks, with 

the kind of stone they afford.

(15) The magnetic declination, including the 

observed local attraction within the area of the 

survey. The average value over the area surveyed 

will be shown on the plat.

(16) The above information is summarized 

by township in a general description that 

concludes the field notes of every survey. 

The general description embraces more 

comprehensive details of the characteristics 

of the region than is feasible to cover as an 

intimate part of the technical record of the 

survey, as follows:

(a) Land: A general outline of the drainage 

and topographical features of the township 

and approximate range of elevation above 

sea level.

(b) Soil: The prevailing and characteristic 

soil types. (See special reference to soil 

classification, section 3-227).

(c) Timber: The predominant forest 

species, age, size, condition, etc.

(d) Evidence of mineral: Known bodies 

of mineral, and lands of a formation that 

suggests mineral-bearing characteristics, 

especially with reference to lands of 

volcanic or igneous origin, are listed by 

appropriate legal subdivision, with brief 

description of the mineral indications. If 

there is no apparent indication of mineral 

deposits, a report to that effect is embodied 

in the general description.

(e) Watering places: The areas embracing 

all streams, springs, or water holes as may 

be of special value as public watering 

places, in connection with the utilization 

of public grazing lands, are listed by 

appropriate legal subdivision, with brief 

description of the nature of such water 

supply.

(f) Settlement: The extent of the 

settlement at the time of the survey.

(g) Industry: The industrial possibilities 

of the township, especially as to the 

adaptability of the region to agricultural 

pursuits, stock raising, lumbering, mining, 

recreation, or other profitable enterprise.

(h) Special: All exceptional steps in the 

technical process of the survey and other 

special matters not otherwise suitably 

recorded should be reported in the general 

description.

3-224. Natural curiosities, petrifactions, fossils, 

organic remains, etc.; also all archaeological remains, 

such as cliff dwellings, mounds, fortifications, or objects 

of like nature will not generally be reported in a public 

record. Disclosure in the survey record of information 

about the location of a historic resource shall be withheld when disclosure may cause a significant invasion 

of privacy, risk harm to the historic resource, or impede 

the use of a traditional religious site by practitioners (16 

U.S.C. 470w-3). The approving officer should make note 

of these items and report them to the affected surface 

managing agency according to the applicable directives 

and special instructions.

Sketch Plat

3-225. In addition to the field notes the surveyor may 

be required to prepare an outline diagram showing the 

course and length of established lines with connections 

and a sketch embracing the features usually shown upon 

the official plat. If the area of the survey is covered by 

accurate maps or recent aerial photographs, topographic 

detail may be omitted from the sketch except in the 

immediate vicinity of the lines. The positions of the 
96

Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

details to be shown on the completed plat are located 

with an accuracy commensurate with their relative 

importance. The design of the specimen township plat 

should be followed closely in preparing the sketch plat. 

These sketches form the basis of the official plat, the 

ultimate purpose of which is a complete graphic representation of the public lands surveyed.

The subjects of the field sketches; accuracy of detail in 

special cases; use of aerial photographs; map features 

within the interior of sections; etc., are expanded upon 

in chapter IX.

Soil Classification

3-226. Soil classification has been an invaluable aid 

in the development of the public domain, both to the 

prospective settler and in the administration of natural 

resources. Such information is now generally available from other sources, and its provision by the official record is not as important as it once was. Yet, in 

the making of original surveys, it is necessary to tie the 

available information to specifically described lands. 

Further, the general law (Rev. Stat. 2395; 43 U.S.C. 

751(7)) requires the surveyor to note and report upon the 

soil types. These requirements will hereafter be limited 

to lands being surveyed for the first time and need not 

be routinely applied to resurveys unless provided for by 

the special instructions.

The soil types, when considered in relation to precipitation and other climatic factors, the drainage, the adaptability of the terrain to irrigation, the elevation, and the 

latitude, will indicate whether the highest and best use 

of the land is for farming, grazing, forestry, or other 

purposes.

3-227. An outline of the matters to be considered in 

soil studies is presented below as a guide to the surveyor 

in making his or her report:

(1) Texture: Gravel, coarse and fine; sand, 

coarse and fine; sandy loam; silt loam; loam; 

clay, heavy and light; and muck.

(2) Structure: Single grained, pulverulent, and 

lumpy.

(3) Color: Surface soil and subsoil, both when 

dry and when wet.

(4) Chemical properties: Acidity, alkalinity, 

and humus content.

(5) Depth: Surface soil and subsoil.

(6) Location: River bottom or flood plain, 

bench, slope, plateau, prairie, and mountain.

(7) Topography: Level, rolling, broken, hilly, 

and mountainous, and elevation above sea level.

(8) Drainage: Direction, depth to water table, 

and quality as poor, good, or erosive.

(9) Mode of formation: Water laid, glacier laid, 

wind laid, and residual.

(10) Geological derivation:

(a) Sedimentary rocks: Formed of 

fragments of other rock transported from 

their sources and deposited as conglomerate, 

sandstone, and shale; or formed by simple 

precipitation from solution, as limestone, or 

of secretions of organisms, as some coastal 

rocks.

(b) Metamorphic rocks: Formed through 

change in constitution, especially those 

due to great pressure, heat, and water, and 

resulting in a more compact or more highly 

crystalline condition, including, for example, 

quartzite, marble, slate, and schist.

(c) Igneous rocks: Formed through 

the action of intense heat, including, for 

example (first, eruptive rocks) basalt, lava, 

and volcanic ash; (second, trap rock) felsite 

and quart-porphyry; and (third, granular 

rock) granite, diorite, and porphyry.

For additional information on important features of 

soils see Soil Studies, appendix VII, section 538, 1947 

Manual.
97

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III Notes - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Ordinary High Water Mark (Case Studies)

3-162(n) through 3-172(n). The following case studies 

illustrate some of the various legal settings in which the 

OHWM is an issue. Surveyors need to be aware of these 

situations which may affect their resurvey work.

Howard v. Ingersoll, 54 U.S. 381 (1852)

J. H. Howard of 

Columbus, Georgia, 

built a dam across 

the Chattahoochee 

River at a point 

above the head of 

usual navigation. The 

Chattahoochee River 

formed the boundary 

between Alabama and 

Georgia; the right/western (Alabama) bank or the river 

was defined as the State boundary (figure 3-56).

AL GA

Figure 3-55. Vicinity map.

Figure 3-56. Portion of GLO plat of T. 17 N., R. 30 E., St. Stephens 

Meridian, Alabama, an 1833 survey by Josua Coffee.

Sec. 2

Sec. 11

Chattahoochie Riv

er

As the water backed up it reached a grist mill owned by 

Stephen M. Ingersoll, a physician who owned land in 

Figure 3-57. Sketch of Columbus and Phenix City showing the former 

grist mill location on the west bank of the Chattahoochee River.

0 F 400 800 1200 EET

Chatt

ahoochie Riv

er

1st AVE.

Sec. 2

Sec. 11

P H E N I X C I T Y,

 A L

C O L

U M B U S , G A

1st AVE.

U.S. HWY. 27

14th ST.

Former Mill

Location

N

State Line

Alabama down to the water’s edge. Because the raised 

water level in the river caused Ingersoll’s mill to cease 

functioning, Ingersoll sued in Alabama State Courts 

(figure 3-57).

The outcome of the case depended on the location of the 

boundary between Georgia and Alabama. The Alabama 

jury and Court found the State boundary to be at the 

ordinary low water mark of the left/east bank of the 

Chattahoochee and that Ingersoll had a right to operate 

his mill there. Verdict was given to Ingersoll.

Howard appealed and lost. Howard then brought another 

suit in the Circuit Court of the United States for the 

District of Georgia.

Eventually the case went to the Supreme Court of the 

United States. The Court’s opinion provided the foundation of the OHWM concept.

These case studies are provided as training tools, and must be viewed in 

their historical context. Please be aware that to the extent they refer to case 

law or legal analyses, such references have been provided in order to explain 

why certain surveys were conducted in the manner they were. Such case 

law may, however, have been subsequently superseded and/or may not be 

applicable outside the particular circumstances and timeframe of that case. 

Questions in this regard should be directed to the Office of the Solicitor.

The notes presented here are case studies that elaborate on or continue to discuss the topics presented 

in chapter III. The section numbers correspond to the 

section numbers in the chapter and are followed by 

“(n)” to indicate that they are additional notes. The 

case studies are used by permission from River & 

Lake Boundaries by James A. Simpson.

Chapter 

III

Notes
98

Chapter III Notes - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

When the State of Georgia ceded its lands west of the 

Chattahoochee to the United States, Georgia kept the 

ownership of the bed of the river. The boundary was 

described as, “a line beginning on the western bank 

of the Chattahoochee River, running thence up the 

said River Chattahoochee, and along the western bank 

thereof” (p. 420).

If the State boundary was at the low water mark, Ingersoll 

was legally damaged by the change in water level. On 

the other hand if the boundary was the top of flood stage 

(height) on the far bank, Ingersoll had no rights at all.

Ingersoll’s mill was located on a small flat alongside 

the main river channel. At “ordinary high water” the 

flat where the mill was located was covered with water 

according to the evidence but at ordinary low water and 

extreme low water the mill was on dry ground. The dry 

situation lasted about one-third of the year. Evidence 

showed that the flat contained pine, oaks, gum and poplar trees. A small part of the flat had been cultivated and 

there was a cotton gin and a saw mill located there.

The bank at the mill itself was “never overflowed, even 

at the highest stages of the river, the water of which 

always remained several feet below it.” The river valley 

is contained by bluffs, which vary from 15 to 150 feet in 

height, and the bank was 15 to 20 feet in height immediately at the mill.

In some very general language, the majority opinion of 

the High Court was that Georgia’s jurisdiction extended 

to the “line which is washed by the water, wherever it 

covers the bed of the river within its banks. The permanent fast land bank is referred to as governing the line. 

From the lower edge of that bank, the bed of the river 

commences, and Georgia retained the bed of river from 

the lower edge of the bank on the west side. And where 

the bank is fairly marked by the water, that water level 

will show at all places where the line is.” (p. 418.)

There were almost no usable words of direction to a surveyor in the majority opinion. Justice Nelson in a dissenting opinion came a little closer. He wrote that the 

line was marked by the permanent bed of the river from 

the flow of the water at its usual and accustomed stage 

and where the water will be found at all times of the 

season except when diminished by drought or swollen 

by freshets (floods).

The often quoted language from this leading case was 

written in a different dissenting opinion by Justice 

Curtis:

That the banks of a river are those elevations of 

land which confine the waters when they rise out 

of the bed; and the bed is that soil so usually 

covered by water as to be distinguishable 

from the banks, by the character of the soil, or 

vegetation, or both, produced by the common 

presence and action of flowing water . . . . This 

line is to be found by examining the bed and 

banks, and ascertaining where the presence and 

action of water are so common and usual, and so 

long continued in all ordinary years, as to mark 

upon the soil of the bed a character distinct from 

that of the banks, in respect to vegetation, as 

well as in respect to the nature of the soil itself. 

(p. 427.)

But in all cases the bed of a river is a natural 

object, and is to be sought for, not merely by the 

application of any abstract rules, but as other 

natural objects are sought for and found, by the 

distinctive appearances they present; the banks 

being fast land, on which vegetation, appropriate 

to such land in the particular locality, grows 

wherever the bank is not too steep to permit 

such growth, and the bed being soil of a different 

character and having no vegetation, or only such 

as exists when commonly submerged in water. 

(p. 428.)

Finally, this was something that could be used in the 

field: The boundary was where the bank was formed 

and the upland vegetation ceased to grow.

The case was sent back to the Alabama Supreme Court 

and the Federal Circuit Court for further hearings using 

the OHWM as the boundary between the two States.

Ingersoll accordingly lost his case.

Until this day the entire control of the water power from 

dams along the Chattahoochee is concentrated on the 

Georgia side of the river.

The Ingersoll case is of interest today. Ingersoll is classed 

as a leading case so it is important to know what kinds 

of vegetation grew on the banks of the Chattahoochee 

River. Where did it grow in relation to the top of the bank 

and what were the soil conditions along those banks.

Conditions along the river may not be exactly the same 

as they were more than 150 years ago. Accordingly, we 

have to rely on historical information and any photographs that survived from those times and then correlate 

that with what is on the ground today.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III Notes - The System of Rectangular Surveys

Examination of the sketches and photographs above 

shows that there were shrubs and trees on the banks 

of the Chattahoochee River in the 1840s through the 

1880s and that similar vegetation is growing in similar situations there today. Photographs of steamboats 

loading cotton from the mills in Columbus incidentally 

show shrubs and trees growing along the banks, and the 

growth extends down to the water showing at the time 

of the photograph.

An illustrator’s drawing of a man fishing on the Alabama 

bank of the Chattahoochee River that shows small but 

mature trees and shrubs growing on the bank where the 

fisherman sits with his back to the artist.

There is not enough detail in the sketches and the photography to identify what species of shrub or trees 

are growing there but that specificity is not necessary 

to illustrate the intent and meaning of the Howard v. 

Ingersoll decision.

In 1850, the intent of the Supreme Court was very probably that the boundary was to be at the bank where an 

angler would stand to fish. It would be at a place where 

the bushes had ceased to grow, where the soil was firm 

enough to stand—specifically a bank. The Court very 

probably did not intend that the boundary be located 

at a point separated from the flowing water by a forest 

or a thicket even though that thicket or forest is greatly 

affected by the presence of the water of the river. Nor 

was the intended boundary located at the top of the high 

bank, which, in the case of the Chattahoochee, would 

be from 15 to 20 feet in height immediately at the plaintiff’s lands and lots.

Borough of Ford City v. United States, 345 F.2d 645 

(3rd Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 902 (1965)

The sewage outlet for Ford 

City, Pennsylvania, was a 

pipeline emptying into the 

Allegheny River. When the 

Corps of Engineers built a 

lock and dam on the Allegheny 

downstream from Ford City, 

it raised the level of the river such that the City was 

required to pump the effluent instead using gravity flow. 

The City also claimed that the higher levels increased 

ground water leakage into their sewers (figure 3-59).

The Allegheny was agreed to be a navigable river. For 

so long as the Corps’ dam did not raise the water level 

above the OHWM in normal flow times, the United 

States would not be liable. Property could be taken 

without compensation for navigational improvements 

but only below the OHWM.

The critical point of the trial became the elevation (or 

location) of the OHWM.

The District Court, 213 F.Supp. 248 (1963), held that 

the Government dam had raised the OHWM and the 

Government to be liable. That finding was based on a 

quotation from U.S. v. Chicago B. & Q. R. Co., 90 F.2d 

161 (1937), cert. denied, 302 U.S. 714 (1937), that: “The 

river bed is the land upon which the action of the water 

has been so constant as to destroy vegetation. It does 

not extend to nor include the soil upon which grasses, 

shrubs and trees grow.” (p. 170, p. 251, and p. 647.)

The chief witness for the City of Ford City was a forester 

by training who admitted he had been engaged to make 

observations on the Allegheny River’s bank vegetation. 

PA

Figure 3-58. Vicinity map.

0 500 1000 1500 FEET

Allegheny

River

N

Figure 3-59. City of Ford City, Pennsylvania, from USGS maps.
100

Chapter III Notes - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

He stated that his understanding of the law was that 

the vegetation was the controlling factor. The witness 

stated that he had found the line where the vegetation 

had ceased to grow to be at elevation 773.78 feet. His 

work was done after the dam was built and in operation.

From the District Court’s findings of fact, it states the 

following:

In order to fix the location of the pre-dam 

ordinary high-water mark, it was necessary to 

determine the elevation of the existing ordinary 

high-water mark and translate it into the location 

of the pre-dam ordinary high-water mark. This 

was done by utilizing the amount of flow of 

water necessary to reach the present ordinary 

high water mark and by determining where this 

same amount of flow of water would come on 

the banks of the stream in open river conditions. 

(Borough of Ford City v. United States, 213 

F.Supp. 248, 254 (W.D. Penn. 1963).)

The pre-dam ordinary high-water mark was thus 

766.8 feet, using hydraulic computational estimates, 

according to the Ford City’s witness.

Among the Government’s witnesses, a botanist gave his 

opinion that below elevation 776.4 (the First St. Outlet) 

terrestrial plants would not grow, and there would be no 

value to the land for agricultural use.

A hydraulic engineer for the Government testified that 

the impress of the line of ordinary high water was at 

776.5 and that pre-dam ordinary high water was at 

771.4. The Government witnesses all made use of shelving, erosion and litter in substantiation of their findings. 

They also covered the entire pool area not just the Ford 

City vicinity.

The Appeals Court held that the District Court’s Judge 

erred in accepting Ford City’s forester’s testimony, 

which was based solely on the destruction of vegetation 

and using that testimony as the basis for his ruling.

In Harrison v. Fite, 148 F. 781 (8th Cir. 1906), the 

Appeals Court said, held that the “bed of a river . . . is 

that soil so usually covered by water that it is wrested 

from vegetation and its value for agricultural purposes 

is destroyed.” (p. 783 and p. 648.) The Appeals Court 

also quoted Howard v. Ingersoll, above, as well.

They summed up the subject with:

The value for agricultural purposes is destroyed 

where terrestrial plants not all plant life ceases 

to grow. Just as definitely the same law is that 

the bed of such stream . . . does not extend to or 

include that upon which grasses, shrubs and trees 

grow though covered by the great annual rises. 

(p. 648, again quoting Harrison v. Fite, p. 783.)

From the Appellate decision:

The vegetation test is useful where there is no 

clear, natural line impressed on the bank. If 

there is a clear line, as shown by erosion, and 

other easily recognized characteristics such as 

shelving, change in the character of the soil, 

destruction of terrestrial vegetation, and litter, 

it determines the line of ordinary high-water 

(citations omitted). Also a test of the distinct 

line is the destruction of terrestrial vegetation so 

these are not really two separate tests but must, 

of necessity, complement each other. (p. 648.)

Another important Appellate conclusion: “If it is difficult to ascertain the line of ordinary high-water at 

this site, recourse may be had to other sites along the 

same stream to determine the line (citation omitted).” 

(p. 648.)

The Judgment against the Government was reversed.

United States v. Claridge, 279 F.Supp. 87 (D. Ariz. 

1967), aff’d, 416 F.2d 933 (9th Cir. 1969), cert. denied, 

397 U.S. 961 (1970)

The United States sued for 

quiet title in District Court 

on land in sections 22, 27 and 

28, T. 3 N., R. 22 W., Gila and 

Salt River Meridian, Arizona 

(figure 3-61) to lands along 

the Colorado River running between Arizona and 

California, claiming the land 

had been withdrawn from 

entry for reclamation purposes since 1902. Claridge 

held a quit-claim deed only. He had also occupied 

the disputed land by virtue of a prior land use permit 

acquired from the United States Lower Colorado River 

Land Use Office. He had spent considerable money preparing the land for farming and was growing crops.

Claridge claimed that the disputed land was below the 

OHWMs of the river because the spring floods ordinarily covered the valley “from bluff to bluff.” Claridge 

Figure 3-60. Vicinity map.

AZ
101

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III Notes - The System of Rectangular Surveys

also asserted that the closure of Boulder Dam (Hoover 

Dam) about 200 miles upstream had artificially changed 

the river banks to their present condition (figure 3-61).

Arizona became a State in 1912 and at that time the disputed lands were within the bed of the Colorado River 

according to Claridge. Under the Submerged Lands Act 

of 1953 title to lands below the OHWM were confirmed 

to the State of Arizona as of 1912.

The State of Arizona joined the Claridge suit. Arizona 

stood to gain a very considerable area of prime farm 

lands up and down the river if Claridge’s “bluff to bluff” 

theory were held to be correct.

The bluffs on the Arizona side are in the immediate 

vicinity of the Claridge lands. On the California side the 

bluffs are more than 8 miles away. The river approaches 

the west side of this flood plain in other places so that 

Arizona would benefit there also (figures 3-62 and 3-63).

The Arizona Land Department had leased the land to 

Claridge as if it were river bed.

The Courts found the OHWM to be a “natural physical 

characteristic placed upon the lands by the action of the 

Figure 3-61. The Colorado River had been channelized at the time of the 

Claridge suit (taken from a 1976 USGS quad).

Sec.

21

Sec.

22

Sec.

28

Bluff

Colo

s

rado

River

I-10 Hwy.

Sec.

27

Figure 3-62. Changes in the Colorado River from 1874 to 1914.

Figure 3-63. Changes in the Colorado River from 1915 to 1930.

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

1874 1902

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

1912 1914

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

1915 1919–1924

1925 1930

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

27

Sand

Island

Ba

re Sand Bed

river. It is placed there, as the name implies, from the 

ordinary flow of the river and does not extend to the 

peak flow or flood stage so as to include overflow on the 
102

Chapter III Notes - The System of Rectangular Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

flood plain, nor is it confined to the lowest stages of the 

river flow.” (p. 934; quoting United States v. Claridge, 

279 F.Supp. 87, 91 (D. Ariz. 1966).)

From this finding the Courts went on to say that Arizona 

was mistaken in assuming that the ordinary high water 

before the closure of Hoover Dam extended from bluff 

to bluff. The fact that the dam eliminated the extensive 

floods was not found to be an avulsive change. The lands 

in question were Federal.

Claridge appealed the ruling to the Supreme Court of 

the United States but certiorari was denied so the ruling 

stands as an important case in the Federal courts.

Zunamon v. United States, Ct. Cl. Docket # 80-78

(Slip opinion filed June 23, 1980)

Zunamon’s property was affected 

by the pool of water backed 

up by a new dam on the Black 

River 30 miles downstream 

from Jonesville, Louisiana. 

Zunamon’s property was on the 

Tensas (pronounced Tensaw) 

River and on Bayou Macon. The 

new pool level kept the water at elevation 34 feet above 

mean sea level (MSL) and was expected to remain at 

that elevation.

Parts of the Zunamon property above elevation 37 feet 

MSL have remained dry but that part between the 34 

and 37 foot elevations is claimed to be so saturated that 

it is not useful for any purpose.

Again, if the damage occurred within the bed of the 

river as defined by the OHWM, the Government would 

not be liable.

This trial focused on whether the area below elevation 

37 feet MSL was below the OHWM of the Tensas River 

and the bayou, both of which were already determined 

to be navigable.

The elevation of Zunamon’s property varied from 25 feet 

MSL near the confluence of the bayou and the Tensas 

River to a high of 60 feet MSL in the northern portion. 

The disputed area was known as “Little Hog Glade,” 

which had been lower than elevation 37 feet MSL 

(figure 3-65).

Prior to the dam construction Little Hog Glade was normally covered with flood waters during the 6-month-long 

wet season. It was normally free of flood water and the 

soil was dry during the dry season except for a small area 

near the confluence of the bayou and the Tensas River 

(figure 3-66).

Figure 3-64. Vicinity map.

LA

Figure 3-65. Little Hog Glade as shown on USGS maps.

Tensas

River

Little

Hog Glade

Bayou Macon

Sec.

16

Sec.

15

Sec.

14

Sec.

21 Sec.

22 Sec.

23

Sec.

28

Sec.

27

Figure 3-66. The Zunamon property according to patents held from the 

United States.

Tensas River

Bayou Macon

Sec.

21

Sec.

22

A sedge known locally as “nutgrass” and cockleburs 

grew throughout Little Hog Glade before the dam construction; hogs and cattle grazed there on the nutgrass. 

Willows, bitter pecan, overcup oak and water locust 

trees grew there before the dam construction. These 

trees normally grow in areas flooded no more than 

6 months of the year provided that the ground is relatively dry during the remaining part of the year.

After the dam construction the only shrubbery that grew 

there was swamp privet, buttonwood, and water elms. 

These species will grow where the ground is flooded 

6 months of the year and where it is also saturated with 

moisture the remaining 6 months.

Nutgrass no longer grows in Little Hog Glade according 

to the Court’s findings and it can no longer be used for 

pasture. The trees are dead or dying.
103

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter III - The System of Rectangular Surveys

The Government contended at trial that the Tensas and 

the bayou before the dam was constructed had already 

“visibly asserted their dominion” over the property up 

to the 37 foot level. (This is wetlands terminology that 

has little or nothing to do with OHWM location.)

It was also contended that the soil of Little Hog Glade 

was not suitable for growing crops, even prior to dam 

construction.

The Court agreed with the Government’s claim about 

“asserting their dominion.” The Court would not accept 

a conclusion that willows, bitter pecan, overcup oak, and 

water locust trees were aquatic plants simply because 

they could withstand flooding for 6 months of the year.

Additionally the Judge ruled that the presence of the 

water at the higher elevation had destroyed the value of 

the soil for agriculture, noting that forestry is an agricultural occupation. The Government was found liable.

United States v. Harrell, 926 F.2d 1036 (11th Cir. 

Ala. 1991)

The Corps of Engineers sided with a 

group of commercial fishermen in a 

dispute over access to Lewis Creek, 

which is a tributary to the Tombigbee 

River, a navigable river in Alabama 

(figure 3-68).

Under Alabama law there was no 

right of access to nonnavigable rivers, so the fishermen tried to get the 

creek declared to be a navigable 

waterway of the United States in 

order to get access. They wanted to fish there during 

high water times. The property owners objected.

The trial developed that the Tombigbee River flooded 

the bottom land every year, generally from December 

through March. The hardwood forests grew commercially valuable stands of tupelo gum, cypress, wild 

pecan, willow, hickory, and various types of oak. Those 

types of trees were found to be terrestrial, rather than 

aquatic; they will grow on land that is subject to intermittent flooding. Some cypress and tupelo will stand 

heavy flooding once they become established.

The Trial Court found Lewis Creek to be nonnavigable and the Corps appealed. The trial Judge wrote that 

Lewis Creek was, “a small, narrow, shallow, obstructed, 

partially dry creek that is incapable of any type of waterborne commerce.” The Trial Court stated that the creek 

“only becomes capable of use for such commerce when 

the flood waters of the Tombigbee River break out of 

their banks” into the nonnavigable bed of Lewis Creek 

(p. 1039).

The Corps claimed that, in the alternative, the bed of the 

Tombigbee River extended to high, permanent banks 

that were about 3 miles from the river itself. This 3-mile 

claim would put the disputed land along Lewis Creek 

within this extended bed of the Tombigbee River.

The Appellate Court went on to determine whether, if 

Lewis Creek was not navigable, the Lewis Creek area 

was within the OHWM of the Tombigbee River. The 

Court found that the meaning of OHWM does not 

include land covered by the “‘extraordinary freshets 

of the winter or spring, or the extreme droughts of the 

summer or autumn.’ Neither does the bed of the river 

include the ‘ . . . lateral valleys which have the characteristics of relatively fast land, and usually are covered by 

upland grasses and vegetation, although temporarily overflowed in exceptional instances when the river is at flood’” 

(p. 1041). The lower Court had found that the waters of 

the Tombigbee did not occupy Lewis Creek long enough 

to destroy the upland vegetation and that flood marks 

were not sufficient to establish the OHWM.

The Appellate Court ruled that the District Court was 

correct in finding for the private owners and against the 

Federal Government and the commercial fishermen.

Figure 3-67. Vicinity 

map.

AL

Figure 3-68. Lewis Creek vicinity from USGS mapping. Note that the 

entire area is within 3 miles of the Tombigbee River.

0 2000 4000 6000 FEET

Reach in Dispute

Lewis Creek Flow

Otter

Tombigbee

Riv

er

Th

ree Rivers

Lake

Toinette

Bayou

N

Lewis Creek

105

Chapter IV

Monumentation

Introduction

4-1. This chapter describes the procedure for monumenting an official survey. Monumentation establishes 

a permanent marking of the lines and fixes the corner 

positions so that the location of the surveyed lands may 

always be definitely known.

Legal Significance of the 

Monument

4-2. The law provides that the corners marked during 

the process of an original survey shall forever remain 

fixed in position, even disregarding technical errors that 

may have passed undetected before acceptance of the 

survey.

The courts attach major importance to evidence relating to the original position of the corner, such evidence 

being given far greater weight than the record relating to 

bearings and lengths of lines. The corner monument and 

its accessories constitute direct evidence of the position 

of the corner.

Title 18 U.S.C. 1858, provides a penalty for the unauthorized alteration or removal of any Government survey monument or marked trees:

Whoever willfully destroys, defaces, changes, 

or removes to another place any section corner, 

quarter-section corner, or meander post, on any 

Government line of survey, or willfully cuts 

down any witness tree or any tree blazed to mark 

the line of a Government survey, or willfully 

defaces, changes or removes any monument or 

bench mark of any Government survey, shall 

be fined under this title or imprisoned not more 

than six months, or both.

The legal importance of the corner makes mandatory 

the workmanlike construction of lasting monuments 

skillfully related to natural objects or improvements so 

that the greatest practicable permanence is secured.

4-3. If it is necessary to alter the condition of a previously established monument, the utmost regard must 

be shown for the evidence of the original location. The 

monument will be carefully reconstructed by such additional means as may be appropriate, without destroying the evidence that served to identify that position. A 

complete record will be kept of the description of the 

old monument as identified, and all alterations and additions will be specifically noted.

General Requirements

4-4. Prescribed monuments are used to mark the 

position of the quarter-section, section, township, and 

meander corners; such sixteenth-section corners as the 

special instructions or exigencies of the survey of fractional sections require; and all angle points and points 

at intervals of 40, 80, and 160 chains along an irregular 

boundary. Additionally, when stipulated in the special 

instructions, monumentation is established as needed 

down to the corners of 21⁄2-acre aliquot parts, as may be 

required in the subdivision of sections into units smaller 

than the regular quarter-quarter section.

When it is necessary or desirable to establish special 

purpose monuments, the regulation post is the first 

choice under usual conditions.

4-5. The position of a corner monument is evidenced 

by the best accessories available. When the corner point 

itself cannot be marked in any manner, an appropriate 

witness corner is established. A reference monument 

is established upon secure ground wherever the corner 

point falls at a point where it cannot be marked or occupied in the usual manner or where the monument would 

be liable to destruction.

4-6. The field notes relating to the establishment of 

a monument are introduced at the logical place in the 

notes where the true position for the corner is indicated.
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Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

The description of the monument will embrace (1) the 

significance of its position; (2) its type and dimensions, 

including those of any special monumentation; (3) the 

depth set in the ground, with mention of any additional 

support; (4) the markings upon the monument; and 

(5) the nature of the accessories, including character, 

size, position, and markings.

Corner Monument Material

4-7. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has 

adopted regulation posts for monumenting the official 

surveys unless exceptional circumstances warrant the 

use of other material. Substitutions are permitted only 

when authorized by the officer in administrative charge. 

In such cases a statement should be given in the field notes 

explaining why regulation posts were not employed.

4-8. Currently there are three types of regulation posts. 

The posts are made from either Type 304 or 316 stainless 

steel with a silicon bronze alloy “brass” cap, 6063-T52 

aluminum alloy with an aluminum cap, or alloyed iron, 

zinc-coated with a silicon bronze alloy “brass” cap. The 

posts are 21⁄2 inches outside diameter, cut to 30 inches in 

length. The monuments are manufactured with the base 

of the pipe split for several inches, to facilitate flanging 

of the monument. The final length of a properly flanged 

regulation post is 28 inches. The caps on the posts are 

31⁄4 inches in diameter, securely attached, fitted with a 

magnet permanently attached to the underside of the 

cap, and manufactured with an inscription in the circumference of the top surface of the cap indicating it 

was authorized by the BLM.

4-9. Silicon bronze alloy “brass” tablets are supplied 

for placing in rock outcrops and imbedding in concrete 

monuments. The tablet is 31⁄4 inches in diameter, with a 

stem that is 31⁄2 inches long and 5/ 8 inch diameter. The top 

surface bears the same official inscription as the cap of 

the regulation posts.

4-10. General departures from the use of the regulation monument may be authorized where there is need 

for more durable monumentation or where conditions at 

the time of survey make it more practicable to adopt an 

approved substitute. Trials of experimental monuments 

are authorized from time to time where this can be done 

without risk of losing corner point locations. Limited 

departures because of site conditions may be made as 

approved by the officer in administrative charge.

Native stone may be substituted for the regulation post 

if it has been authorized by the officer in administrative 

charge, is durable against prolonged weathering, has a 

volume of at least 1,000 cubic inches, and has dimensions suitable for permanent monumentation and appropriate markings. Stone will not be used as a corner 

monument where its position falls among large quantities of loose surface stone or slide rock. The substitution of stone monuments for regulation posts should be 

authorized only in exceptional cases.

Construction of Monuments

4-11. The caps of the regulation posts are marked with 

steel dies when set (sections 4-25 through 4-51). The 

posts are set in the ground with a magnet encased in 

plastic deposited under the base. Earth and stone, if the 

latter is at hand, are tamped into the excavation to give 

the post a solid anchorage.

4-12. Regulation posts will be set at a depth of threefourths their length unless it is impossible to complete 

the excavation. In that case the monument will be 

planted as deep as conditions will permit, and the necessary support will be secured by a stone mound.

In loose, wind-blown soil, the monument is much more 

stable if surrounded with stone; the mound being built 

with a wide base and to the height of the post. This will 

be even more secure if clay soil can be procured for filling the voids. The location may be of enough importance to justify the construction of a concrete base surrounding the post to prevent the blowing of the soil.

Underpinning or other special means for supporting the 

post may be required when constructing a stable monument in marshland. Encasement of the post in concrete 

to prevent corrosion may be necessary in the case of 

alkaline soils, salts, salt-water marshes, organic-acid 

water in swamp areas, or similar situations. A stainless 

steel or aluminum sectional rod monument driven to 

the point of refusal and topped with a cap may be used 

where a regulation post cannot be sufficiently supported.

4-13. Where the corner point falls upon surface rock, 

preventing excavation, an “X” is cut at the exact corner 

point, and if feasible, the monument is erected in the 

same position, supported by a large mound of stone with 

broad base, so well constructed that it will possess thorough stability (figure 4-1).

The tablet is used for marking corners that fall upon 

rock outcrops on slopes where a stable mound would be 

impracticable. A drill hole is made to receive the stem, 
107

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

of accessories referencing the corner point should be 

secured, including reference monuments.

4-15. Monuments marking corners that fall in cultivated fields or meadows are so constructed as to interfere with farming operations as little as possible and 

conform to the wishes of the owner insofar as practicable without compromising the integrity of the survey.

Generally a regulation post, a brass tablet in a concrete 

block, a marked stone, or some suitable article may be 

buried at the corner point, over a magnet encased in plastic, and witnessed by a substantial guard post. Bearing 

objects or bearing trees within a reasonable distance are 

used as corner accessories.

Special-Purpose Monuments

Witness Corners

4-16. A witness corner is a monumented point near 

a corner. It is established only in situations where it is 

impracticable to occupy the site of a corner with a monument or a mark. A witness corner is a witness to the 

true corner point. When the true point for a corner falls 

at an inaccessible place, such as upon a precipitous slope 

or cliff where the corner cannot be marked, a witness 

corner is established at some suitable point where the 

monument may be permanently constructed.

Only one witness corner is established in a secure location, preferably within a 10-chain radius from the true 

corner point. Establishing a witness corner upon one of 

the lines leading to a corner is acceptable; however, a 

suitable location where a permanent monument can be 

constructed and occupied is of primary consideration. 

It is desirable to place a witness corner as close to the 

true corner point as practicable and excessive witness 

distances should be avoided.

The field notes show the relation between the witness 

corner and the true point for the corner. The direct connecting course and distance from the true point to the 

witness corner are shown on the plat. If there are many 

witness corners, and in cases of cluttered plat lettering 

that may interfere with other details on the plat, the data 

concerning direction and distance may be indicated by 

marginal memorandum or tabulation (section 6-27).

Reference Monuments

4-17. A reference monument is an accessory and is 

employed in situations where the site of a corner is 

Figure 4-1. A mound of stone. The base should be not less than 3 feet 

in diameter.

and a recess is made for the top so that the tablet may be 

securely cemented in place and sealed against moisture. 

To be permanent, the tablet must be secured with clean, 

first-class materials, carefully proportioned. The tablet 

is marked in the same manner as the cap of a regulation 

post. Whenever practical a magnet is deposited beneath 

the tablet.

On slopes too steep to allow construction of a stable 

mound but covered with a thin layer of soil that would 

hide the tablet if it were set directly in the bedrock, a 

short length of zinc-coated pipe of 1-inch outside diameter, or other suitable material, is forced into the drill 

hole. The stem of the tablet is then wedged securely into 

the top of the pipe in a position above the layer of soil.

4-14. Where the corner point falls at the position 

occupied by a tree that is too large to be removed, the 

tree is marked as the corner monument. A full quota 
108

Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

such that a permanent monument with a cap cannot be 

established or where the monument would be liable to 

destruction.

Where the true point for a corner falls within an unimproved roadway in such a place as to interfere with 

travel, a regulation post, a tablet in a concrete block, or 

a stone marked “X” or some suitable article will be buried in the ground, over a magnet encased in plastic, at 

the true corner point. At least one reference monument 

is established at a suitable place outside of the roadway 

if bearing trees or a nearby bearing object are available. At least two reference monuments are established 

if bearing trees or objects are not available. Allowance 

should be made for grading, cuts, fills, or other road 

improvements when placing the reference monuments. 

Prefabricated monument wells, surrounding the monument, should be considered.

The surface of gravel, macadam, or bituminous-topped 

roads should not be dug into without the approval of 

the proper authority. If permission is granted, a deposit, 

including a magnet encased in plastic, will be made at 

the true corner point. In the case of a hard surface, a regulation post, a drivable survey monument, tablet, copper 

bolt, large nail, or the mark “X” may be placed at the 

true point. Prefabricated monument wells, surrounding 

the monument, should be considered.

In any event the corner point can be occupied and may 

be marked temporarily by painting or scratching. Two 

reference monuments, established following the practice for highway surveys to the extent that is feasible, 

ordinarily suffice in public survey practice, but four may 

be employed if desirable. When two monuments are 

used, they are usually placed equidistant and in opposite directions, preferably on Federal interest land. An 

acceptable alternative is placement of the monuments 

so that the lines connecting them with the corner point 

are approximately perpendicular to each other. Four 

monuments are placed in opposite directions in the four 

quadrants. When magnets are deposited under reference 

monuments, the plastic encasement will be color coded 

by quadrant.

Reference monuments are described with other accessories to the corner in the field notes but are not shown 

on the plat.

Witness Points

4-18. A witness point is a monumented station on a 

line of the survey that is used to perpetuate an important 

location more or less remote from and without special 

relation to any regular corner.

The station may be near a road or stream crossing, valuable improvements, the border of a large cultivated field 

or meadow, an important unmeandered stream or lake, 

or the border of a reservoir; at the summit of an important slope, ridge, or mountain; or at the intersection with 

a boundary.

A monumented point along the exterior of a protracted 

block will be marked as a witness point.

The establishment of a witness point is described in the 

field notes and may be shown on the plat (section 6-29).

Angle Points

4-19. An angle point is a point on a line of a survey of 

a boundary, usually where the alignment or boundary 

deflects from a straight line. A point on a line of a legal 

subdivision that is not a corner of a legal subdivision, 

such as a line tree, may be marked as an angle point.

The field notes and plat show the relationship of the 

angle point to a regular corner or to another angle 

point. The angle point is described in the field notes and 

shown upon the plat. Numerous angle points, identified 

sequentially, and connecting courses and distances may 

be indicated by marginal memorandum or tabulation in 

cases of cluttered plat lettering that may interfere with 

other details on the plats.

Location Monuments

4-20. A location monument is most frequently used as 

a reference for one or more special surveys. It is used 

in any situation where no corner of an existing survey 

is available to provide a satisfactory connection for an 

isolated special survey. The monument is generally 

established in a conspicuous position with good visibility from every direction. A corner of the special survey 

may be designated as a location monument if it meets 

this qualification.

The establishment of a location monument is described 

in the field notes and should be shown on the plat.

Mineral Monuments

4-21. A mineral monument is most frequently used as 

a reference for one or more mineral surveys, and its use 

is described in detail in sections 10-152 through 10-154. 
109

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

The monument is generally established in a conspicuous 

position with good visibility from every direction.

The establishment of a mineral monument is described 

in the field notes and should be shown on the plat.

Control Points

4-22. A control point serves a purpose similar to that 

of a location monument in connection with a survey. 

It may be a monumented point that does not meet the 

qualifications of a previously described special purpose 

monument. It may be connected directly to a corner or 

may be related through coordinate values.

The establishment of a control point is described in 

the field notes and should be shown on the plat, if 

applicable.

System of Marking

4-23. Monuments are marked using a system that provides ready identification of the monument bearing the 

marks. Capital letters and Arabic numerals are used 

to mark the caps of regulation posts, brass tablets, and 

those trees and stones employed as monuments. The letters and figures relate to the township, range, and section to which the corner belongs.

Previous editions of the Manual may be consulted for 

the instructions given to the surveyor on the system of 

marking and placement of stone monuments in surveys.

The marks should be carefully arranged, neat, distinct, 

and durable. An assortment of steel dies, stone chisels and punches, and timber scribes should be readily 

available.

4-24. An index of the ordinary markings common 

to all classes of monuments and corner accessories is 

given in table 4-1.

Marks on Corner Monuments

Marks on Regulation Post Monuments and 

Brass Tablets

4-25. The markings on the cap of the regulation post 

and tablet corner monument are made to be read from the 

south side of the monument. The year of the monument’s 

establishment is placed on the south. If the marks are 

Table 4-1. Index of ordinary markings.

Marks To indicate—

A Allotment

AM Amended monument

AMC Auxiliary meander corner

AP Angle point

B Block

BO Bearing object

BT Bearing tree

C Center

CC Closing corner

CHS Chains

CP Control point

E East

ECC Electronic control corner

FT Feet

L Lot

LKS Links

LT Line tree

M Mile

MC Meander corner

MP Mile post

MS Mineral survey

N North

NE Northeast

NW Northwest

P Parcel

PB Protracted block

PC Point of curve

PI Point of intersection

PL Public lands

PT Point of tangent

R Range

RM Reference monument

S Section

S South

SC Standard corner

SE Southeast

SMC Special meander corner

SW Southwest

T Township

TR Tract

USLM Location monument

USMM Mineral monument

W West

WC Witness corner

WCMC Witness corner meander corner

WP Witness point

1/4 Quarter section

1/16 Sixteenth section
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Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

4-28. Corners common to four townships are marked 

with the townships on the north and south halves, the 

ranges on the east and west halves, and the sections in 

the four quadrants:

T 23 N

R 17 E R 18 E

S 36 S 31

S 1 S 6

T 22 N

2009

4-29. Corners common to two townships only are 

marked with the township (or range) common to both 

on the proper half, and the ranges (or townships) and 

sections in the proper quadrants; also (as far as known 

at the time) the township, range, and section upon the 

opposite half:

4-30. Corners referring to one township only are 

marked with the township, range, and section in the particular quadrant that is concerned; also (as far as known 

at the time) the township, range, and section upon the 

opposite part:

T 3 N

R 7 W

S 36

S 1

T 2 N

2009

T 2 N

R 6 W

S 6

changed or added to in the course of a resurvey, the new 

year number may be marked above or below the original 

number, but without destroying the former marks.

4-26. Standard township corners are marked “SC” 

and the township on the north half, and the ranges and 

sections in the proper quadrants. The township, range, 

and section on the opposite half may be marked:

SC

T 25 N

R 17 E R 18 E

S 36 S 31

2009

SC

T 25 N

R 17 E R 18 E

S 36 S 31

T 24 N R 18 E

S 6

2009

4-27. Closing township corners are marked “CC” on 

the half from which the closing line approaches the 

monument, with the township (or range) on the same 

half, and the ranges (or townships) and sections in the 

proper quadrants; also (as far as known at the time) the 

township, range, and section, or the initials or abbreviation of the reservation, grant, special survey, or private 

claim upon which the township exterior closes. The 

name of a State is not placed on the monument even 

though the monument is intended to be placed on the 

State boundary unless specifically sanctioned by appropriate authority (section 6-31). (The marks “KIR” indicate an Indian reservation.)

T 25 N R 17 E

S 36

S 1 S 6

R 17 E R 18 E

T 24 N

CC

2009

T 24 N

R 17 E

T 24 N S 31

R 16 E CC

S 36 S 6

T 23 N

2009

T 20 N

R 120 W

S 32

KIR CC

S 5

T 19 N

2009

T 14 S

R 7 W R 6 W

S 36 S 31

T 15 S R 7 W

S 1

2009

T 19 N

R 6 W

S 1

2009

T 20 N R 5 W

S 31

T 23 N

R 19 W

S 36

T 22 N R 19 W

S 1

2009

T 35 N

R 44 E

S 31

T 34 N R 43 E

S 1

2009
111

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

4-31. Standard section corners are marked “SC” 

and the township and range on the north half, and the 

sections in the proper quadrants. The township, range, 

and section on the opposite half may be marked:

SC

T 25 N R 17 E

S 35 S 36

2009

SC

T 25 N R 17 E

S 35 S 36

T 24 N R 17 E

S 6

2009

4-32. Closing section corners are marked “CC” and 

the township and range on the half from which the 

closing line approaches the monument, and the 

sections in the proper quadrants; also (as far as know 

at the time) the township, range, and section, or the 

initials or abbreviation of the special survey including reservation, grant, or private claim, upon which the 

section line closes, with the exception that in the case 

of an interior closing section corner, the township and 

range numbers are not repeated:

4-33. Corners common to four sections are marked 

(1) on an exterior, with the township (or range) common 

to the adjoining townships, the ranges (or townships) 

upon the opposite sides of exterior, and the sections; and 

(2) on a subdivisional corner, with the township, range, 

and sections:

4-34. Section corners common to two sections only

are marked with the township and range on the half facing the sections to which the corner belongs, and the 

sections in the proper quadrants; also (as far as known 

at the time) the township, range, and section upon the 

opposite half, except that in the case of an interior corner, the township and range numbers are not repeated:

4-35. Section corners referring to one section only are 

marked with the township, range, and section in the particular quadrant that is concerned; also (as far as known 

at the time) the section upon the opposite part:

T 25 N R 17 E

S 35

S 2 S 1

T 24 N R 17 E

CC

2009

T 25 N

R 17 E R 18 E

S 12 S 7

S 13 S 18

2009

T 14 S

S 12 T 14 S

R 18 E

S 13 S 7

R 17 E

2009

 S 10

T 84 N

R 73 W

S 16

2009

T 27 N

R 16 W

S 17

 S 20

2009

S 28

T 57 N

R 63 W

S 34

2009

T 27 N R 17 W

S 31 S 32

T 26 N R 17 W

S 6

2009

T 14 S R 20 W

S 10 S 11

S 14

2009

T 26 N R 17 E

S 35 S 36

S 2 S 1

T 25 N

2009

T 25 N R 17 E

S 23 S 24

S 26 S 25

2009

TR 48

S 26 S 25

T 12 N R 5 W

CC

2009

T 14 N

S 10

S 16 CC

S 15

R 16 E

2009
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Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

4-39. Meander corners are marked “MC” on the half 

toward the meanderable body of water, and the additional marks (1) on a standard parallel or other line 

controlling surveys to one side only, with the township, 

range, and section toward the surveyed land; (2) on an 

exterior, with the township (or range) common to the 

adjoining townships, the ranges (or townships) upon 

the opposite sides of the exterior, and the sections; and 

(3) on a subdivisional line, with the township, range and 

sections:

4-40. The extension of lines for division of accretions or 

beds of waterbodies has the same character as the lines 

being extended. Different methods can be used to meet 

management purposes. The endpoints will be marked to 

distinguish them from each other. The date of the prior 

survey is used in the example shown. For extension of 

subdivison-of-section lines see section 4-45.

 T 23 N

 S 35

MC R 17 W

 S 2

 T 22 N

 2009

T 25 N R 17 E

S 26 S 25

MC

2009

 T 23 N

 S 35

R 17 W MC

 S 2

 T 22 N

 2009

MC

S 26 S 25

T 25 N R 17 E

2009

 T 25 N

S 23

MC

 S 26

 R 17 E

 2009

4-36. Standard quarter-section corners are marked 

with “SC”, the township, range, “1⁄4,” and the section, all 

on the north half:

SC

T 21 N R 17 W

1⁄4 S 36

2009

4-37. Quarter-section corners of maximum control are 

marked (1) on a meridional exterior, with the township 

and “1⁄4” on the north, and the ranges and sections on the 

east and west halves; (2) on a latitudinal exterior, “1⁄4” on 

the west, the range on the north, and the townships and 

sections on the north and south halves; (3) on a meridional subdivisional line, with the township and range on 

the north, “1⁄4” on the north, and the sections on the east 

and west halves; and (4) on a latitudinal subdivisional 

line, with the township and range on the north, “1⁄4” on 

the west, and the sections on the north and south halves:

4-38. Quarter-section corners of minimum control are 

marked (1) on a meridional exterior with the township on 

the north, ranges on the east and west and “1⁄4” and the 

section on the half toward the particular section that is 

concerned; (2) on a latitudinal exterior, with the township 

and range on the north and south halves, and “1⁄4” and the 

section on the half toward the particular section that is 

concerned; and (3) on a subdivisional line, with the township and range on the north, and “1⁄4” and the section on 

the half toward the particular section that is concerned:

T 25 N

R 18 W R 17 W

1⁄4 S 7

2009

 T 25 N

 R 17 E

 S 33

MC

 2009

T 24 N

R 17 E R 18 E

S 13 S 18

MC

2009

MC

S 13 S 18

R 17 E R 18 E

T 24 N

2009

T 25 N R 17 W

1⁄4 S 28

2009

T 26 N R 17 W

1⁄4 S 4

T 25 N R 17 W

2009

T 25 N R 17 W

1⁄4 S 16

2009

 T 25 N

 S 26

MC

S 35

 R 17 E

 2009

T 21 N

R 17 W R 16 W

1⁄4

S 13 S 18

2009

T 21 N R 17 W

1⁄4

S 14 S 13

2009

T 22 N R 17 W

S 36

 1⁄4

S 1

T 21 N

2009

T 21 N R 17 W

S 21

 1⁄4

S 28

2009
113

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

 T 25 N

 S 26

 S 35

 R 17 E MC 1880

 2009

T 25 N R 17 E

S 26

 S 35

 MC

 2009

4-41. Interior quarter-section corner and allsixteenthsection corners, when required by the special instructions are marked in accordance with the scheme shown 

in figure 4-2.

4-42. Corners of minor subdivisions, where a quarterquarter section is subdivided into quarter-quarterquarter sections (1/64 or 10-acre units), or aliquot parts 

as small as 1/256 (2.5 acres), the monuments on the 

boundaries of the quarter-quarter section, and those 

needed for the perimeter lines within the quarter-quarter 

section, are marked on the plan indicated in figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3 shows the marking for the monuments at corners of 2.5-acre units within one regular quarter-quarter 

section. If those units or any one of them are quartered, 

only the fraction 1/1024 and the year are used for marking monuments of that order.

Markings on monuments at the corners of 1/64 and 

1/256 of a section, when subdivided as aliquot parts, for 

1

16 W

2009

S 25

S 36

1

16 N

2009

S 35 S 36

1

16 N

2009

S 36 S 31 1

16 NW

2009

S 36 1

16 NE

2009

S 36 1

16 N

2009

C

C

S 36

1

16 S

2009

S 35 S 36

1

16 S

2009

S 36 S 31 1

16 SW

2009

S 36 1

16 SE

2009

S 36 1

16 S

2009

C

C

S 36

1

4 C

2009

S 36

1

16 W

2009

S 36

T 25 N R 18 W

C C

1

16 E

2009

S 36 C C

1

16

2009

S 25

S 36

E

1

16

W

2009

S 36

S 1

1

16

2009

S 36

S 1

E

Figure 4-2. Marks on monuments at interior quarter-section corners and all sixteenth-section corners.
114

Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

4-44. Corners of elongated sections

require additional monuments on 

section boundaries where the length 

of the closing line exceeds 85 chains. 

These are placed at intervals of 40 

chains counting from the regular 

quarter-section corner. The plan 

for the special marking is based 

upon the distance each monument 

is established from the regular 

governing boundary, generally the 

south or east. In cases where special circumstances 

call for the establishment of corners within the section, 

the monuments are also marked with reference to the 

example on the boundaries of and within the SE1⁄4SE1⁄4 

sec. 36 are shown in figure 4-3.

4-43. Sixteenth-section corners of minimum control

are marked with a key letter (N, E, S, or W) to indicate 

the position of the monument, and “1/16” and the section, all on the half toward the particular section that is 

concerned (figure 4-4):

SE 1/16 S 36

S 36

C-W-SE-SE

1/256

S 36

C-W-E-SE

1/256

S 36

C-E-E-SE

1/256

S 36 S 31

S 36

C-E-SE

1/64

S 36

NW-SE-SE

1/256

S 36

C-N-S-SE

1/256

S 36

NE-SE-SE

1/256

S 36 S 31

N-S-S

1/256

1/1024

1/1024

1/1024

1/1024

S 36

C-N-SE-SE

1/256

S 36

C-S-SE

1/64

S 36

C-E-SE-SE

1/256

S 36 S 31

S-S

1/64

S 36

SE-SE

1/64

S 36

SW-SE-SE

1/256

S 36

C-S-S-SE

1/256

S 36

SE-SE-SE

1/256

S-S-S

1/256 S 36

C-S-SE-SE

1/256

S 36

W-E-E 1/256

S 1

E S 36

S 1

S 36

E-E-E 1/256

S 1

S 36 S 31

S 1 S 6

T 1 N

T 2 N

R 2 W R 1 W

S 36

E-E 1/64

S 1

2009

2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009

2009

2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009 2009 2009

2009

2009

2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009

2009

2009 2009 2009

S 1/16

S 36 S 31

1

16

Figure 4-3. Marks on monuments at corners of minor subdivisions. If 1/1024 section corners are established, only “1/1024” and the year are marked on 

the brass cap or tablet.

Figure 4-4. Key for 

marks on sixteenthsection corners of 

minimum control.

W

N

S

N

S

E

W E

S 1/16

S 36

2009

E 1/16

S 22

2009
115

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

subdivision-of-section lines upon which they are placed. 

The markings are illustrated by figures 4-5 and 4-6. 

Special attention should be given to whether the markings of monuments on the section boundaries are to 

show maximum or minimum control.

4-45. Special meander corners are marked in accordance with the following scheme (figure 4-7):

Key letters (N, E, S, W, or C) are used in pairs to indicate the position of the subdivision-of-section line.

Figure 4-5. Marks on monuments at the corners of an elongated section to the north.

1

16 W

2009 2009 2009

T 26 N R 18 W

S 1

1

4

1

16

S2 S1

100

1

16

S 1

100

1

16

W

100 100

 S 1 1

16

C

S 1

100

1

16

S 1

E

1

16

S2 S1

80

1

16

S 1

80

1

16

W

80 80

 S 1 1

16

C

S 1

80

1

16

S 1

E

1

16

S2 S1

1

16

S 1

1

16

S 1 1

16

C

C

S 1 1

16

NW N NE

N

S2 S1

T25N R18W

1

4

S1 

T 25 N

R 18 W R 17 W

2009 2009

(SE ) 1

4 (SW ) 1

4

N

2009 2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009 2009 2009

 S 1

1

16 E S 1

T 25 N R 18 W

S 1

1/4

4 3 2 1

5 6 7 8

11 10 9

Sec. 1

12

13 14 15 16
116

Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

 SMC

 W

 S 30

W

 2009

SMC 1880

 W

 S 30

W

2009

The marks “SMC” are place on the 

half toward the meanderable body of 

water, and the section on the opposite half:

Figure 4-6. Marks on monuments at the corners of an elongated section to the west.

1

16

100

2009

S 6

S 7

1

16

 S 7

N

1

16

 S 7

S

1

16

80

2009

S 6

S 7

1

16 W

2009

S 6

S 7

1

4

T 23 S R 2 W

2009

2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009 2009

2009 2009 2009 2009

S 6

S 7

1

16 N 80 S 7

1

16 N 100 S 7

1

16 NW S 7

1

4

T 23 S

R3W R2W 1

16

S 7 C C

W 1

16

S 7 C 80

1

16

S 7 C 100

1

16

S 7 S 80

1

16

S 7 S 100

1

16 S18

S 7 100 1

16 S18

S 7 80 1

16 S18

S 7 W 1

4 S18

S 7

T 23 S R 2 W

S 7

1

16

SW S 7

4 3 2 1

8

Sec. 7

5 6 7

12 11 10 9

13 14 15 16

Marks on corners at endpoints of extension of lines 

for division of accretions or beds of waterbodies, see 

section 4-40.

W C

C

N

S

N

C C

S

E

W E

Figure 4-7. Key for 

marks on special 

meander corners.

SMC

W

S 30

W

2009

 

N N

 SMC

 2009

 S

 

 30

 S

 

 30

 S

 

 30

SMC 

 S S

 

 2009

SMC 

 C C

 

 2009

SMC

C

S 30

C

2009

E

S 30

E

SMC

2009
117

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

S 28 C C S 28

 BIR

 2009

 S 28

S S BIR

 2009

4-46. Auxiliary meander corners are marked “AMC” 

and the township, range, and section:

AMC

T 64 N R 37 W

S 29

2009

When two or more auxiliary meander corners are 

required for islands in the same section, they should be 

identified by lot or tract number, not by serial number.

4-47. Closing subdivision-of-section corners are 

marked in accordance with the following scheme 

(figure 4-8):

Key letters (N, E, S, W, or C) are 

used in pairs to indicate the position 

of the subdivision-of-section line.

The marks “CC” and the section are 

placed on the half from which the 

closing line approaches the monument (the marks “BIR” indicate 

“Blackfeet Indian Reservation”; the 

marks “P-A” indicate “Parcel A”).

4-48. Miscellaneous angle points on irregular boundaries are marked:

 

 For “angle point No. 4” on

the boundary of the “Blackfeet

 Indian Reservation,” falling on

 surveyed land.

 

 For “angle point” on the

south boundary of section 33,

 superseding an old standard

corner on a defective line, not

 subject to rectification.

For “angle point No. 2” on

 the boundary of a private claim

(“Tract No. 37”) falling on

 surveyed land.

 

For “angle point No. 12” on

 a reestablished nonriparian

meander line; the marks “AP”

 and the serial number are

placed on the half toward the

 land erroneously omitted from

 the original survey.

4-49. Angle points on tract boundaries:

4-50. Intermediate corners along boundaries or at 

point of intersection with boundaries are marked:

 For “139th mile corner” on the

 boundary line between the States

 of “New Mexico and Texas.”

 

Figure 4-8. Key for 

marks on closing 

subdivision-of-section 

corners.

W C

C

N

S

N

C C

S

E

W E

P-A

C

CC S 28

C

BIR

2009

139 M

N MEX

TEXAS

2009

PL

W

CC S 28

W

BIR

2009

PL

E

CC S 28

E

BIR

2009

AP

T 12 S R 90 W

S 33

2009

T 16 N R 7 E

 S 14

 

 2009

 

 T 20 N

R 5 W

 S 10

2009

 P-B 

 N N

S 28

BIR

 2009

T 26 N R 17 E

AP 4 AP 3

TR 38 TR 37

AP 1 AP 2

TR 45 TR 46

2009

T 26 N R 17 E

S 14

AP 1 AP 2

TR 38 TR 37

2009

AP 1

TR 37

2009

T 26 N R 17 E

S 14

 T 27 N

 

R 17 W

 2009

AP 4

 BIR

AP 12

AP 2

TR 37

S 13

CC
118

Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

 For “3rd mile corner” on the

 boundary of the “Blackfeet Indian

Reservation,” falling on 

 unsurveyed land.

 

 For “13th mile corner” on the

boundary of the “Blackfeet Indian

 Reservation,” falling on surveyed

land.

 

 

For the point of intersection of

 the line between

 sections 10 and 15

with the boundary of the

 “Blackfeet Indian Reservation.”

 

4-51. Section corners common to protracted blocks

are marked with the township, range, and the protracted 

blocks and sections in the proper quadrants:

T 30 S R 7 E

S 26 PB 52

PB 54 PB 53

2009

Marks on Tree Monuments

4-52. Where the corner point falls at the position occupied by a tree that is too large to be removed, the tree is 

made the monument.

Where a tree is to be made a monument, the species of 

the tree and its diameter at breast height are noted. The 

appropriate marks are made upon the trunk of the tree 

immediately above the root crown. A series of marks 

to be made upon a particular side of a tree are scribed 

in a vertical line reading downward. If a tree is too 

small to receive the usual marks without injury, this 

tree is marked with an “X” only at breast height on the 

south side. The “X” should be scribed in the bark on 

smooth-barked trees. On rough-barked trees the “X” 

may be made by two axe cuts reaching fully through 

the cambium and just into the xylem. It is advantageous to clear out nearby trees of similar size in order 

that the marked tree will not be smothered by faster 

growing uninjured trees.

If the corner point differs significantly from the center 

of the tree, the field notes will so state. Consideration 

will be given to using reference monuments to indicate 

the corner point exactly.

4-53. Because of the durability of certain trees, 

including the aspen, beech, and locust (smooth and thinbarked), the marks may be made by scribing well into 

the bark through the cambium and just into the xylem 

without blazing; the marks made this way will remain 

as long as the tree is sound. On the rough-barked trees, 

the marks will be scribed into a smooth, narrow, vertical blaze, specially prepared by removing just enough of 

the bark, cambium, and xylem to expose a flat surface. 

The marks made this way will remain as long as the tree 

is sound, but the blaze and marks will be covered by a 

gradual overgrowth, showing an outward scar for many 

years. In regions subject to heavy snowfall it is desirable 

to make an additional, small blaze at a height of 6 to 

8 feet above the ground, which will serve to attract 

attention to the tree during the winter season. The ends 

of the blaze should be smoothed off gradually without 

making a sharp cut into the live wood tissue. The lower 

end of the blaze upon which the marks are placed should 

be sloped downward to prevent water pooling, be about 

6 inches above the root crown, and be just sufficient in 

length to take the marks.

Trees should be marked in a way that will cause the 

least possible injury and enable rapid overgrowth. 

Placing the marks at the bottom ensures that they will 

remain on the stump if the tree is cut down.

4-54. The above caution applies equally to the marking of bearing trees, and the surveyor should not 

remove the overgrowth on a tree monument or bearing 

tree unless it is absolutely necessary in order to identify the tree. The marks on old bearing trees should not 

be disturbed or added to. New trees may be marked, 

which will be recorded in the field notes.

In the case of trees that have been blazed before marking, the number of rings contained in the overgrowth 

(or its equivalent on the adjoining sections of the tree) 

furnish count of the number of years (one ring for 

each growing season with usually one growing season 

per year for most locations) from the date of original 

marking to the date when uncovered. Uncovering an 

old blaze leaves it subject to decay, and the surveyor 

will adopt additional means to evidence the position of 

the corner.

BIR

PL

3M

 2009

 

 

 2009

T 25 N R 17 W

 S 10

 BIR

S 15

 2009

 BIR 

 13 M

T 25 N

 R 17 W

 S 25
119

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

4-55. Standard township corners are marked “SC” 

and the township on the north side, and the ranges and 

sections on the east and west sides:

SC T25N on N.,

R18E S31 on E., and

R17E S36 on W. side.

4-56. Closing township corners are marked “CC” and 

the township (or range) on the side from which the closing line approaches the monument, and the ranges (or 

townships) and sections on the adjoining sides; also the 

initials or abbreviation of the reservation, grant, special 

survey, or private claim, on the side toward any irregular tract that may be closed upon:

R18E S6 on E.,

CC T24N on S., and

R17E S1 on W. side.

4-57. Corners common to four townships are marked 

with the township and section on the northeast and 

southwest sides, and the range and section on the southeast and northwest sides:

T23N S31 on NE.,

R18E S6 on SE.,

T22N S1 on SW., and

R17E S36 on NW. side.

4-58. Corners common to two townships only are 

marked with the township, range, and section on the 

sides toward the particular townships:

T2N R7W S1 on SW., and

T3N R7W S36 on NW. side.

4-59. Corners referring to one township only are 

marked with the township, range, and section on the 

side toward the particular township concerned:

T23N R7W S36 on NW. side.

4-60. Standard section corners are marked “SC” and 

the township and range on the north side, and the sections on the east and west sides:

SC T25N R17E on N.,

S36 on E., and

S35 on W. side.

4-61. Closing section corners are marked “CC” and 

the township and range on the side from which the closing line approaches the monument, and the sections on 

the adjoining sides; also the initials or abbreviation of 

the reservation, grant, special survey, or private claim 

on the side toward any irregular tract that may be closed 

upon:

S1 on E.,

CC T24N R17E on S., and

S2 on W. side.

4-62. Corners common to four sections are marked 

(1) on an exterior, with the township (or townships), 

ranges (or range) and sections; and (2) a subdivisional 

corner, with the township, range and section:

 (1) T25N S7 on NE.,

R18E S18 on SE.,

R17E S13 on SW., and

S12 on NW. side.

 (1) T26N S36 on NE.,

R17E S1 on SE.,

T25N S2 on SW., and

S35 on NW. side.

 (2) T25N S24 on NE.,

R17E S25 on SE.,

S26 on SW., and

S23 on NW. side.

4-63. Section corners common to two sections only

are marked with the township and section, and the range 

and section, on the sides toward the particular sections 

to which the corner belongs:

T14S S11 on NE., and

R20W S10 on NW. side.

4-64. Section corners referring to one section only are 

marked with the township, range and section on the side 

toward the particular section concerned:

T27N R16W S17 on NW. side.

4-65. Standard quarter-section corners are marked 

“SC1⁄4” and the section, all on the north side:

SC1⁄4 S36 on N. side.
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Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

4-66. Quarter-section corners of maximum control

are marked (1) on a meridional line, “1⁄4” and the section 

on the west side, and the section on the east side; and 

(2) on a latitudinal line, “1⁄4” and the section on the north 

side, and the section on the south side:

 (1) S18 on E., and

1⁄4 S13 on W. side.

 (2) 1⁄4 S21 on N., and

S28 on S. side.

4-67. Quarter-section corners of minimum control are 

marked “1⁄4” and the section, all on the side toward the 

particular section that is concerned:

1⁄4 S7 on E. side

(for quarter-section corner on

the west boundary of section 7).

4-68. Meander corners are marked “MC” on the side 

toward the meanderable body of water, and the additional marks (1) on a standard parallel or other line 

controlling surveys to one side only, with the township, 

range and section on the side toward the surveyed land; 

(2) on an exterior, with the township (or range) common to the adjoining townships on the side opposite the 

meanderable body of water, and the ranges (or townships) and the sections on the adjoining sides; and (3) on 

a subdivisional line, with the township and range on the 

side opposite the meanderable body of water, and the 

sections on the adjoining sides:

(1) MC on E., and

T25N R17E S33 on NW. side 

(for meander corner on a standard

parallel, on the west side of a

meanderable body of water).

(2) T24N on N.,

R18E S18 on E.,

MC on S., and

R17E S13 on W. side

(for meander corner on a range line, 

on the north side of a meanderable

body of water).

(2) T23N S35 on N.,

MC on E.,

T22N S2 on S., and

R17W on W. side 

(for meander corner on a township line, on

the west side of a meanderable body of water).

(3) S23 on N.,

T25N R17E on E.,

S26 on S., and

MC on W. side 

(for meander corner on a latitudinal section line,

on the east side of a meanderable body of water).

(3) MC on N.,

S9 on E.,

T4N R7W on S., and

S8 on W. side 

(for meander corner on a meridional section line, 

on the south side of a meanderable body of water).

4-69. Special and auxiliary meander corners are 

marked “SMC” or “AMC,” as the case may be, on the 

side toward the meanderable body of water, and the section on the opposite side:

 SMC on E., and

 S14 on W. side 

(for special meander corner

on a latitudinal subdivision-of-section line

in section 14, on the west side of a

meanderable body of water).

 AMC on N., and

 S9 on S. side 

(for auxiliary meander corner in section 9,

on south side of a meanderable body of water).

Marks on 

Special-Purpose Monuments

4-70. At a witness corner, the marks on the cap of a 

regulation post monument or tablet are arranged as on 

a regular corner monument but with the addition of the 

letters “WC” on the north and an arrow pointing to the 

true point for the corner. On a tree, two hacks are made 

on the north and south sides on a meridional line or two 

hacks on the east and west sides on a latitudinal line.

4-71. A reference monument normally is marked the 

same as a bearing tree located in a similar position, with 

the addition of an arrow pointing to the corner point, 

and the year, and substituting the letters “RM” for “BT.” 

Where reference monuments are established at corners 

of minimum control, including corners on standard 

lines, the monument established in the section to which 

the corner does not refer is marked only with the letters 
121

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

“RM,” an arrow pointing to the corner point, and the 

year. If there is sufficient space on the cap or tablet, the 

distance to the true corner may be stamped beside the 

arrow.

4-72. At a witness point the brass cap or tablet is 

marked “WP” at the top, the year at the bottom, and 

“S” with the section number or “PB” with the protracted 

block number on each of the halves appropriate for the 

line of survey. Monuments at witness points situated on 

subdivision-of-section lines or at other unusual places 

are marked as provided for in the special instructions. A 

tree intersected by the true line is marked as a line tree 

and has the same function as a witness point.

4-73. The markings on an angle point are as described 

previously in section 4-48.

4-74. A location monument should consist of a regulation post or tablet similar to the type used for rectangular surveys, set three-fourths of its length in the ground, 

over a magnet encased in plastic, and with a conical 

mound of stone 4 feet high and having a 6-foot base 

alongside. The letters “USLM” followed by the special 

survey number or reference are marked on the brass 

cap or tablet. The exact reference point is indicated on 

the top of the monument by a cross (+). Any necessary 

departure from the prescribed material and size of monument is to be explained in the returns. The site, when 

practicable, is to be some prominent point, visible from 

every direction, where the permanency of the monument 

would not be endangered by snow, rock, or land movements or other natural causes. A detailed description of 

the location monument, including its geographic position, is to be furnished in the record of the survey.

4-75. The markings on a mineral monument are 

described in section 10-153.

4-76. Control point monuments are marked with the 

year at the bottom, a cross (+) at the center, and other 

markings as required to assure positive identification.

4-77. If a line tree is marked in the 

survey, two hacks, at breast height, 

are made on the north and south 

sides on a meridional line or two 

hacks on the east and west sides on a 

latitudinal line.

4-78. Special purpose corners are 

marked in accordance with the following scheme (figure 4-9):

Key letters (N, E, S, W, or C) are used in pairs to indicate the position of the subdivision-of-section line.



WC

C

 S 1/16 S 20

C

2009

WC

S 33

  SW SW

1/64

2009

Corner Accessories

4-79. The purpose of an accessory is to evidence the 

position of the corner monument. A connection is made 

from the corner monument to fixed natural or artificial 

objects in its immediate vicinity, whereby the corner may 

be relocated from the accessory. Thus, if the monument 

is destroyed or removed, its position may be identified 

by any remaining evidence of the accessories. One or 

more kinds of accessories are employed at each corner 

established in the official surveys (except for corners of 

minor subdivisions and where specifically not required 

by the Manual, or omitted by the special instructions).

Accessories consist of (1) bearing trees; (2) bearing 

objects such as notable cliffs or boulders, permanent 

improvements, buried objects, or reference monuments; 

(3) mounds of stone; (4) memorials; or (5) pits. Aside 

from availability, selection is based on their order of 

permanence.

4-80. The surveyor cannot perform any more important service than that of establishing permanent and 

accurate evidence of the location of the corners of a 

survey. Where the accessories cannot be employed, 

other means should be adopted that will best serve the 

purpose.

Bearing Trees

4-81. Bearing trees are selected for marking when 

available, ordinarily within a distance of 3 chains of 

W C

C

N

S

N

C C

S

E

W E

Figure 4-9. Key for 

marks on special 

purpose corners.
122

Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

the corner; a greater distance if important. One tree is 

marked in each section unless a tree in one or more positions may not be available. A full description of each 

bearing tree is given in the field notes. This includes the 

species of each tree, its diameter at breast height, the 

exact direction from the monument to the center of the 

tree, the horizontal distance counting to the center of the 

tree at its root crown; and, the exact marks scribed for 

the identification of the corner (figure 4-10). Any variation of recording this information will be detailed in the 

field notes.

4-82. The marks upon a bearing tree are made upon 

the side facing the monument, scribed in the manner 

already outlined for marking tree corner monuments. 

The marks embrace the information suggested in sections 4-93 through 4-112, with such letters and figures 

as may be appropriate for a particular corner, and will 

include the letters “BT.” A tree will be marked to agree 

with the section in which it stands, and will be marked 

in a vertical line reading downward, ending in the letters “BT” at the lower end of the blaze approximately 6 

inches above the root crown.

4-83. There is a great difference in the longevity of 

trees, and in their rate of decay; therefore, select trees 

according to the length of their probable life, their 

soundness, favorable site conditions and size. Sound 

trees, not matured, of the hardiest species, favorably 

located, are preferred for marking. Trees 5 inches or 

less in diameter should not be selected for marking if 

larger trees are available, and it is generally better to 

avoid marking fully matured trees, especially those 

showing signs of decay. Trees 4 inches in diameter, or 

less, if no better trees are available, are marked with 

the letter “BT” only at the base, and an “X” at breast 

height, facing the monument. The species, size and 

exact position of the bearing trees are of vital importance, as this data will generally serve to identify a 

bearing tree without uncovering the marks, or even to 

identify two or more stumps after all evidence of the 

marks has disappeared.

4-84. Generally only one tree is marked in each section at a particular corner, but in certain instances two 

trees are required in a section. In such cases it is better 

to select trees of different species or of widely different 

size, direction or distance. If the trees are of the same 

species, one is marked with an “X” only and “BT” at 

the base. This procedure should avoid any confusion 

regarding the location of the corner if one of the trees 

had disappeared.

Bearing Objects

4-85. Almost any nearby object that can be readily 

identified may be recorded by description, course, and 

distance. Such objects may not be of a character that 

can be marked, excepting in the case of a rock cliff or 

boulder. The description of the cliff or boulder should 

provide ready identification, including the marking of 

an “X” plainly and deeply chiseled at the exact point to 

which the direction and distance are recorded.

4-86. The letters “XBO” are chiseled into a bearing 

object, if it is a rock cliff or boulder; the record should 

enable another surveyor to determine just where the 

marks will be found. The rock bearing object is the most 

permanent of all accessories; it is used wherever practicable, and within a distance of 5 chains of the corner.

4-87. A connection to any permanent artificial object 

or improvement may be included in this general class 

of corner accessories. The field notes will be explicit 

in describing such objects, and will indicate the exact 

point to which a connection is made, as “southwest corner of foundation of Smith’s house,” “center of Smith’s 

well,” “pipe of Smith’s windmill,” etc. No marks should 

be made upon non-Federal property without the consent 

of the owner.

4-88. Where the full quota of trees or other bearing 

objects are unavailable for marking, the position of the 

monument is, under favorable conditions, evidenced by 

buried objects, preferably magnetic. No object should be 

buried where the earth will readily erode or otherwise 

be disturbed. All buried objects will be deep enough 

to remain undisturbed by surface displacement, and far 

enough from the corner monument to remain undisturbed if the corner monument itself is destroyed. A 

description of the buried object is embodied in the field 

notes, and will include a statement of description and 

location. The plastic encasement of buried magnets will 

be color-coded by quadrant to avoid later confusion in 

the identification of a remaining magnet where evidence 

of a companion magnet has disappeared.

Memorials

4-89. In order to increase the permanency of the corner 

point location, a suitable memorial is deposited directly 

beneath each corner monument. A memorial may consist of any durable article that will serve to identify the 

location in case the monument is destroyed. Such articles will be magnetic. A magnet should be encased in 

plastic. When a magnet is not available such articles as 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

Figure 4-10. A monumented corner, marking and measuring a bearing tree.

pieces of metal, glassware, stoneware, a stone marked 

“X,” a charred stake, or a quart of charcoal constitute a 

suitable memorial. A full description of such articles is 

embodied in the field notes wherever they are employed 

as a memorial. When replacing an old monument with a 

new one, such as substituting a regulation post for an old 

marked stone, the old marker is preserved as a memorial 

buried alongside, below the ground surface if possible, 

and a suitable memorial is deposited directly beneath 

the new monument.

Mounds of Stone

4-90. Where native stone is available and the surface 

of the ground is favorable, a mound of stone is employed 

as an accessory to a corner monument, or to surround it, 

even though a full quota of trees, other bearing objects 

or memorials can be utilized. A mound of stone erected 

as a corner accessory should be built as stable as possible, should consist of not fewer than five stones, and 

should be not less than 3 feet in diameter at the base and 

Mark D. Dixon, BLM Cadastral Surveyor, retired
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Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

11⁄2 feet high. Where the ground is suitable, the stone 

mound is improved by first digging a circular trench, 

4 to 6 inches deep, for an outer ring, then placing the 

base of the larger stones in the trench. In stony ground, 

increase the size of the mound to make it conspicuous. 

The position of the accessory mound is shown in sections 4-93 through 4-112. The nearest point on its base 

should be about 6 inches distant from the monument. 

The field notes show the size and position of the mound 

to the center of the mound.

4-91. Where it is necessary to support a monument 

in a stone mound and if bearing trees or other above 

ground objects are not available, a magnet encased 

in plastic or other bearing object is deposited in the 

ground at a nearby safe location as an accessory. A 

description of the accessory and its location is embodied in the field notes.

A stone mound accessory, in addition to the mound 

surrounding a monument, is built wherever this will aid 

materially in making the location conspicuous.

Pits

4-92. Where the full quota of trees or other bearing 

objects are unavailable for marking, the position of the 

monument is, under favorable conditions, evidenced 

by pits.

Pits are poor accessories and are rarely used in modern 

official surveys. For instructions on how to dig and place 

pits, consult the 1973 edition of the Manual. Previous 

editions of the Manual may be consulted for the instructions given to the surveyor on the digging and placement 

of pits in older surveys.

Arrangement and Marking of 

Corner Accessories

4-93. A magnetic memorial encased in plastic is 

deposited directly beneath each corner monument, if 

practicable. The memorial is described in the field notes 

with the corner monument.

4-94. Standard township corners and standard closing corners have two bearing trees, one in each section 

north of the standard parallel, each marked “SC” and 

the township, range, and section as 

T25N R18E S31 SC BT.

Mound of stone, north of corner.

4-95. Closing township corners and closing section 

corners have two bearing trees, one in each section to 

the right and left of the closing line, each marked “CC” 

and the township, range, and section as 

T24N R18E S6 CC BT.

Mound of stone, on the closing line.

4-96. Corners common to four townships have four 

bearing trees, one in each section, each marked with the 

township, range, and section as

T22N R17E S1 BT.

Mound of stone, south of corner.

4-97. Corners common to two townships only have 

two bearing trees, one in each section cornering at the 

monument, each marked with the township, range, and 

section as

T2N R7W S1 BT.

Mound of stone, on the line between the two 

townships cornering at the monument.

4-98. Corners referring to one township only have 

two bearing trees, both in the township cornering at the 

monument, each marked with the township, range, and 

section, but if same species, one is marked with an “X” 

only as

T23N R19W S36 BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, in the township cornering at the 

monument, at 45° from cardinal direction at the 

monument.

4-99. Corners common to four sections have four 

bearing trees, one in each section, each marked with the 

township, range, and section as

T26N R17E S35 BT.

Mound of stone, west of corner.

4-100. Section corners common to two sections only

have two bearing trees, one in each section cornering at 

the monument, each marked with the township, range, 

and section as

T14S R17E S12 BT.

Mound of stone, on the line between the two 

sections cornering at the monument.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

4-101. Section corners referring to one section only

have two bearing trees, both in the section cornering at 

the monument, each marked with the township, range, 

and section, but if same species, one is marked with an 

“X” only as

T27N R16W S17 BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, in the section cornering at the 

monument, at 45° from cardinal direction at the 

monument.

4-102. Standard quarter-section corners have two 

bearing trees, both north of the standard parallel, each 

marked “1⁄4” and “SC” and the section, but if same species, one is marked with an “X” only as

1⁄4 S36 SC BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, north of corner.

4-103. Quarter-section corners of maximum control have two bearing trees, one in each section, each 

marked “1⁄4” and the section as

1⁄4 S16 BT.

Mound of stone: (1) on a meridional line, west 

of corner; and, (2) on a latitudinal line, north of 

corner.

4-104. Quarter-section corners of minimum control

have two bearing trees, both in the particular section 

that is concerned, each marked “1⁄4” and the section, but 

if same species, one is marked with an “X” only as

1⁄4 S7 BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, in the particular section that 

is concerned, in a cardinal direction from the 

monument.

4-105. Meander corners, have two bearing trees: 

(1) on a standard parallel or other line controlling surveys to one side only, both in the particular section that is 

concerned; and (2) on all other lines, one in each section 

to the right and left of the line; all marked “MC” and 

with the township, range and section, but if same section 

and of same species, one is marked with an “X” only as

T25N R14E MC BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, on the surveyed line on 

the opposite side of the monument from the 

meanderable body of water.

4-106. The interior quarter-section and most sixteenthsection corners, when required by the written special 

instructions, have two bearing trees, marked (with letters 

and figures ending in “BT”) as shown in figure 4-11. If 

two trees of the same species are in the same section, one 

is marked with an “X” only and “BT” at the base.

Mound of stone, in a cardinal direction from the 

monument, as shown (with symbol ) figure 

4-11.

1

16 E S 25 BT

1

16 E S 36 BT

1

16 W S 25 BT

1

16 W S 36 BT

1

16 E S 36 BT

1

16 E S 1 BT

1

16 W S 36 BT

1

16 W S 1 BT

1

16 CW S 36 BT

1

16 CW S 36 BT

1

16 CE S 36 BT

1

16 CE S 36 BT

S 35

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 N 1

16 N

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 NW 1

16 NW

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 CN 116 CN

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

4 C 1

4 C

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 NE 1

16 NE

S 36

BT

S 31

BT

1

16 N 116 N

S 35

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 S 1

16 S

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 SW 116 SW

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 CS 116 CS

S 36

BT

S 36

BT

1

16 SE 116 SE

S 36

BT

S 31

BT

1

16 S 116 S

4-107. Sixteenth-section corners of 

minimum control have two bearing 

trees, both in the particular section 

that is concerned, each marked with 

a key letter (N, E, S or W) to indicate the position of the monument, 

and “1/16” and the section, but if 

same species, one is marked with an 

“X” only as N 1/16 S18 BT or X BT 

(figure 4-12).

Mound of stone, in the particular section that 

is concerned, in a cardinal direction from the 

monument.

4-108. Special and auxiliary meander corners have 

two bearing trees, each marked “SMC” or “AMC,” as 

Figure 4-12. Key 

for sixteenth-section 

corners of minimum 

control.

W

N

S

N

S

E

W E

Figure 4-11. Arrangement and marking of accessories for interior quartersection and most sixteenth-section corners.
126

Chapter IV - Monumentation Manual of Surveying Instructions

the case may be, and the section, but if same section and 

of same species, one is marked with an “X” only as

 S14 SMC BT,

S14 AMC BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, on the opposite side of 

the monument from the meanderable body 

of water.

4-109. Closing subdivision-of-section corners have 

two bearing trees, both in the particular section that is 

concerned, each marked “CC” and the section, but if 

same section and of same species, one is marked with 

an “X” only as

 S9 CC BT,

 PB S9 BT,

S28 BIR BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, on the closing line.

4-110. Miscellaneous angle points along irregular 

boundaries have: (1) Two bearing trees, where the 

monuments are less than 1 mile apart, one on each side 

of the boundary; and (2) four bearing trees, where the 

monuments are 1 mile or more apart, two on each side 

of the boundary; each marked “AP” and a serial or section number, or both, also the initials or abbreviation 

of the State, reservation, grant, special survey, private 

claim, or public land, as appropriate, but if same marks 

and of same species one is marked with an “X” only as

AP2 TR37 BT, and

 AP S14 BT (for “angle point No. 2” on the

boundary of a private claim “Tract No. 37”

falling on surveyed land) or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, on the medial line between the 

boundary lines intersecting at the monument, 

and in the direction toward the reservation, 

grant, special survey, or private claim.

The placing of a stone mound on a State boundary is on 

the line, north from the monument if the field notes of the 

survey or retracement are written to read running north; 

to the east, if running to the east, etc. In the boundary 

surveys, where stone is available, it is good practice to 

build a substantial stone and earth mound surrounding 

and to the top of the monument; this will usually be conspicuous without an additional stone mound.

4-111. Intermediate corners along or at point of intersection with boundaries have: (1) Two bearing trees, 

where the monuments are less than 1 mile apart, one on 

each side of the boundary; and (2) four bearing trees, 

where the monuments are 1 mile or more apart, two on 

each side of the boundary; each marked with the number of the mile or half-mile corner and the letter “M” to 

(indicate “mile corner”), and the initials or abbreviation 

of the State, reservation, grant, special survey, private 

claim or public land, as appropriate, but if same marks 

and of same species, one is marked with an “X” only as

 47 M COLO BT, and

47 M OKLA BT (for “47th mile” corner on

the boundary line between the States of

“Colorado” and “Oklahoma”)

 S15 BIR BT or

 X BT.

Mound of stone, on a line at right angles to 

the boundary, and in direction toward the 

reservation, grant, special survey, or 

private claim.

4-112. Section corners common to protracted blocks

have four bearing trees, one in each protracted block 

or section, each marked with the township, range and 

protracted block or section as

T42N R7W PB45 BT.

Mound of stone, west of corner.

4-113. The accessories to special-purpose monuments 

are selected and marked as follows:

(1) Witness Corner: Bearing objects, if 

available, are treated as for a regular corner. 

Bearing trees, with direction and distance from 

the monument, are marked with an “X” at breast 

height, on the side facing the monument and the 

letters “BT” at the base. Mounds of stone are 

treated as though the monument were located at 

the true corner.

(2) Reference Monument: All bearing objects 

and bearing trees, including marks, refer to the 

position of the regular corner, as this position 

will be occupied with a monument or mark.

(3) Witness Point: No requirements are set up 

as to the accessories for a witness point, other 

than to mark a bearing tree or a bearing object, 

if available, or to establish a suitable bearing 

object. A bearing tree is marked in the same 

manner as a bearing tree associated with an 

angle point.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IV - Monumentation

(4) Line Tree: When an accessory is necessary 

to evidence the position of a line tree, no 

requirements are set up other than to mark a 

bearing tree or a bearing object, if available, or 

to establish a suitable bearing object. A bearing 

tree is marked in the same manner as a bearing 

tree associated with an angle point.

(5) Angle Point: Described in sections 4-19 

and 4-110.

(6) Location Monument: From the monument 

the precise course and distance is to be taken to 

two or more bearing trees or rock bearing objects. 

Bearing trees are scribed “USLM” and the rock 

bearing objects chiseled “XBO” together with 

the number of the location monument.

(7) Mineral Monument: Described in section 

10-154.

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Chapter V

Principles of

Resurveys

Resurveys

5-1. A dependent resurvey is a reconstruction of land 

boundaries and subdivisions accomplished by rerunning and re-marking the lines represented in the fieldnote record or on the plat of a previous official survey. 

The resurvey includes a field-note record describing the 

technical manner in which the resurvey was made, full 

reference to recovered evidence of the previous survey, 

surveys, or resurveys, a complete description of the work 

performed and monuments established, and a plat that 

represents such resurvey. The resurvey, like an original 

survey, is subject to approval of the directing authority 

and official filing.

5-2. Government resurveys involve considerations of a 

different character from those relating to original surveys. The object of a resurvey is twofold: First, the adequate protection of existing rights acquired under the 

original survey in the matter of location on the earth’s 

surface, and second, the proper marking of the boundaries of the remaining Federal interest lands.

5-3. Although the discussion in this chapter pertains 

especially to the resurvey of an entire township, the 

same principles apply in the smaller projects necessary 

for proper management of the Federal interest lands. 

The resurvey of smaller parcels must be considered in 

context with the township as it was typically the unit 

of the original survey. The same principles apply to the 

resurvey of an official resurvey, and to a local survey as 

the resurvey of an official original survey.

5-4. A local survey is any survey, retracement, or 

remonumentation of township, section, subdivision-ofsection, or special survey lines that is not an official survey. In the performance of a dependent resurvey, prior 

official resurveys and local surveys subsequent to the 

original survey should be considered in the context of 

the objectives of each resurvey. These objectives may 

include (1) adequate protection of the bona fide rights 

as to location in good faith reliance on evidence of the 

original survey and (2) acceptable location by the subsequent official or local resurvey to allow the proper 

marking of the boundaries of the Federal interest land.

5-5. The function of county or other local surveyors 

begins when the surveyors undertake the identification 

of lands that have passed from the Government into 

private ownership, based upon the description derived 

from the original survey. Their work should consist 

largely of running and marking the subdivision-ofsection lines and corners. An official survey retracing 

and monumenting a local survey of purported legal 

subdivisions of a section is technically not a dependent resurvey. However, by law, weight shall be given 

to locally marked boundaries insofar as they are based 

on good faith reliance on evidence of the original survey 

and protect bona rights (sections 5-24 through 5-35) as 

to location of the boundaries of alienated land.

5-6. Upon the issuance of a patent for land by the 

Federal Government, it is just as if the monuments, survey plat, field notes, laws, regulations, and rules governing how to survey the land described in the patent, are 

attached to the face of the patent (Cragin v. Powell, 128 

U.S. 691 (1888)). The survey rules are spelled out in the 

manuals, circulars, instructions, and regulations issued 

by the General Land Office (GLO) and its successor, the 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM).

If later a boundary location becomes unclear, the applicable Manual of Surveying Instructions governs the 

relocation of the corners and boundaries in conformance with the controlling monuments, survey plat(s), 

field notes, policies, regulations and laws. The general 

exception is the boundary created when the United 

States owned neither side of the boundary. In such 

cases, the appropriate State or foreign laws and rules 

must be consulted first for weighing the controlling elements. For boundaries in Public Land Survey System 

(PLSS) States where State law applies, many States 

have incorporated the Manual or portions thereof into 

their definitions, rules of constructions, and their elements of control of boundary locations.
130

Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

5-7. A cadastral surveyor working in the context of 

prior official resurveys or local surveys must recognize that such surveys may provide the best available 

evidence of the original survey. Often the surveyor is 

faced with the case of two monuments, each purporting to mark the same corner, each linked to the original survey, and each identified by substantial evidence 

of the original corner position. Generally, within the 

PLSS, the second position in time will have the burden 

to prove, by a preponderance of the evidence, that the 

first position is not an accurate retracement and reestablishment of the lines of the original survey.

5-8. In boundary litigation, the land status usually determines the court of competent jurisdiction. 

Different jurisdictions assign different weights to 

(1) the level of notice to all affected landowners of conflicting positions, (2) the level of use or occupancy, or 

improvements based upon each position, and (3) the 

elements of control of boundary locations.

5-9. In conducting a resurvey, care must be exercised to avoid disturbing satisfactory local conditions 

such as roads, fences, or other improvements marking subdivision-of-section lines and that may correctly 

define the extent of established bona fide property rights.

5-10. A dependent resurvey is a retracement and 

reestablishment of the lines of the original survey 

or of a prior resurvey in their true original positions 

according to the best available evidence of the positions of the original corners. The monuments, section 

lines, and lines of legal subdivision of the dependent 

resurvey represent the best possible identification of the 

true legal boundaries of lands alienated on the basis 

of the plat of the original survey. In legal contemplation and in fact, the lands contained in a certain section 

of the original survey and the lands contained in the 

corresponding section of the dependent resurvey are 

identical.

5-11. The determination of the best available evidence 

of the original survey involves consideration of both 

direct and collateral evidence. Direct evidence from the 

record of the original survey should lead to the adoption of certain points as existent corners, while both 

direct and collateral evidence may lead to the adoption 

of other points as obliterated corners. The examination and careful consideration of the bona fide rights 

of non-Federal interests may lead to further collateral 

evidence of the original survey, or may lead to a modification of the basic control of the dependent resurvey. 

These concepts are more fully developed in chapter VI.

5-12. An independent resurvey is a retracement and 

reestablishment in reliance on evidence of the original 

survey in order to give official recognition and respect 

to all alienated lands within its scope, and where applicable, it also includes an establishment of new section 

lines, and often new township lines, independent of and 

without reference to the corners of the original survey. 

In an independent resurvey, it is necessary to preserve 

the boundaries of those lands previously alienated by 

legal subdivisions of the sections of the original survey 

that are not identical with the corresponding legal subdivisions of the new sections of the independent resurvey. This is done by surveying them as tracts, or by conforming the alienated lands to the subdivisions of the 

resurvey if that can be done suitably.

5-13. As in the case of original surveys, the records 

of resurveys must form an enduring basis upon which 

depends the security of title to all lands later acquired 

thereunder. The surveyor must therefore exercise the 

greatest care in conducting the field work and in preparing the record so that the resurvey will relieve existing difficulties as far as possible without introducing 

new complications. Each decision made by the surveyor must be recorded in and supported by the official 

record. Accordingly, the record must contain adequate 

information or analysis to support each such determination or conclusion.

5-14. A retracement is a survey that is made to ascertain the direction and length of lines and to identify the 

monuments and other marks of an established prior survey. Retracements may be made for any of several reasons. In the simplest case it is often necessary to retrace 

several miles of line leading from a lost corner that is 

to be reestablished relative to an existent corner that 

will be used as a control. If no intervening corners are 

reestablished, details of the retracement are not usually 

shown in the record, but a direct connection between 

the two corners is reported as a tie. On the other hand, 

the retracement may be extensive, made to afford new 

evidence of the character and condition of the previous survey. Recovered corners are rehabilitated, but a 

retracement does not include the restoration of lost corners. The retracement may sometimes be complete in 

itself, but usually is made as an early part of a resurvey.

5-15. The United States may resurvey or reestablish 

boundaries of Federal interest lands for its own information. This is done as necessary, but the resurvey 

cannot affect the rights of any claimant, entryman, or 

owner situated along and outside of the boundaries 

of the Federal interest lands. The authority to make 
131

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys

surveying appropriations when gross errors were found. 

Dependent resurveys of particular public land surveys 

in certain States were later authorized by special acts 

of Congress. General legislation providing for dependent resurveys was enacted when it became apparent 

that many older surveys were so obliterated or distorted 

that the lines could not be identified with certainty. 

Hence the original plat was disqualified as the basis for 

the management or disposal of the remaining Federal 

interest lands.

Congress authorized the Secretary of the Interior to 

(1) make dependent resurveys upon application by 

settlers, claimants, entrymen, landowners, grantees, 

courts, or managers of Federal lands; (2) to reestablish the boundaries of those lands the title to which has 

passed from the United States; and (3) to execute the 

retracement and re-marking of lines of older surveys in 

order to identify the boundaries between Federal interest and private lands to satisfy conservation needs and 

land use demands. (See information on authorities and 

jurisdiction in chapter I.)

5-18. When such survey is appropriate, a general resurvey of Federal interest or Indian lands is issued through 

the BLM Director as delegated by the Secretary of the 

Interior. Other Federal agencies vested with the administration of the lands may request resurveys by addressing 

the Director through the usual official channels. Indian 

tribes, Indian individuals, Alaska natives, claimants, 

entrymen, or other landowners and courts may take the 

preliminary steps of requesting a resurvey. The request 

should note the known conditions with respect to the 

monuments and other marks, discrepancies if known or 

alleged, and the limits of the initiators’ ownership and 

be submitted to the supervising BLM officer.

Prior to title passing from the United States, it is undisputed that the Government has the power to survey 

and resurvey, establish and reestablish boundaries on 

its own lands (United States v. Reimann, 504 F.2d 135 

(1974), citing Lane v. Darlington, 249 U.S. 331 (1919)). 

Historically, the Secretary of the Treasury, then the 

Secretary of the Interior, acting first through the GLO, 

and then through the BLM, has had the authority to 

exercise this jurisdiction. In fact, while various Federal 

agencies have carried out surveys or resurveys in the 

exercise of their land management authority, it is only 

to the BLM that specific authority to survey and resurvey the public lands, as well as Federal interest lands, 

generally, has been given. As discussed elsewhere in 

this Manual, the BLM has also been charged with the 

responsibility of maintaining the integrity of the PLSS.

resurveys is subject to the necessary limitation that the 

courts shall protect private rights based upon the original survey and plat, and in some instances, based upon 

official resurveys and local surveys, against interference by the newer resurvey.

In a fundamental restatement of the law, Cragin v. 

Powell, 128 U.S. 691, 698 (1888), articulates the finding 

principle governing the PLSS. The Supreme Court of 

the United States cited with favor the following quotation from a letter of the Commissioner of the GLO to 

the surveyor general of Louisiana:

The making of resurveys or corrective surveys 

of townships once proclaimed for sale is always 

at the hazard of interfering with private rights, 

and thereby introducing new complications. A 

resurvey, properly considered, is but a retracing, 

with a view to determine and establish lines 

and boundaries of an original survey, . . . but 

the principle of retracing has been frequently 

departed from, where a resurvey (so called) has 

been made and new lines and boundaries have 

often been introduced, mischievously conflicting 

with the old, and thereby affecting the areas of 

tracts which the United States had previously 

sold and otherwise disposed of.

5-16. The principles of dependent resurveys of alienated lands are applicable for lands selected under the 

Alaska Statehood Act (72 Stat. 339, as amended), with 

some exceptions, as of the date of tentative approval 

prior to the issuance of final patent.

For lands selected under the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (43 U.S.C. 1621(j), as amended), the 

principles of dependent resurveys of alienated lands are 

also applicable, with some exceptions, as of the date of 

interim conveyance prior to issuance of patent. Upon 

the official filing of the survey conducted subsequent 

to the interim conveyance and prior to issuance of patent, the Secretary shall make appropriate adjustments 

to ensure that the recipient receives the full entitlement. 

The confirmation of the boundary descriptions by survey shall not change the interim conveyance but shall 

clarify what was intended in the interim conveyance.

Jurisdiction

5-17. Dependent resurveys have been made since the 

early days of the public land surveys. Initially they 

were made as corrective surveys under the general 
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The Government also has the power to resurvey boundaries between the Federal Government and owners of 

lands that have passed from Federal ownership, as long 

as it does not impair bona fide rights of owners of land 

that have passed from Federal ownership. The BLM is 

authorized to perform such official dependent resurveys 

(43 U.S.C. 772 and 773). However, as between owners of 

lands, the title to which has passed from United States 

(i.e., both sides of the boundary have passed), final determination in the matter of fixing the position of disputed 

land boundaries rests with the local courts of competent 

jurisdiction. The rules of procedure established by the 

BLM and the Manual of Surveying Instructions guiding 

its surveyors in re-marking lines of previous surveys are 

intended to be in harmony with the leading court decisions in suits and administrative decisions in appeals 

involving boundary disputes. The rules should be applied 

that the courts may, with security, accept the boundaries 

determined as representing the true location of a particular piece of land intended to be alienated. Official resurveys are undertaken only when duly authorized, and 

when the field work is assigned to a cadastral surveyor, 

who in that manner is then acting under the authority of 

the Secretary of the Interior through the Director of the 

Bureau of Land Management and under the immediate 

direction of a BLM Chief Cadastral Surveyor.

5-19. There are certain questions of a purely judicial 

nature involved in resurveys of every description where 

the administrative decision is reserved to the Director 

of the Bureau of Land Management. This is particularly 

true of decisions relating to compliance with the general laws in respect to valid entry of the public lands. In 

such cases the surveyor’s duty is to identify and mark 

out on the ground the various legal subdivisions of the 

Federal interest lands, including Indian lands. It is a 

judicial question, beyond the function of the surveyor, to 

determine whether or not specified lands have been duly 

earned under a given law authorizing conditional entry.

In the dependent resurvey process, the surveyor determines whether lands embraced within a claim as occupied have been correctly related in position to the original 

survey. The surveyor must examine and weigh the evidence relating strictly to the surveying problem involved. 

The surveyor will interpret the evidence and its effect 

upon the resurvey to protect valid rights acquired under 

the original survey. The surveyor has no authority to enter 

into an agreement concerning the exchange of one subdivision for another or to bind the BLM in such particulars.

5-20. Challenges to the United States’ title to real 

property are authorized by the Quiet Title Act of 1972 

(86 Stat. 1176; 100 Stat. 3351; 28 U.S.C. 2409a, as 

amended). The Quiet Title Act is the basis to adjudicate a disputed title to real property in which the United 

States claims an interest. It is within the realm of the 

survey, approval, and filing process to provide a record 

upon which the court of competent jurisdiction in a 

Quiet Title suit may clearly and accurately determine 

the boundaries of the United States claim of interest and 

may, with security, accept the boundaries thus determined insofar as they represent the true location of the 

Federal interest. Legal questions of courtroom procedure, title, or the interest in title that may affect location 

of land parcels on the earth’s surface will be determined 

in consultation with a legal advisor.

5-21. One additional caution, addressed especially to 

surveyors employed by the Bureau of Land Management, 

is to bear in mind that their professional work is technical in character, but often must address issues of law 

and equity. Surveyors are not referees as to the justice or 

injustice of a situation. Surveyors can only act upon the 

equities or inequities that may appear to be involved if 

they fall within the Secretary of the Interior’s duties and 

discretionary authorities.

The surveyor does not have the authority to decide 

boundary disputes, but may be regarded as one qualified by special knowledge and experience to testify 

in such cases. The cadastral surveyor acting for the 

Secretary of the Interior will permanently mark the 

extent of the Federal interest land. The authority to 

resolve boundary disputes and make final determination on the boundary of Federal interest lands is vested 

in the Federal courts. The court in its legal capacity 

hears evidence and makes findings of fact from the 

official survey records and the testimony of witnesses, 

including the surveyor.

5-22. Under the Administrative Procedure Act, the 

scope of review prescribed for courts is that agency 

action shall be set aside if found to be “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law” (5 U.S.C. 706(2)(A)) or if such action 

is unsupported by substantial evidence (5 U.S.C. 706(2)

(E)). It is a well established principle of administrative 

law that Federal courts show deference to the interpretation of statutes made by agencies charged with the 

administration of those statutes, and respecting matters 

subject to agency regulations about which the agency 

has special knowledge or expertise.

The court is qualified to exercise discretion as to the 

weight of the evidence, its acceptability, and by court 
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decree to enforce its opinion. The court determines the 

facts as to the sufficiency of the control, or extent of 

the monuments and other marks of the official survey 

that can be relied upon, and how that control is to be 

applied. This will be binding in fixing the boundaries 

of privately-owned property, as well as in fixing the 

boundaries between the Federal interest lands and the 

alienated lands. However, even the court itself possesses 

no authority to set aside the original official survey, all 

actions affecting the surveys of the United States having been delegated by Congress to the Secretary of the 

Interior.

5-23. The above conditions and procedures are recognized in the leading court opinions and administrative 

law decisions involving boundary cases. Such opinions and decisions are available in law libraries, and 

in governmental and commercial databases. Reference 

books and boundary law treatises on the legal elements 

of surveying and boundaries also cite court opinions 

and administrative decisions of the Department of the 

Interior dealing with these subjects. Treatment by competent authorities on questions relating to the acceptability of testimony and physical survey evidence, demonstrates the importance of the surveyors’ due qualifications, accuracy, character, and integrity (sections 6-20 

through 6-22).

Bona Fide Rights of

Claimants

Note: The procedures for protecting bona fide rights as 

to location are outlined in chapter VI.

5-24. In order to carry out the provisions of law relating to resurveys, the surveyor must understand the 

meaning of the term “bona fide rights” and under what 

circumstances it will be held that such rights have been 

impaired by a resurvey. The Act of March 3, 1909 (35 

Stat. 845), as amended June 25, 1910 (36 Stat. 884), and 

October 21, 1976 (90 Stat. 2792; 43 U.S.C. 772), reads 

in part: “That no such resurvey or retracement shall be 

so executed as to impair the bona fide rights or claims of 

any claimant, entryman, or owner of lands affected by 

such resurvey or retracement.”

The rights of claimants are to be similarly protected 

under the provisions of the Act of September 21, 1918 

(40 Stat. 965; 43 U.S.C. 773).

5-25. Bona fide rights are those acquired in good faith 

under the law. A resurvey can affect bona fide rights 

only in the matter of location on the earth’s surface. 

The surveyor will be concerned only with the question 

of whether the lands covered by such rights have been 

actually located in good faith. Other questions of good 

faith (such as priority of occupation, possession, continuous residence, value of improvements and cultivation, or mistaken belief as to the location of alienated 

lands) do not affect the problem of resurvey except as 

they help to define the position of the original survey or 

provide evidence of a Federal interest boundary inconsistent with patent or deed descriptions.

5-26. The dependent resurvey shall afford adequate 

protection to bona fide rights as to location vested in 

both improved and unimproved lands. The surveyor 

must recognize the necessity for some flexibility 

regarding the survey methods used and understand 

that if an arbitrary process of dependent resurvey were 

rigidly applied, the value of both of these classes of 

lands could be vitally affected. This is particularly 

true when determining the true position of all lands, 

whether improved or unimproved, in the absence of 

sufficient evidence of original corners.

The question for the surveyor in such cases is whether 

the claimant made a good faith effort to locate the 

claimed land on the ground, based on the best available evidence of the survey under which the claim was 

allowed. Arbitrary location (with no reliance on at 

least one Federal monument) cannot qualify as having 

established a bona fide right as to location.

5-27. Special case dependent resurveys are sometimes necessary to protect the bona fide rights of 

someone who has located on the lands (section 6-58). 

Unimproved lands may be located to a position found 

by the surveyor to be conformable to adjoining 

or nearby tracts, where all may be held to qualify 

under the rules of acceptable good faith location 

(sections 6-35 through 6-49).

5-28. The basic principles of protecting bona fide 

rights are the same in either the dependent or independent resurvey. Each is intended to show the original 

positions of alienated lands included in the original 

description. The dependent resurvey shows alienated 

lands as legal subdivisions, the independent resurvey as 

legal subdivisions or segregated tracts. Each is an official demonstration by the Bureau of Land Management 

according to the best available evidence of the former 

survey. There is no legal authority for substituting the 

methods of an independent resurvey disregarding identified evidence of the original survey.
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General Field Methods

5-29. The position of a tract of land, described by legal 

subdivisions, is absolutely fixed by the original corners 

and other evidences of the original survey and not by 

occupation or improvements unrelated to the original 

survey or by the lines of a resurvey that do not follow 

the original as faithfully as possible for the time. A conveyance of land must describe the parcel to be conveyed 

so that it may be specifically and exactly identified, and 

for that purpose, the law directs that a survey be made. 

Under fundamental law, the corners of the original survey are unchangeable. Even if the original survey was 

poorly executed, it still controls the boundaries of land 

alienated under it.

5-30. In most areas that require resurveys the survey of 

record can be reconstructed by the methods of the dependent resurvey. The principal resurvey problem is one of 

obliteration of monuments and corner accessories with 

a comparative absence of large discrepancies. This most 

often occurs where the controlling official survey had 

been made faithfully, enabling it to be reconstructed as 

it was originally. The special instructions in such cases 

typically call for a retracement and dependent resurvey, 

which may be carried out at the same time if no complications develop. Even where the record survey proves 

to be badly distorted, the extent of private ownership 

may dictate that the resurvey will be of the dependent 

type. Many areas have a checkerboard pattern of ownership as the result of railroad or military road grants, and 

similar conditions are found where extensive disposals 

have been made. Since an independent resurvey cannot 

affect boundaries of lands already alienated, it serves 

little purpose where every section line is the boundary 

of private land.

5-31. Occasionally, after a dependent resurvey 

has commenced, complications develop that make 

the methods described in the special instructions 

inapplicable. Provision should always be made in the 

special instructions calling for the surveyor to report 

such facts to the supervising office. The report should 

embody the same information as that required in the 

report of a field examination hereinafter outlined in 

section 5-33.

5-32. Provided that a large enough area of Federal 

interest land remains to warrant it, the methods of the 

independent resurvey are employed if there are intolerable discrepancies in the original survey. This occurs 

where the controlling survey was not faithfully executed 

with the result that some lines were not established and 

therefore have no actual existence and cannot be reconstructed to conform to the fictitious record. The boundaries of alienated lands in such areas are given special 

treatment for their protection, as nearly in harmony as 

possible with what could be afforded by a court of competent jurisdiction. Action will be taken to suspend the 

plat of record as a basis of further disposals, leases and 

other land or resource transactions before an independent resurvey is commenced.

When it is probable that an independent resurvey will 

be necessary, the special instructions should provide 

that a preliminary field examination be made. No new 

monuments are constructed during the examination. 

Interested parties are to be informed that the examination is being made strictly for the purpose of developing information of the prior survey. They should also be 

informed that if a resurvey is to be undertaken later, it 

will be planned primarily for the protection of all valid 

existing rights, and possibly with a view to the running of new lines for the identification of the remaining Federal interest lands. The details of such a plan of 

resurvey cannot be given in advance of formal action 

upon the report of examination.

5-33. The field examination report consists of a diagram to scale, a narrative, and the field notes of the 

retracements made, as follows:

(1) The diagram shows the correlation of 

existent original corners, corners established 

by local surveyors, and any monuments of 

unknown origin. Line fences, line roads, and 

other local use or occupancy lines and corners 

of the boundaries of claims are also shown.

(2) The narrative includes a description 

of the recovered evidence and statements 

by witnesses regarding obliterated corners. 

The extent of obliteration and the degree of 

faithfulness of the original survey is discussed 

when this is pertinent. Disposals made by the 

Federal Government, in fee or less than fee, are 

described, and Federal interest lands are listed 

by administrating agency and, if practicable, 

are shown on the diagram as well. Mention is 

made of improvements potentially affected 

by the resurvey, the evidentiary basis of claim 

locations, the degree of faithfulness of claim 

locations and local surveys to original survey 

evidence and between or among themselves, 

conflicts between claims, and any hiatus that 

may be anticipated.
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(3) The field notes of the retracement form an 

important part of the report, since the field notes 

show how correctly the natural features were 

represented in the original record.

(4) Finally, the surveyor recommends the 

procedure that will best deal with the existing 

conditions.

The report of the field examination is reviewed in the 

supervising office. Special instructions (or supplemental special instructions) are written to show the detail 

of the proposed resurvey. If the independent method is 

selected, an important consideration is the fixing of the 

out-boundaries of the sections, township, or townships 

within the planned resurvey. These limiting boundaries 

must be lines that can be restored in such a manner as 

to protect existing rights in the adjoining outside lands. 

An exception is where such a large area is to be independently resurveyed that it cannot all be included in 

one assignment. Occasionally, one portion of a township 

can be dependently resurveyed, while an independent 

resurvey is necessary in the remaining portion. In such 

a case the subdivisional lines separating the two types 

of resurvey must be dependently resurveyed.

5-34. Even when the procedures have been based on 

a preliminary examination, unforeseen difficulties may 

occur during the progress of the resurvey due to the 

greater detail of the work. The new factors may make 

the special instructions inapplicable. If this occurs the 

surveyor should suspend further monumentation, report 

the situation promptly to the supervising office, describe 

the nature of the difficulties, and request further instruction. Attention may be given to any additional retracement or other examination required.

5-35. During the course of a resurvey the surveyor 

should advise all interested parties, as occasion and 

opportunity allow, that the resurvey is not official or 

binding upon the United States until it has been duly 

accepted for the Director, Bureau of Land Management, 

and officially filed as provided by law. It is subject to 

change or correction, and therefore no alteration in the 

position of improvements or claim boundaries should 

be made in advance of the official filing of the resurvey.

The Dependent Resurvey

General Rules

5-36. A dependent resurvey is an official re-marking of 

the original lines upon a plan whereby the best available 

evidence of the original survey or of a prior resurvey 

is given primary control over the position of the lines 

to be reestablished. The dependent resurvey is designed 

to restore the original conditions of the official survey 

according to the record. It is based, first, upon identified 

and found original corners, second, other acceptable 

points of control including “obliterated corners,” and, 

third, restored “lost corners” by proportionate measurement in harmony with the record of the original survey. 

Some flexibility is allowable in applying the rules of 

proportionate measurement and subdivision of sections 

in order to protect the bona fide rights of claimants. This 

is particularly so in those cases where no objection is 

found to adopting a point acceptably located under the 

good faith location rule, and only slightly at variance 

with the theoretical position computed from the primary control.

5-37. The dependent resurvey is commenced by making a retracement of the township exteriors and subdivisional lines of the established prior survey within 

the assigned work. Concurrently, a study is made of the 

records of any known supplemental surveys, and testimony obtained from witnesses to ascertain if this collateral evidence is sufficiently well-qualified to support 

the identification of obliterated corners. A retracement 

of lines first run by local surveyors that may affect the 

resurvey is begun to ascertain if this evidence is sufficiently well-qualified to support the identification of 

obliterated corners or the location of legal subdivisions.

The retracement leads at once to identification of known 

and plainer evidence of the original survey. A trial calculation is made of the proportionate positions of the 

missing corners, followed by a second and more exhaustive search for the more obscure evidence of the original 

survey. If additional evidence is found, a new trial calculation is made.

5-38. A comparison of the temporary points with the 

corners and boundaries of alienated lands often helps in 

determining how the original survey was made, how the 

claims were located, or both. In analyzing the problem, 

in developing search areas for a particular corner’s location, and in weighting the collateral evidence, it is often 

helpful to determine where the theoretical corner point 

would fall using various methods. In the case of an interior section corner, for example, three-point or two-point 

control, particularly when supported by field-note calls to 

well-identified natural features may prove to be the best 

method to reestablish the position of the original corner, 

or prove that a corner, which would otherwise be lost, has 

been perpetuated by an acceptably located claim.
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5-39. Ordinarily, one-point control is inconsistent with 

the general plan of a dependent resurvey. The courts 

have sometimes turned to this as the only apparent solution of a bad situation, and unfortunately this has been 

the method applied in many local surveys, thus minimizing the work to be done, and the cost. Almost without exception, the method is supported to the degree that 

“it follows the record.” This overlooks the fact, however, 

that the record is equally applicable when reversing the 

direction of the control from other good corners, monuments, or marks.

The use of one-point control to reestablish a lost corner is strictly limited as delineated in section 7-56. 

However, another use of the concept is to develop corner search areas. This is appropriate in areas of evident 

unfaithfulness in execution of the original survey where 

the evidence suggests the possibility of an original corner having been established by one point control despite 

records indicating otherwise. These are calculated at 

record bearing and distance from each adjacent corner, 

with an index correction if applicable.

5-40. At this stage of the field work, the surveyor 

should exhaust every possible means of identifying the 

existent or obliterated corners from direct evidence of 

the original survey. Once this has been accomplished, 

attention may be given to the adoption as an integral 

part of the dependent resurvey system, of corner positions determined by evidence of a lesser character, 

including witness statements and acceptable local survey corners of claim locations. Such evidence, termed 

“collateral evidence” is combined with the direct evidence of the original survey to give the basic control for 

the resurvey. All local corners not adopted will be noted 

in the record.

5-41. The process and governing rules of the dependent 

resurvey comprehensively bring into consideration the 

position of recognized land boundaries in the absence 

of direct evidence of the original corners. Chapter VII 

is specific regarding the application of the rules of proportionate measurement for the determination of the 

theoretical positions of lost corners. These rules will be 

applied in the dependent resurvey generally with respect 

to the township as a unit. The surveyor must exhaust 

the means of identification of each and every existent 

and obliterated corner and the theoretical position will 

be determined for each lost corner. The existent or 

obliterated corners are to be considered as fixed points 

(except in the most unusual cases) and may be monumented at any time. The lost corners will be subjected 

to the possible influence of points that may afterwards 

be determined to be acceptably located under the good 

faith location rule, and should be marked only as temporary points until this question has been resolved.

5-42. In the absence of other considerations the theoretical points determined by proportionate measurement and based upon existent or obliterated original 

corners are fixed to a mathematical certainty and then 

the surveyor is prepared to consider the weight of such 

collateral evidence as may be available.

5-43. In the plan of dependent resurvey, the surveyor 

must remember that the lengths of lines, when subject to 

double proportion, are comparable only when reduced to 

cardinal equivalents (section 7-9) or to equivalents along 

the direct lines between the nearest existing corners.

5-44. The final calculations for the corners that are to 

be treated as lost is based upon the known position of 

the corners of the general control as adopted and proportionate measurement, as provided in chapter VII. 

The result of this process balances in regular proportion 

the differences between the measurements shown in the 

record of the original survey and those derived in the 

retracement. Thus, the true lines of the dependent resurvey are determined through the influence exercised by 

the identified existent and obliterated corners of the 

original survey, other identified calls of the record, and 

such collateral evidence of the position of recognized 

land boundaries as may properly be adopted for such 

influence.

5-45. Any marks made either before or subsequent to 

the official survey, or at the time of the survey but not 

under the direction of the chief of field party, are not 

to be regarded as evidence of that survey except when 

authenticated by field notes or qualified testimony. 

Reference will be made in the field notes, however, if 

the marks are of a permanent nature. If such marks or 

monuments are rejected, the reason will be shown by 

the new record.

5-46. The surveyor should make certain while still 

in the field, that complete descriptions of all identified, 

accepted, rejected, or nonaccepted corners have been 

noted for entry in the official record of the resurvey so 

that the record will embrace:

(1) A complete description of the remaining 

evidence of each original monument;

(2) A complete description of the original 

accessories as identified;
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(3) A concise statement relating to the recovery 

of a corner based upon identified line trees, 

blazed lines, items of topography, or other calls 

of the field notes of the original survey, in the 

absence of evidence of the monument or its 

accessories;

(4) A statement of the determining features 

leading to the acceptance of a recognized local 

corner;

(5) A complete description of the new 

monument(s);

(6) A complete description of any new 

accessories; and

(7) A complete description of rejected and 

nonaccepted local corners and accessories with 

a statement of the determining features leading 

to their rejection or nonacceptance.

Reestablishment of True Lines

5-47. The running and measurement of the true lines 

of the dependent resurvey, the marking of lines between 

corners, the notation of objects to be recorded, and 

the monumentation of the survey must conform to the 

requirements for original surveys and to the special 

instructions. The official record of the resurvey shows 

the relationship between the original survey, prior resurveys, and the reestablished lines.

5-48. In the course of marking the true lines, it is often 

desirable to establish sixteenth-section corners or minor 

subdivision corners that control the position of intermingled Federal interest land within a section. Later 

subdivision of the section would then not require a new 

dependent resurvey of the section lines for that purpose. 

This will be addressed in the special instructions or the 

supplemental special instructions.

Reasonable discrepancies between former and new 

measurements may generally be expected when retracing the section boundaries. The shortage or surplus is 

distributed by proportion in establishing a sixteenthsection corner. For example: The length of the line from 

the quarter-section corner on the west boundary of section 2 to the north line of the township, by the official 

survey was reported as 43.40 chains, and by the surveyor’s measurement was found to be 42.90 chains. The 

distance at which the sixteenth-section corner should 

be located north of the quarter-section corner would be 

determined by proportion as follows: As 43.40 chains, 

the official measurement of the whole distance, is to 

42.90 chains, the surveyor’s measurement of the same 

distance, so is 20 chains, original measurement, to 

19.77 chains by the surveyor’s measurement. By proportionate measurement in this case the sixteenth-section 

corner should be set at 19.77 chains north of the quartersection corner and not 20 chains north of said corner, 

as represented on the official plat. In this manner the 

discrepancies between original and new measurements 

are equitably distributed.

5-49. The limit of closure already prescribed will be 

observed, unless modified in the special instructions. 

Special stress will be given to the need for greater accuracy in the measurements, which largely govern the restoration of lost corners, or the placement of monuments 

marking corners for the first time.

The Independent Resurvey

General Rules

5-50. The independent resurvey is used when the 

original survey cannot be identified with any degree of 

certainty in accordance with the representations of the 

official record, especially where there are considerable 

areas of Federal interest lands. An independent resurvey may be required where the prevailing conditions 

are such that strictly restorative processes, when applied 

as an inflexible rule between existing monuments or 

adopted corner positions, are either inadequate or lead 

to unsatisfactory results. If it is decided to supersede the 

record of the original survey with respect to the remaining Federal interest lands, an independent resurvey is 

appropriate.

This type of resurvey provides for the protection of 

existing bona fide rights by segregating individual tracts 

or conforming them to the subdivisions of the dependent 

resurvey if that can be done suitably. Generally, tract 

surveys can be avoided by restoring the section boundaries in which the claim is situated, using the same control that would have been employed to govern the tract 

survey. The control may be locally recognized corners, 

three-point, two-point, or even one-point control.

In effect this may employ both types of resurvey, dependent and independent, in the same township, with the 

dependent resurvey covering those sections that include 

alienated lands. Tract segregation is necessary only in 

those unusual cases where irrelated control prevents the 
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reconstruction of sections that would adequately protect 

the alienated lands, or where the resultant plat would not 

constitute an acceptable basis for the identification of 

the remaining Federal interest lands.

5-51. These processes are found to be more flexible 

in their application than those of the strictly dependent 

type, but at the same time they are intended duly to protect all bona fide rights that have been acquired upon 

the basis of a prior survey(s). The independent resurvey 

supersedes the record of the survey with respect to the 

identification and description of the remaining Federal 

interest lands. This will be clear by the representations 

of the approved and filed resurvey plat.

5-52. An independent resurvey can include an official running and marking of new township and section 

boundary lines without regard for the location of the 

record lines and corner monuments or other marks of 

the prior official survey that the independent resurvey 

is designed to supersede. The new lines may be effective only insofar as the remaining Federal interest lands 

are concerned. The subdivisions tentatively approved, 

interim conveyed, claimed, entered or patented at the 

time of the resurvey are in no way affected as to location. All such claims must be identified on the ground 

then protected in one of two ways. First, and whenever 

possible, the sections in which claims are located are 

reconstructed from evidence of the record survey just as 

in a dependent resurvey. Second, where irrelated control 

prevents the reconstruction of the sections that would 

adequately protect them, the alienated lands are segregated as tracts.

5-53. Tract segregation does not change the location 

of any conveyance from the Federal Government. Tract 

segregation is designed to give official recognition and 

respect to all rights as to location, shape, and size of 

the conveyance. The tract segregation platting process 

should clarify the land description. One or more tract 

boundaries may be identical with the corresponding new 

legal subdivisions of the independent resurvey. The conformance process can clarify a description that cannot 

be identified with certainty in one position to the exclusion of another. A description conformed to a survey 

cannot change its location, but can clarify that location.

A tract so segregated is identical with the lands of a specific description based on the plat of the prior official 

survey. The tract segregation merely shows where the 

lands of this description are located with respect to the 

new section lines of the independent resurvey. In order 

to avoid confusion with section numbers, the tracts are 

designated beginning with number 37 or the next number above the highest tract number already used. The 

plan of the independent resurvey must be such that no 

lines, monuments, or plat representations duplicate the 

description of any previous section where disposals 

have been made. Thereafter, the new legal subdivision 

lines become the prevailing survey for every purpose 

of identification and description of the Federal interest 

lands involved.

5-54. Where this flexibility in the application of surveying rules is involved, such as in restoring the section line boundaries with less than normal control or in 

making tract segregations in an independent resurvey, it 

must be clearly recognized that the authority to review 

the effect of an independent resurvey upon the location 

of the boundaries of privately owned land rests in the 

courts. A decision of the court is binding in fixing a 

boundary between private lands. However, in fixing a 

boundary between Federal and alienated lands, monuments of the official survey must be considered as the 

court has no authority to set aside the official survey.

5-55. The independent resurvey is accomplished in 

four distinct steps:

(1) The reestablishment of the outboundaries of 

the area to be resurveyed, following the methods 

of a dependent resurvey.

(2) The segregation of lands embraced in any 

valid claim based on the former approved plat.

(3) The survey of new exterior, subdivisional, 

and meander lines by a new regular plan.

(4) Linking the description of the segregated 

tracts back to the original description in the 

conveyance document. This should include 

careful coordination with the appropriate lands 

staff of the administrating Federal agency.

Reestablishment of Outboundaries

5-56. The outboundaries of the lands that are to be 

independently resurveyed must agree with the previously 

established and identified exterior or subdivisional lines 

of the approved original surveys. In order to qualify as a 

suitable limiting boundary, a line of the accepted established surveys must be conclusively identified in one position to the exclusion of all others and must by its known 

position adequately protect all rights located in good faith 

based upon any official plat showing subdivisions of the 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys

lands adjacent to said boundary. Such outboundaries of 

the lands to be resurveyed by the independent process 

must necessarily be retraced and reestablished in their 

true original position. The lands on one side of the outboundary are to be resubdivided upon a new plan. On the 

opposite side the original subdivisions are to be strictly 

maintained, and none of the original conditions are to 

be disturbed. Where an outboundary has been reestablished by dependent resurvey, the subdivisions of a tract 

originally described as along or on opposite sides of the 

outboundary must agree with the line thus reestablished.

5-57. Although the outboundaries of the independent 

resurvey generally follow established township exteriors, section lines may qualify as suitable limiting boundaries. Such section lines must then be duly retraced and 

reestablished in their true original position. Particular 

attention should be given to this subject when the field 

examination is made, with a view to maintaining the 

original survey as far as it is consistent.

5-58. In some cases a proper outboundary cannot be 

secured without including a greater number of townships than it is practicable to resurvey in one assignment. One or more tracts requiring segregation may 

then extend across a group outboundary into a township not grouped for resurvey. Any such tract will be 

fully segregated whether or not the tract was originally 

described as in the township to be resurveyed. The necessary official steps will be taken to suspend disposals, 

leases, orders and other land or resource transactions in 

the adjoining township pending investigations with a 

view to the resurvey of that township.

Where the projections of new lines of the independent resurvey are not to be initiated or closed upon the 

restored original corners of the outboundaries, the new 

monuments will be marked only with reference to the 

township, range, and section to which they will thenceforth relate. New regular corners controlling the lines 

of the independent resurvey will be established as provided in sections 3-40 through 3-49 under “Defective 

Exteriors.” During the preliminary stages of the resurvey there will often be doubt as to whether an old corner will retain its former control or not. The marking of 

the new monument and its accessories may be deferred 

until the future significance of the point is determined. 

Where an old point is not to be the corner of a subdivision, but is to be perpetuated merely to control alinement, it should be monumented as an angle point.

5-59. The special instructions will show specifically 

what lines have been selected to limit the independent 

resurvey. The dependent resurvey will be restricted 

to those sections where the retracements indicate that 

some suitable control can be applied for the restoration 

of those section boundaries. The retracement and reestablishment of the outboundaries of those sections will 

be the exterior of the dependent resurvey; this should 

precede the running of the new lines, the latter being 

devoid of adequate control that can be derived from the 

prior survey.

5-60. A special problem is presented in those situations 

where the appropriate Chief Cadastral Surveyor finds 

that it is advisable to cancel an official survey because of 

the showing of gross irregularities beyond any tolerable 

limit, such as badly distorted section boundaries whose 

lengths and directions are unreasonably at variance 

with the record, or the fact that some of the lines are 

fictitious or fraudulent such that they never had actual 

existence in fact. The cancellation action can be taken 

only in the name of the Director, and requires ample 

justification to show that even though the monuments 

can be identified in portions of the area, the lines when 

restored under the rules for proportionate measurement 

do not constitute an acceptable basis for the identification of the remaining Federal interest land. This applies 

to the Federal interest land only and has no bearing on 

the identification of the alienated subdivisions described 

in terms of the prior survey.

The cancellation of an official survey that is marked 

on the ground requires that the location of the existing 

monuments be determined by direction and length of 

line connecting to the nearest new monuments, then 

treated as amended monuments (see section 3-40).

5-61. A factual statement will be required in the 

field-note record of the independent resurvey to show 

what proof has been established that no corner monuments have been overlooked, disregarded, or otherwise 

ignored. There is always risk of failure to find some of 

the record monuments. If that occurs, confusion can 

result from the existence on the ground of two sets 

of monuments that, by record, exist to mark similarly 

described subdivisions. Every effort should be made to 

avoid this outcome.

Tract Segregation:

Tract Survey and Description of 

Alienated Lands

5-62. The special instructions must designate the sections containing alienated lands that will be dependently resurveyed. Where there is acceptable evidence of 
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Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

the original survey, the identification of the areas that 

have been disposed of must be the same as would ordinarily be derived by the regular subdivision of the section. Areas to be segregated by survey and described as 

tracts are (1) those areas that cannot be so identified, nor 

conformed satisfactorily, (2) those areas where correction of conveyance document appears not to be an available remedy, and (3) those areas where the disposals are 

found to be in conflict by overlap. Every corner of these 

tracts is marked by angle-point monumentation, and a 

tie is made from each tract to a corner of the resurvey.

5-63. An abstract of pertinent records and a status diagram will be furnished to the surveyor showing lands 

whose boundaries cannot legally be disturbed. These 

include patented lands, valid entries or claims, school 

sections, land grants, tentative approvals, interim conveyances, disposals, reservations, or selections of lands 

whose position and description are based upon the original survey and plat subject to dependent resurvey. The 

resurvey will not be complete until each claim described 

has received full protection in the matter of location. 

Each must be protected either by individual tract survey 

and description or by the assignment of subdivisions of 

the independent resurvey whose boundaries coincide or 

approximately agree with the tract boundaries. In addition, the surveyor will be furnished with the status of all 

claims in the adjacent sections or adjoining townships 

not grouped for resurvey that might affect the resurvey 

procedure. The title status will be included with the 

other data to accompany the special instructions providing for a resurvey.

5-64. The survey of alienated lands need not be completed before beginning the projection of the new lines 

of the independent resurvey. It is logical, however, to 

consider the subject of the tract segregations in advance 

of the question of the establishment of new lines. The 

surveyor may find it expedient to carry both branches of 

the survey along together.

However, before making tract segregations and before 

the running of new section lines, make certain the discrepancies are such that no adequate or satisfactory 

basis can be shown for the restoration of the former section-line boundaries as a whole. The plan of the independent resurvey will be such that no lines, monuments, 

or plat representations will duplicate the description of 

any previous section where disposals have been made. 

With the filing of the resurvey, the record field notes 

and plat representing the prior survey are cancelled, and 

must not be used for any future disposals, leases and 

other land or resource transactions.

5-65. The following rules will be observed in developing the survey and description of designated tracts:

(1) Each acceptably located claim that is at 

variance with the lines of the independent 

resurvey is surveyed and monumented at each 

angle point.

(2) Where the limiting boundary of the 

independent resurvey has been reestablished in 

its original position by dependent resurvey, the 

portion of a claim lying outside the outboundary 

is not surveyed as a tract. It is located in an 

area where the original conditions cannot be 

disturbed. The portion of the claim lying within 

the area of the independent resurvey has at least 

one identifiable original boundary. It should be 

defined by segregation or conformation to the 

lines of the independent resurvey in a position 

that is properly related to the identified or 

restored corners on the outboundary.

(3) Where the boundaries of a claim are 

unacceptably located as pointed out by the 

claimant, the claim is surveyed and monumented 

in a suitable relation to the original survey. If 

the claimant protests the location, the surveyor 

will request that the protest be made in writing. 

The written protest will be submitted with the 

returns of the resurvey. Accurate ties will be 

made to the corners of the claim as unacceptably 

located. The surveyor will make a complete 

report of the facts with reference to the question 

of location. Further protection to the entryman 

may be sought by an amendment of entry, 

correction of conveyance document, tentative 

approval relinquishment, or interim conveyance 

reconveyance or relinquishment.

(4) Where the tract segregation of a claim (or 

its conformation to the lines of the independent 

resurvey) does not cover the lands occupied, 

improved, or claimed, the claimant may 

express a desire to amend the entry, tentative 

approval, interim conveyance, or seek a 

correction of conveyance document. The fact 

should be stated in the field notes. A separate 

full report is made by the surveyor describing 

the subdivisions actually occupied and those 

sought under the amendment or correction 

that are not within the tract as surveyed, all 

looking to the protection of the title to the 

lands actually earned. (See current regulations 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys

relating to the amendment of entries, tentative 

approvals, interim conveyances, or correction 

of conveyance documents.)

(5) Where the regular quarter-quarter sections 

embraced within a claim fall in approximately 

the same position as the regular quarter-quarter 

sections of the independent resurvey, the 

claimant, entryman, or patentee may desire to 

conform the claim to the independent resurvey. 

If no apparent objection is found by the surveyor, 

the facts should be stated in the field notes 

and the claim so indicated upon the resurvey 

plat. The desire by the claimant, entryman, 

or patentee to conform the claim to the 

independent resurvey should be documented as 

testimony and included in the field notes. Under 

this circumstance the tract survey is omitted. 

However, where a tract includes an irregular lot 

as originally described or where any part of a 

tract falls upon an irregular lot of the dependent 

resurvey, the tract will be segregated as a whole, 

even though some or all of the lines of the tract 

may coincide with certain subdivisional lines of 

the independent resurvey.

No claim should be conformed to the lines of 

an independent resurvey under an involved 

amended description that includes numerous 

subdivisions smaller than the regular quarterquarter section, excepting as completely 

surveyed and monumented.

(6) Conflicting tracts, each acceptably located, 

are surveyed and monumented and the conflict 

shown upon the resurvey plat. Each intersection 

of conflicting boundaries is determined upon 

the ground and recorded in the field notes. The 

number of acres in conflict with each other tract 

will be shown in the field notes, or on the plat, 

or both.

(7) The angle points of a tract are designated 

by serial numbers beginning with No. 1 at the 

northeast corner, and proceeding around the 

claim, running westerly from the initial corner. 

An angle point may be common to one, two, 

three, or four tracts. The monument is marked 

as in the examples in section 4-49.

(8) No accessories are required with the 

monuments at the angle points of the tract 

survey.

(9) At least one angle point of each tract 

is connected with a regular corner of the 

independent resurvey. Where claim lines are 

intersected by lines of the independent resurvey, 

a connection is made to the nearest claim 

corners on each side of the intersection and 

recorded in the field notes of the section line. 

This is considered a satisfactory connection to 

all adjoining claims located within the interior 

of either section. Where an extensive system of 

tract segregations has been surveyed, the interior 

tracts of the block do not require connections. 

The establishment of monumented corners 

on the regular line when entering or leaving 

Federal interest land will conform to the practice 

described in sections 3-74 through 3-79.

(10) All recovered monuments of the original 

survey, including line trees and witness points, 

not otherwise reported upon are connected 

by course and distance with a corner of the 

independent resurvey. The connection and a 

description of the traces of the original corner 

as identified are recorded in the field notes of 

the resurvey. The old monument is marked AM 

(for amended monument) inverted and buried 

in place, if practicable, and the accessories 

are effaced unless the point may be needed to 

control the position of a claim.

The Projection of New Lines

5-66. A plan for projecting new section lines for the 

identification of the remaining Federal interest lands 

can best be made after study of a layout showing 

(1) lines of the former survey that are to be restored, 

and (2) the necessary tract segregations. Ideally, the 

new subdivision lines should be placed to maximum 

agreement with the boundary positions of conformable 

claims while eliminating or reducing the necessity for 

tract segregations, where this can be accomplished in 

harmony with the rules previously outlined. The report 

of the field examination should be explicit and include 

a plan for incorporation into the special instructions. If 

the report does not fully identify the position of alienated lands, the plan must be delayed until these lands 

have been identified.

5-67. The resubdivision of remaining Federal interest lands in a township by independent resurvey is an 

application of completion subdivision as discussed in 

sections 3-97 through 3-98. However, an independent 

resurvey may involve the resubdivision of a group of 
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Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

many townships where the conditions are comparatively regular except for the tract segregations. After 

having reestablished the outboundaries of the group on 

the dependent plan, first attention is given to completing the township exteriors that are to be independently 

resurveyed. These new township exteriors are completed as in the establishment of original surveys. The 

new section lines are surveyed and marked as in regular 

or fragmentary subdivision, whichever may be the case. 

New meander lines are run as required. The new exterior and subdivisional lines are usually extended across 

small blocks of tract segregation surveys, and connections are made as described in section 5-65(9). Where 

the new lines are so extended across tracts, the corners 

are fully monumented regardless of the fact that some 

points fall within the tract segregation surveys. They are 

required in order to determine the proper subdivision of 

the Federal interest land.

5-68. A general exception to the rule of extending the 

new lines across the tract segregations may be made 

in those townships or portions of townships that are 

so densely covered by private claims that the remaining parcels of Federal lands may be as well or better 

identified and described using isolated tract numbers. In 

such cases monumented corners will be required after 

a retracement of the private claim lines when entering 

or leaving Federal land. The new lines may be extended 

as blank lines across the tract segregations, according 

to the plan of running the new section lines of the independent resurvey. Where this method is employed, it 

will be necessary to assign tract numbers to the parcels 

of Federal interest land and to mark the angle points 

accordingly. Where a parcel of Federal interest land is 

to be identified using this plan, such tracts will be surveyed and described in accordance with the usual rules.

5-69. In rare cases certain quarter-quarter sections of 

Federal interest lands, in accordance with the system 

of the original survey as indicated by adjoining tract 

segregations, may be segregated to afford an improved 

basis of administration. Such segregations should not be 

made unless it is conclusively shown by the surveyor 

that the lots and regular quarter-quarter sections of the 

independent resurvey are inadequate as a basis of disposal, leases or other transactions under existing conditions of occupancy on the part of settlers, entrymen, or 

claimants who may propose to conform, amend, reconvey, relinquish, or seek a correction of conveyance document. The special instructions will be made as explicit 

as possible in these details and determined when the 

plan of the resurvey is under consideration by the supervising officer. 

5-70. After the plan of running new section boundaries 

has been determined, the creation of needed new lottings is considered. This will precede the marking of the 

corner monuments, which may be affected by the manner in which the lots are laid out and numbered.

Where any aliquot part (not alienated) of a newly created section would normally have a description that 

duplicates the corresponding part (alienated) of an 

original section bearing the same section number, such 

part or parts of the new section are given appropriate 

lot numbers. The new lot numbers begin with the next 

number above the highest numbered lot of that section 

of the prior survey. Also, where there are new regular 

lottings in the sections along the north and west boundaries of the township, if those sections are not restorations of the corresponding sections of the prior survey 

(and same township and range) the lottings are given 

numbers beginning with the next higher number above 

those that were previously employed.

5-71. Some new sections may be elongated in order to 

absorb the discrepancy in the positions of the section 

line boundaries as between the old and new survey, or 

as part of the conformance process. This is taken care of 

in the lottings of the new sections. Such departure from 

normal procedure is made necessary by the discrepancies of the prior survey, where the location of the alienated lands cannot be changed. 

A departure from the usual rule for lotting is necessary 

in order to provide unambiguous descriptions of unpatented entries, claims, selections, tentative approvals or 

interim conveyances where such tract segregations may 

be subject to relinquishment, cancellation, abandonment, or forfeiture. In other cases, this revised lotting 

method may facilitate the subdivision of isolated tracts of 

Federal interest lands. Two methods of lotting have thus 

been developed for use in particular situations. Neither 

method involves any change in the instructions for the 

field procedure heretofore laid down. The discussion of 

the relative merits of the two methods and the examples 

of their use are described in sections 9-140 and 9-141.

5-72. Where a section of the independent resurvey is 

invaded by tract segregations, the lotting of the Federal 

interest lands is carried out in accordance with the usual 

plan of lotting within irregular sections. The numbering 

of the lots begins with the number next higher than the 

highest number employed in the section of the original 

survey that bears the same township, range, and section 

number. This plan avoids any possible confusion that 

might arise from duplicate lot numbers.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys

5-73. The plan of the independent resurvey should be 

carefully studied for proper placement of all needed 

quarter-section corners, for either one or two sections, 

so as to provide for the position of the center lines of all 

sections, restored or new. Where two positions for quarter-section corners are found to come within less than 

half the closing limit prescribed for a section by special 

instructions, the point first derived as the appropriate 

position of the quarter-section corner of the restored 

section boundary is used for control in both sections. 

This rule is in the interest of simplicity of survey and 

monumentation.

5-74. The general requirements of chapters II, III, and 

IV will be fully observed in every respect throughout 

the execution of the independent resurvey.

During the period of the field work and the construction 

of the resurvey plats, the surveyor must make certain 

that every possible condition has been given consideration and that all necessary data have been obtained.

Special Cases

5-75. Experience, thoroughness, and good judgment 

are indispensable for the successful retracement and 

recovery of any survey when it reaches a stage of extensive obliteration, when there is manifest distortion, or 

when there are years of unofficial boundary determinations resulting in confused and conflicting lines and 

corners. It is an axiom among experienced cadastral 

surveyors that the true location of the original lines and 

corners can be restored, if the original survey was made 

faithfully and was supported by a reasonably good fieldnote record. That is the condition for which the basic 

principles have been outlined, and for which the rules 

have been laid down. The rules cannot be elaborated 

to reconstruct a grossly erroneous survey or a survey 

having fictitious field notes. The methods applicable 

to dependent resurveys, as outlined in chapter VI, are 

designed to rectify conditions at variance with the representations of the official survey record.

5-76. The records of official resurveys cover many special cases. The records in the BLM Cadastral Survey 

offices include the special cases from all public land 

States. These plats, field notes, reports of office and 

field examinations and investigations, office opinions, 

Departmental decisions, opinions from the Solicitor or 

Attorney General of the United States, court opinions 

and decrees, and administrative land law decisions are 

drawn upon when needed to assist the surveyor in the 

study of situations that are new to the surveyor’s experience. In administrative appeals of official surveys and 

trials of boundary suits, the board or court often consider many additional questions besides the purely technical. To do justice, the surveyor often finds the proper 

decision lies in the realm where technical and nontechnical matters overlap. When the surveyor encounters 

unusual situations, or finds it difficult to apply the normal rules for good faith location or restoration of lost 

corners, the surveyor will report the facts to the proper 

administrative office. If it is determined that additional 

retracements are necessary, these should be provided for 

by supplemental special instructions.

Resurvey Summary, Including 

Subdivision of Sections

5-77. A summary of the theory and practice of the 

resurvey and survey of sections reveals certain minimum requirements:

(1) The need for care in the determination of the 

length of lines, which is so largely controlling 

in the restoration of lost corners, and for care 

in the determination of the basis of bearings, 

which so largely controls the establishment of 

corners by intersecting lines and the abstraction 

of survey data into digital formats, cannot be 

overemphasized.

(2) The rules for the identification of existent 

corners, the acceptance of collateral evidence 

with respect to obliterated corners, the restoration 

of lost corners, and the evaluation of local 

points of control will be followed specifically as 

outlined in chapters VI and VII.

(3) The monumentation in all respects is as 

required on original surveys, supplemented by 

a field-note record of all necessary descriptions, 

including the prior monumentation as identified 

by the physical evidence, the collateral record, 

and the monuments as reconstructed.

(4) In order to accomplish a resurvey, the 

section boundary lines are first retraced in their 

entirety or as needed to mark the boundary of 

the Federal interest lands, and restored in their 

original position, as nearly as practicable. This 

circumscribes the work to be done, and is usually 

carried out on that plan unless some condition is 
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Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

developed that requires supporting evidence that 

may be derived from the subdivisional surveys 

within the section or adjoining sections before 

concluding the restoration of the section exterior 

and the marking of lines and corners.

(5) There follows a complete survey of the 

center lines of the section, the survey of the center 

lines of the quarter-sections and lines interior to 

each quarter-quarter section as needed to mark 

the boundaries of the Federal interest lands as 

nearly as practicable, to completely ascertain 

the lines as returned by the original plat. This 

circumscribes the work to be done, and is usually 

carried out on that plan unless some condition is 

developed that requires supporting evidence that 

may be derived from the local conditions.

(6) In practice, and as applied to the very 

early original surveys that were in some cases 

performed more than 200 years ago, where 

dependent resurvey is required, the surveyor 

usually must be concerned with three primary 

elements, which it is his or her responsibility to 

harmonize as far as that can be done along legal 

methods, though the surveyor is not clothed with 

legal jurisdiction to dispose of disputes. The 

surveyor’s job is to ascertain the facts in each 

situation, and render a representation and mark 

the boundaries of Federal interest lands. This 

involves the primary elements of: first, restoring 

what the written record and physical evidence 

purport to be the original conditions; second, 

protecting the bona fide rights of all claimants in 

the matter of their locations; and, third, marking 

the boundaries of the Federal interest lands.

(7) In practice, and as applied to the very early 

local surveys made, in some cases, more than 

200 years ago, where local conditions will 

influence the required dependent resurvey, 

the surveyor usually must be concerned with 

harmonizing these same three primary elements. 

However, in restoring what the written record 

and physical evidence purport to be the original 

conditions, emphasis is placed on protecting the 

legal subdivisions as shown on the original plat.

(8) The first requirement in the dependent 

resurvey of the section exterior must be fulfilled 

with reference to the evidence of the original 

survey where the discovery and identification of 

original monuments, marks, and corner positions 

is paramount. In this context, it should be borne 

in mind that frequently there may be only a 

few remaining original marks and that each 

additional increment of supporting evidence 

adds appreciably to the conclusiveness of the 

resurvey and contributes to its basic control.

(9) The first requirement in the survey of the 

section interior must be fulfilled with reference 

to the evidence of the original survey as 

represented on the original plat. This stage of 

the survey further develops the basic control.

(10) The cadastral surveyor is in the same 

position as the local surveyor, and is bound 

by rules governing restoration of the original 

survey, determination of acceptable location of 

local points of control, questions of good faith 

locations, and recognition of special cases. The 

county surveyor may enlist the assistance of the 

county attorney, or the local court as needed; 

the cadastral surveyor reports to the appropriate 

chief cadastral surveyor who should consult 

with the Office of the Solicitor when in doubt 

as to procedure. The advice or instructions that 

follow in either case must necessarily depend 

upon the facts as reported by the surveyor. If the 

surveyor fails in his or her work, by oversight, 

carelessness, or inexperience, the BLM office, the 

Office of the Solicitor, the local attorney, or the 

court may be thereby misled, and the treatment 

of the situation may be entirely inappropriate. 

This responsibility on the part of the assigned 

surveyor demands utmost thoroughness in every 

detail.

(11) To properly mark the boundary of the 

remaining Federal interest lands, including 

Indian lands, the official survey process 

combines issues of ownership with boundary. It 

is emphasized that Federal authority surveyors 

who have been in private practice must bear in 

mind that in their official capacity they act under 

somewhat different rules of law than the State 

laws governing the registration and practice of 

land surveying. They must carefully distinguish 

between the role of the local surveyor as set forth 

by State statute, from the role of the cadastral 

surveyor who bears the delegated responsibility 

to determine and mark what are Federal interest 

lands, what lands have been surveyed, what are 

to be surveyed, what have been disposed of, what 

remain to be disposed of, and what are reserved, 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter V - Principles of Resurveys

all such surveys being subject to review, approval 

and official filing, as established by the United 

States Congress.

(12) An outline of the subject of retracements, 

entirely advisory in character, for the information 

of county and other local surveyors, with a brief 

reference to property rights under State law, is 

contained in the Manual supplement Restoration 

of Lost or Obliterated Corners and Subdivision 

of Sections. The cadastral surveyor is bound by 

the same rules when engaged in official surveys. 

There is sometimes an apparent overlap in 

jurisdiction, but in most cases the distinction in 

the duties is clear.

147

Chapter VI

Resurveys and

Evidence

The Nature of Resurveys

6-1. The rules for identifying the lines and corners of an 

approved official survey differ from those under which 

the survey was originally made. The purpose is not to 

“correct” the original survey by determining where a 

new or exact running of the line would locate a particular corner, but rather to determine where the corner was 

established in the beginning. There is no realm of the 

law in which there is a greater need to maintain stability 

and continuity than with regard to property rights and 

the location of real property boundaries. This requirement is explicitly expressed in the Act of February 11, 

1805 (2 Stat. 313; 43 U.S.C. 752):

(1) All the corners marked in the surveys, 

returned by the Secretary of the Interior or such 

agency as he may designate, shall be established 

as the proper corners of sections, or subdivision 

of sections, which they were intended to 

designate;

(2) The boundary lines, actually run and marked 

in the surveys returned by the Secretary of the 

Interior or such agency as he may designate, 

shall be established as the proper boundary 

lines of the sections, or subdivisions, for which 

they were intended, and the length of such lines 

as returned, shall be held and considered as the 

true length thereof.

(3) Each section or subdivision of section, the 

contents whereof have been returned by the 

Secretary of the Interior or such agency as he 

may designate, shall be held and considered as 

containing the exact quantity expressed in such 

return;

6-2. Surveyors with extensive experience working 

in the non-Federal arena are especially cautioned that 

the stability envisioned by this statutory scheme may 

be different from the concept of stability described in 

common law boundary cases. Stability of boundaries 

in the non-Federal arena is often given as the guiding 

principle behind boundary resolution theories such as 

adverse possession or acquiescence. The Federal statutory scheme quoted here, however, does not seek to 

reward a landowner who merely maintains an enclosure 

or improvement for a long period of time. In fact, principles of “adverse possession” do not apply against the 

United States. Rather, stability is inherent in protecting 

the integrity of the lines actually run and marked in 

an official survey. Thus, a paramount principle is that 

all evidence gathered, whether direct or collateral, be 

analyzed with a view toward discovering the best available evidence of the official survey lines. Evidence of 

a private property line is valuable in this process only 

insofar as it can be related, by substantial evidence, to 

the official survey. The methods described here follow 

leading judicial opinions, administrative law decisions 

and approved surveying practice.

6-3. The Cadastral Survey Program of the Bureau of 

Land Management (BLM) is responsible to identify the 

initial lines, the subdivision of these areas, the determination of the area within such surveys, and the preparation 

of the official plat and written record of the public land 

survey system. Congress has empowered the Secretary 

of the Interior, or such officer as he or she may designate, 

to perform all executive duties appertaining to the survey 

of Federal interest lands (43 U.S.C. 2), including Indian 

lands (25 U.S.C. 176). The records of official surveys fall 

under the doctrine of presumption of regularity; that is, 

the official record is correct unless it is established otherwise by a preponderance of the evidence.

6-4. Where Federal interest lands are involved, including Indian lands, the final authority to approve or disapprove the official resurvey procedures rests with the 

Secretary, acting through the Director, BLM. If privately owned lands are involved, consideration is given 

to any protest made by an interested person concerning the work of a surveyor authorized by the BLM. 

However, the Director cannot assume jurisdiction over 

or responsibility for the acts or results of surveys made 

by county, local, or private surveyors, or by surveyors 
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Chapter VI - Resurveys and Evidence Manual of Surveying Instructions

or engineers who may be employed by other branches 

of the Federal Government as such surveys were not 

conducted under the direction and control of the Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor.

On the other hand, it often falls to the county or other 

local surveyor to mark the corners of subdivisions of 

sections and the location of private property lines, and 

where a required corner is obliterated, the local surveyor may be called upon to recover the point. Thus it 

will be seen that local surveyors as well as cadastral surveyors of the BLM are constantly called upon to search 

for existing evidence of original monuments, and in this 

work the surveyors should be guided by the same general methods. The text that follows draws no distinction 

between these duties of the two classes of surveyors.

6-5. Although this guidance pertains especially to 

the dependent resurvey of an original survey, the same 

principles apply to the dependent resurvey of an official 

resurvey, and to the resurvey of a local survey. Official 

resurveys and local surveys subsequent to the original 

survey must be considered in context of the objectives 

of each Federal Government dependent resurvey. First, 

the adequate protection of the existing rights acquired 

under an original survey or resurvey and faithfully 

located by subsequent (re)survey as to location on the 

earth’s surface, and second, the proper marking of the 

boundaries of the remaining Federal interest lands.

6-6. The function of the local surveyor begins when 

employed as an expert to identify lands that have passed 

into private ownership. The testimony or records of local 

surveyors who have identified the original monument 

prior to its destruction, or who have reasonably applied 

the good faith location rule, or who have marked the 

corners of legal subdivisions according to the prevailing law using the accuracy standards for the time and 

locale, is often considered reliable collateral evidence 

of the original surveyed and protracted lines and corners, particularly where those surveys are followed by 

use and occupancy by the landowners (section 3-132).

6-7. Where a corner marks the boundary between, or in 

any manner controls the location of the lines that form 

the boundary of privately-owned property, dissatisfaction on the part of or dispute between the private landowners may be brought before the local court of competent jurisdiction. The Secretary of the Interior will 

not be bound by a court decision purporting to affect 

Federal interest lands, if the United States is not a party 

to a suit, as least to the extent that valid evidence of the 

official survey was disregarded or there was some other 

departure from good surveying practice.

6-8. The terms “corner” and “monument” are not 

interchangeable. A “corner” is a point determined by 

the surveying process. A “monument” is the object or 

the physical structure that marks the corner.

6-9. The “corners” of the public land surveys are those 

points that determine the boundaries of the various subdivisions represented on the official plat—the township 

corner, the section corner, the quarter-section corner, 

the subdivision corner, or the meander corner.

The “mile corner” of a State, reservation, or grant 

boundary does not mark a point of a subdivision; it is 

a station along the line, although long usage has given 

acceptance to the term. An “angle point” of a boundary typically marks a change in the bearing, and in that 

sense it is a corner of the survey, as is a special survey 

corner, a townsite corner, and a tract corner.

6-10. “Monuments” of the public land surveys have 

included the deposit of some durable memorial, a marked 

wooden stake or post, a marked stone, an iron post having an inscribed cap, a marked tablet set in solid rock 

or in a concrete block, a marked tree, a rock in place 

marked with a cross (X) at the exact corner point, and 

other special types of markers, some of which are more 

substantial; any of these is termed a “monument.” The 

several classes of accessories, such as bearing trees, 

bearing objects, reference monuments, mounds of stone, 

buried memorials and pits dug in the sod or soil are aids 

in identifying the corner position. In their broader significance the accessories are a part of the corner monument.

Not all corners of the Federal surveys are monumented. 

Many unmonumented corners were subsequently monumented during official resurveys, or by county or other 

local surveyors. The monuments set during the original 

survey represent the highest class of direct evidence of 

the position of the original lines. Monuments set after 

the original survey may provide evidence of the original 

survey if set using appropriate methods for the time and 

with due regard for the original corner positions.

Identification of 

Existent Corners

6-11. An existent corner is one whose original position 

can be identified by substantial evidence of the monument or its accessories, by reference to the description 

in the field notes, or located by an acceptable supplemental survey record, some physical evidence, or reliable testimony.
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(2) The markings in evidence should not be 

inconsistent with the record.

(3) The nature of the accessories in evidence, 

including size, position and markings, should 

not be greatly at variance with the record.

6-14. Allowance for ordinary discrepancies should be 

made in considering the evidence of a monument and 

its accessories taking note of any pattern of discrepancies that would indicate the recorded information 

is unreliable. Evidence of less than workmanlike care 

in the original survey in compiling the record thereof 

has resulted in the evidence not matching the record. 

Examples include erroneously recorded dimensions of 

stones and trees; transposed or interchanged directions 

and/or distances to corner accessories, misidentified 

tree species or rock type, and inconsistencies in reporting topographical features.

6-15. No set rules can be laid down as to what is sufficient evidence. Much must be left to the skill, fidelity, and good judgment of the surveyor, bearing in mind 

the relation of one monument to another and the relation of all to the recorded natural objects and items of 

topography.

6-16. No decision will be made in regard to the restoration of a corner until every means has been exercised 

that might aid in identifying its true original position. 

The retracements will indicate the probable position and 

will show what discrepancies are to be expected. Any 

supplemental survey record or testimony must then be 

considered in the light of the facts thus developed.

Identification of 

Obliterated Corners

6-17. An obliterated corner is an existent corner where, 

at the corner’s original position, there are no remaining traces of the monument or its accessories but whose 

position has been perpetuated, or the point for which 

may be recovered, by substantial evidence from the acts 

or reliable testimony of the interested landowners, competent surveyors, other qualified local authorities, or 

witnesses, or by some acceptable record evidence.

An obliterated corner position can be proven by substantial direct or collateral evidence. When both categories 

of evidence exist, direct evidence will be given more 

weight than collateral evidence. A position that depends 

upon the use of collateral evidence can be accepted only 

A corner is existent (or found) if such conclusion is supported by substantial evidence. The substantial evidence 

standard of proof is such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion. Substantial evidence is more than a scintilla of 

evidence but less than a preponderance of the evidence.

Even though its physical evidence may have entirely disappeared, a corner must not be regarded as lost, but as 

obliterated, if its position can be recovered through the 

reliable testimony of one or more witnesses who have 

dependable knowledge of the original position. Later 

marks or records that tied to the original monument 

or its accessories when still present, may identify the 

position of an obliterated corner. Such evidence should 

provide a direct relationship to some identifying feature 

described in the original survey record.

6-12. The process of identifying the physical evidence 

of an original monument is founded on the principle of 

intelligent search for the calls of the field notes of the 

original survey, guided by the controlling influence of 

known points. The recovery of previously established 

corners is simplified by projecting retracements from 

known points. The final search for a monument should 

cover the zone surrounding one, two, three, or four 

points determined by connection with known corners. 

These corners will ultimately control the relocation in 

case the corner being searched for is declared lost.

The search for the original monument must include a 

simultaneous search for its accessories. The evidence 

can be expected to range from that which is least conclusive to that which is unquestionable; the need for 

corroborative evidence is therefore in direct proportion 

to the uncertainty of any feature in doubt or dispute. 

The evidence should agree with the record in the field 

notes of the original survey subject to natural changes, 

which may vary depending upon local site conditions. 

Mounds of stone may have become embedded, pits may 

have filled until only a faint outline remains, blazes on 

bearing trees may have decayed or become overgrown.

6-13. After due allowance has been made for natural changes, there may still be material disagreement 

between the particular evidence in question and the 

record calls. The following considerations will prove 

useful in determining which features to eliminate as 

doubtful:

(1) The character and dimensions of the 

monument in evidence should not be widely 

different from the record.
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as duly supported, generally through proper relation 

to known corners, and agreement with the field notes 

regarding distances to natural objects, stream crossings, line trees, and off-line tree blazes, etc., or reliable 

testimony. Collateral evidence must include some component that relates to the position of the original survey corner, including measurement evidence, historical 

record, testimony, or any reasonable tie.

6-18. A corner is not considered as lost (section 7-2) 

if its position can be recovered satisfactorily by means 

of the reliable testimony and acts of witnesses having 

knowledge of the precise location of the original monument. The expert testimony of surveyors who may have 

identified the original monument prior to its destruction 

and recorded new accessories or connections is by far 

the most reliable, though landowners are often able to 

furnish valuable testimony. The greatest care is necessary in order to establish the bona fide character of 

the record intervening after the destruction of an original monument. Full inquiry may bring to light various 

records relating to the original corners and memoranda 

of private markings, and the surveyor must make use of 

all such sources of information. The matter of boundary 

disputes will be carefully examined as adverse claimants 

may base their contentions upon evidence of the original survey. If such disputes have resulted in a boundary 

suit, the record testimony and the court’s decision must 

be carefully examined for information that may shed 

light upon the position of an original monument.

Direct Evidence of Existent and 

Obliterated Corners

6-19. A line tree, a witness point, or a definite connection to readily identified natural objects or improvements may fix a point of the original survey. The mean 

position of a blazed line, when identified as the original 

line, may help to fix a meridional line for departure, or 

a latitudinal line for latitude. Such blazed lines must be 

carefully checked, because corrections may have been 

made before final acceptance of the controlling survey 

or more than one line may have been blazed. Thus, the 

mean position of a fence line or other line of use or 

occupancy placed with due regard to the location of the 

original survey and plan of survey, or whose agreement 

is so close as to constitute the best available evidence, 

may help to fix a line in latitude, departure, or both.

Testimony of Individuals

6-20. The testimony of individuals may relate to the 

original monument or the accessories, prior to their 

destruction, or to any other marks fixing the locus of 

the original survey. Weight will be given such testimony according to its completeness, its agreement with 

the original field notes, and the steps taken to preserve 

the location of the original marks. Such evidence must 

be tested by relating it to known original corners and 

other calls of the original field notes, particularly to 

line trees, blazed lines, and items of topography.

There is no clearly defined rule for the acceptance or 

nonacceptance of the testimony of individuals. It may 

be based upon unaided memory over a long period or 

upon definite notes and private marks. The witness may 

have come by his or her knowledge casually or may have 

had a specific reason for remembering. Corroborative 

evidence becomes necessary in direct proportion to 

the uncertainty of the statements advanced. The surveyor should bear in mind that conflicting statements 

and contrary views of interested parties to boundary 

disputes are potentially fruitful sources of information 

concerning the original position of a corner.

To be reliable, testimony will indicate some knowledge 

of the position of the original monument. Landowners’ 

opinions of their boundaries may be based upon their 

understanding of common law principles of boundaries 

determined by occupation alone. Such testimony does 

not provide direct evidence of the position of an obliterated corner. In no case should such opinions or long 

term belief thereon be deferred to in the absence of 

some reliance and tie to the original survey. Occupation 

and long use do not act to deprive the United States of 

title to land.

6-21. The following information should be included 

when obtaining testimony or data from an individual 

concerning the true point for an original corner or 

related information:

(1) Name, age, address;

(2) How long at that address;

(3) When knowledge of the corner position first 

acquired;

(4) A photograph including the corner 

point and the witness, with the date, 

photographer’s signature, and the witness’ 

signature; and

(5) An actual statement by the witness, which 

is complete and signed.
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6-22. The surveyor will show in the field notes, or in 

the report of a field examination, the weight given this 

testimony in determining the true point for an original corner (see section 9-29). The following points will 

serve as a guide:

(1) The witness (or record evidence) should be 

duly qualified. The knowledge or information 

should be firsthand or, if hearsay, that fact noted; 

it should be complete; it should not be merely 

personal opinion. Hearsay statements will be 

documented, can be accepted, and generally 

assigned more weight if of a quality ordinarily 

accepted by cadastral surveyors.

(2) The testimony (or record statement) should 

be such as can stand an appropriate test of its 

bona fide character.

(3) The testimony (or the record) will be 

sufficiently accurate, within a reasonable 

limit, for what is required in normal surveying 

practice.

Topographic Calls

6-23. The proper use of topographic calls of the original field notes may assist in recovering the locus of the 

original survey. Such evidence may merely disprove 

other questionable features or be a valuable guide in 

arriving at the immediate vicinity of a line or corner. 

At best a topographic call or calls can verify or disprove 

questionable evidence of the original monument or its 

accessories. In rare cases, they may serve as substantial 

evidence to fix the position of a point, line, or corner.

Allowance should be made for ordinary discrepancies 

in the calls relating to items of topography. Such evidence should be considered in the aggregate and when 

found to be corroborative, an average may be secured 

to control the final adjustment. This will be governed 

largely by the evidences nearest the particular corner 

in question, giving the greatest weight to those features 

that agree most closely with the record, and to such 

items as afford definite connection.

In comparing distances returned in the original field 

notes with those returned in the dependent resurveys, 

gross differences appear in a significant number of 

instances. In some cases the original surveyor apparently surveyed a line in one direction, but then reversed 

the direction in the record without making corresponding changes in distances to items of topography, or the 

surveyor did not in fact survey in one direction but fabricated the topographic calls.

6-24. A careful analysis must be made by the surveyor 

before using topographic calls to fix an original corner 

point. Indiscriminate use will lead to problems and disputes where two or more interpretations are possible. 

Close attention will be given to the manner in which the 

original survey was made. Instructions for chaining in 

the earlier manuals indicate that memory was an important factor in recording distances to items of topography. 

Early field notes often appear to have shown distances 

only to the nearest chain or even a wider approximation. 

Often the feature will not afford a definitive connection 

and the distance can only be considered as an approximation within a range.

The weight to be given an item of topography noted in 

the field notes of an original survey, and shown upon the 

plat thereof, should be commensurate with the importance attached thereto in the execution of such original survey. It should be remembered that the position of 

items of topography in the interior of sections, as shown 

upon the plats of the public land surveys, has been 

almost invariably based upon estimates by the surveyor, 

rather than upon actual measurements thereto, and at 

best represents only an approximation of the actual 

position of the topography. It is ordinarily only the distances at which sections lines intersect various items of 

topography that are actually measured on the ground.

6-25. These facts have sometimes caused distrust and 

virtual avoidance of the use of topography in corner 

point verification or restoration where proper application might be extremely helpful. Misapplication usually 

may be avoided by applying the following tests:

(1) The determination should result in a definite 

locus within a small area.

(2) The evidence should not be susceptible of 

more than one reasonable interpretation.

(3) The corner locus should not be contradicted 

by evidence of a higher class or by other 

topographic notes.

6-26. The determination of the original corner point 

from even fragmentary evidence of the original accessories, generally substantiated by the original topographic calls, is much stronger than determination 

from topographic calls alone. In questionable cases 

it is better practice, in the absence of other collateral 
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evidence, to turn to the suitable means of proportionate 

measurement.

Witness Corners

6-27. A witness corner is not the corner point but a 

witness to the true point for the corner. The corner 

point being witnessed is recovered when the witness 

corner is recovered.

Ordinarily a witness corner established in the prior survey and not placed on a line of the survey will fix the 

true point for the corner at record bearing and distance, 

as does a bearing tree or bearing object.

Where the witness corner was placed on a line of the 

survey, if no complications arise, the witness corner 

will be used as control in determining the true point for 

the corner. If the factual statements in the field notes 

are clear as to interpretation, it is then merely a question of record bearing and distance from the witness 

corner to the true point for the corner. This presumes 

the section lines surveyed and marked in the field by 

the United States surveyors are in fact record bearings 

and distances between recovered corners. However, 

this is not usually the case. Therefore, in order to locate 

the true point for the corner, it will be necessary to 

adopt bearings and distances as ascertained from the 

corresponding section line.

For corners reestablished by double proportionate measurement, the true point for the corner will be determined by extending the line through the witness corner 

at record distance. For corners reestablished by single 

proportionate measurement, the true point for the 

corner will be determined by single proportionate 

measurement between the witness corner and the opposite controlling corner. Thus, in single proportionate 

measurement, the record bearing and distance is modified, and the witness corner becomes an angle point of 

the line.

Unfortunately, the factual statements of the original 

field notes are not always clear. In some surveys witness corners were called witness points. The record 

may indicate that the witness corner was established 

on a random line, or there may be an apparent error of 

calculation for distance along the true line. The monument may not have been marked “WC” plainly or at 

all. In these instances, or where there is extensive obliteration, multiple witness corners to one corner, or distortion or blunder in the measurement in the original 

record, each corner will be treated individually. The 

important consideration is to locate the true corner 

point in its original position and document any exceptional situation.

The recovered on-line witness corner is properly used 

as a control point in the reestablishment of lost corners 

by the appropriate method of proportionate measurement. Typically, acreage is not returned to the witness 

corner position but to the true point for the corner. The 

on-line witness corner is used for section alinement 

and as a control point in the establishment of minor 

subdivision corners. The position of a recovered witness corner is, therefore, perpetuated.

Since the true point for the corner will usually be of 

major importance, the surveyor will proceed directly to 

its determination by the applicable methods if the witness corner is lost. If it is then impracticable to monument or mark the true point for the corner, a new witness corner will be established and marked as directed 

in chapter IV. The point for an on-line lost witness corner should be called for in the field notes but not monumented (section 4-16).

For treatment of “Half-Mile Posts,” Alabama and 

Florida, see Chapter VII Notes.

Line Trees

6-28. Under the law, a definitely identified line tree 

with distinguishable marks (see section 3-220) is a monument of the original survey. It properly is used as a 

control point in the reestablishment of lost corners by 

the appropriate method of proportionate measurement 

and treated just as is a recovered corner. It is monumented or referenced and becomes an angle point of the 

line. Typically, acreage is not returned to the line tree 

position on the plat. The line tree is used for section 

alinement and as a control point in the establishment of 

minor subdivision corners.

A problem arises where line trees, sometimes called 

sight trees or station trees, were improperly established 

on a random line and so recorded in the field notes 

rather than on the true line. Such line trees are generally of most value as guides in locating the original corners and as control points where there has been extensive obliteration of the corners themselves. The making 

of proportionate offsets from line trees on the random 

line to determine angle points of the true line lends the 

trees more influence than is warranted. In adopting such 

a scheme the surveyor would be assuming that if the 

original surveyor had followed the survey of the random 
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line with a survey of the true line he would have created 

angles at the same points as on the random line. The 

fact is that there might well have been angles in the true 

line, but they would be wherever the line struck trees 

on the true line—not at the same distances at all. The 

most probable location of the true line is on a straight 

line between the corners, if these corners are recovered, 

as reported in the record subsequent to the field notes of 

the random line.

Line trees not recovered will not be reestablished. In 

cases where not every line tree of record was recovered, a general statement may be made in the field 

notes that all original line trees along the lines returned 

were searched for but only the recovered line trees are 

reported. The point for a lost line tree, if needed, is 

determined by single proportionate measurement.

Witness Points

6-29. A witness point is a monumented station on the 

line of a survey employed to perpetuate an important 

location without special relationship to any regular corner, except that the distance is known. It is a point of 

the original survey. It is treated just as is a recovered 

corner. By rule, a witness point is an artificial line tree. 

It is monumented or referenced, and becomes an angle 

point of the line. It properly is used as a control point 

in the reestablishment of lost corners by the appropriate method of proportionate measurement. Typically, 

acreage is not returned to the witness point on the plat. 

The witness point is used for section alinement and as 

a control point in the establishment of minor subdivision corners. The position of a recovered witness point 

is perpetuated. The point for a lost witness point is 

determined by single proportionate measurement and is 

called for in the field notes but may not be monumented 

(see section 4-18).

Meander Corners

6-30. Although considered an intermediate monument, 

it is actually a corner of first order. The actual boundary 

of the meandered body of water is the ordinary high 

water mark or the line of mean high tide. Meander corners are set to delineate acreage, not to mark the boundary with the water body. Legal subdivisions of sections 

are created and areas are returned against the meander 

corners.

When recovered, meander corners normally control 

both alinement and proportionate measurement along 

the line, as any corner of first order. Meander corners 

not recovered will normally be reestablished (see section 7-37). Resurvey and retracement records must 

be examined carefully because meander corners, by 

instructions, have been used differently for restorations 

and establishments.

State Boundary Monuments

6-31. The BLM has no general authority to survey 

or resurvey State boundaries. However, the BLM does 

have general authority to survey or resurvey Federal 

interest lands that are adjacent to or abut State boundaries. The retracement and resurvey of State boundaries 

are authorized to the extent necessary to provide control 

for the survey or resurvey of the adjacent lands for the 

identification of the Federal interest lands. This includes 

the reestablishment and remonumentation of mile posts 

on State boundaries and the establishment and monumentation of corners of minimum control along State 

boundaries. The corners of township, range, section, and 

subdivision-of-section lines that intersect State boundaries are established as corners of minimum control.

The resurvey of a State boundary may be made under 

direction of the Supreme Court or may be authorized 

by the States involved with the consent of Congress. 

In connection with the survey or resurvey of adjacent 

Federal interest lands, it is proper to retrace as much 

of the State boundary as may be needed for a suitable 

closing. Identified original State boundary corners may 

properly be remonumented and corners of minimum 

control may be established and monumented. Lost corners should not be remonumented unless this is specifically sanctioned by appropriate authority. The original 

survey of certain State boundaries was executed under 

the former General Land Office (GLO) when specifically authorized by act of Congress.

6-32. Prior to any survey of a State boundary, the 

affected State governments will be notified. In addition and prior to any retracement or resurvey of a State 

boundary, a study of the history of the boundary should 

disclose whether:

(1) The State boundary was surveyed prior 

to the public land survey system and the latter 

closed upon the boundary;

(2) The public land survey system was surveyed 

prior to the State boundary line survey; or

(3) An existing public land survey system line 

was adopted as the State boundary and mile 

posts were subsequently established.
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Each requires its unique solution, which will be presented in the special instructions.

International Boundary Monuments

6-33. The BLM has no general authority to survey or 

resurvey international boundaries. Prior to survey of 

Federal interest lands adjacent to or abutting an international boundary, the Department of State will be 

consulted and, particularly, the International Boundary 

Commission for the boundary with Canada or the 

International Boundary and Water Commission for the 

boundary with Mexico. Coordination will be established with governing authorities prior to approaching 

or surveying the international boundary.

Significance of Official Action

6-34. The GLO and BLM instructions and policies for 

proper usage of the monuments of the original survey 

have varied when used to (1) to control section alinement, (2) to control reestablishment of lost corners, 

establishment of minor subdivision corners or subdivision of sections, or (3) to determine the true point for 

the corner using witness corners and “half-mile posts” 

(section 7-36). Such changes in technical policies are 

prospective in application and generally are not applied 

retrospectively. It has long been held by competent 

authority that official resurveys and retracements, after 

acceptance and official filing, are presumed to be correct, surveyed consistent with the laws and policies in 

effect at that time, and shall not be disturbed except 

upon proof by a preponderance of the evidence that they 

are fraudulent or grossly erroneous.

Collateral Evidence of 

Obliterated Corners

Good Faith Locations

6-35. It may be held generally that the claimant, entryman, or owner of lands has located his or her lands by 

the good faith location rule if such care was used in 

determining the boundaries as might be expected by the 

exercise of ordinary intelligence under existing conditions. A good faith location is a satisfactory location of 

a claim or of a local point. It is one in which it is evident 

that the claimant’s interpretation of the record of the 

original survey as related to the nearest corners existing 

at the time the lands were located is indicative of such a 

degree of care and diligence upon their part, or that of 

their surveyor, in the ascertainment of their boundaries 

as might be expected for that time and place. This is 

referred to as the good faith location rule.

6-36. The relationship of the lands to the nearest corners existing at the time the lands were located is often 

defined by fencing, culture, or other improvements. In 

many parts of the country, county and other local survey 

monuments, which may consist of pipes or stones commonly used at the time, may be found at the apparent 

corners of the entryman’s improvements including fencing. The possible existence of such local monuments 

demands a diligent search for any records from the old 

local survey, but even if the monuments are of unknown 

origin they must be analyzed for good faith location. 

Lack of good faith is not necessarily chargeable if the 

entryman has not located himself according to a rigid 

application of the rules laid down for the restoration of 

lost corners where:

(1) complicated conditions involve a double set 

of corners, both of which may be regarded as 

authentic;

(2) there are no existing corners in one or more 

directions for an excessive distance;

(3) existing marks are improperly related to an 

extraordinary degree; or

(4) all evidences of the original survey or prior 

resurvey that have been adopted by the entryman 

as a basis for his or her location have been lost 

before the resurvey is undertaken.

Furthermore, the extent of recognition given by neighboring claimants to a local point used for the control 

of the location of claims very often carries with it the 

necessity for a consideration of its influence in the matter of the acceptability of such locations under the good 

faith location rule.

6-37. The surveyor should neither rigidly apply the 

rules for restoration of lost corners or the rules for subdivision of sections without regard to effect on location 

of improvements nor accept the position of improvements without question regardless of their relation or 

irrelation to existing evidence of the original survey and 

the description contained in the entry. Between these 

extremes will be found the basis for the determination 

of whether improved lands have been located in good 

faith. No definite specific set of rules can be laid down 

in advance. The solution to the problem must be found 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VI - Resurveys and Evidence

on the ground by the surveyor. The responsibility to 

resolve the question of good faith as to location rests 

primarily upon the surveyor’s judgment.

6-38. The question is whether the position of the lands 

claimed, occupied or improved is to be adopted under 

the good faith location rule, and whether, if so adopted, 

the claims thus acceptably located can all be properly 

protected by the dependent plan of resurvey. If the position of any claim fails to qualify under the good faith 

location rule it should be disregarded as to the effect 

produced thereon by the plan of dependent resurvey. On 

the other hand, if these claims are held to be acceptably 

located under the same rule, they should be adopted as 

the determining factor in the position of the lost corner 

or corners, or establishment of new corners; and if the 

claims are in such concordant relation to each other and 

to the identified evidence of the original survey as to 

receive full protection by the dependent plan of resurvey, the surveyor will proceed with full assurance of the 

adequacy of the plan. Otherwise, the question of other 

processes analogous to those of an independent resurvey or to the correction of conveyance documents or the 

Quiet Title Act should be considered.

If two or more claims are acceptably located, but are 

discordantly related to each other to a considerable 

degree (by virtue of irregularities in the original survey), it will be clear that the general plan of dependent 

resurvey may not afford protection to such claims. In 

this case, as before stated, some other process must be 

adopted to protect the acceptably located claims.

6-39. In cases involving extensive obliteration at the 

date of entry or selection, the entryman or their successors in interest should understand that the boundaries of 

the claim will probably be subject to adjustment in the 

event of a dependent resurvey. A general control applied 

to the boundaries of groups of claims will be favored 

as far as possible in the interest of justice, of equal fairness to all and of simplicity of resurvey. A claim cannot 

generally be regarded as having been located in good 

faith if no attempts have been made to relate it in some 

manner to the original survey.

6-40. Cases will arise where lands have been occupied 

in good faith, but whose boundaries as occupied disagree with the position of the legal subdivision called 

for in the description. A landowner’s bona fide belief 

concerning the boundary location is not the same as a 

bona fide right within the meaning of 43 U.S.C. 772. A 

bona fide right within the meaning of 43 U.S.C. 772 is 

based on good faith reliance on evidence of the original 

survey. Obviously, under these facts the rule of good 

faith as to location cannot apply. This is not a survey 

issue but a title issue and relief must be sought through 

the process of amended entry, correction of conveyance 

document under 43 U.S.C. 1746, quiet title action, tentative approval relinquishment, or interim conveyance 

reconveyance or relinquishment to cover the legal subdivisions actually earned, rather than through an alteration of the position of established lines. This is a process 

of adjudication rather than one of resurvey. A case of 

this character should be regarded as erroneous location 

in precisely the same manner as if the question of resurvey were not involved. The amendment of entries is a 

matter for adjudication by the BLM after the resurvey 

has been accepted and the plats officially filed.

Satisfactory Local Conditions

6-41. It is not intended to disturb satisfactory local conditions with respect to roads, fences, and other evidence 

of use or occupancy. The surveyor has no authority to 

change a property right that has been acquired legally, 

nor accept the location of roads, fences and other use 

or occupancy as prima facie evidence of the original 

survey. Something is needed in support of these locations. This will come from whatever intervening record 

there may be, the testimony of individuals who may 

be acquainted with the facts, and the coupling of these 

things to the original survey.

In many cases due care has been exercised to place the 

property fences and other evidence of use or occupancy 

on the lines of legal subdivision and locate the public 

roads on the section or subdivision-of-section lines. 

These are matters of particular interest to the adjoining owners, and it is a reasonable presumption that care 

and good faith would be exercised with regard to the 

evidence of the original survey in existence at the time. 

Obviously, the burden of proof to the contrary must be 

borne by the party claiming differently. In many cases 

there are subsurface marks in roadways, such as deposits of a marked stone or other durable material, that are 

important evidence of the exact position of a corner if 

the proof can be verified. Also, knowledge regarding the 

construction of a purported property line fence, or other 

use or occupancy line can be obtained from long time 

landowners and community members and could provide 

positive evidence as to location in conformity with the 

good faith location rule.

6-42. A property corner or a use or occupancy position 

should exercise a regular control upon the retracement 

only when it was placed with due regard to the location 
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of the original survey, or agreement is so close as to 

constitute the best available evidence.

6-43. Other factors to be considered are the rules of 

the State law and the State court decisions, as distinguished from the rules laid down by the BLM (the latter 

applicable to the public land surveys created boundaries 

in all cases). Under State law in matters of agreement 

between owners, acquiescence, or adverse possession, 

property boundaries may be defined by roads, fences, 

use or occupancy lines, or survey marks, disregarding 

exact conformation with the original legal subdivision 

lines. These may limit the rights between adjoining 

owners, but generally have no effect on the boundaries 

of Federal interest lands.

6-44. In cases where the Federal Government has 

acquired land with a boundary created when the United 

States owned neither side of the boundary, the boundary may be defined by State law. For these boundaries, 

rights may have vested to a location disregarding exact 

conformation to the title lines or original legal subdivisions prior to the title being acquired by the Federal 

Government. The surveyor shall not impair such rights. 

The conflicting title lines and ownership lines are surveyed and monumented and the conflict area is returned 

upon the plat. Each intersection of conflicting boundaries is determined upon the ground and recorded in the 

field notes. The returns must describe and show the limits of the Federal ownership and the limits of the Federal 

title. The survey record will document the findings of 

fact, source of law (section 1-7), and conclusion at law 

supporting the determination. These cases require close 

collaboration with legal counsel and BLM Lands Staff.

Local Points of Control

6-45. Once a local point of control is accepted in an 

official survey it has all the authority and significance of 

an original corner. The influence of such points is combined with that of the previously identified original corners in making final adjustments of the temporary points.

The acceptance of duly qualified and locally recognized 

points of control should verify the public land surveys, 

simplify resurveys, and avoid conflicting lines that differ only slightly in location. In this manner flexibility 

will be introduced in the plan of the dependent resurvey, at least to the extent of protecting satisfactory local 

actions in reliance on evidence of the original survey.

6-46. The surveyor cannot abandon the record of the 

original survey in favor of an indiscriminate adoption 

of points not reconcilable with it. However, many situations will arise where locally accepted lines are in substantial agreement with evidence of the original survey, 

although without testimony or record evidence relating to the original survey. Where this circumstance is 

found, it is often better to accept a position based upon 

local interpretation rather than to disturb satisfactory 

existing conditions. The surveyor will endeavor to avoid 

disturbing the position of locally recognized lines when 

such action may adversely affect improvements, again, 

provided that there is substantial agreement with the 

evidence of the original survey. At the same time the 

surveyor must use extreme caution in adopting local 

points of control. These may range from authentic perpetuations of original corners down to marks that were 

never intended to be more than approximations. The 

surveyor must consider all these factors.

Chief among this class of evidence forming the basis of 

recognized positions of land boundaries are; recorded 

monuments established by local surveyors and duly 

agreed upon by interested property owners; the position of 

boundary fences determined in the same manner; and the 

lines of public roads, drainage or irrigation ditches, and 

timber cutting lines; when intended to be located with reference to the original subdivisional lines. The local record 

in these cases, when available, may furnish evidence of 

the original survey. If a point qualifies for acceptance, 

having satisfied the requirement for substantial agreement 

with evidence of the original survey, the presumption is 

strong that its position bears satisfactory relation to the 

original survey and the burden of proof to the contrary 

must be borne by the party claiming differently. Points 

that so qualify must be accepted as the best available evidence of the true position of the original survey.

6-47. It is not to be assumed, however, that because a 

large number or all of the claims are consistently related 

among themselves to an arbitrary system of control, 

which is itself altogether unrelated to the original survey, that such system is necessarily to be adopted as the 

basis of a dependent resurvey.

6-48. The age, position, and degree to which a local 

corner has been relied on by all affected landowners 

may lead to its adoption as the best remaining evidence 

of the position of the original corner. When a local reestablishment of a lost corner or a local establishment of a 

legal subdivision corner has been made by proper methods without gross error, it will ordinarily be acceptable. Monuments of unknown origin must be judged on 

their own merits, but these monuments should never be 

rejected out of hand without careful study.
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It is a recognized principle that the restoration of a corner may be influenced by the position of one or more 

existing claims. This principle warrants, within suitable limits, the acceptance of a local determination that 

does not exactly coincide with a rigid application of the 

rules for restoration of lost corners and subdivision of 

sections.

Thus where locations are found to have been established 

on good faith reliance on evidence of the original survey 

the position of which cannot otherwise be fully demonstrated by existing evidence of the original survey, the 

theoretical point determined by the primary control will 

be set aside in favor of a near-by duly qualified corresponding point, the position of which has been agreed 

upon by the adjoining property owners. Such a point 

will then be recognized as the best available evidence of 

the true position for the corner.

6-49. The field note record of the dependent resurvey 

must clearly set forth the reasons for the acceptance of a 

local point not identified by actual marks of the original 

survey, but by nonofficial determinations. Recognized 

and acceptable local marks will be preserved and 

described. Monuments must be fully described in the 

field notes and a full complement of the required accessories recorded, but without disturbing or re-marking 

the existing monument. New monuments are established 

if required for permanence or to provide unique marks 

to clearly identify the corner. The evidence of the local 

marks will not be destroyed, and if disturbed, the final 

disposition will be fully described in the field notes. 

When a local point is not accepted, the field note record 

of the resurvey must also clearly set forth the reasons.

Corner Positions Based on the 

Protection of Bona Fide Rights: 

43 U.S.C. 772

6-50. The following sections describe the conditions 

that warrant the protection of bona fide rights as to location due to:

(1) gross errors in the original survey;

(2) inadequate original evidence such that the 

application of the normal methods for restoration 

of lost corners will impair bona fide rights; or

(3) complicated conditions involving a double 

set of corners, both of which may be regarded 

as authentic, which result (a) in irreconcilable 

conflicting evidence of the original corner 

positions, or (b) in conflicting positions when 

used for restoration of lost corners or subdivision 

of sections.

6-51. Bona fide rights as to location may vest to an 

official resurvey. This is in keeping with the principle 

of protecting bona fide rights based on an original survey, pursuant to 43 U.S.C. 772. As the Court said in 

United States v. Reimann, 504 F.2d 135, 139-140 (10th 

Cir. 1974):

It would be inequitable to permit the government 

. . . to accept a survey[,] . . . recording it with 

knowledge that it would be relied upon by 

patentees, and then grant the government the 

right to later correct its error, ex parte, to the 

detriment of those who did in fact, and in good 

faith, rely upon it.

6-52. An official resurvey shall not be overturned 

except upon clear proof of fraud or gross error amounting to fraud. This is especially true after a long lapse 

of time or good faith reliance. In some instances, to 

protect bona fide rights, the BLM has departed from 

a rigid application of dependent resurvey principles to 

ensure that long-accepted official survey lines are not 

disturbed, property boundaries are stabilized, and title 

as to location is secured. Salt Wells Live Stock Co., 

A-26367 (May 9, 1952).

6-53. Bona fide rights as to location may also vest to 

local surveys that rely on evidence of the original survey. County and other local corners cannot be considered official United States corners unless and until they 

are accepted by the BLM in an official survey.

6-54. Corners established in an administrative survey 

by BLM employees, by other Federal departments and 

agencies, or by or for an Indian tribe, unless subject to 

special enactment, cannot be considered official United 

States corners unless and until they are accepted by the 

authorized officer of the BLM. In the absence of official 

acceptance by the BLM, users rely on such corners at 

their own peril. Longview Fibre Co., 135 IBLA 170, 185 

(1996).

Other Situations Involving 

Protection of Bona Fide Rights

6-55. In the execution of a dependent resurvey, 

there may arise cases where occupancy and valuable 
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non-Federal improvements have been placed onto lands 

under title to the United States based on reliance on evidence of a local survey that is so discordantly related to 

existing authentic evidence of the original survey that 

such local corners cannot qualify for adoption either as 

physical evidence of the original survey, as good faith 

reliance on evidence of the original survey, as demonstrating satisfactory local conditions, or as a local point 

of control. There is no legal authority to disregard the 

identified evidence of the original survey or to accept a 

fraudulent or grossly erroneous local corner position, in 

these cases.

No general title or survey remedy has been devised other 

than that of removal. Whether such trespass remedy 

method appears to be practicable or not, the surveyor 

will submit a detailed report of the conditions found. 

The report will recommend procedures suited to the 

particular case. The recommendations will be designed 

to protect the claimant’s improvements and will not 

disturb those who have acquired legal rights through 

location consistent with the appropriate official survey. 

These cases are exceptional in any township where regular control has been developed by careful retracement 

and thorough search.

A metes-and-bounds survey of an erroneous location 

cannot have the effect of conveying title. No legal title 

to Federal interest land can be established by use or 

occupancy outside the subdivisions named in the entry, 

selection, or patent, except during the period when the 

land was alienated, as adverse possession does not run 

against land under title to the United States. Sooner or 

later, the claimant would find him or herself without a 

complete legal title to the lands upon which he or she 

had spent his or her labors. Removal of improvements 

or an appropriate conveyance document, when the occupancy and improvements do not conform to the lines 

and subdivisions of the original survey is the only safe 

course to remedy such title defects.

6-56. As official resurveys themselves grow in number, cases will arise where a patent issued under an 

original survey is located and valuable non-Federal 

improvements are made after the official resurvey, and 

the improvements were made under good faith reliance 

on the official resurvey’s restoration of the original survey. Problems develop when evidence of the original 

survey corners is later discovered that differs materially in location from the official resurvey’s restored corners. In some such instances, established non-Federal 

improvements will be found on lands under title to the 

United States. In such a case, the survey that controls 

the conveyance document is the most recent officially 

filed survey before the valid entry, application, or selection that resulted in the issuance of the patent or other 

conveyance, not the subsequent resurvey. In such cases, 

however, questions may be raised of “good faith reliance” on an official resurvey and therefore of possible 

bona fide rights as to location, and the surveyor will 

seek specific instructions.

No general title or survey remedy has been devised 

other than that of removal of the non-Federal improvements, if the claimant can reasonably do so, or the issuance of an amended entry to describe the occupied legal 

subdivisions. Whether such trespass remedy methods 

appear practicable or not, the surveyor will submit a 

detailed report of the conditions found. The report will 

recommend procedures suited to the particular case. 

The recommendations will be designed to protect the 

claimant’s improvements, if possible, and will not disturb those who have acquired actual legal or bona fide 

rights as to location through location consistent with the 

appropriate official (re)survey. These cases are exceptional in any township where regular control has been 

developed by careful retracement and thorough search.

It is difficult to particularize the exact nature of the relationship of bona fide rights as to location to an official 

resurvey that presents the original survey in a position 

in conflict with the actual location of the original survey. 

There must be some latitude for construction. As the 

Court said in Knight v. United States Land Association, 

142 U.S. 161, 181 (1891):

It is obvious, it is common knowledge, that in the 

administration of such large and varied interests 

as are intrusted to the Land Department, matters 

not foreseen, equities not anticipated, and which 

are, therefore, not provided for by express 

statute, may sometimes arise, and, therefore, 

that the Secretary of the Interior is given that 

superintending and supervising power which 

will enable him, in the face of these unexpected 

contingencies, to do justice. Williams v. United 

States, 138 U.S. 514, 524 (1891).

A metes-and-bounds survey of an erroneous location 

cannot have the effect of conveying title. Equitable title 

to Federal interest land may be established by substantial 

and long term improvements outside of the subdivisions 

named in the entry, selection, or patent, when based on 

good faith reliance on evidence of an official resurvey. 

However, sooner or later, the claimant would find him or 

herself without a complete legal title to the lands upon 
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which he or she had spent his or her labors. Questions of 

title and ownership will be discussed with legal counsel 

and the appropriate agency official. Title remedies must 

be documented, monumented, and described in the official survey record.

6-57. Another case may arise in the execution of an 

official resurvey where Federal occupancy and valuable Federal improvements have been placed onto lands 

determined not to be under title to the United States 

based on good faith reliance on evidence of a local survey or on an official resurvey that is so discordantly 

related to existing authentic evidence of the original survey that such corner positions cannot qualify for adoption in an official resurvey. The United States cannot 

claim the benefit of the bona fide right statutes, which 

were enacted to protect the owners of alienated lands 

located and occupied in good faith from interference by 

subsequent official resurveys.

The appropriate treatment of this case, where possible 

of application, consists in the removal of the Federal 

improvements from the occupied alienated legal subdivisions. However, when it is determined that the United 

States wishes to retain and clear title to the land, it may 

seek to purchase or condemn the property upon payment of just compensation. If the landowner acts first, 

the United States may be subject to a claim for inverse 

condemnation, in which case just compensation is also 

the measure of Federal liability. If sufficient time passes 

to satisfy State law, the Federal Government can obtain 

legal title to lands established by the occupancy and 

improvements of lands inside the subdivisions named 

in an entry, selection, or patent, as adverse possession 

does run for the United States. Ultimately, however, the 

Federal Government would have to act to clear legal 

title to the lands upon which it had made improvements, 

and the just compensation provision of the Constitution 

for a “taking” may still apply. Such cases will also be 

exceptional, however, in any township where regular 

control has been developed by careful retracement and 

thorough search.

Regardless of which course is ultimately chosen by 

Federal officials, the surveyor will submit a detailed 

report of the conditions found, with recommendations 

designed for protection of the Federal interest improvements and will not disturb those who have acquired 

legal or bona fide rights as to location through location 

consistent with the appropriate official (re)survey.

In any event, a metes-and-bounds survey of an erroneous location cannot have the effect of conveying title. 

A written or directed conveyance to the United States, 

either through purchase, condemnation, or vested 

unwritten rights is the only safe course to remedy such 

title defects when Federal occupancy and improvements 

are found not to conform to the lines and subdivisions of 

the original survey or title lines.

Special Case Dependent Resurveys—

Fictitious, Fraudulent, or 

Grossly Erroneous Surveys

6-58. Special case conditions exist only in a township 

with use or occupancy lines or other improvements, and 

where the official record representing the original survey is fictitious, fraudulent, or grossly erroneous beyond 

any tolerable limit. The special case dependent resurvey 

is applicable when it has been determined:

(1) not to identify the alienated lands by tract 

segregations;

(2) there will be no projection of new 

subdivision lines; and

(3) the original plat will not be cancelled.

6-59. Special case dependent resurveys provide methods adapted to areas with considerable amounts of 

alienated land or considerable amounts of Federal interest lands. Special case claim segregations are necessary 

only in those unusual cases where irrelated control prevents the reconstruction of sections and legal subdivisions by using existent corners and accepted local points 

of control that would adequately protect the alienated 

lands. It is applicable where the original survey cannot 

be identified with any degree of certainty in accordance 

with the representations of the approved plat and field 

notes, or where the prevailing conditions are such that 

strictly restorative processes, when applied as an inflexible rule between existing monuments or adopted local 

corner positions, are either inadequate or lead to unsatisfactory results. In effect this may employ the traces 

of the original survey, the good faith location rule or a 

combination of both in the same township. This type 

of dependent resurvey provides for the location of individual claims in conformance with the subdivisions of 

the resurvey.

These processes are found to be more flexible in their 

application than those of the strictly dependent type, but 

at the same time they are intended duly to protect all 

private rights that have been acquired upon the basis of 

the original survey and plat. The special case dependent 
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resurvey also perpetuates the record of the original survey with respect to the identification and description of 

the remaining Federal interest lands.

6-60. The special instructions will designate the sections containing alienated lands that will be dependently resurveyed. Where there is acceptable evidence of 

the original survey, the identification of the areas that 

have been disposed of must be the same as would ordinarily be derived by the regular subdivision of the section. The special case claims to be segregated by tract 

survey are those areas that (1) cannot be so identified, 

nor conformed satisfactorily, (2) where correction of 

conveyance document appears not to be an available 

remedy, and (3) where the disposals are found to be in 

conflict by overlap. Every corner of these claims common with Federal interest land within the survey group 

is to be monumented.

6-61. An abstract of pertinent records and a status 

diagram will be furnished to the surveyor showing 

lands whose boundaries cannot legally be disturbed. 

These include patented lands, valid entries or claims, 

school sections, land grants, tentative approvals, interim 

conveyances, disposals, reservations, or selections of 

lands whose position and description are based upon 

the original survey and plat subject to the dependent 

resurvey plan. The dependent resurvey will not be complete until each claim described by the special instructions has received full protection in the matter of location. Each must be protected by the assignment of subdivisions of the resurvey. In addition, the surveyor will 

be furnished with the status of all claims in the adjacent sections or of adjoining townships ungrouped for 

resurvey that might affect the dependent resurvey 

procedure. The abstract will be included with the 

other data to accompany the special instructions for 

the resurvey.

6-62. Before identifying alienated subdivisions, it is 

necessary to make certain the discrepancies are such 

that no adequate or satisfactory basis can be shown for 

the restoration of the former section-line boundaries as 

a whole. The plan of the special case dependent resurvey must be such that all lines, monuments, and plat representation will duplicate the description of all previous 

sections where disposals have been made. The alienated 

lands described by an official record now regarded as 

fictitious, fraudulent, or grossly erroneous beyond any 

tolerable limit must be reconstructed using the best 

available evidence of the original survey based upon 

good faith locations, rules for restoration of lost corners, 

and principles of section subdivision.

6-63. The jurisdiction of the BLM, the limit of the 

authority of the surveyor, and the bona fide rights of 

claimants, remain absolutely the same whether the 

resurvey of alienated lands is to be made upon the traces 

of the original survey, the good faith location rule or 

a combination. Thus, identified corners of the original 

survey in the immediate vicinity of alienated lands to be 

conformed or segregated are employed for the control 

of the location of such lands. The question of the good 

faith of the entryman is fully considered. Where the evidence of the original survey is so obliterated that lack 

of good faith in location cannot be charged against the 

entryman, whose claim boundaries may differ from a 

theoretical location determined by more rigid surveying 

rules and principles, the available collateral evidence is 

to be regarded as the best indication of the original position of the claim included in the original description. 

This available collateral evidence is employed as far as 

consistent for the control of the section boundaries and 

subdivisions within which such claim is located, and 

may become points of control for proportionate measurement purposes.

6-64. Where the surveyor cannot definitely locate a 

claim by identification of the original survey, the claimant should be asked to point out his or her boundaries. 

The boundaries of the alienated land, so determined, 

are fixed as between private and Federal interest lands, 

subject to official acceptance and filing of the resurvey. 

The surveyor should explain that an acceptably located 

claim must have a form agreeing with the original entry, 

approximately regular boundaries, an area not widely 

inconsistent with that shown on the original plat, and a 

location as nearly correct as may be expected from the 

existing evidence of the original survey.

6-65. Dispute may arise over adjustment of the line 

between adjoining and acceptably located entered, 

selected, approved, conveyed, alienated or patented 

lands. If the dispute cannot be reconciled by the surveying process, the claims are surveyed in conflict and so 

shown on the resurvey plat.

6-66. The surveyor cannot change materially the configuration of a special case claim as shown by its original description in order to indemnify the owner against 

deficiencies in area, to eliminate conflicts between 

entries, or for any other purpose. If improvements have 

been located in good faith, the special case claim resurvey should be so executed, or the conformation to the 

lines of the dependent resurvey so indicated, as to cover 

as nearly as possible these improvements and at the 

same time maintain substantially the form of the entry 
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as originally described. No departure from this rule is 

allowed.

6-67. An attempt should be made to consult an absentee owner so that the owner may point out the lands 

subject to a dependent resurvey. If the owner cannot be 

found and there is no indication of the boundaries of 

a claim, the surveyor should locate it from the nearest 

original point of control or from a point of a neighboring claim, or assign to the alienated lands the appropriate subdivisions of the resurvey. The controlling factors 

are individual and neighborhood improvements (such as 

buildings, wells, springs of water, cultivated lands, public roads, fences, corners of recognized local surveys, 

etc.) that, unless not made in good faith, indicate the evident intention of the claimant, entryman or patentee as 

to the position of his or her land. Those claim locations 

made in good faith must be recognized and accepted.

6-68. The following rules will be observed in executing the resurvey of designated special case claims:

(1) Each acceptably located claim that is 

at variance with the lines of the resurvey is 

surveyed and monumented at each angle point 

of the line.

(2) Where the limiting boundary of the resurvey 

has been reestablished in its original position, the 

portion of a special case claim lying outside the 

limiting boundary is not surveyed. The portion 

of the special case claim lying within the area of 

the resurvey has at least one identifiable original 

boundary. It should be defined by conformation 

to the lines of the dependent resurvey in a 

position that is properly related to the identified 

or restored corners on the limiting boundary.

(3) Where the boundaries of a special case 

claim are unacceptably located as pointed 

out by the claimant, the claim is surveyed 

and monumented in a suitable relation to the 

original survey. If the claimant protests the 

location, the surveyor will request that the 

protest be made in writing. The written protest 

should be submitted with the returns of the 

resurvey. Accurate ties will be made to the 

corners of the claim as unacceptably located. 

The surveyor will make a complete report 

of the facts with reference to the question of 

location. Further protection to the entryman 

may be sought by an amendment of entry or 

correction of conveyance document.

(4) Where the boundaries of a claim (or its 

conformation to the lines of the resurvey) do 

not cover the lands occupied, improved, or 

claimed, the claimant may express a desire to 

amend his or her entry or seek a correction of 

the selection or conveyance document. The fact 

should be stated in the field notes. A separate 

full report is made by the surveyor describing 

the subdivisions actually occupied and those 

sought under the amended entry or correction 

of selection or conveyance document that are 

not within the special case claim as surveyed, 

all looking to the protection of the title to the 

lands actually earned. Concurrently the current 

regulations relating to the amendment of entries, 

correction of conveyance documents, tentative 

approval relinquishments, interim conveyance 

reconveyances or relinquishments, or quiet title 

actions will be evaluated in coordination with 

BLM Lands Staff and with the Office of the 

Solicitor, where necessary.

(5) Where the regular quarter-quarter sections 

within a special case claim fall in approximately 

the same position as the regular quarter-quarter 

sections of the resurvey, the claimant, entryman, 

or patentee may desire to conform his or her 

claim to the resurvey. If no apparent objection 

is found by the surveyor, the desire by the 

claimant, entryman, or patentee to conform his 

or her claim to the resurvey will be documented 

as testimony and included in the official record. 

However, where a claim includes an irregular lot 

as originally described or where any part of a 

claim falls upon an irregular lot of the resurvey, 

the claim should be resurveyed as a whole, even 

though some or all of the lines of the claim may 

coincide with certain subdivisional lines of the 

resurvey.

No special case claim should be conformed to the 

lines of a resurvey under an involved amended or 

correction of conveyance document description 

that includes numerous subdivisions smaller than 

the regular quarter-quarter section, excepting as 

completely surveyed and monumented.

(6) Conflicting special case claims, each 

acceptably located, are surveyed and 

monumented and the conflict shown upon the 

resurvey plat. Each intersection of conflicting 

boundaries is determined upon the ground and 

recorded in the field notes. The number of acres 
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in conflict with each other will be shown in the 

field notes or plat, or both.

(7) Special case claims are designated by the 

appropriate aliquot part or lot number consistent 

with the controlling tentative approval, interim 

conveyance, claim, entry, or patent.

(8) Accessories are required with the 

monuments at the corners of the special claims 

as described in chapter IV.

(9) Where special case claim lines intersect, a 

connection is made to the nearest claim corner on 

each side of the intersection and recorded in the 

field notes of the section line. This is considered 

a satisfactory connection to all adjoining claims 

located within the special instructions. Where 

an extensive system of special case claims has 

been resurveyed, the interior claims of the block 

do not require connections.

(10) All recovered monuments of the original 

survey not otherwise reported upon are 

connected by course and distance with a corner 

of the resurvey. The connection and a description 

of the traces of the original corner as identified 

are recorded in the field notes of the resurvey. 

The old monument is marked AM (for amended 

monument), inverted and buried in place, if 

practicable, and the accessories are effaced 

unless the point may be needed to control the 

position of a claim.

Independent Resurveys:

Bona Fide Rights and the 

Location of Alienated Lands

6-69. In the conduct of a resurvey, there are certain 

factors that do not change, including the jurisdiction of 

the BLM as defined by the United States Congress, the 

limit of the authority of the surveyor, and the bona fide 

rights of claimants, where alienated lands are involved. 

These factors vary only slightly, whether the resurvey is 

of an official resurvey or of a local survey, and remain 

the same whether the resurvey is to be made upon the 

dependent or independent plan.

6-70. Areas that have been alienated must be the same 

as described by the patent or equivalent document of 

conveyance. Where there is either acceptable evidence 

of the original survey or a good faith location based on 

the original survey, the identification of the areas will 

ordinarily be derived by the regular subdivision of the 

section. Areas to be segregated as tracts are those where:

(1) the prevailing conditions are such that 

strictly restorative processes, when applied as an 

inflexible rule between existing monuments will 

impair bona fide rights;

(2) adopted corner positions are either 

inadequate or lead to unsatisfactory results;

(3) it is determined for administrative purposes 

to supersede the record of the original survey 

with respect to the remaining Federal interest 

lands; or

(4) disposals are found to overlap. Every corner 

of these tracts will be marked by angle point 

monumentation.

6-71. Where the independent type of resurvey has 

been adopted as more feasible, identified corners of the 

original survey in the immediate vicinity of lands to 

be segregated are employed for the control of the location of such lands. The question of the good faith of the 

entryman is fully considered. Where the evidence of the 

original survey is so obliterated that lack of good faith 

in location cannot be charged against the entryman and 

whose claim boundaries may differ from a theoretical location determined by proportionate methods, the 

available collateral evidence is to be regarded as the best 

indication of the original position of the claim included 

in the original description. The collateral evidence is 

employed as far as consistent for the control of the section boundaries within which such claim is located.

6-72. Where the surveyor cannot definitely locate a 

claim by identification of the original survey, the claimant should be asked to point out his or her boundaries. 

The boundaries of the alienated land, so determined, 

are fixed as between private and Federal interest lands, 

subject to official acceptance and filing of the resurvey. 

The surveyor should explain that an acceptably located 

claim must have a form agreeing with the original entry, 

approximately regular boundaries, an area not widely 

inconsistent with that shown on the original plat, and a 

location as nearly correct as may be expected from the 

existing evidence of the original survey.

6-73. Dispute may arise over adjustment of the line 

between adjoining alienated tracts, each acceptably 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VI - Resurveys and Evidence

located. If such disputes cannot be reconciled by the 

surveying process, the tracts are surveyed in conflict 

and so shown on the resurvey plat.

6-74. The surveyor cannot change materially the 

configuration of a tract as shown by its original description in order to indemnify the owner against deficiencies in area, to eliminate conflicts between entries, or for 

any other purpose. If improvements have been located 

in good faith, the tract survey will be so executed, 

or the conformation to the lines of the dependent resurvey so indicated, as to cover these improvements as 

nearly as possible, and at the same time the form of 

the entry as originally described is substantially maintained. No departure from this rule is allowed.

6-75. The amendment of entries, correction of conveyance documents, tentative approval relinquishments, or 

interim conveyance, reconveyance or relinquishments is 

a matter for adjudication by the BLM after the resurvey 

has been accepted and the plats filed in the land office.

6-76. An attempt should be made to consult an absentee 

owner so that he or she may point out the lands subject 

to a tract survey. If the owner cannot be found and there 

is no indication of the boundaries of a claim, the surveyor should locate it from the nearest original point of 

control or from a point of a neighboring claim, or assign 

to the alienated lands the appropriate subdivisions of the 

independent resurvey. The controlling factors are individual and neighborhood improvements (such as buildings, wells, springs of water, cultivated lands, public 

roads, fences, corners of recognized local surveys, etc.) 

that, unless not made in good faith, indicate the evident 

intention of the claimant, entryman or patentee as to the 

position of his or her land. Those claim locations made 

in good faith must be recognized and accepted.

6-77. Each nonconformable valid claim in a township is given a serial tract number, commencing with 

No. 37 in the smallest numbered and entered section 

of the original plat, progressing through the township 

in the order in which lot and sections are numbered. 

A tract number is used but once in a township, and if 

any tract lies partly in two or more townships subject 

to resurvey, the number applied to the tract in the first 

township resurveyed is not used for other tracts in the 

adjoining township.

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Chapter VII

Resurveys and

Restoration

Restoration of Lost Corners

7-1. When every means of identifying the original 

position of a corner has been exhausted, the surveyor 

will restore the lost corner by applying proportionate 

measurement, which harmonizes surveying practice 

with legal and equitable considerations involved in controversies concerning lost land boundaries.

7-2. A lost corner is one whose original position cannot be determined by substantial evidence, either from 

traces of the original marks or from acceptable evidence 

or reliable testimony that bears upon the original position, and whose location can be restored only by reference to one or more interdependent corners.

Thus, if substantial evidence of the position of the original corner exists, it is an existent or obliterated corner. 

This position shall be employed in preference to applying the rule that would be proper only in the case of a 

lost corner.

In addition, once a corner is considered lost, it is the 

surveyor’s responsibility to assure that the restoration 

method and the restored position comply with the statutory protection of bona fide rights requirements delineated in 43 U.S.C. 772 and 773 and as described in this 

Manual.

7-3. Lost corners have been reestablished in official 

resurveys. These corners take on all the authority of an 

original corner except upon proof by a preponderance of 

the evidence that the resurvey was fraudulent or grossly 

erroneous. The surveyor must be aware that land may be 

conveyed or improvements made with reference to these 

reestablished corners.

7-4. The preliminary retracements show the discrepancies of courses and distances between the original 

record and the findings of the retracement. The restoration of the lost corners cannot proceed until the retracement of the original survey has been completed. The 

retracement is based upon the courses and distances of 

the original survey record, initiated and closed upon 

known original corners.

7-5. Existing original corners shall not be disturbed. 

Consequently, discrepancies between the retracement 

measurements and the measurements shown in the 

record have no effect beyond the accepted corners. 

Generally, recovered line trees, witness corners, witness 

points, and other definitely identifiable original marks 

or regular corners established on the line and of record 

are original corners and part of the interdependent corners controlling the original survey. This restates the 

common law hierarchy of calls for monuments as controlling over calls for measurements. The differences in 

measurement are distributed proportionally within the 

several intervals along the line between the accepted 

corners.

The retracements will show various degrees of accuracy in the lengths of lines, where in every case it was 

intended to secure true horizontal distances. Prior to 

1900 most of the lines were measured with the Gunter’s 

link chain. Such a chain was difficult to keep at standard 

length, and inaccuracies often arose in measuring steep 

slopes by this method.

All discrepancies in measurement will be verified with 

the object of placing each difference where it properly 

belongs. Manifest blunders in measurement are removed 

from the general average difference and placed where 

the blunder was made. In cases where the proportioned 

position cannot be made to harmonize with all the calls 

of the original field notes, due to errors in description or 

to discrepancies in measurement made apparent by the 

retracement, it should be ascertained which of the calls 

are entitled to greater weight and which calls should be 

subordinate. The accumulated surplus or deficiency that 

remains is to be uniformly distributed by proportionate 

measurement.

7-6. Cases arise where the original survey record has 

been destroyed and the copies immediately available 

to the surveyor are transcribed copies of the duplicate 
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Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

record. If field conditions do not match the transcribed 

duplicate record, the duplicate record will be compared 

to the transcribed copies to assure accuracy. 

Transcribed copies of a different source are also found 

in county offices and other Federal offices when the 

only system to make copies of the official record was 

to copy them by hand. If field conditions do not match 

the transcribed copy record, the original record will 

be compared to the local transcribed copies to assure 

accuracy.

7-7. A proportionate measurement is one that gives 

equal relative weight to all parts of the line based upon 

a process conforming to the method followed in the 

original survey. The excess or deficiency between two 

existent corners is so distributed that the amount given 

to each interval bears the same proportion to the whole 

difference as the record length of the interval bears to 

the whole record distance. After the proportionate difference is added to or subtracted from the record length 

of each interval, the sum of the several parts will equal 

the new measurement of the whole distance.

Relative to proportionate measurement in order to harmonize the restorative process with the methods of the 

original survey, the principle of the precedence of one 

line over another of less original importance is recognized, thus limiting the control. The type of proportionate measurement to be used in the restorative process 

will depend on the method that was followed in the original survey. Standard parallels will be given precedence 

over other township exteriors, and ordinarily township 

exteriors will be given precedence over subdivisional 

lines; section corners will be relocated before the position of lost quarter-section corners can be determined.

Primary Methods

Double Proportionate Measurement

7-8. The term “double proportionate measurement” 

is applied to a new measurement made between four 

known corners, two each on intersecting meridional and 

latitudinal lines, for the purpose of relating the cardinal 

equivalents intersection to both.

In effect, by double proportionate measurement the 

record directions are disregarded, excepting only where 

there is some acceptable supplemental survey record, 

some physical evidence, or testimony that may be 

brought into the control. Corners to the north and south 

control any latitudinal position. Corners to the east and 

west control the position in longitude. One identified 

original corner is balanced by the control of a corresponding original corner on the opposite side of a particular lost corner that is to be restored. Each identified 

corner is given a controlling weight inversely proportional to its distance from the lost corner. Lengths of 

proportioned lines are comparable only when reduced 

to their cardinal equivalents (section 7-9). The method 

may be referred to as a “four-way” proportion. The 

method of double proportionate measurement is generally applicable to the restoration of lost corners of four 

townships and of lost interior corners of four sections.

Cardinal Equivalent

7-9. Use of cardinal equivalent employs only the northerly components (latitudes) of the north and south controlling record lines to compute the latitudinal position, 

and only the easterly components (departures) of the 

east and west controlling record lines to compute the 

longitudinal position. This is different from using distances of the controlling record lines in the computation 

of proportionate measurement.

Failure to determine the direction of each line with reference to the true meridian (cardinal) could produce 

erroneous results. Distortion encountered while using 

grid bearings on a coordinate system could introduce 

errors and thus incorrect results if factors of geodesy are 

not accounted for. In State plane coordinate systems, the 

grid scale factor varies across the project. Datum differences could introduce errors into the computations. 

Error can also be introduced if the lines are at dramatically different elevations, since the Public Land Survey 

System datum is based upon measurements at actual 

average ground elevation along the line.

Township Corners

7-10. In order to restore a lost corner common to four 

townships, a retracement must be made between the 

nearest known corners on the meridional line, north and 

south of the lost corner. The latitudinal position for the 

lost corner will be determined proportionately between 

those corners based on the comparative cardinal equivalents of the old and new surveys. In a similar fashion, 

the nearest corners on the latitudinal line will be connected. The position in departure (longitude) will be 

determined.

Figures 7-1 and 7-2 illustrate the plan of double proportionate measurement. Points A, B, C, and D represent 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

Figure 7-1. The plan of double proportionate measurement.

25 30 29

36 31 32

6 5

D

A

B B

A

C D

E

F X

X

X

C

1

36 31

1 6

Lost township corner

in vicinity of X. 

Restored corner showing true

direction of township lines.

The correct position of X is at the intersection 

of lines extended east or west from E and north

or south from F. 

A, B, C, D—Control corners.

E—Proportionate point for X in latitude 

between A and B.

F—Proportionate point for X in departure 

between C and D.

Record

Record

Retraced = = =

119.240

120.493

40.000

V

V = 40.420

W = 80.073

79.240

W

Course

B-X

X-A

Total

Lat.

N. 40.000

N. 79.240

N. 119.240

Dep.

W. 0.023

W. 0.046

D-X

X-C

Total

N. 0.268

N. 0.093

W. 79.979

W. 39.999

W. 39.980

Retraced

Course

B-T

T-A

Total

Lat.

N. 40.120

N. 80.373

N. 120.493

Dep.

E. 0.058

W. 7.032

D-T

T-C

Total

N. 0.130

N. 0.290

W. 80.569

W. 40.720

W. 39.849

True Line

Course

B-X

X-A

Total

Lat.

N. 40.420

N. 80.073

N. 120.493

Dep.

E. 0.484

W. 7.458

D-X

X-C

Total

N. 0.430

S. 0.010

W. 80.569

W. 40.294

W. 40.275

Original Corners Temporary Point True Corner Point

Record

Retraced = = =

79.979

80.569

39.999

V

V = 40.294

W = 40.275

39.980

W

N. 0° 02’ W.

119.24

N. 89° 44’ W.

79.98

N. 89° 52’ W.

39.98

N. 89° 37’ W.

40.00

N. 0° 02’ W.

40.00

Record between

interdependent original corners

Total Record

A

B

C D X

A

B

C D T

A

B

C D X

N. 0° 02’ W.

79.24

N. 89° 34’ 59” W.

39.85

N. 89° 49’ 01” W.

40.72

N. 0° 04’ 58” E.

40.12

Retracement between

interdependent found corners

N. 3° 18’ 45” W.

120.695

N. 89° 42’ 05” W.

80.570

Total Retraced

N. 5° 00’ 01” W.

80.68

S. 89° 59’ 09” W.

40.275

N. 89° 23’ 19” W.

40.296

N. 0° 41’ 10” E.

40.423

True line solution

Latitude Proportion Departure Proportion

Corner move;

Temporary point to

True corner point

N. 0.300, E. 0.426

N. 5° 19’ 16” W.

80.420

Figure 7-2. Double proportionate measurement and cardinal equivalents.
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Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

four original corners that will control the restoration of 

the lost corner X. On the large scale diagram the point 

E represents the proportional measurement in latitude 

between A and B, and similarly, the point F represents 

the proportional measurement in departure (longitude) 

between C and D. The point X satisfies the first control for latitude and the second control for departure by 

“double proportionate measurement.”

7-11. A lost township corner cannot safely be restored, 

nor the boundaries ascertained, without first considering 

the field notes of the four intersecting lines and examination of the four township plats. In most cases there 

is a fractional distance in the half-mile to the east of 

the township corner, and frequently in the half-mile to 

the south. The line to the west may have been retraced, 

and the measurement noted in the field notes. The line 

to the north is usually regular, with quarter-section and 

section corners at normal intervals of 40.00 and 80.00 

chains, but there may be closing corners or retracement 

measurements on any or all of the boundaries so that it 

is important to verify all distances by reference to the 

field notes.

Section Corners

7-12. Lost interior corners of four sections, where all 

the lines therefrom have been run, will also be reestablished by double proportionate measurement. The 

control for such restoration will not extend beyond 

the township boundary. If the controlling corner on 

the boundary is lost, that corner will be reestablished 

beforehand.

Three-Point Control

7-13. Where the line has not been established in one 

direction from the lost township or section corner, 

“three-point control” should be used to reestablish the 

position of the corner. The record distance (reduced to 

its cardinal equivalent) to the nearest identified corner 

in the direction opposite from the missing line will be 

used, along with proportionate measurement between 

the other two corners.

Thus, in figure 7-1, if the latitudinal line in the direction of the point D has not been established, the position of the point F in departure would have been determined by reference to the record departure from the 

point C. The position of the point E in latitude would 

be determined by proportionate measurement between 

the points A and B.

Two-Point Control

7-14. Where the intersecting lines have been established in only two of the directions, “two-point control” 

should be used to reestablish the position of the corner. 

The record distances, reduced to their cardinal equivalents, to the nearest identified corners on the intersecting lines will control the position of the corner. The 

record latitude on the meridional line will determine 

the latitudinal position and the record departure on the 

latitudinal line will determine the meridional position 

of the corner. What is intended by record distance is the 

measure established in the original survey.

Index Correction

7-15. An index correction for systematic error in measurement should be made in applying the record measurements for two or three-point control (section 7-57) 

if it is obvious that a more harmonious relation to the 

representations of the approved plat or plats would be 

thus accomplished.

Experience and good judgment are required in applying an index correction. If the original survey was carelessly executed, no definite standard of length or direction of lines can be set up as representing that survey. 

On the other hand, the work may have been reasonably uniform within its own limits, yet inaccurate with 

respect to exact base standards. It is only a demonstrable 

and consistent excess or deficiency of the original work, 

determined within practical limits, that can justify the 

application of an index correction. If such consistency is 

not established the only rule that can be applied is that 

a record of 80.00 chains in distance means just that by 

exact standards, true horizontal measurement.

Single Proportionate Measurement

7-16. The term “single proportionate measurement” is 

applied to a new measurement made on a line to determine one or more positions on that line.

By single proportionate measurement the position of 

two identified corners controls the direction of that 

line. The method is sometimes referred to as a “twoway” proportion, such as a north-and-south proportion 

or an east-and-west proportion. Examples are a quartersection corner on the line between two section corners, 

all corners on standard parallels, and all corners occupying intermediate positions on a township boundary line.

7-17. In order to restore a lost corner on a line by single proportionate measurement, a retracement is made 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

set applies only to sections on its respective side of the 

line. Which corners control the restoration of a lost corner will depend on how the line was surveyed. Three 

cases are discussed, senior–senior corners, junior–

senior corners, and senior–senior corners—hiatus, overlap, or angle points.

Senior–Senior Corners

7-22. Where both sets of corners have been established 

by measurement along the line in a single survey, and 

each corner controls equally for both measurement and 

alinement. All corners are corners of maximum control 

(figure 7-3).

Figure 7-3. Two sets of corners established in a single survey.

80 N.89°52’W. .00 80.00

80.00

8.50 8.50 8.50 8.50 8.50

80.00

Sec. 33 Sec. 34

Sec. 4 Sec. 3

connecting the nearest identified corners on the line. 

These corners control the position of the lost corner. 

The lost corner is then reestablished at proportionate 

distance on the line connecting the recovered corners. 

Proper adjustment is made on an east and west line to 

secure the latitudinal curve. Any number of intermediate lost corners may be located on the same plan.

Standard Parallels

7-18. Restorations of lost corners of a standard parallel 

are controlled by the regular standard corners. These 

include the standard township, section, quarter-section, 

and sixteenth-section corners and meander corners. 

Also included are closing corners that were originally 

established by measurement along the standard line as 

points from which to start a survey and other corners 

that have been established by measurement in a retracement or dependent resurvey along the standard line.

Lost standard corners will be restored to their original 

positions on a base line, standard parallel, or correction 

line, by single proportionate measurement on the line 

connecting the nearest identified regular standard corners on opposite sides of the lost corner or corners.

7-19. Corners on base lines are regarded the same as 

those on standard parallels. The term “correction line” 

was used for what is now called the standard parallel. 

The corners first set in the running of a correction line 

are called standard corners. Those that were set afterwards at the intersection of a meridional line are called 

closing corners.

Township Boundaries

7-20. All lost section and quarter-section corners on 

the township boundary lines will be restored by single 

proportionate measurement between the nearest identified corners on opposite sides of the lost corner, north 

and south on a meridional line, or east and west on a 

latitudinal line. An exception to this rule will be noted 

in the case of any exterior the record of which shows 

a deflection in alinement between the nearest identified corners on opposite sides of the lost corner (section 

7-51). (For another exception see section 7-34.)

The control for either restoration should not extend 

beyond the township corner. If the controlling township 

corner is lost, that corner will be reestablished first.

7-21. Two sets of corners have been established on 

many township lines and on some section lines. Each 

Junior–Senior Corners

7-23. This situation exists where one set of corners was 

established for one side of the line, and a second set of 

corners was established for the other side of the same 

line in the course of a later resurvey or retracement 

(figure 7-4).

(N.89°57’W.)

(Original Survey)

Retracement

(80.00) (80.00)

80.00

5.94 5.23 5.01 3.80 3.11

80.00

Sec. 33 Sec. 34

Sec. 4 Sec. 3

Figure 7-4. 

The line is regarded as having been fixed in position by 

the senior survey and subsequent dependent resurveys 

or retracements. If both sets of corners are recovered, 

a junior survey, if it was established in the course of an 

obvious careful resurvey or retracement, reporting the 

most recent measurement of the line, will be used for 

alinement of the line and for control in restoring a lost 

senior corner of the line.

7-24. This procedure is not advisable where the junior 

corner was not established by an obvious careful 
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Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

resurvey or retracement, evidenced by its recovery far 

off line. That condition can only be shown by retracing enough of the line to determine its bearing. Where 

there has been extensive loss of corners, particularly 

the senior corners, the existent junior corners may constitute the best available evidence of the line itself. In 

such a case the junior corners will exercise control for 

both measurement and alinement.

7-25. Restorations of lost corners on a junior-senior 

line are controlled by the regular corners. These 

include the corners that were originally established 

by measurement along the line and other corners that 

have been established in an obvious careful resurvey or 

retracement along the line.

A lost junior corner will be reestablished on the line by 

using single proportionate measurement between the 

nearest regular corners to the right and left of the lost 

corner. The position of a restored junior corner should 

be verified by a retracement of the line to the next original junior corner in each direction.

7-26. In some older surveys, the policy was to establish junior corners without a careful retracement of the 

senior line. In these cases, a recovered junior corner 

not actually located on the line that it was intended 

should not control the line for measurement or alinement. The new junior corner will be positioned in a 

cardinal direction, north or south on a latitudinal line, 

or, east or west on a meridional line, from the original 

junior corner onto the line intended. These new junior 

corners are established after a retracement of the line.

7-27. The new monument in those cases where it is 

required will always be placed on the senior line. An 

off-line monument in such cases should be marked AM 

(for amended monument), inverted and buried in place, 

if practicable, and will be connected by course and distance. The field notes of the resurvey must include a 

full description of the old monument as recovered and 

a clear statement that the new monument is set at the 

true corner point.

7-28. When a junior corner is recovered off the senior 

line and the new monument is established at the true 

corner point, the original position will control in the 

proportionate restoration of lost corners dependent 

upon the junior corner. The positioning of sixteenthsection corner(s) or lot corner(s) on the junior line, will 

be based on the measurement to the original position 

of the junior corner.

7-29. The correct position for the minor subdivision 

corners for sections on the side to which the junior corners refer are as protracted on the plat of those sections. 

When a monument is to be established at the protracted 

subdivision corner position, the original position of the 

section junior corners will control in the establishment. 

The proportionate measurement position between the 

original positions of the junior corners will be moved 

in a cardinal direction, north or south on a latitudinal 

line, or, east or west on a meridional line, to the true 

point on the line. This true corner point for the subdivision corner will control the location of the legal subdivisions for the section on the side to which the junior 

corners refer. These procedures may need to be modified if gross distortions in position or measurement are 

involved.

7-30. A junior corner established without a retracement of the senior line ordinarily is not used as a control corner in restoring a lost senior corner. However, 

where an obviously careful retracement of the senior 

line has been made and the field notes state clearly that 

new monuments were set on the line, the monuments 

become the best available evidence of the position of 

the senior line. In such a case the junior corners will 

exercise control for both measurement and alinement 

of the line to the same extent as closing corners (section 7-41).

7-31. A different problem is where the record tie from 

a junior corner to a corner of the senior line is fictitious, grossly in error, or in some way irreconcilable. If 

the junior corner in such a case is recovered, it should 

normally control the proportions along the junior line 

regardless of its disagreement with the record. If there 

is no evidence whatever of the junior corner, and ample 

proof that the retracement of the senior line was not 

made as called for in the field notes, the junior corner 

should not be restored without verifying the nearest 

authentic junior corners in each direction. The restoration should then be made by the method most nearly in 

harmony with the official plat(s). No general rule can 

be advanced. The procedure to be adopted will have 

official sanction prior to remonumentation.

Senior–Senior Corners—

Hiatus, Overlap, or Angle Points

7-32. On rare occasions the second surveyor patently 

established a completely separate line creating a hiatus or overlap. Each set of corners then control only 

its respective line. Where complications develop, the 

surveyor will report to his or her supervising office the 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

identity and correlation of corners or other evidence 

recovered before restoring the lost corners. Each such 

case should be considered individually (figure 7-5).

The same reporting instruction applies to lines on which 

the original corners have become angle points and may 

have three sets of corners.

7-33. Within the PLSS, when a gap exists between two 

official surveys, the land is unsurveyed, i.e., not identified by an official survey, and is public domain land subject to identification and description by survey (United 

States v. Weyerhaeuser, 392 F.2d 448 (9th Cir. 1967); 

reh’g denied). When a survey overlap or an entry/patent 

overlap exists, an examination must be made as to the 

official filing dates of the surveys, the applicable application, selection, or entry dates of alienated lands, and a 

full report made.

Modified Single Proportionate Measurement

7-34. An exception to the usual application of single 

proportionate measurement is occasionally important. 

There may be persuasive proof of a deflection in the 

alinement of the exterior, though the record shows the 

line to be straight. For example, measurements east and 

west across a range line, or north and south across a 

latitudinal township line, counting from a straight-line 

exterior adjustment, may show distances to the nearest identified subdivisional corners to be substantially 

long in one direction and correspondingly short in the 

opposite direction. This condition, when supported by 

substantial evidence, would warrant an exception to the 

straight-line or two-way adjustment because under the 

rules for the acceptance of evidence, the evidence outweighs the record. The rules for a four-way or double 

proportionate measurement would then apply here.

Section Boundaries

7-35. All lost quarter-section corners on the section 

boundaries within the township will be restored by 

single proportionate measurement between the adjoining section corners, after the section corners have been 

identified or restored.

In those cases where connections from the lost quartersection corner to other regular monuments of the line 

nearer than the section corners have been previously 

noted, these will ordinarily assume control in the restoration. Such monuments may include another quartersection corner, minor subdivision corners, a meander 

corner, a witness corner, a witness point, an angle point, 

a closing corner, a junior corner, a corner of minimum 

control, a subdivision-of-section corner, a special survey corner, or a line tree, any of which may have been 

established when the line was previously surveyed or 

dependently resurveyed (section 7-41).

“Half-Mile Posts,” Alabama and Florida

7-36. See Chapter VII Notes for an explanation of “halfmile posts” and treatment of the evidence of location.

Meander Corners

7-37. Lost meander corners, originally established on 

a line projected across the meanderable body of water, 

Figure 7-5. Two sets of corners established in sequential surveys creating two lines.

Sec. 32 Sec. 33 Sec. 34

Sec. 5 Sec. 4

Surveyed in 1896

Surveyed in 1855

Sec. 3

Original corners recovered in 1961 resurvey Unsurveyed lands
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Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

will usually be relocated by single proportionate measurement. In some older surveys, meander corners were 

surveyed from opposite directions and the intermediate 

portion across the meanderable body of water was completed by random and true line. Using this method some 

section lines were not established as straight lines. Lost 

meander corners, originally established by this method 

and not on a straight line, will usually be relocated by 

irregular boundary adjustment (section 7-51). However, 

in either case, the facts must be considered with regard 

to the specific problem in hand.

7-38. Under favorable conditions a lost meander corner 

may be restored by treating the shore line as an identified natural feature. In the event of extensive obliteration of the original corners within the locality this position may be preferable to one obtained by proportionate 

measurement carried from a considerable distance.

7-39. In extreme cases, restoration by adjustment of the 

record meander courses to the bank or shore line may 

be indispensable to the reconstruction of the section 

boundaries, especially where there is extensive obliteration, where there has been obvious stability to the 

bank or shore line, or absence of appreciable changes 

by erosion or accretion, the record meander courses and 

distances may be adjusted or conformed to the salients 

and angles of the physical bank or shore line. This may 

give a location in both latitude and departure, in latitude 

only, or in departure only.

7-40. Occasionally, it can be demonstrated that the 

meander corners on opposite banks of a wide river 

were actually established as terminal meander corners 

even though the record indicates the line was projected 

across the river. If the evidence conclusively outweighs 

the record, a lost meander corner in such a case should 

be relocated by one-point control. Furthermore, if in 

such cases good faith occupation has followed protracted subdivision-of-section lines, the portions of the 

section on each side of the river having been treated as 

independent fractional sections, a corresponding plan of 

subdivision is proper (section 7-56).

Closing Corners

7-41. A lost closing corner will be reestablished on the 

true line that was closed upon, and at the proper proportional interval between the nearest regular corners 

to the right and left. Restorations of lost closing corners 

are controlled by the regular corners. These include the 

corners that were originally established by measurement along the line and other corners that have been 

established in an obvious careful resurvey or retracement along the line.

7-42. Where a single set of corners was established 

in the survey of a line and closing corners were subsequently established at intersection of section lines on 

one side, the corners first established generally will control both the alinement and the proportional measurement along the line. The original quarter-section corners nearly always referred to sections on only one side 

of the line after the closing corners were established 

from the other side (figure 7-6).

80 N.89°55’W. .00 80.00

6.50

C C C C C C

5.87 6.14

Sec. 33 Sec. 34

Sec. 4 Sec. 3

Figure 7-6. A single set of corners established the line and subsequent 

corners were established at intersections.

7-43. Where there has been extensive loss of corners, 

and particularly of the senior corners, the existent or 

obliterated closing corners may constitute the best available evidence of the line itself. In such a case they should 

exercise control for both measurement and alinement.

7-44. A lost closing corner on a standard parallel or 

other controlling boundary will be reestablished on the 

true line that is closed upon by using single proportionate measurement between the nearest regular corners to 

the right and left of the lost corner. The position of a 

restored closing corner should be verified by a retracement of the line for which it was designed to mark its 

terminus.

7-45. In older surveys the usual policy was to establish closing corners without a retracement of the line 

closed upon. The corners were established with a tie in 

one direction only and set at record bearing. In these 

cases, a recovered closing corner not actually located 

on the line that was closed upon will determine the 

direction of the closing line, but not its legal terminus. 

The correct position is at the true point of intersection 

of the two lines. Closing corners and other corners at 

an intersection of two lines or at the termination of one 

line on another are established after a retracement of 

the line closed upon.

The new monument in those cases where it is required 

will be placed at the true point of intersection. An 
173

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

off-line monument in such cases should be marked AM 

(for amended monument), inverted and buried in place, 

if practicable, and will be connected by course and distance. The field notes of the closing line must include a 

full description of the old monument as recovered and a 

clear statement that the new monument is set at the true 

point of intersection.

When an original closing corner is recovered off the line 

closed upon and the new monument is established at 

the true point of intersection, the original position will 

control in the proportionate restoration of lost corners 

dependent upon the closing corner. In a like manner the 

positioning of sixteenth-section corner(s) or lot corner(s) 

on the closing line, between the quarter-section corner 

and the closing corner, will be based on the measurement to the original position of the closing corner.

7-46. The quarter-section corners for sections on the 

side to which the closing corners refer were often not 

established in older surveys. The correct positions are 

as protracted on the plat of those sections. When a 

new monument is to be established at the protracted 

quarter-section position, the original position of 

the section closing corners will control in the establishment. The proportionate measurement position 

between the original positions of the section closing 

corners will be moved in a cardinal direction, north or 

south on a latitudinal line, or, east or west on a meridional line, to the true point on the line. This true point 

for the quarter-section corner will control the location 

of the legal subdivisions for the section on the side to 

which the closing corners refer. These procedures may 

need to be modified if gross distortions in position or 

measurement are involved.

7-47. A closing corner established without a retracement of the line closed upon ordinarily is not used as a 

control corner in restoring a lost corner of the line closed 

upon. However, where an obviously careful retracement 

of a line has been made and the field notes state clearly 

that new monuments were set at the true points of intersection, the monuments become the best available evidence of the position of the line. In such a case the closing corners will exercise control for both measurement 

and alinement of the line to the same extent as corners 

of a junior survey (section 7-23).

7-48. Closing corners in some cases have been established where a line of the survey crosses previously 

surveyed claim lines (section 3-74). These corners are 

established after a retracement of the line intersected 

and monumented when administratively required. In the 

past, these corners have been termed “crossing closing 

corners.”

If an obviously careful retracement of the two intersecting lines has been made, and the field notes state clearly 

that a monument (corner of minimum control, closing 

corner, crossing closing corner, or point of intersection) 

was set at the true point of intersection, the monumented 

corner is the best available evidence of the position of 

both lines. As such, the monumented corner will exercise control for both measurement and alinement of both 

lines. If a retracement of the intersected line indicates a 

closing corner purportedly set at the true point of intersection is substantially off that line, it will be moved to 

the intersection position and the existing monument will 

be dealt with as described in section 7-45.

7-49. A different problem occurs where the record tie 

from a closing corner to a corner of the line closed upon 

is fictitious, grossly in error, or in some way irreconcilable. If the closing corner in such a case is recovered, 

the closing corner will normally control the direction of 

the closing line regardless of its disagreement with the 

record. If there is no evidence whatever of the closing 

corner, and ample proof that the closing was not made 

as called for in the field notes, the closing corner should 

not be restored without verifying the nearest authentic 

closing on each side of the line closed upon and the 

nearest authentic corner on the closing line. The restoration should then be made by the method most nearly in 

harmony with the official plat(s). No general rule can be 

advanced. The procedure to be adopted will have official sanction prior to remonumentation of the lines.

Secondary Methods

7-50. The foregoing are the general rules for the restoration of lost corners applicable under general and 

normal conditions, where the principal problem has to 

do with the disappearance of monuments resulting from 

natural causes or from disturbances due to the clearing, 

cultivation, and other uses of the land. The special cases 

that are hereinafter cited under secondary methods with 

respect to broken boundary lines and limited control are 

not applicable excepting under those conditions where 

the primary methods of proportionate measurement 

cannot be applied.

The preceding instructions will be applicable in the 

large majority of cases. If there seems to be some 

difficulty or inconsistent result, a careful check will 

be made of the record data. The special instructions 
174

Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

for the original survey, the plat representation on the 

original, duplicate, and triplicate copies, or some call 

of the field notes on the original and duplicate copies, or descriptive notes, may clarify the problem. This 

research becomes very important in the more difficult 

problems involved with the recovery of an old line or 

boundary.

Irregular Boundary Adjustment

7-51. Some township boundaries are not established as 

straight lines and are termed “irregular” exteriors. Parts 

of the boundaries were surveyed from opposite directions and the intermediate portion was completed later 

by random and true line, leaving a fractional distance. 

Such irregularity involves some material departure from 

the basic rules for the establishment of original surveys. 

A modified form of single proportionate measurement 

is used in restoring lost corners on such boundaries. 

This is also applicable to a section line or a township 

line that has been shown to be irregular by a previous

retracement (figure 7-7).

7-52. In order to restore one or more lost corners or 

angle points on such irregular exteriors, a retracement 

between the nearest known corners is made on the 

record courses and distances to ascertain the direction 

and length of the closing distance. A position is calculated for each lost corner or angle point at the record 

position. The closing distance is then reduced to its 

equivalent latitude and departure.

The adjustment to be applied along the line is single proportion, and the adjustment to be applied perpendicular 

to the direction of the line is compass rule.

On a meridional line the latitude of the closing distance, 

presuming retracement is made on record courses and 

distances, is distributed among the courses in proportion to the latitude of each course. The departure of 

the closing distance is distributed among the courses in 

proportion to the length of each course. That is, after 

the excess or deficiency of latitude is distributed, each 

calculated angle point is moved east or west an amount 

proportional to the total record distance from the starting point.

On a latitudinal line the calculated angle points will 

be placed to suit the usual adjustments for the curvature. The departure of the closing distance, presuming 

retracement is made on record courses and distances, 

is distributed among the courses in proportion to the 

departure of each course. Then each calculated angle 

S u r v e y e d i n 1 8 8 9

C o m p l e t i o n s u r v e y i n 1 9 0 2

N.1° 46’W.

80.0

0

80.0

0 79.16 80.0

4

80.0

0

NORTH SOUTH

80.0

0

S u r v e yed in 187 3

3 2 1

10 11 12

15 14 13

22 23 24

27 26 25

34 35 36

Figure 7-7. Irregular exterior resulting from the piecemeal survey of a 

township line.

point is moved north or south an amount proportional to 

the total distance from the starting point. The latitude 

of the closing distance will be applied proportionately 

to the latitudinal component of each course an amount 

proportional to the total record distance from the starting point.

Angle points and intermediate corners will be treated 

alike (figure 7-8).

Angle Points of Meander Lines

7-53. (The previous edition of the Manual referred to 

this method as the Angle Points of Nonriparian Meander 
175

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

When reestablishing a position

on an E-W line the formulas for the 

restored latitude and departure 

below would be interchanged.

Record

Course 2

Record

Course 1

N.73°12’E.

1.43

N.1°22’E.

40.0

2

N.1°45’W.

38.42

 total lat retraced dist

latitude C = ______________________ (record lat of each course) total lat record dist

 total dep retraced – total dep record

departure C = _____________________________________ (record distance) + record dep total record dist

Line bearing distance lat dep

C1 record N. 1° 45’ W. 38.42 ch N 38.4021 W 1.1733

C2 record N. 1° 22’ E. 40.02 ch N 40.0086 E .9545

total record N 78.4107 W .2188

tie N. 73° 12’ E. 1.43 ch N .4133 E 1.3690

total retraced N 78.8240 E 1.1502

 78.8240

latitude C1 = _________ (38.4021) = 38.6045 78.4107

 1.1502 – (-.2188)

departure C1 = _________________ (38.42) + - 1.1733 = -0.5028 78.44

 C1 = N. 0° 44’ 46” W., 38.608 ch

 78.8240

latitude C2 = _________ (40.0086) = 40.2195 78.4107

 1.1502 – (-.2188)

departure C2 = __________________ (40.02) + .9545 = 1.6530 78.44

 C2 = N. 2° 21’ 13” E., 40.254 ch

fd.

lost

temp.

fd.

Figure 7-8. An irregular boundary adjustment.
176

Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

Figure 7-9. Adjustment of angle points on a meander line.

Closing err o r

of r e t r acement

B

X 2

X 1

A

Lines.) In some cases it is necessary to restore (or possibly to locate for the first time) the angle points, within 

a section, of the record meander courses for a stream, 

lake, or tidewater, required under the special rules applicable to meander lines. This is commonly called the 

compass rule adjustment.

This meander line adjustment presumes that errors are 

random and that the effects of angular error are equal to 

the effects of error in distance. The positions of the meander corners on the lines of the official survey(s) are determined first. The record meander courses and distances 

are then run and temporary angle points are marked. 

The closing (residual) error is shown by the direction and 

length of the line from the end of the last course to the 

objective meander corner. The closing (residual) error 

is distributed proportionately along each record course. 

The closing (residual) error is distributed on the same 

plan as in balancing a survey for the computation of the 

areas of the lottings as represented on the plat.

The general rule is that the adjustment to be 

applied to the of any course is to 

the resolved of the closing error as 

the length of the course is to total length of all the 

courses. Each adjustment is applied in a direction to 

reduce the closure. If the northings are to be increased, 

then the southings will be decreased. A line due east

would then be given a correction to the north (in effect 

to the left); a line due west, also to the north (in effect 

to the right). Each incremental correction is determined 

and applied in proportion to the length of the line.

The adjustments for the positions of the several angle 

points are accomplished simply by moving each temporary point on the bearing of the closing (residual) error 

an amount that is its proportion of that line, counting 

from the beginning. The particular distance to be measured at any point is to the whole length of the closing 

(residual) error as the distance of that point from the 

starting corner is to the sum of the lengths of all the 

courses (figure 7-9).

The same principle is followed to plot lottings of dependently resurveyed sections in their true relative positions 

when the record meander line and the true shoreline differ greatly because of distortion or other discrepancy.

Grant Boundaries

7-54. In many of the States there are irregular grant 

and reservation boundaries that were established prior 

to the public land rectangular surveys. In these cases, the 

township and section lines are regarded as the closing 

lines. The grant boundary field notes may call for natural objects, but these are often supplemented by metesand-bound descriptions. The natural calls are ordinarily 

given precedence then the existent angle points of the 

metes-and-bounds survey. The lost angle points are then 

restored by uniformly orienting the record courses to 

left or right and adjusting the lengths of the lines on a 

constant ratio. Both angular and linear corrections are 

made in the direction needed to reduce the falling of 

the trial lines laid down according to the record. This is 

essentially a rotate and scale procedure.

The retracement of the grant boundary is begun at an 

identified corner. Calls for natural objects are satisfied and the existent angle points are recovered. Then, 

between the identified or acceptable points, the position 

of lost angle points is determined by the following steps, 

which serve to apply an identical scale factor and rotation to each of the lines on the grant boundary between 

the two identified or acceptable points:

(1) Reduce the record courses and distances to 

the total differences in latitude and departure. 

latitude

departure

latitude

departure

{ }

{ }
177

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

Compute the direction and length of a line 

connecting the identified points.

(2) Determine the actual differences in latitude 

and departure between the same identified 

points by retracement. Compute the direction 

and length of the connecting line based on these 

figures.

(3) The angular difference of direction 

between the connection lines computed in (1) 

and (2) gives the amount and direction of the 

adjustment to apply to the record bearing of 

each intermediate course.

(4) The ratio of the length of the line computed 

in (2) to that computed in (1) gives the 

coefficient to apply to the record length of each 

intermediate course.

After the adjustments have been applied to the record 

courses, all in the same angular amount, and to the 

record distances, each one proportionally for length, 

and the locations for the angle points thus determined 

on the ground, additional search for evidence of the 

record markers must be made. The adjusted locations 

for the angle points are in the most probable original 

position. If no further evidence is recovered, and the 

angle points are regarded as lost, the adjusted points are 

then monumented.

In figure 7-10, A and B are identified points of the original boundary. It is desired to restore intermediate points 

T, S, R, J, I, H, and G, which have been temporarily 

marked at Tt, St, Rt, Jt, It, Ht, and Gt in conformation 

with the original record starting from point A. The 

record position of point B in relation to point A is designated Bt. The adjustment has been made in the four 

steps already described.

The same procedure may be followed whenever it is 

desired to retain the form of the traverse being adjusted 

since the interior angles are unchanged and the increase 

or decrease in lengths of lines is constant. The adjustment may be likened to the use of a pantograph or to a 

photographic enlargement or reduction. Mechanically, 

this process requires that the record distances of the 

traverse legs between identified points be reduced or 

increased simultaneously with the rotation of the record 

bearings until the two identified points coincide. The 

resulting adjustment applies a rotation that is uniform 

in both amount and direction, maintaining the original 

record angles and thus the original shape of the grant 

boundary, and adjusting record distances by a single, 

constant ratio.

7-55. There often is no hard and fast rule for reestablishing lost corners of tract surveys and special surveys 

(see section 10-213 for lode mining claim surveys). 

When the original surveys were made faithfully, the 

application of the principles of record distances, record 

angular relationships, and record relationships between 

improvements and adjoining surveyed parcels, in combination with the presumption that the original intent 

was to be conformable with the statutes governing orientation, dimensions, and area, will substantially meet 

the objects stated above.

Adjusted

( 2 ) C o n n e c t i n g l i n e ( m e a s u r e d )

( 1 ) C o n n e c t i n g l i n e ( r e c o r d )

Te m p o r a r y

o f

Rotation of Record Courses to Meridian 1°13’30” to right

Scale of Record Measurements to Standard Ratio = 1.09638

C o u r s e s

G

H I

J

B

2 1

Bt

Gt

Ht

It

Jt

R

S

A

T

Rt

St

Tt

monument a tion

r e c o r d course s S.65°13’30”W. 97.40

S.64°W. 88.84

1°13’30”

N.88°46’30”W.

31.03

N.88°46’30”W.

N.55°46’30”W. 39.22

N.48°46’30”W. 14.29

N.50°W. 13.03

N.33°46’30”W. 145.34

N.35°W.

132.57

117.66

West

West

107.32

S.89°13’30”W. S.74°13’30”W.

37.37

S.73°W. 34.09

84.53

S.88°W. 77.10

28.30

N.57°W. 35.77

Figure 7-10. Adjustment of a grant boundary.
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Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

Original and One-Point Control

7-56. Where a line terminates with measurement in 

one direction only, a lost corner should be restored by 

record bearing and distance, counting from the nearest 

identified or restored regular corner. Examples will be 

found where lines have been discontinued at the intersection with large meanderable bodies of water or at 

the border of what was classed as impassable ground.

The use of one-point control is only applicable where 

the prior survey was discontinued at a recorded distance or where it can be shown conclusively that the 

line(s) to all other interdependent corners were never 

established. If the line was discontinued, the field notes 

may be followed explicitly. An index correction should 

be applied to the record bearing and/or distance when 

applicable.

Index Correction

7-57. In cases where a retracement has been made of 

many miles of the original lines, between identified 

original corners, and there has been developed a definite and consistent surplus or deficiency in distance, 

or a definite and consistent angle from cardinal that 

characterizes the original survey, it is proper to make 

allowance for the average difference(s). Such adjustment 

will be incorporated automatically in all cases where 

there exists a suitable basis for proportional measurement. Where control in one direction is lacking or nonexistent, an index correction, if supported by conclusive 

evidence, should be applied to the record courses and/

or distances. If there is no conclusive evidence of applicability of an index correction, the record courses and 

distances should be allowed to prevail.

Mixing Records

7-58. When intermixing recent and relatively accurate 

survey or resurvey data with older and presumably less 

accurate data, both records may be used in determining the proportionate measurement corner position. An 

index correction may be applied to the record measurements before determining the proportionate measurement of the corner position. When use of the newer data 

provides the better method to reestablish the position 

of a lost corner in its original position, the newer data 

should be used solely. This method is consistent with the 

general rule that manifest blunders in measurement are 

removed from the general average difference and placed 

where the blunder was made prior to applying proportionate measurement.

Miscellaneous Control

7-59. The actual field conditions do not always furnish the basis for the application of the rules. While 

developing a plan of reconstruction to apply in the 

most unusual of cases, the first consideration relates to 

a more or less arbitrary limitation of the control to be 

adopted. No definite rule can be laid down, except that 

there will be the closest possible adherence to the basic 

examples already given in the text and to the method of 

the original survey that is to be restored. The methods 

heretofore outlined readily harmonize surveying practice with legal decisions concerning the restoration of 

lost corners.

A strictly consistent mathematical restoration of a lost 

corner can be obtained by allowing every accepted corner within a reasonable radius to enter into the control. 

Each corner is given a weight inversely proportional 

to its distance from the lost corner. The principle will 

lead to the same result in some cases as by the methods previously outlined, but may yield a slightly different result under some circumstances. A miscellaneous 

control based upon such mathematical principle will 

not be adopted, except as specifically approved by the 

proper supervising officer in the absence of a suitable 

basis for a regular control.

The problem in the field will be developed by a series 

of retracements each beginning at an accepted corner, 

following out the record courses and distances, and terminating at a calculated position in the vicinity of the 

objective lost corner. Each calculated position is given 

a weight inversely proportional to the distance from the 

accepted corner to which it is related. The several calculated positions are then combined; the first two to be 

resolved into a point on the line between them, dividing 

the whole distance into two parts that will make the 

interval from either calculated position inversely proportional to the weights previously assigned, and the 

latter point is given their combined weights. The last 

point is then correlated with the third calculated position on a similar plan. Three or more corners will thus 

exercise their influence upon the final resultant position 

for the corner that is to be restored. The result will be 

the same no matter what the order of connecting the 

calculated position is, but the omission of any element 

of the control or the introduction of an additional corner will alter the final position. Therefore, the field of 

influence should be selected to obtain a resulting balanced position that cannot be materially changed by 

the introduction of other points of control (figures 7-11 

and 7-12).
179

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration

Accepted Corner Corner to be Restored

A-1

A-3

A-4

A-2

Granite Rock “17”-“19”

Granite Rock “18”-“23”

Granite Rock “19”-“20”

Oak Stake “7”-“17”

Oak Stake “6”-“7”

Oak Stake “5” -“6”

Oak Stake

“4”-“5”

Gran. R

“5 ock

”

Gran. R

“5

ock

”

Gran. Rock

“4”-“5”

Gran.Rock “4”

Gran.

Rock “1”

Gran.

Rock “1”

Gran. Rock

“30”-“37”

Gran. Rock

“30”-“31”

Gran. Rock

“9”-“32”

Oak Stake “28”-“29”-“32”

Oak Stake

“32”

Gran. Rock

“31”

Gran. Rock

“32”

Gran. Rock

“25”-“29” Gran. Rock

“3”-“11”-“25”-“26”

Gran. Rock “12”-“15”

Gran. Rock “34”-“35”

Gran. Rock “35”

Gran. Rock “23”

Elder Stake “11”-“12”

“15”-“16”

Elder Stake

“12”-“27”

Elder Stake “26”-“27”-“28” Elder Stake

“33”-“34”

Oak Stake “3”-“10”

Oak Stake “11”-“12”-“26”-“27”

Gran. Rock

“30”-“31”

Gran. 

Rock “27”

Oak Stake “28”

Gran. Rock

“29”-“31”

Elder

Stake “1”

Elder Stake

“2”

Sycamore Stake

“7” -“8”

Sycamore Stake

“4”-“5”

Sycamore

Stake “2”-“37”

Sycamor

Stake 

e

“1”-“5”

Sycamore

Stake “2”-“37”

Granite Rock

“8”-“9”

Elder Stake

“4”-“8”

Elder Stake “9”-“10”

Elder Stake

“2”-“8”

Oak Stake “3”-“10”

Oak Stake

“3”-“25”

Oak Stake

“30”-“37”

Oak Stake “25”

“26”-“28”-“29”

Oak Stake “9” -“16”

“7”-“17”

Granite Rock “16” -“17”

“18”-“19” Oak St

“10”-“

ake

11”

Oak Stake

“9”-“16”

Oak Stake

“15”-“18”

1⁄4S.Cor.

Oak Stake in earth mo.

Section Corner

Oak Stake in earth mo.

1⁄4S.Cor. Elder Stake

Portion of 1893 Record

West 20.00

East 10.00

East 14.14

North 14.14 North 14.14 North 14.14

East 25.74

East 20.00

West 25.74 5.74 4.26

S.76°46’W.

North 10.00 West 10.00

S.1’W. 10.00

East 10.00

8.22 11.66 2.34

5.00 N.88°11’W. 7.80

N.11’E. 4.00

S.15’W. 4.00

N.15’E. 4.00

N.89°11’W. 22.00

S.89°11’E. 22.00

N.89°11’W. 22.00

N.32° 55’E.

N.68°4’W. 21.33

3.00 East 19.88 N.89°11’W.

East 10.00

West 10.00

West 19.88

West

N.1’E. 10.00

West 10.00

5.86

S.3’W. 10.00

East 10.00

N.6’E. 10.00

West 10.00

S.8’W. 10.00

East 10.00

N.8’E. 10.00

West 10.00

S.10’W. 10.00

East 10.00

N.10’E. 10.00

West 10.00

S.12’W.10.00 East 10.00 N.12’E. 10.00

N.15’E. 10.00

N.14’E. 4.00

S.15’W. 4.00 (11.76)

West 10.00

S.14’W. 10.00

East 10.00

N.12’E. 10.00

West 10.00

S.14’W. 10.00

East 10.00

N.10’E. 10.00

West 10.00

West 10.00

East 10.00

S.12’W. 10.00

East 20.00

East 10.00 East 20.00

West 10.00

East 8.00 2.00 18.28

18.28

10.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

East 6.00

East 10.00 S.64°E. 11.23

West 10.00

East 10.00

N.6’E. 10.00

West 20.00

West 20.00

West 14.14 West 20.00

S.85°24’W. 24.38

N.64°51’E. 44.71

S.74’E. 5.25

N.55°41’E. 24.69

N.60°33’W. 16.40

West 14.14

East 14.14

East 14.14

S.10’W. 10.00

S.52°3’E. 19.27

S.85°32’E. 5.54

25.43

S.701⁄2’E.

S.58°W.

S.12°37’W.

2.90

N.58°E.

5.90

N.3’E. 10.00

N.2’E. 8.00 N.2’E. 6.14

N.683⁄4°W. 21.40

S.683⁄4°E. 21.40

S.413⁄4°W. 21.52

S.6’W. 13.86

S.2’W. 14.14 S.2’W. 14.14 S.2’W. 14.14

S.6’W. 6.14

N.2’E. 14.14 N.2’E. 10.00

S.4’W. 10.00

N.4’E. 10.00

S.6’W. 10.00

N.6’E. 10.00

N.10’E. 10.00

S.10’W. 10.00

S.12’W. 10.00

West 14.14

East 14.14

S.7’W. 8.00

N.7’E. 10.00

S.9’W. 10.00

East 10.00

West 10.00

N.9’E. 10.00

S.11’W. 10.00

East 10.00

East

4.26

East 5.14

West 5.14

West 10.00 West 4.26

N.11’E. 10.00

N.13’E. 10.00

S.13’W. 10.00

6.00

9.83

(10.46)

S.13’W. 10.00

S.7’W. 10.00

N.13°40’

W.

 18.91

6

10.00A.

7

19.99A.

17

19.99A.

19

19.99A.

18

10.00A.

15

10.00A.

16

20.28A.

9

20.00A.

8

20.59A.

4

19.88A.

2

10.00A.

10

10.00A.

11

20.00A. 26

10.00A.

27

10.00A.

12

20.00A.

34.

28

10.00A.

3

10.00A. 25

10.00A.

29

10.00A.

31

4.26A.

32

7.20A.

9

3.00A.

37

10.00A.

30

10.00A.

1

8.00A.

12.10A.

5

10.00A.

Sec. 34

Figure 7-11. Miscellaneous control—record.

S. 7.962

E. 14.190

N. 9.890

E. 39.835

S. 7.980

E. 74.000

A-1

A-3

T-2

T-4

T-1

T-3

Restored

Corner

N. 0.000

E. 0.000

Retracement

Relationships

Record Distances

Not to Scale

Distance in Chains

A-4

S. 28.131

E. 14.349 A-2

A-1 to T-1 = 22.14

A-2 to T-2 = 20.28

A-3 to T-3 = 43.74

A-4 to T-4 = 60.00

∑ = 146.16

Weights

T-1 = 6.602

T-2 = 7.207

T-3 = 3.341

T-4 = 2.436 A = Accepted Corner

T = Temporary Point

W = Weight

C = Combined Weights D = Weighted Distance

d = Distance Between

 Temporary Points

W = ∑ of Record distances

Record distance(s)

= Solve for D D

d

W

C

Inverse Between Temporary Points

T-1 to T-2

T-1 to T-3

T-1 to T-4

N. 56° 34’ E. 0.270

N. 81° 36’ W. 0.137

S. 35° 08‘ W. 0.134

Solution

From Restored Corner to:

A-1

A-2

A-3

A-4

N. 0° 26’ W., 7.95 N. 89° 57’ W., 14.13

S. 89° 59’ E., 59.81 

S. 89° 59’ E., 25.65 N. 0° 01’ W., 17.86

S. 0° 27’ E., 20.17

Figure 7-12. Solution using miscellaneous control.
180

Chapter VII - Resurveys and Restoration Manual of Surveying Instructions

Special Cases

7-60. The cadastral surveyor will call upon the supervising officer for advice in difficult cases who may 

direct the field surveyor to proceed with additional 

retracements in order to develop any data that should be 

considered before a decision is rendered.

In trials of boundary suits, the court or administrative 

board generally consider many questions besides those 

concerned with the technical problems. This Manual 

treats nontechnical matters consistent with the discretionary authority delegated to the BLM to survey and 

mark Federal interest lands.

7-61. In unusual cases where the evidence of the survey cannot be identified with ample certainty to enable 

the application of the regular practices, the county or 

other local surveyors should submit their questions to 

the proper State Office of the BLM. Letters of inquiry 

should include a description of the lines in question 

and the facts as developed by the retracement. In cases 

where no Federal interest lands are involved, the methods and explanations of the BLM should be regarded as 

advisory only.

Summary

7-62. When reestablishing a lost corner, an attempt 

must be made to harmonize the process with the methods used in the original survey. Factors to consider in 

determining whether the decision is supported by the 

record include:

(1) Is the end product in harmony with the 

original plat?

(2) Are the corner points, lengths of lines and 

bearings of lines in harmony with the original 

and each other?

(3) Is there a degree of harmony between the 

topographic calls in the retracement and those 

of the record?

(4) Are the elements of evidence nearest the 

particular corner in question given the greatest 

weight and are they harmonious with each 

other?

(5) Is the form of proportionate measurement 

used that most nearly harmonizes surveying 

practices with legal and equitable considerations 

in determining boundaries?

(6) Is there harmony between the end product 

and the evident faithfulness of the original 

survey?

The above methods of restoring lost corners have been 

described in a way that allows adjustments to be made 

in the field with minimal computations. Surveying 

software can incorporate most of these adjustments. 

Cardinal equivalent and the Public Land Survey System 

datum (section 2-9) will be taken into account in almost 

all of these calculations. Reference should be made to 

previous editions of the Manual for more detailed field 

techniques.
181

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VII Notes - Resurveys and Restoration

“Half-Mile Posts,” Alabama and Florida

7-36(n). In the early practice in parts of Alabama and 

Florida, so-called “half-mile posts” were established at 

distances of 40 chains from the starting section corner. 

The term was applied where the line might be more or 

less than an exact 80 chains in record length, and where 

by later methods the latitudinal lines have been run as 

“random and true.” The practice contemplated that in 

some cases these subdivisional lines be run in cardinal 

directions to an intersection, where the next section corner would be placed, and either or both lines might be 

more or less than 80 chains in length. In some cases the 

section corners were placed across the township at intervals of 80 chains on one of the cardinal lines, and the 

other lines were run on random only. On the first plan 

the “half-mile post” would not be at midpoint unless the 

line turned out to be 80 chains in length. On the second 

plan the “half-mile post” on the lines first run would be 

in true position for the quarter-section corner, but on the 

lines last run they would usually not be on true line, nor 

at mid-point.

In both cases field notes were written showing a true 

line direction and midpoint distance for a quartersection corner. This was done to meet the objection that 

the “half-mile post” did not satisfy the requirements of 

law, but the true line was not actually run on the ground, 

nor was a monument constructed at midpoint. In these 

cases only the true line field notes need be regarded if 

the evidence of the “half-mile post” has disappeared; 

but where the latter can be identified the point must be 

given proper weight for control. Each set of field notes 

requires its individual consideration, as the practices 

were not uniform even in the same surveying district.

The applicable rules for the restoration of the true line 

midpoint positions for the quarter-section corners in the 

above practices are derived from the Act of February 11, 

1805 (2 Stat. 313; Rev. Stat. 2396; 43 U.S.C. 752), which 

requires that “the corners of half and quarter sections, 

not marked on the said surveys, shall be placed as nearly 

as possible equidistant from those two corners which 

stand on the same line.”

The rules may be stated specifically as follows:

(1) In case the “half-mile post” and quartersection corner are recorded as being at a 

common point, the identified “half-mile post” 

will be restored as the quarter-section corner.

(2) If there is evidence of the position of the 

section corners in both directions, and if the 

record leaves doubt as to the establishment of 

the “half-mile post” on the true line, the quartersection corner will be monumented at midpoint 

on the true line, disregarding the record of the 

“half-mile post.”

(3) In the absence of evidence at one or both 

section corners and where the record leaves 

doubt regarding the running and marking of the 

true line, the “half-mile post” will be employed 

on a north and south line for the control of the 

latitude of the quarter-section corner, or on an 

east and west line for control of its position 

in departure, using the record correction 

for distance. The alinement of the section 

boundary and the position of the quarter-section 

corner on the true line will be adjusted to the 

location of the two section corners after the 

double proportionate measurements have been 

completed.

(4) Where the field notes show proper location 

for alinement and record correction for distance, 

the “half-mile post” will be employed for 

the full control of the position of the quartersection corner, and for the restoration of the 

lost section corners. The position of the quartersection corner in latitude on a north and south 

line, or in departure on an east and west line, 

will be ascertained by making use of the record 

correction for distance from the “half-mile post.” 

The alinement from the position of the “half-mile 

post” to the point for the quarter-section corner 

will be determined by the position of the section 

corner to the south, if the record correction for 

distance is to be made to the north; the section 

corner to the north will be used if the record 

correction for distance is to be measured to the 

south; and similarly on east and west lines.

(5) The evidence of the “half-mile post” will 

not be destroyed.

The notes presented here elaborate on a topic presented in chapter VII. 

The section number corresponds to the section number in the chapter 

and is followed by “(n)” to indicate that it is an additional note. Chapter VII Notes

183

Chapter VIII

Resurveys and

Water Boundaries

Introduction

8-1. As a class, water boundaries represent some of 

the most challenging survey problems. In this chapter, 

water boundaries are divided into several subtopics in 

order that the elements of each type of problem can be 

brought out clearly. This chapter addresses the dependent resurvey of the original meanders, issues of navigability, bed ownership and division, accretion, erosion, 

reliction, avulsion, partition lines for the apportionment 

of accretions and relictions, accretion after survey but 

prior to entry, omitted lands, erroneously omitted lands, 

unsurveyed islands, and beds of nonnavigable rivers 

and lakes.

Dependent resurveys involving water boundaries usually involve two or more of these elements, requiring an 

overall analysis to find out which elements are involved. 

A study of the available historic maps and aerial photographs is made in all but the simplest cases.

Meanders

8-2. Meandering and original surveys is discussed in 

detail in sections 3-158 through 3-207. In summary, 

the traverse that approximates the margin of waters is 

termed a meander line. The original survey of water 

boundaries described the conditions as they existed at 

the date of that survey. This process is presumed accurate 

at the date of the survey as future changes are expected. 

A meander line is not normally surveyed as a boundary but only as a representation of the actual boundary, 

which is the ordinary or usual upper limit of the water 

body. Normally, when the Federal Government conveys 

title fronting a navigable inland body of water, the intention is that the upland ownership extends to the ordinary 

high water mark (OHWM). For lands fronting a nonnavigable inland body of water, the intention is that the 

upland ownership extends to the medial line. Finally, 

for lands fronting tidal water, the intention is that the 

ownership extends to the line of mean high tide (line 

of MHT). However, meander lines may become “fixed 

and limiting boundaries” under special circumstances 

described in sections 8-94, 8-169, and 8-179.

8-3. The original survey of water boundaries described 

the conditions as they existed at the date of that survey. 

They reflect the original surveyor’s effort to follow the 

OHWM or line of MHT. Unlike upland boundaries, 

water boundaries are ambulatory. The water boundary is 

a concept that must be applied by observation of the river, 

lakeshore, or ocean beach and other tidal water bodies. 

The actual survey work merely approximates the infinite 

indentations of riverbanks, channels, or shorelines.

As the work progresses along the boundary under 

survey, the surveyor must continually assess the terrain and vegetation to compare the variations to the 

legal concept and establish survey positions that most 

adequately approximate the actual boundary. Surveys 

of water boundaries that involve Indian lands, besides 

enjoying the normal complexities of riparian principles, are highly variable in nature by virtue of the specific language used in the original Treaty, Executive 

orders, or congressional acts that describe the Indian 

interest. The surveyor must be cognizant of these 

differences and should consult appropriate legal counsel to assure the correctness of the survey prior to 

its completion.

8-4. Procedures for the dependent resurvey of water 

boundaries are separate from the original survey 

requirements. The resurvey must consider the historic procedures in place at the date of those original 

surveys. In particular, because of advances in technology plus the differences in value of riparian lands, the 

surveyor may find that there are substantial differences in the location of the current boundary from the 

original locations. These differences may exceed the 

differences that can be explained from normal changes 

due to accretions, erosion, reliction, and avulsions in 

the interim.

8-5. The concept of following the footsteps of the 

original surveyor is often not of prime importance in 
184

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

the resurvey of water boundaries. The dependently 

resurveyed boundary is a concept established largely by 

common law that the surveyor shall apply to the conditions that are found along riverbanks, channels, or 

shorelines. In addition to any physical changes made 

by water action, State laws regarding water boundaries may be in conflict with the Federal rules and could 

influence the outcome, particularly where alienated 

lands are involved.

8-6. When important new subjects are encountered 

in this chapter, a brief definition of terms is provided 

in the text. If a more complete definition of a term is 

required, the reader should refer to the Manual supplement, Glossaries of BLM Surveying and Mapping 

Terms.

Meanders and Meandering—

Inland Waters

8-7. Inland waters are water bodies not influenced 

by the daily tides. Survey and resurvey procedures for 

lands along tidal waters are set out in sections 8-190 

through 8-194.

8-8. Bodies of water that are meandered and reported 

on surveys are called meanderable waters and include 

the following:

A river is defined as a watercourse having banks 

to contain an ordinary flow of water; although, 

there may be no flow at various times of 

the year.

A lake is defined as a quiescent pool of water in 

a flowing river. A lake with no outlet is defined 

as a terminal lake, e.g., the Great Salt Lake 

in Utah.

8-9. Meanderable bodies of water include all navigable waters and also nonnavigable rivers that are 

3 chains and upwards in average right angle width and 

nonnavigable lakes 50 acres and upwards in surface 

area. Nonnavigable rivers of importance, i.e., used as 

a boundary are meanderable even if less than 3 chains 

in width. The distinction between navigable and nonnavigable water bodies can be complex and is further 

detailed beginning in sections 8-21 and 8-32.

Meandering Along Inland Waters

8-10. Meander corners are corners of the survey that 

are established where township exterior, section, or other 

important survey lines intersect the margin of navigable 

waters or meanderable nonnavigable water. The purpose of meander corner monuments is to preserve the 

alignment of and the distance along the section line, and 

to provide a monumented beginning and ending point 

for the meanders. Where the meander corner location 

may be subject to erosion, bank caving, ice shoving, or 

wave action, reference monuments or a witness corner 

meander corner (WCMC) will be established as near as 

practicable.

8-11. Meander corner monuments are to consist of the 

regulation posts used for monumentation of the public 

lands surveys, described in more detail in chapter IV. 

Corner accessories to meander corners are to be established on the upland side of the meander lines running 

into or from the corner. Typical markings are found in 

chapter IV.

8-12. Meander corners are established and meander 

(sometimes called angle) points are located along the 

banks of meanderable rivers and lakes, and along the 

banks of islands that were formed in those water bodies 

before the date of statehood. Meander corners are also 

established along the banks of islands in meandered 

nonnavigable rivers and lakes that formed in those water 

bodies after the date of statehood but prior to alienation 

of the upland.

8-13. Meander lines are only run in front of public 

domain or other Federal interest lands. When it is necessary to show the sinuosities of a water body in front 

of alienated lands for platting purposes, medial line 

computations, establishing zero accretion points, or 

controlling proportionate corners, an informative traverse is run and may be included on the plat and field 

notes. An informative traverse is executed similarly to a 

meander line but neither establishes nor defines riparian 

rights of any kind in the adjacent upland. The informative traverse merely indicates the topography in front of 

the entered, claimed, or patented land. In addition, new 

areas are not returned. The result is represented on the 

plat as an informative traverse with different line weight 

or line style from shown meanders.

8-14. Remeandering is the process of establishing new 

meanders in front of previously meandered Federal 

interest lands. In the event of accretions to or relictions 

on such lands, the new meander line will be between the 

margin of the water and the former meander line.

8-15. Where it appears that upland was erroneously 

marked as lying below the original meander line and 
185

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

thus omitted from survey (omitted lands), the original 

meander line becomes a fixed and limiting boundary. 

New meanders are returned and new acreage and lots 

shown on the plat for the formerly omitted areas.

8-16. When sections bordering meandered bodies of 

water are subsequently subdivided, it is common for the 

shore line to have materially changed during the intervening years between the date of the subdivision of the 

township and the date of the subdivisional or allotment 

survey, through the processes of accretion, erosion, or 

the recession of the water. If it is desirable to remeander 

the body of water in order to show the true conditions at 

the date of the section subdivision, the plat should show 

new lottings and/or areas for unpatented lands within 

the invaded sections (section 9-109 and figure 9-9).

Restoration of Meander Lines During Resurvey

8-17. Following the perpetuation of obliterated meander corners or reestablishment of lost meander corners, 

it may be necessary to place the original meander line 

on the ground. This is done to assist in understanding 

the processes by which the changes occur, especially in 

identifying avulsions. Calls for bank heights, sloughs, 

vegetation, and other physical features in the previous 

record are compared with current conditions to understand why the changes occurred. The restoration of angle 

points along meander lines is made using the compass 

rule adjustment method described in section 7-53.

8-18. In situations where the record adjusted angle 

points fall in deep water or other impassible terrain, 

the restored angle points will be calculated based on 

the above field procedure and the coordinates of the 

restored angle points then established by a calculated 

traverse. A graphical layout of the entire traverse at a 

suitable scale is recommended for a check on the work.

8-19. The existence of a gross error or blunder in the 

original meander line record is sometimes apparent 

when a sharp topographic feature is reflected in the 

original record but is offset at a considerable distance 

from its restored location, hence the rationale for placing the original meanders on the ground (figures 8-1 

through 8-3). Using the principle of placing the blunder where the blunder occurred, the record should be 

judiciously corrected so that the restored meander line 

adequately reflects the topography.

Past record errors have included reversed meander 

course order, an error in the inversed final course, the 

original surveyor erroneously following the banks of 

Big Lake

Sec. 15

4

22.50

3

32.49

2

18.02

1

15.32

Original corner established

Meander line angle points

MC

MC

Figure 8-1. A portion of the 1871 original survey plat showing a 

lake peninsula.

Figure 8-2. A portion of the 2009 retracement showing the same 

lake peninsula.

Big Lake

4 7

12.84

6

30.30

5

16.04

Sec. 15

Original corner Monumented

MC

MC

Figure 8-3. A portion of the 2009 resurvey and the subdivision of 

section 15.

Big Lake

Sec. 15

Original corner recovered

MC

MC
186

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

another water body, e.g., meandering a stream entering 

the river intended to be meandered, meandering the top 

of vertical banks some distance back from the water’s 

margin, meandering during flood stage rather than “ordinary high water” (not necessarily error but may explain 

an excessively wide river), or transcription errors.

8-20. Angle points of a restored adjusted record meander line are not ordinarily monumented except as necessary for administration or management purposes. These 

are monumented when the restored adjusted record 

meander line becomes a fixed and limiting boundary of 

Federal interest land or when accretions are lotted.

Navigability

Nonnavigable Waters

8-21. Nonnavigable bodies of water are rivers and 

lakes that have no history of use in navigation nor have 

the susceptibility of being used for commercial transportation in their ordinary condition at the date of statehood. They are the small natural ponds, rocky creeks, 

and even usually dry washes, and arroyos. They do not 

fit the description of streams or lakes that are legally 

navigable waters; navigable waters are more carefully 

defined below.

8-22. Nonnavigable watercourses, when crossed by 

lines of the regular survey and resurvey, are noted as 

items of topography. The field notes should reflect the 

distance along the line to the center of the watercourse, 

the direction of the flow, and average width. The shores 

of such small lakes will be noted as items of topography 

with the distance along the survey line and the bearing 

of the shoreline in the field notes.

8-23. Nonnavigable streams and lakes are meandered 

under certain conditions. Title to the beds remains in 

the United States until the shore lands have passed into 

private ownership (United States v. Oregon, 295 U.S. 1 

(1935)). The Government’s conveyance of title to a fractional subdivision fronting upon a nonnavigable body of 

water, unless specific reservations are indicated in the 

patent, carries ownership to the middle of the bed in 

front of the basic holding (Oklahoma v. Texas, 261 U.S. 

345 (1923); see also 43 U.S.C. 931).

8-24. Well-defined nonnavigable watercourses more 

than 3 chains in average right angle width will be meandered on both banks between consecutive meander corners, unless otherwise directed by special instructions.

8-25. Nonnavigable lakes of 50 acres and upwards in 

extent will be meandered unless otherwise directed by 

special instructions. The survey procedure is the same 

as for a navigable lake.

8-26. It is necessary at times to survey the beds of 

nonnavigable streams and lakes, or the portions of the 

beds owned by the Government, in connection with the 

administration of the Federal interest lands, e.g., locating the medial line of the river which is the boundary 

of an Indian reservation. Where all the shore remains in 

public ownership, the survey is simply an extension of 

the regular rectangular system.

More commonly, it is desired to establish partition lines 

between alienated and Federal interest lands. In either 

case, if the area is covered by water, as in the case of 

the survey of the bed of a nonnavigable water body, the 

survey cannot be monumented in the regular manner, 

and many of the lines cannot be surveyed on the ground. 

The plat then represents a survey made largely by protraction. The procedure will be outlined in detail in the 

special instructions.

8-27. Where federally owned lots are dependently 

resurveyed along one bank of a meandered nonnavigable river and are opposed by entered, claimed, or patented lots along the opposite bank, generally the boundary line between the lots is located along the medial 

line of the river. The medial line is halfway between 

the opposite OHWMs of the river as of the time of the 

resurvey. See section 8-62 for more information about 

medial lines and exceptions to the general rule.

8-28. The field work usually consists of (1) a dependent 

resurvey of the lands bordering on the area to be surveyed; (2) the subdivision of the upland sections when 

necessary to determine the boundaries of Federal interest riparian subdivisions; (3) the monumentation of as 

many corners as practicable; (4) the protraction of section lines onto the bed to the extent needed for making 

computations; and (5) the establishment of medial and 

partition lines if this is to be done on the ground.

8-29. Nonnavigable rivers have been used as boundaries of reservations, borders between States, or other 

special purposes, e.g., the Yakima River in Washington 

State (a portion of the Yakama Indian Reservation 

boundary), the San Juan River (a portion of the Navajo 

Reservation boundary), or the Red River (a portion of 

the Texas and Oklahoma border). In some instances, the 

boundary of a special area follows one bank or the other 

rather than in the channel. It is important that the precise 
187

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

location of the boundary along such rivers be examined by reference to the applicable treaty, Executive 

order or congressional act creating the reservation or 

State. These treaties, Executive orders, and acts override the conventional use of the medial or median line 

as the boundary. For example, the western bank of the 

Chattahoochee River forms the boundary between the 

States of Georgia and Alabama above the head of navigation and the Ohio River’s northerly line of ordinary 

low water forms the southerly boundary of Ohio.

8-30. The meander line of a lake lying within a section 

is initiated at the established special or auxiliary meander corner, as the case may be, and continued around 

the margin of the normal lake at its OHWM, to a closing at the point of beginning. All proceedings are fully 

entered in the field notes. The process for establishing a 

SMC or AMC on the margin of a lake is described in 

sections 3-188 and 3-189.

8-31. Artificial lakes and reservoirs are not segregated 

from the Federal lands, unless specially provided for in 

the special instructions, but the true position and extent 

of such bodies of water are determined in the field and 

shown on the plat.

Navigable Waters and Navigability

8-32. In early European history, the right to use the 

waters was reserved to the ruler. Roman law made the 

distinction between nonnavigable and navigable waters 

and this concept was incorporated into the Common 

Law of England and subsequently into American law. 

English Common Law held that the beds of all tidally 

influenced waters belonged to the Crown up to the edge 

of land that could be cultivated for agriculture. When 

the early courts and settlers in New England tried to 

apply those rules it became clear that rivers such as 

the Hudson and the Ohio were clearly navigable even 

though not tidally influenced.

8-33. Upon the admission of a State into the Union 

title to the beds of navigable bodies of water inures 

to the State as an incident of sovereignty. In Pollard’s 

Lessee v. Hagan, 44 U.S. 212 (1845), the Supreme Court 

held that:

First, The shores of navigable waters, and the soils 

under them, were not granted by the constitution 

to the United States, but were reserved to the 

States respectively. Secondly, The new States 

have the same rights, sovereignty, and jurisdiction 

over this subject as the original States.

8-34. Two early U.S. Supreme Court decisions reflected 

the American solution of navigability. Excerpts from 

those decisions follow:

Those rivers must be regarded as public navigable 

rivers in law which are navigable in fact. And 

they are navigable in fact when they are used, or 

are susceptible of being used, in their ordinary 

condition, as highways for commerce, over 

which trade and travel are or may be conducted 

in the customary modes of trade and travel on 

water. And they constitute navigable waters of 

the United States within the meaning of the 

acts of Congress, in contradistinction from the 

navigable waters of the States, when they form 

in their ordinary condition by themselves, or by 

uniting with other waters, a continued highway 

over which commerce is or may be carried on 

with other States or foreign countries in the 

customary modes in which such commerce is 

conducted by water. The Daniel Ball, 77 U.S. 

557 at 563 (1871).

The true test of the navigability of a stream does 

not depend on the mode by which commerce 

is, or may be, conducted, nor the difficulties 

attending navigation. The Montello, 87 U.S. 430 

at 441 (1874).

The capability of use by the public for purposes 

of transportation and commerce affords the true 

criterion of the navigability of a river, rather than 

the extent and manner of that use. The Montello, 

87 U.S., at 441.

8-35. The Federal courts have the final authority 

to determine navigability when Federal interests are 

involved, such as upland with public domain land status, 

or interstate commerce. However, for management purposes, there are times when an administrative determination of navigability of a water body is needed to ascertain whether title to land remains in the United States. 

The Federal court decisions for land title purposes may 

be restated as far as may be required for the first approximation of navigability as follows (see Property Clause, 

U.S. Constitution, Article 4, Section 3, Clause 2):

(1) Rivers and lakes that are navigable in fact 

are those that have a history of use as highways 

of commerce over which trade and travel were 

conducted at the time of statehood.

(2) Rivers and lakes navigable in fact at the 

date of statehood are navigable in law.
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(3) “Navigable waters of the United States” 

are those to which congressional acts apply and 

they must interconnect to permit navigation to 

navigable waters in other States or countries. 

Navigable waters of the United States do not 

confer title to the soil under those waters to the 

United States.

(4) “Navigable waters of the State” are those 

navigable in law that does not interconnect with 

navigation in other States or countries. The 

navigable waters of the State include ownership 

of the soil under the waters.

(5) Rivers and lakes in States that were 

undeveloped at the time of statehood will 

be navigable in law if they were susceptible 

of being used in their natural condition as 

highways of commerce, over which trade and 

travel could have been conducted, at statehood.

Ownership of the Beds of Navigable Waters

8-36. Federal courts have jurisdiction under the 

Constitution over admiralty, commerce, and land title 

(ownership), and by statute over water pollution. Before 

the American Revolution the Colonies as well as some 

individuals were awarded grants of land from the Crown. 

Occasionally the wording of these grants would include 

the ownership of the beds of bays and other navigable 

waters. The Constitution preserved all such rights held 

prior to Independence. Thus, in the original 13 Colony 

States, individuals or their grantees may own beds of 

navigable waters.

After Independence each of the 13 new States owned 

the beds of all the navigable waters formerly owned 

by the Crown. Under the “equal footing doctrine,” new 

States are entitled to the same degree of sovereignty 

and jurisdiction over all the territory within their borders, subject to the common law, as the original States. 

Accordingly, the beds of navigable waters were reserved 

for the future States; they were not explicitly granted by 

the Federal Government or the Constitution. See infra

and sections 8-43 and 8-127.

8-37. Some courts have confused commerce jurisdiction cases with land title jurisdiction cases, both 

of which use the term “navigability,” but for different 

purposes. The Commerce Clause, U.S. Constitution, 

Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3, reserved to Congress the 

power to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, 

and among the several States, and with the Indian 

Tribes. . . .” Early in our national history the Commerce 

Clause was held to mean that the United States had the 

authority to control navigation by means of dams, weirs, 

channeling, and other improvements without compensating owners of the uplands, so long as the work was 

entirely within the bed or within the boundaries of the 

river. Rivers and lakes where this Federal right exists 

are the “navigable waters of the United States” referred 

to in the The Montello and The Daniel Ball decisions. 

On “navigable” rivers it means that the Government 

need not pay for exercising this right—essentially providing a “rule of no compensation.”

In Kaiser Aetna et al. v. United States, 444 U.S. 164 

(1979), is a case of the Commerce Clause. The Court 

acknowledged that though the formula for finding navigability under Admiralty Jurisdiction, i.e., The Daniel 

Ball, 77 U.S. 557 (1871), and The Montello, 87 U.S. 430 

(1874), under the Property Clause, i.e., Oklahoma v. 

Texas, 258 U.S. 574 (1922), and United States v. Utah, 

283 U.S. 64 (1931), and under the Commerce Clause, i.e., 

United States v. Appalachian Electric Power, 311 U.S. 

377 (1940), and Economy Light and Power Company v. 

United States, 256 U.S. 113 (1921), seemed to be alike, 

in application it is very different. For example, under the 

Admiralty Jurisdiction or Commerce Clause, a water 

body may be imporved to achieve navigability. Under 

the Property Clause, the issue is “ordinary condition at 

the time of statehood.” 

8-38. Ownership of the bed of a navigable river or 

lake, whether held by an individual or the State, is not 

quite the same as ownership of a building lot in the city. 

The Federal Government has what is called a “dominant servitude” in all “navigable waters of the United 

States.” That servitude subjects all State and private 

ownership rights within the riverbed to the control of 

the Federal Government in the interest of navigation. 

The agencies that administer this servitude are generally the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal 

Energy Regulatory Commission. The Corps’ administrative authority is confined to the beds of the rivers and 

lakes with limits defined by the OHWM or in the case 

of tidally influenced waters, the line of MHT.

The servitude is automatically exercised if a project 

on a navigable lake or river is related to the control or 

improvement of navigation. Just because part of the 

project is not useful for navigation does not void the servitude. A project may even destroy the navigability of 

other parts of the river if its purpose is in aid of navigation of major channels elsewhere.

8-39. Also separate from the Federal navigability servitude for land title purposes is the Federal servitude 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

governed by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act 

(86 Stat. 816; 43 U.S.C. 1344 and 1362) as amended. 

The Act refers to waters of the United States, which 

includes navigable waters (including tidal waters) and 

waters that affect navigable waters, such as interstate 

wetlands, nonnavigable waters with interstate or foreign 

connections, and tributaries of those waters, for jurisdiction over dredging and filling.

8-40. Ordinarily a conveyance document, usually a 

patent, issued by the BLM and its predecessor the GLO 

conveys title to the patentee down to the OHWM on 

navigable rivers and lakes. A riparian owner on one side 

of a meandered nonnavigable river is conveyed title to 

the medial line of the stream or to the center of a meandered nonnavigable lake. A patent to a littoral owner 

conveys title down to the line of MHT on tidal waters.

8-41. Each of the 50 States that came into the Union 

thus acquired ownership of the beds of the navigable 

waters within their boundaries, subject to the Federal 

navigation servitude. The lateral extent of that ownership was to the OHWM on each side of the inland water 

body. Because each State has the legislative power to 

dispose of or otherwise control ownership of these beds, 

and have treated them differently, there is some variety 

among the States as to current ownership, which may 

Figure 8-4. Inland navigable water claims by various States.

>|<

>|<

>|<

P

P

P

P

P

P

High Water Mark Low Water Mark

Gradient

Boundary

Mixed Lake and Stream

Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming had no set policy

Disputed In Private Ownership

affect how resurveys are conducted. Some States have 

granted the entire beds of their waters to the upland 

owners, disclaiming all ownership; some have granted 

the upland owners the banks down to the low water 

mark instead of the OHWM; some States kept the ownership of the beds of large lakes but granted the beds of 

the rivers to the upland owners (figure 8-4). Any claim 

to the bed must involve an examination for the possible 

effect of the law of the State in which it is located.

8-42. The title and rights of riparian owners in areas 

below the OHWM of inland navigable bodies of water 

are governed by State law rather than Federal law. The 

title and rights of littoral owners in areas below the line 

of MHT of tidelands are also governed by State law 

rather than Federal law (figure 8-5). Whether Federal 

or State law controls the ownership of land accreted to a 

riparian or littoral holding has been answered in a series 

of cases. See source of law considerations in sections 

1-7 and 8-57.

Application of the Submerged Lands Act on 

Lands Beneath Navigable Waters

8-43. The 1953 Submerged Lands Act (SLA), 43 U.S.C. 

1301 et seq., (1) essentially confirms States’ equal footing rights to tidelands and submerged lands beneath 
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

inland navigable waters, and (2) establishes States’ title 

to submerged lands, including the tidelands, beneath a 

3-mile belt of the territorial sea, which would otherwise 

be held by the United States (United States v. Alaska, 

521 U.S. 1 (1997)).

The SLA mainly involved maritime boundaries but it 

also affected inland waters to some extent. For inland 

waters the Act defined the term “lands beneath navigable waters” as “all lands within the boundaries of each 

of the respective States which are covered by nontidal 

waters that were navigable under the laws of the United 

States at the time such State became a member of the 

Union, or acquired sovereignty over such lands and 

waters thereafter, up to the ordinary high water mark as 

heretofore or hereafter modified by accretion, erosion, 

and reliction . . . .”

The Act granted each State the ownership of all lands 

below the OHWM including the mineral estate. There 

were some exceptions: any lands ceded to the United 

States whose title was determined under State law; 

all lands acquired by eminent domain, purchase, gift, 

cession, or acquired as a proprietary interest; all lands 

filled in, built up, or otherwise reclaimed by the United 

States for its own use; all lands withheld prior to statehood by the United States for the benefit of Indians; all 

structures and improvements constructed by the United 

States in the exercise of its navigational servitude; and 

all lands explicitly withheld by the United States prior 

to statehood.

8-44. Soil under navigable waters that lies between the 

OHWM and the low water mark in those States, such 

as Montana or Illinois, that have legislatively granted 

all upland owners portions of their river or lake bed, 

remain attached to any Federal upland as a gift, cession, relinquishment, or grant from the State. Where 

the Federal Government is such an upland owner, it is 

treated as any other upland owner when a State has bed 

ownership claims that differ from section 8-43.

8-45. The Secretary of the Interior has the authority and 

duty to segregate appropriated lands of all types from 

Tidal Water Boundaries

MLLT NOAA Chart Datum

Upland OwnedState ClaimedUpland OwnedState ClaimedState OwnedUpland OwnedState OwnedUpland Owned

MHT

Tidelands

DE, MA,

ME, NH, VA

AL, AK, CA, CT, FL,

GA, MD, MS, NJ, NY,

HI NC, OR, RI, SC, WA

Washup Line

LA

Highest

Winter

Tide

TX

MHHT

Federal Submerged Lands

200 nmi

State

Submerged

Lands

3 nmi

nmi - nautical mile; the distance

spanned by 1 minute of arc in

latitude at the equator;

approximately 1.15 statute miles,

1852 meters, or 6076 feet.

Exception 3 leagues

for TX, FL W. Coast

and Puerto Rico

Figure 8-5. Tidal water claims by various States.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

the Federal interest lands. Therefore, nearly all surveys 

and resurveys enclosing or abutting the beds of navigable 

waters shall segregate those beds from the Federal interest lands. Placement of meander corners and the running 

of meander lines in front of the Federal interest lands is 

the method for creating the segregation line. The principal exception to this rule occurs along the boundary 

of some Federal Reservations and Indian Reservations 

where the beds or portions of the beds of navigable 

waters are included within the reservation boundary as 

described by an act of Congress, treaty, Executive order, 

or where specified in binding litigation. Where a prestatehood grant of real property to an Indian tribe includes 

navigable waters within the grant boundaries and the 

grant is construed to include the submerged lands, title to 

the bed was withheld for the benefit of the tribe.

Navigability Investigations

8-46. The question of navigability in law is a matter 

to be finally decided by the court with jurisdiction over 

the parcels and is based upon the facts and conditions in 

each case as of the date of Statehood. A frequently cited 

definition of navigability appears in The Daniel Ball, 

cited in sections 8-34 and 8-37. The same definition is 

applied to lakes. In United States v. Holt State Bank, 

270 U.S. 49 (1926), the Supreme Court stated:

The rule long since approved by this court 

in applying the Constitution and laws of the 

United States is that streams or lakes which 

are navigable in fact must be regarded as 

navigable in law; that they are navigable in fact 

when they are used, or are susceptible of being 

used, in their natural and ordinary condition, 

as highways for commerce, over which trade 

and travel are or may be conducted in the 

customary modes of trade and travel on water; 

and further that navigability does not depend on 

the particular mode in which such use is or may 

be had—whether by steamboats, sailing vessels 

or flatboats—nor on an absence of occasional 

difficulties in navigation, but on the fact, if it be 

a fact, that the stream in its natural and ordinary 

condition affords a channel for useful commerce.

8-47. Artificial or natural changes subsequent to the 

date of Statehood do not bear on the subject of navigability for title purposes under the Property Clause. Such 

changes do affect navigability under the Commerce 

Clause or Admiralty Jurisdiction (U.S. Constitution, 

Article 3, Section 2, Clause 1). In United States v. 

Appalachian Electric Power Co., 311 U.S. 377 (1940), 

reh’g denied, 312 U.S. 712 (1941), the Supreme Court 

made the following clarification for purposes of the 

Commerce Clause:

“Natural and ordinary condition” refers to 

volume of water, the gradients and the regularity 

of the flow. A waterway, otherwise suitable for 

navigation, is not barred from that classification 

merely because artificial aids must make the 

highway suitable for use before commercial 

navigation may be undertaken.

8-48. The Secretary of the Interior has both the authority and the duty to consider and determine what lands 

are public lands of the United States (see 43 U.S.C. 2 

and State of Montana, 11 IBLA 3 (1973)). Such authority and duty include an administrative determination of 

navigability of a river or lake to ascertain whether title 

to the land underlying the water body remains in the 

United States or whether title passed to a State upon its 

admission into the Union (Western Aggregates, LLC., 

169 IBLA 64, 76 (2006); State of Montana, 88 IBLA 

382, 384 (1985)).

8-49. The Federal courts have final authority to 

determine navigability affecting public domain land. 

However, in the case of acquired lands, State court navigability determinations are controlling for these Federal 

interest lands. States have taken different approaches in 

determining which waters are navigable in their particular State for the purpose of ownership of the beds; from 

statutorily determining that all originally meandered 

waters are navigable, to statutorily declaring none of the 

waters in the State are navigable, to differing requirements for the elements of commerce, trade, and travel, 

to adoption of administratively determined navigability 

lists. If navigability is a factor in how a survey is to be 

conducted, consultation with the Solicitor’s Office is 

advisable.

8-50. Where the BLM is charged with segregating 

lands beneath navigable waters from Federal interest 

lands, an administrative determination of the navigability of the water body is required for preparation of 

special instructions. An investigation and finding of 

navigability for this purpose is within the BLM’s delegated survey authority. Ultimately, the matter is subject 

to judicial review.

Where such an investigation has been conducted, the 

results of the investigation and the reasons for its conclusions are properly reported in the field notes and the 

survey group file.
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

8-51. Often surveyed meander lines are the first navigability determination by the executive branch of the 

Government for a given body of water. The presence or 

absence of meanders would not affect an upland owner’s rights if later legal decisions determined the water 

body navigable or nonnavigable.

8-52. The legal question of navigability is determined 

by the facts in any particular case and not from any 

action on the part of the surveyor. In Oklahoma v. Texas, 

258 U.S. 574 (1922), the Supreme Court stated:

A legal inference of navigability does not 

arise from the action of surveyors in running 

meander lines along the banks of the river. 

Those officers are not clothed with the power to 

settle the questions of navigability.

The navigability or nonnavigability of a body of water 

may have been resolved by a jury upon consideration of 

the evidence and the opinion of competent witnesses. 

Courts have often taken judicial notice of the navigability or nonnavigability of streams and lakes.

Where such determinations have not been made, studies by the Corps of Engineers in connection with the 

improvement of rivers and harbors may be helpful in 

showing whether a river is navigable in fact. In questionable cases the necessary research as to navigability will 

be made and the facts noted in the special instructions.

8-53. The results of litigation in State and local courts 

do not ultimately determine navigability for Federal title 

purposes affecting public domain lands. Federal courts 

have the exclusive jurisdiction to make these judicial 

navigability determinations. However, the surveyor will 

generally rely on State and local court rulings because 

the Federal courts look to previous findings of navigability that have been based on reasonably thorough studies. Mere claims by State agencies that certain water 

bodies are navigable should be questioned as to the 

basis of such claims. Consultation with the appropriate 

State level agency is recommended as many States have 

made navigability studies. If the State agency’s basis is 

reasonable, the determination should be accepted.

8-54. Any original survey or resurvey that includes a 

river or lake may require an investigation prior to issuing 

special instructions to determine if the river or lake is 

navigable for land title purposes. The investigation may 

be extremely brief as in the case of known major waterways of commerce or may require an on-the-ground 

inspection and historical study. Special instructions 

for all surveys will identify any navigable water bodies involved in the survey and any limits of navigability 

such as the head of navigation. In questionable cases, 

absence proof otherwise, the presumption is that a water 

body is nonnavigable.

8-55. Items to be considered in a report on a navigability investigation include the following:

(1) Physical description of the water body. 

Photographs of typical locations are useful 

when they are keyed to maps of the area;

(2) A description of the water body at the date 

of statehood;

(3) Historical evidence of use of the water 

body as a highway of commerce, over which 

trade and travel were conducted. Show actual 

uses, proposed uses that never materialized and 

the frequency of such uses;

(4) The susceptibility of the water body for use 

as a highway of commerce, over which trade and 

travel could have been conducted, at statehood. 

More reasonable routes of travel around lakes 

or by other means of transport are pertinent;

(5) Present day uses for recreation or 

commercial pursuits;

(6) Comparison with similar water bodies that 

have been declared navigable or nonnavigable;

(7) An interpretation of the various facts 

presented and the recommended weight to be 

applied to each;

(8) An analysis of previous litigation, 

declarations of navigability by Attorneys 

General, State Legislatures or other 

governmental agencies, and

(9) A definite opinion as to navigability or 

nonnavigability is required.

Litigation over the navigability of rivers provides an 

insight into the requirements of the law of this subject.

Navigability Investigations—Alaska

8-56. For the purpose of lands selected by an Alaska 

Native, an Alaska Native Corporation, or the State of 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Alaska pursuant to ANCSA, the Alaska Statehood Act, 

or ANILCA, “navigable” and “navigability” means 

navigable for the purpose of determining title to lands 

beneath navigable waters, as between the United States 

and the several States pursuant to the Submerged Lands 

Act of 1953 as amended (67 Stat. 29; 43 U.S.C. 1301 

et. seq. and 1311 et seq.), section 6(m) of the Alaska 

Statehood Act, and the Alaska Submerged Lands Act of 

1988 as amended (43 U.S.C. 1631(d)).

No agency or board of the Department other than the 

BLM has the authority to determine the navigability of 

a lake, river, or stream within an area selected by an 

Alaska Native or Alaska Native Corporation pursuant to 

ANCSA or ANILCA, unless a navigability determination was appealed on or before December 2, 1980 (43 

U.S.C. 1631(c)(2)).

The execution of an interim conveyance or patent by 

the BLM that conveys an area of land selected by an 

Alaska Native or an Alaska Native Corporation, which 

includes, surrounds, or abuts a lake, river, or stream, 

or any portion thereof, shall be the final agency action 

with respect to a decision of the Secretary that such 

lake, river, or stream, is or is not navigable, unless 

appealed on or before December 2, 1980 (43 U.S.C. 

1631(c)(1)).

Source of Law Considerations

8-57. When State law and Federal law differ in application to an identical fact situation, a source of law situation arises. In practical matters, such as surveying, a 

source of law determination must be made that most 

probably would be the one chosen by the final court of 

competent jurisdiction. The surveyor is not expected to 

solve the problem entirely but must be able to recognize the problem and to prepare a technical analysis for 

review by legal counsel (section 1-7). However, in general, the following is true:

(1) The scope of a grant or conveyance of 

Federal land is a question of Federal law.

(2) The States are powerless to place any 

limitations or conditions on Federal grants.

(3) Federal law shall govern the survey process 

for determination of the boundaries between 

States.

(4) The boundaries of Indian property are to 

be determined according to Federal law.

(5) After Federal land has been granted or 

conveyed, State law is used to determine the 

ownership of the beds, and banks and shores of 

waterways unless there is a residual overriding 

Federal interest.

8-58. Items (1) and (2) are derived from United States 

v. State of Oregon, 295 U.S. 1 (1935). Oregon passed 

legislation to claim as State property all nonnavigable 

lake beds that were meandered by the official surveys. 

Specifically, Lake Malheur, Harney Lake and the channel connecting the two lakes were at issue. The lakes 

were included in a Federal withdrawal of public domain 

land for a Federal wildlife reservation.

They were large, shallow lakes and Lake Malheur was 

found to be dry at the time. A Special Master in the 

trial opined that the lakes were never used in commerce 

as highways or channels of navigation, from the date 

of statehood to the time of trial. The Supreme Court 

accepted the Master’s finding of nonnavigability. The 

decision of the Court held that the laws of the United 

States alone control the disposition of its lands. Also, 

that the construction of grants and conveyances by the 

United States is a Federal and not a State question. No 

State shall enforce laws that deprive the United States 

of its lands (see also State of California ex rel. State 

Lands Commission v. United States, 457 U.S. 273, at 

282 and 287 (1982)).

Item (3) is derived from the principle that Federal law 

shall be used to determine State boundaries along rivers and lakes. (See 457 U.S., at 281.)

Item (4) is derived from Wilson v. Omaha Indian 

Tribe, 442 U.S. 653, 670 (1979): “Indian title is a matter of federal law and can be extinguished only with 

federal consent” because the trust relationship still 

exists on Indian owned lands. (See also 457 U.S., 

at 282.)

Item (5) is also derived from Wilson that states, 

“[A]bsent an overriding federal interest, the laws 

of the several States determine the ownership of the 

beds, and banks and shores of waterways” (442 U.S., 

at 669). An overriding interest might be an interstate 

boundary or an Indian boundary that would invoke 

Federal law. In Oregon ex rel. State Land Board v. 

Corvallis Sand and Gravel Co., 429 U.S. 363 (1977) 

there was no such Federal interest but the Court held 

that Oregon State law was identical to Federal law in 

the matter. The State had “borrowed,” i.e., adopted, 

Federal law.
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

8-59. It may be determined as a matter of source of 

law that, although Federal law governs a given question, State law is sometimes borrowed and applied as 

the Federal rule for deciding a specific legal issue (457 

U.S., at 283; 442 U.S., at 672). Controversies governed 

by Federal law do not inevitably require resort to uniform Federal rules. Whether to adopt State law or to 

fashion a nationwide Federal rule is a matter of judicial 

policy relevant to the nature of the specific governmental interests and to the effects upon them of applying 

State law (442 U.S., at 671; see also, United States v. 

Hess, 348 F.3d 1237, 1243 (10th Cir. 2003)).

8-60. Three factors in determining whether State law 

may be borrowed as the Federal rule of decision have 

been enunciated by the courts:

(1) Is there a need for a nationally uniform 

body of law to apply in situations comparable 

to the case?

(2) Would application of State law frustrate 

Federal policy or functions?

(3) What is the impact a Federal rule might 

have on existing relationships under State law 

(442 U.S., at 673)?

A rule of decision is a settled principle based on precedents in previous decisions. It is considered a guide or 

a norm in a court’s decision.

Opposite Banks Delimitations

8-61. It is sometimes necessary to define a line representing the limits of ownership between opposite 

banks, for instance, in showing the limits of an Indian 

Reservation or a National Park boundary. In navigable 

waters such a line might be either the deepest navigable 

channel (thalweg) or a medial line. This is occasionally 

important in cases of reliction to public land fronting 

a navigable body of water or avulsion and subsequent 

division of an abandoned channel. In nonnavigable 

waters the common property line is usually the medial 

line, but may be the deepest channel (thread), especially 

of an abandoned channel.

Medial and Median Lines

8-62. The median line is the mathematical mean 

between the controlling points and lines on the opposite bank meander courses or informative traverse. The 

derived median line is comprised of straight line and 

curved segments halfway between the controlling lines 

and points on either bank. The curves are parabolas.

The medial line is simply the middle as measured half 

way at all points. The medial line will also fall between 

the opposite bank meander courses or informative traverse. The medial line also establishes a continuous 

line, formed by a series of intersecting straight line segments or a combination of straight line and curved (circular) line segments, every point of which is equidistant 

from the nearest point on the opposite shores, to closely 

approximate the true median. The medial line is often 

used in determining the boundary between opposite 

upland owners in abandoned channels.

Median and portions of medial lines are calculated from 

the meander lines or informative traverses conducted 

along the banks of the water body (figures 8-6 through 

8-11). These traverses provide a series of point-point, 

Agri Property

Barnson

Property

Sec. 21 Sec. 22

Sec. 28 Sec. 27

Present River

Abandoned Channel

Figure 8-6. An abandoned channel requiring medial line determination.

Agri Property

Barnson

Property

Sec. 21

Sec. 28

Sec. 22

Sec. 27

Figure 8-7. An enlarged portion of the abandoned channel.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-8. The center point of a series of inscribed circles on a straight 

reach.

Agri Property

Barnson

Property

Sec. 21

Sec. 28

Sec. 22

Sec. 27

Figure 8-9. Inscribed circles from a salient point.

Agri Property

Barnson

Property

Figure 8-10. The progression of the medial line.

Agri Property

Barnson

Property

Figure 8-11. The medial line continues on the straight reach in this 

fashion to the end of the abandoned channel.

Agri Property

Barnson

Property

point-line, and line-line conditions that control the location of the median or medial line. The easiest way to 

visualize the location of the median or medial line is to 

imagine a circle that expands or contracts while remaining tangent with the meanders on either side of the water 

body as the circle moves along the stream. The radius 

point of this expanding and contracting circle is tracing 

the median line.

8-63. For reporting purposes, that portion of the 

median line computations resulting in parabolic curves 

are replaced with straight line segments, by extending the tangents, or with circular curves. The modified 

result is also defined as a medial line. In which event a 

statement should be made in the field notes that:

A median line was computed between the 

meanders of the left and right banks of an 

abandoned channel of the ______ River 

in section ___. The computation produced 

several parabolic curves. Elements of the curve 
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

descriptions were eliminated to produce straight 

line segments, with no significant change in the 

true position of the median line. No effect on 

acreage or bona fide rights was detectable. The 

resulting approximation is defined as the medial 

line.

8-64. When State law governs, in those States that 

require the medial line to be determined between the 

low water marks instead of the OHWMs or require the 

thread of the stream to be determined, special instructions must comply with those requirements to protect 

the alienated lands on the opposite banks.

8-65. The median and medial lines of a water body 

are necessarily ambulatory lines when their location is 

based on the lines of the OHWMs that are themselves 

ambulatory. The median or medial line may be a fixed 

line where the governing bank lines are fixed, as in an 

avulsed area.

8-66. Normally the present ordinary high or low 

water mark is used to establish a median or medial 

line. Occasionally a median or medial line is to be 

established between bank lines as they existed at some 

time other than the present. For example, a medial line 

may be established between bank lines determined by 

historical aerial photography to define a former or historical boundary position. Where the best evidence of 

former bank line is a reliable survey, the medial line is 

then shown as of the date of that survey. Where mining 

or other earthwork has completely obliterated historical bank lines and no other reliable evidence showing 

the predestruction conditions is available, the original 

survey meander lines may serve as the best available 

evidence of the bank location(s). Of primary importance 

is the use of the latest reliable bank information, in order 

to satisfy equitable considerations.

8-67. Because the lines of the OHWM are rarely 

straight for any distance, the OHWM is approximated 

by a traverse called a meander line or, when fronting 

alienated lands, an informative traverse. Where a median 

line or an unusually precise medial line is required, use 

special care in approximating the OHWM. This is simply achieved by careful attention to the indicators of the 

OHWM position. (See section 3-168 and following sections for such indicators.)

8-68. By definition a point-line condition results in a 

parabola. Determining area under a parabola or describing this curve is difficult. Practice is to substitute a circular curve that best fits the parabolic curve. Another 

option is to remove the parabola entirely, when they are 

short, and extend the straight line segments on either 

side of the parabola to intersection; or construct subchords along the curve.

In addition, depending upon the configurations of the 

meander lines or informative traverses, the resultant 

median or medial line may contain an excessive number of courses. It is expected that a smoothing process 

will remove sufficient line segments to retain the general configuration of the median or medial line without 

creating an overly detailed number of courses to return 

in the field notes or plats.

8-69. The median line process can involve substantial 

calculations: fortunately the process has been automated. The medial line may also be determined graphically without computation on a large, carefully scaled 

diagram based on aerial photography or maps.

Where opposite bank lines are relatively long and 

straight, a line called a bisector in geometry defines the 

medial line and is also a precise median line. But where 

bank lines are relatively short and the river is relatively 

wide or where bends in the river occur, special methods may need to be employed to establish the median or 

medial line. This becomes apparent when the computational or graphically derived median or medial lines are 

overly complex or inequitably reduce an upland parcel’s 

interest in the bed.

Because the precision to which the OHWM can be 

determined on each bank is usually not better than 

5 links in horizontal position, there is usually no reason 

to be more precise in reporting a median or medial line 

calculated from those bank lines. Accordingly, unless 

special conditions such as a court order are present, the 

curved portion of the medial line may be approximated 

by one or more straight courses.1

With the advent of computer programs that can quickly 

and precisely compute a median line, it may actually 

involve extra work to degrade the median line (figure 

8-12). Accordingly, the special instructions will note 

1 The salient point method is another possible method used for 

determining median or medial lines. Rather than using the meander line 

traversed, prominent points along both shores are used. This method is 

normally reserved for use with sea boundaries. As defined in the United 

Nations’ “Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone,” 

held in Geneva in 1958, a median line is a “line every point of which is 

equidistant from the nearest points on the baseline.” In that case, the 

“baseline’ is the line of mean low water. The definition may be made 

applicable to inland submerged lands boundaries by substituting “line of 

ordinary high water” for “baseline.”
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

to what precision the median or medial line must be 

reported, taking into account whether the water course 

is still active or an abandoned channel (fixed and limiting boundary), whether a Mineral Leasing Act lease 

is involved, and whether the resulting determination meets limits of closure and positional tolerances 

requirements.

Thalweg

8-70. The thalweg, or talweg, is an ambulatory line 

often used to designate the division line between opposite nations or political subdivisions along navigable rivers and lakes. The word comes from the German word 

for “valley way.” The thalweg follows the line of usual 

navigation in a river, not necessarily the deepest channel, used by boats of maximum tonnage on their downstream passage. The line of deepest water often occurs 

close to one bank. The geometry of the thalweg can be 

determined by observation of river traffic or from charts 

used by river pilots.

Thread

8-71. The thread follows the line of deepest water. 

The thread is ordinarily an ambulatory line often used 

to designate the division line between opposite upland 

owners along nonnavigable rivers and lakes. In cases 

when access to water is the primary issue and the thread 

occurs close to one bank, the courts have invoked equity 

and rejected the medial line as the division and adopted 

the thread. This low water approach recognizes, for 

example, the access to water by cattle. The geometry of 

the thread can be determined by vertical measurement 

of the bed of the water body. The thread can become a 

fixed boundary line by an avulsive action.

Most commonly, the thread is found in abandoned 

channels, especially between islands and the adjoining upland where the channel has relicted due to the 

upstream opening of the channel closing off by accretions. In these instances it is appropriate to walk the 

lowest portion of the relicted channel while selecting 

angle points for this line.

8-72. Where Federal law is controlling, and the “middle” 

is specified, the medial line is presumed to be the 

boundary. Where the line of navigation was intended 

the medial line is the boundary unless it can be proven 

that the vessels that navigate those parts keep their 

course habitually along some channel different from 

the medial. Where the water body is nonnavigable, the 

medial line is the boundary unless it can be proven that 

access to the water was the intent, then the thread is 

used. These determinations by the surveyor must be 

documented thoroughly and in many cases must be as 

extensive as navigability investigations. Ultimately the 

decision is subject to further administrative review and 

to judicial review.

Special Boundary Lines

8-73. The decision on whether the thalweg, thread, 

or the medial line is the appropriate dividing line is 

determined by the language in the act of Congress, 

treaty, Executive order, or withdrawal for each boundary involved. This affects State boundaries, Indian 

reservations and special designated areas described 

outside the legal subdivision system of the rectangular surveys, where the surveyed lines follow a river or 

a lake.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies on 

navigability.

Water Body Movements

8-74. A river flowing through its own sediments is 

called an alluvial river. Alluvial rivers by their nature 

move around over time by the process of erosion of one 

bank and deposition on the other bank. The entire process is called meandering. The word meander comes 

from the Meander River (now Menderes River) in Asia 

Minor that wanders back and forth across its floodplain. 

For more details on how physical changes occur in a 

Figure 8-12. Definition of a median line by salient points.

A

B

S

R

M

P Q

Median Line

C

D

Salient

Point

A

Salient Point

D

P = mid-point AD

M = mid-point AC

S = mid-point BC

Salient

Point

C

Salient

Point

B

Shipping Channel

1 7. 8 4 c h .

1 7. 8 4 c h .

1 7

. 8 4 c h .

1 8 .

0 5 c h . 1 8

. 0

5 c h .

1 8

. 0

5 c h .
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

river, see A Laboratory Study of the Meandering of 

Alluvial Rivers, by Captain J.F. Friedkin, U.S. Corps of 

Engineers, 1945.

8-75. An alluvial river will not ordinarily flow in a 

straight line even over short distances. As curves in the 

river alignment develop, the faster currents in the flow 

move toward the outside of the curve (figure 8-13).

These faster currents erode the soil at the bottom of 

the outside of the bend causing the surface soil to fall 

into the river where it disintegrates. The soil removed is 

deposited, mainly on the opposite (inside) bank of the 

next curve downstream.

Rivers meander by reason of the continued erosion and 

accretion of alluvial soil on the bends. The cumulative 

effect of meandering is the movement of the river’s 

course in a down-the-valley direction as well as outward 

from the axis of the bends (figure 8-14).

8-76. The process of deposition is called “accretion.” 

Accretion is defined as the grain-by-grain deposition of 

soil along the bank of a river. The term is applied both 

to the gradual and imperceptible deposition of material along the bank of a body of water and to the lands 

formed by this process. It is usually accompanied on the 

opposite side of the stream by the reverse process, erosion. Both accretion and erosion can affect land boundaries, including the boundaries of Federal interest lands.

8-77. A river that has a relatively steep gradient and carries a heavy sediment load may be classed as a braided 

stream. The beds of braided streams usually consist of 

many small channels that move around between islandlike soils formations that have no permanent upland 

vegetation. These channels fill up during heavy sediment transport and, thus, become clogged during flow. 

As these channels clog the flow will jump over and find 

Figure 8-13. Cross section of a river at a bend.

Inner

(Accretion)

Bank

Outer

(Erosion)

Bank

Note that centrifugal

forces elevate the

water surface near

the outer bank

Depth and Width in Feet

00

0 50 100 150 250

10

Fastest Flow

Region

200

Water Surface

Figure 8-14. As a result of erosion on the outer bank and accretion on 

the inner bank, the river moves outward and down the valley.

Gradual accretion

on the inner bank

usually follows erosion,

thus the river moves

outward and somewhat

down the valley.

Erosion

on the

outer bank

allows the

river to move outward.

a nearby route within the stream bed. Thus the entire 

bed consists of these ephemeral channels.

8-78. During periods of high runoff in a river the water 

surface rises and at the same time larger and larger sediment particles are picked up from the riverbed due to 

increased velocity of flow. Smaller particles are swept 

up into the flow but larger particles—even boulders 

are bounced or rolled along the bottom. In effect the 

river bottom is lower in elevation during high flows in 

a process called bed scour. On larger rivers such as the 

Missouri or Colorado River there may be as much as 

2 feet of bed scour to accompany 1 foot of rise in the 

water surface.
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Figure 8-15. A point bar is an accretion on the inside of a bend in a river. 

Over time, a point bar can become vegetated and classifiable as upland.

This area is

called a point bar.

It may be bare

or may be vegetated.

Figure 8-16. The beginnings of an avulsion. River meanders move 

outward and downstream unless they are impeded by a solid object such 

as extremely resistant soil or rock.

Erosion

on outside

banks.

Deposition

on inside

banks.

Resistant

soil

Resistant

soil

Resistant soil

1890

1922

1950

8-79. A bar in a river is a low formation of soil that 

has risen from the bed by the action of the river. Bars 

may be identified as gravel bars or sand bars according 

to the material forming them. A point bar is the material added to the inside of a meander bend (figure 8-15). 

The formation is first deposited below the OHWM 

but may continue to add material during high flows 

above the OHWM. A chute channel is a breach across 

a point bar that occurs when high rates of flow erode a 

“short cut.”

8-80. As seen from the air, the older, mature rivers 

will have meanders that are very pronounced. If a river 

that is in the process of moving down valley encounters 

an erosion resistant area the meander bends begin to 

tighten up. Eventually the tightening process causes the 

river to break through into the next meander below. The 

process is described as a classical avulsion.

8-81. An “avulsion” is the sudden and perceptible 

change in a channel of a boundary stream with a new 

channel and remaining “fast” land between, or a comparable change in some other body of water forming a 

boundary owing to natural causes or from the result of 

human activity (figures 8-16 and 8-17). Water may continue to flow in both channels with resulting boundary 

movement but the process is complete when the flow in 

the old channel becomes stagnant under ordinary flow 

conditions of the river.

8-82. Changes in the shoreline due to an earthquake 

can be an avulsion. Where abrupt tectonic changes in 

the earth’s crust that occurred after statehood but before 

survey have elevated the mainland relative to the present 

sea level, the State may own the area between the two 

sea level positions. The survey line will be run as a fixed 

and limiting boundary that closely approximates the 

former coastal boundary. Where the tectonic change has 

abruptly depressed the mainland the present tidewater 

Flow

Fl

ow

No Flow

Crevasse occurs here Three days later

Island

Remains

Figure 8-17. As the meander loops tighten, the narrow neck finally breaks 

through and the eroding waters tear out the “shortcut.”

boundary is meandered without consideration of the 

tectonic change. An abrupt tectonic change is considered the equivalent of an avulsion.

8-83. Human-made channelization and rechannelization after the date of grant or statehood is generally 

treated as an avulsion.

8-84. “Reliction” comes from the Latin word for relic. 

It is the long continued and gradual uncovering of land 

caused by the recession of a body of water. Relicted land 

is treated in the same manner as accreted land insofar as 

its survey is concerned.

8-85. “Emergence” is the process of uncovering of the 

bed of a water body, the opposite from submergence. 

It is synonymous with the term reliction. Emergence is 

generally accomplished by changes in the OHWM of 

the water body or the uplift of the upland. This is different from “accretion,” which is the gradual forming of 

upland caused by the deposition of fine material on the 

bed of a water body.

8-86. “Submergence” is the process of covering of 

upland with rising water, the opposite from emergence. 

This change usually is accompanied by changes in the 
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

OHWM of the water body or the depression of the 

upland. This is different from “erosion,” which is the 

eroding of upland by water action, causing the area to 

be covered with water.

8-87. “Reemergence” is the process by which land is 

submerged by water, followed by the reappearance of 

the same soil by the process of (1) withdrawal of water 

or (2) elevation of terrain, and not by accretion. The first 

change is accompanied by changes in the OHWM of the 

water body. The second change is not accompanied by 

changes in the OHWM of the water body. Reemergence 

is not the formation of a new feature in the same location of a previous feature; that is the process of accretion, to either the island or mainland, or to the bed of the 

water body. Both of these processes have been called 

“reappearance.”

Where the root cause of emergence is a very slow elevation of terrain, as in isostatic rebound of the earth’s 

crust in arctic regions due to melting glaciers and the 

removal of that weight, the boundaries may move as the 

OHWM moves, the change is generally treated as accretion. Where the root cause of the emergence is sudden 

uplift of terrain accompanied by earthquake, or a channel straightening project, the change is generally treated 

as an avulsive.

8-88. Where a sediment laden side stream enters a 

larger river a delta may form on the bed of the larger 

river, which can push the larger river away from the 

delta (figure 8-18). Accretions occur as a result of flowing water depositing sediments along the bank and thus 

change the shoreline of the river and the boundaries 

formed by that shoreline.

8-89. A river is at flood stage when the first runoff 

overtops a riverbank and begins to flow across the flood 

plain. At the time when a flood begins to recede, soil 

particles being washed across the banks of the river will 

begin to drop out of suspension. The larger particles 

drop out first, which places them near the top of the 

riverbank. In consequence, many such flood events will 

produce a low “natural levee” along both banks of most 

alluvial streams. Beyond the natural levee is the flood 

plain, called a “backswamp” when the flood plain is 

water logged (figures 8-19 and 8-20). Natural levees provide a good indicator of the OHWM on alluvial streams.

Legal Effect of Avulsions Under Federal Rules

8-90. As a general rule an avulsion legally fixes land 

boundaries formed by riverbanks at position prior to the 

Figure 8-18. Delta formation in a larger river.

Delta Side Stream

The delta of

a side stream

may push a larger

river outward over a

long period of time.

Figure 8-19. An oblique view of a river showing natural levees and backswamps. Natural levees may remain dry during minor floods.

Figure 8-20. Cross section of natural levees during a major flood. The 

main channel carries most of the flow. As sediment-laden flow escapes 

into the backswamp, the heavier particles drop on the natural levee, 

increasing its height.

Main Channel

Backswamp

Backswamp

Natural Levees

Main

Channel

Natural

Levees

Backswamp Backswamp
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

of river there is a new left and right bank, while 

leaving positively identified upland in place 

between the old and new channels.

(2) The avulsion may have occurred from 

any cause—this would include human-made 

alterations of the riverbed, e.g., channelization 

or rechannelization.

(3) Prior to the avulsion, the stream formed the 

boundary. The boundary remains fixed at its 

last previous location just prior to the avulsion 

and does not follow the water course to its new 

location.

(4) If the boundary was at the middle of the 

river, it remains fixed at that location even if 

there is no flowing water. It will be logically 

inferred that if the boundary was the thalweg, 

the last thalweg would be the fixed boundary 

even if there is no flowing water. Also, if the 

preavulsion boundary was the thread of the 

river, the boundary remains at the abandoned 

thread in the avulsed reach.

(5) An avulsion is complete when the water 

in the old channel becomes stagnant under 

ordinary flow conditions of the river (Arkansas 

v. Tennessee, 246 U.S. 158 (1918)). This means 

that erosion and accretion may occur in the 

former channel during the time when the river 

is adjusting to the avulsion. However, when the 

flow ceases in the old channel, the boundary 

is fixed as a matter of law recognizing the 

practicality of the new conditions as there are 

no longer erosive or accretive actions at work.

(6) If an avulsed river resumes its former 

channel, the boundary is no longer fixed and 

accretion and erosion once again can move the 

boundary (dicta in Nebraska v. Iowa, above).

(7) In a braided stream that is bare of 

permanent upland vegetation between braid 

channels, changes of channel that occur in the 

bed of the river between the outer braids, are not 

avulsions (see Peterson v Morton, 465 F.Supp. 

986 (D.Nev. 1979), remanded by, vacated by, 

in part on other grounds, Peterson v. Watt, 666 

F.2d 361 (9th Cir. Nev. 1982) described below).

(8) Where a State owns the bed of a river that 

has avulsed, the State remains the owner of the 

old abandoned channel but does not own the 

avulsion, within the limits of an avulsion. The rules vary 

between Federal holdings and some State holdings and 

there are a few other exceptions outlined below.

8-91. Avulsions within a survey area that have occurred 

before original survey and before statehood are meaningless as to boundaries, in that no rights or boundaries 

had yet been created. However, an avulsion that occurred 

after statehood but before survey could result in a possible claim of navigable bed ownership by the State 

involved. Such a situation occurred on the Colorado 

River shortly after California’s statehood in 1850 but 

California never claimed the avulsed bed so the situation 

was ignored in an appellate decision affecting the area 

(United States v. Byrne, 279 F.3d 677 (9th Cir. 2002), as 

amended on denial of reh’g, 291 F.3d 1056, cert. denied, 

Aria et al. v. United States, 537 U.S. 1088 (2002)).

8-92. Avulsions that occurred after the original survey of public lands but before entry, claim, or issuance 

of patents in the township are important because no 

patents should be issued that include the avulsed areas. 

If the bed or the lots and aliquot parts in the township 

affected by the avulsion are Federal lands, the survey 

will be amended to reflect the new river positions.

8-93. In the case of Nebraska v. Iowa, 143 U.S. 359 

(1892), the Supreme Court held:

It is settled law, that when grants of land border 

on running water, and the banks are changed 

by the gradual process known as accretion, the 

riparian owner’s boundary line still remains 

the stream, although, during the years, by this 

accretion, the actual area of his possessions may 

vary.

It is equally well settled, that where a stream, 

which is a boundary, from any cause suddenly 

abandons its old and seeks a new bed, such 

change of channel works no change of boundary; 

and that the boundary remains as it was, in the 

center of the old channel, although no water 

may be flowing therein. This sudden and rapid 

change of channel is termed, in the law, avulsion.

8-94. Listed here are several summary statements 

about avulsions relative to Federal interest land that are 

important for surveyors to understand:

(1) Avulsion is defined as a river suddenly 

abandoning its old bed and taking a new bed. 

Such a geometry of rivers implies that there was 

an old left and right bank and in the same reach 
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

newly created bed. Landowners, including the 

United States, whose property was submerged 

or washed away by the new course of the river 

generally have no recourse unless they were 

physically able to move the river back into its 

old channel soon after the event.

(9) When Federal common law is the source of 

law, rapid erosion does not normally constitute 

an avulsion (Nebraska v. Iowa, 143 U.S. 359 

(1892)).

(10) Channelization, the artificial filling in 

along the bank of a navigable river or the 

narrowing of the riverbed, leaving former 

riverbed exposed as upland, is an avulsive 

change that fixes the boundaries of the riverbed 

property at the location of the OHWMs of the 

river immediately before the project (figure 

8-21).

(11) Rechannelization, the removal of a 

navigable river from its former channel and 

relocating it to an artificially constructed channel, 

leaving the former bed exposed as upland, is 

an avulsive change fixing the boundaries of 

the riverbed property by the location of the 

OHWMs of the river immediately before the 

relocation of the river (Puyallup Indian Tribe v. 

Port of Tacoma, 717 F.2d 1251 (9th Cir. 1983), 

reh’g denied, 466 U.S. 954 (1984)).

8-95. A classical avulsion has been described above. 

Other types of avulsions are described as follows:

(1) Point bar avulsion occurs when a chute 

channel cutting through a vegetated point bar 

(upland) enlarges by erosion such that the entire 

river flows through the short cut and the former 

river bend is an abandoned channel (figure 8-22).

(2) Backswamp avulsion occurs when flood 

waters break through a natural or human-made 

levee upstream from a large river bend (figure 

8-23). During flood the flow through the levee 

break travels downstream along the backswamp 

(the area beyond the natural levee) becoming 

deeper as it progresses downstream. When 

the depth exceeds the natural levee, the water 

ponded in the backswamp breaks through the 

downstream natural levee in the reverse direction, 

i.e. back into the main channel. Because the 

length of channel through the backswamp is 

shorter than the old main channel, an avulsion 

Figure 8-21. Channelization has narrowed a wide, shallow river to 

improve navigation.

Former Bank

Former Bed

Former Bed

Avulsed Area

Channelized River

Avulsed Area

Former

Wide River

Bank of

Figure 8-22. During high water events, large amounts of water cut across 

point bars and can scour out a new channel.

Vegetated

point

bar

Note: If the point bar had

not been vegetated, there

would be no avulsion as

a surveying matter.

Before After

Figure 8-23. Overflow from a levee break spreads out over the backswamp at the beginning of avulsion.

Overbank Flow

Levee

Break

may occur. Hydraulic conditions required for 

avulsion to occur depend on the flow efficiency 

of the backswamp channel compared to the 

old main channel. The avulsion occurs when 

the river abandons the old main channel when 

ordinary flow levels resume.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

(3) Ice jam avulsion occurs when river ice 

accumulates and raises a dam high enough so 

that water may flow around a new route to a 

point downstream of the ice dam (figure 8-24). 

If this temporary channel erodes into a more 

efficient floodway, the river will abandon the 

former main channel.

(4) Levee cutoff avulsion, also called a Yazoo 

avulsion after the Yazoo River in Mississippi, 

occurs when a tributary river avulses into the 

backswamp of a much larger river (figure 8-25). 

The Yazoo River formerly entered the Mississippi 

River several miles above Vicksburg. At a time 

when the Mississippi was at normal flow and the 

Yazoo was in flood, the Yazoo broke through its 

southern natural levee upstream from its mouth. 

Because the backswamp of the Mississippi River 

was miles wide, the levee breakthrough traveled 

down the Mississippi backswamp unimpeded 

for miles before it reentered the Mississippi at 

Vicksburg. That shortcut through its natural 

levee became the main channel, abandoning its 

former mouth upstream.

8-96. Litigation sometimes ensues many years after an 

avulsion occurred. It is sometimes difficult to determine 

with certainty exactly where the river was at the time 

the avulsion was complete. One of the more reliable 

tools for age-dating terrain is to use tree-core data. It 

can readily be shown that a newly cored tree has been in 

place for the number of years represented by the annual 

growth rings. Historical aerial photographs, surveys and 

reliable maps are also useful for such determinations. 

Other than those items, eyewitness testimony and testimony by experts on river mechanics or sedimentation 

are of assistance. Avulsive changes to a river are dangerous and can cause expensive loss of property. As such, 

local citizens will normally remember the event and can 

point out where the river used to run and where it began 

and ended.

8-97. An avulsive change cannot be assumed to have 

occurred without positive evidence. Positive evidence is 

direct proof of the facts establishing that an avulsion 

has occurred and does not arise from any presumption. 

When no such showing can be made, it must be presumed that the changes have been caused by erosion and 

accretion.

It is important that positive evidence is found to show 

that an avulsion has occurred, and a detailed description of that evidence must appear in an investigation 

report if a survey does not follow, or in the group file 

and in the field notes if a survey is completed. Positive 

evidence may be in the form of historical aerial photography, local newspaper articles, witness testimony, or 

other evidence of the factual circumstances.

8-98. A change in course of a stream is clearly avulsive when the land between the old and new channels 

remains substantially as it was. The unaltered condition 

of the land may be indisputably shown by the continued 

existence of improvements in place or of timber, undergrowth, and other vegetation. A study of historic documents, especially maps and aerial photographs, will 

Figure 8-24. Ice jams or log jams can cause avulsions if the overflow 

scours a viable channel.

Overbank flow scours a new route around the

log or ice jam

Enlarged pool behind dam

Before After

High rocky blu constricts the river

Figure 8-25. Levee cutoff avulsion reroutes a tributary channel.

Note: If the pond continues

to fill such that it can break

through the large river’s levee,

the avulsion may continue

to completion.

Before Small

Tributary River

After Small

Tributary River

Flood Plain

Small Tributary River

Pond

La

rge River

La

rge River

Natural

Levees

Overflow From Crevasse

Flood Plain

Small Tributary River

High Bluff

High Bluff
204

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

often help in determining what process has taken place. 

As a general rule, the abandoned channel is easily identifiable where an avulsive action has occurred.

8-99. Another type of evidence that may be used is 

related to physical factors of the river. If the new flow 

alignment of a river is shorter in length than the old flow 

alignment, the change is avulsive. This test is based on 

river flow hydraulics. If, during a flood, a river spills 

over into a new route, the entire river will not assume 

the new route after the flood unless the velocity of flow 

is greater than the velocity in the old route. Because the 

hydraulic head available is the same for both routes, the 

velocity in the shortest route will be higher and will 

be the stream’s new preferred route. This is related to 

Manning’s formula for the velocity of a stream. In litigation, this material should be presented by an expert 

versed in hydraulics.

8-100. The bed of a new channel resulting from 

avulsion continues to belong to the owner of the land 

encroached upon. The bed of the former channel continues to belong to the riparian owners if the stream is 

nonnavigable. Ownership of the abandoned bed of a 

navigable stream is governed by State law, unless there 

was an explicit reservation of the bed by the Federal 

Government prior to statehood.

8-101. When the change in a water course is avulsive 

and the boundaries remain unchanged, any subsequent 

movement of the avulsive (new) channel, whether caused 

by accretion, erosion, or by another avulsive action, does 

not change property lines.

8-102. Avulsive changes to lakes are rare. A lake may 

be suddenly drained when a river erodes its way into 

the bed of the lake, or when a lake formed by an active 

glacier blocking a side stream suddenly undermines the 

glacier, allowing the lake to drain, or conceivably, due to 

an earthquake. Where land is inundated due to damming 

or other such direct human-made improvements, the 

boundary remains fixed at its last previous location just 

prior to the avulsion. Lakes that dry up due to climatic 

changes or other more general human influence are not 

avulsed—the lake shore was not breached. These cases 

are classed as relicted lands and are described below.

Legal Effect of Avulsions Under State Law

8-103. The foregoing describes the effects of avulsion 

under Federal common law. However, State law must 

generally be applied to events affecting land after a 

Federal patent has issued, except that State law cannot 

deprive the United States of ownership, even as it relates 

to avulsion. State laws regarding avulsion vary considerably from Federal common law and even among the 

various States.

Where a source of law decision has been determined 

as in sections 1-7 and 8-57 and State law has been 

deemed appropriate for governing survey work where 

an avulsion is present in an area containing alienated 

or acquired lands, an examination of State law must be 

made.

8-104. State statute, regulation, and case law must be 

examined for the appropriate test or tests to determine if 

an avulsion has occurred. The test may have even been 

written into the definition of avulsion. The next matter is 

how the law defines the fixing of the boundary:

(1) Many State laws place great emphasis on 

the presence of sudden change in river position 

as a test for avulsion.

(2) A number of States have the following 

statutory definition: “If a river or stream carries 

away, by sudden violence, a considerable and 

distinguishable part of a bank, and bears it to 

the opposite bank, or to another part of the same 

bank, the owner of the part carried away may 

reclaim it within a year after the owner of the land 

to which it has attached takes possession of it.” 

Obviously, a river cannot pick up a considerable 

part of a bank and move it to the opposite bank. 

Case law must be examined to see how the State 

courts have interpreted this provision.

(3) A number of States do not specify that 

an avulsion leaves an identifiable tract of land 

between the old and the new banks. Some States 

consider a stream that is considerably widened by 

erosion during a single storm to be an avulsion.

(4) Some State court decisions have treated 

changes in rivers that were not avulsive as an 

avulsion as a means of settling a dispute.

International Boundary River Avulsion

8-105. International Boundary Rivers are located 

on the Canadian Boundary as well as on the Mexican 

border along Texas, Arizona, and California. The Rio 

Grande River along the Mexican Border has had many 

problems with avulsions in past years. Both countries 

agree, however, that changes in the channel where the 

river finds a new course do not result in a boundary 

change, even between sovereign States.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Where past avulsive changes have occurred along the 

Colorado and the Rio Grande Rivers, the remnant of 

property left in the bordering country is called a “banco” 

(pronounced bawn’ko). Problems with bancos have been 

addressed by the International Boundary Commission.

The intent of the Treaty of 1905 was to simplify the 

border between the two countries by eliminating small 

areas from the ownership of each neighboring country. 

The treaty described approximately 189 bancos.

A joint commission from the two nations supervised the 

identification and survey of the bancos and, following 

approval of the surveys, bancos that contain less than 

250 hectares of land or less than 250 inhabitants were 

granted to the nation enclosing them. Information concerning the banco surveys can be obtained from the 

National Archives in Washington, DC, as part of the 

International Boundaries Records.

The International Boundary Commission will be contacted prior to beginning field work along an international boundary.

Resurveys Where an Avulsion Has Occurred

8-106. As described above, avulsions that occurred 

prior to the original survey and before statehood are 

generally ignored because title to the lands was not 

affected, except for its possible effect on the topography. 

However, where withdrawals, entries, or claims have 

been made or patents have been issued, special consideration is to be given to the problem of rights that may 

have accrued under State law as well as Federal law and 

law from previous sovereigns, if applicable.

An office investigation is required to determine the facts 

and to form the basis for issuance of special instructions 

for survey or resurvey. It is possible to use a series of 

maps, surveys, and aerial photographs to identify problem areas but usually the combination of map, historical 

records, and photograph study should be supplemented 

by a field investigation.

8-107. Some of the items needed or to be accomplished 

in such an investigation are as follows:

(1) A thorough determination as to whether an 

avulsion has actually occurred.

(2) Identify the upstream and downstream 

limits of the avulsion. Absent legal constraints 

the limits are at the intersection of the medial 

or median line of the preavulsion river with an 

extension of the medial or median line of the 

avulsed channel.

(3) The method for determining the location 

of the banks of the abandoned channel may 

consist of aerial photo interpretation, use of 

reliable maps made prior to the avulsion, or an 

on-the-ground survey.

(4) Determine the method for establishment 

of a division line between opposite ownerships 

along the avulsed channel.

(a) On a nonnavigable river the medial 

line or thread is generally used as the 

division line. In cases where the medial line 

is used, State law on measurement from the 

low water marks or the OHWMs must be 

considered.

(b) On navigable streams the State may 

own nothing or may own the bed up to the 

low water mark or up to the OHWM—a fact 

to be determined. If the work is in a State 

that has relinquished its title to the beds 

of navigable waters, the medial line or the 

thalweg may be the division line between 

opposing owners along the abandoned 

channel.

(5) Choose the method for establishing 

partition lines between adjoining owners along 

the abandoned channel.

(6) Identify obliterated or destroyed survey 

monuments that need to be restored.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies on avulsion 

and boundaries.

Legal Effects of Gradual Changes in 

Water Boundaries

8-108. Accretion has been defined, in general, as the 

grain-by-grain deposit of soil along the bank or bed of 

a stream or a lakeshore by the action of the water. The 

legal effect of accretion under Federal jurisdiction and 

in nearly all State jurisdictions is that an owner may 

keep accretions that attach to his or her lands. A check 

on the status of State law is required.

8-109. Reliction is the gradual uncovering of land 

caused by the lowering of the ordinary level or stage of a 
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

body of water, usually by climatic change or by gradual 

increase in use of water upstream. The legal effect of 

reliction in nearly all jurisdictions is that an owner may 

keep relictions that attach to his or her lands.

8-110. Erosion is defined as the grain-by-grain removal 

of soil from the banks or bed of a stream or lake by the 

action of the water. The legal effect of erosion under 

Federal jurisdiction and under nearly all State jurisdictions is that an upland owner loses title to eroded land. 

A check on the status of State law is required.

8-111. Because the eroded land has ceased to exist, the 

rights to that land, the soil and geographic extent, ceases 

to exist. Normally, rights to subsequent accretions to the 

uneroded adjoining land derive their ownership rights 

from those rights in the uneroded land, not from a reestablishment of rights in the eroded lands even though 

the new accretions occupy the same geographic extent 

as the former eroded lands.

8-112. Some of the language from leading court decisions illustrates some of the considerations when dealing with accretions:

(1) Definitions are as follows:

(a) The accretion must be imperceptible. 

“Alluvion is an imperceptible increase, and 

that is added by alluvion which is added 

so gradually that no one can perceive how 

much is added at any one moment of time.” 

(County of St. Clair v. Lovingston, 90 U.S. 

46 (1874).)

(b) The Court’s definition of the test as to 

whether land formed slowly or not is much 

quoted: “The test as to what is gradual and 

imperceptible in the sense of the rule is, that 

though the witnesses may see from time to 

time that progress has been made, they could 

not perceive it while the process was going 

on.” (County of St. Clair v. Lovingston)

(2) “The erecting of artificial structures does 

not alter the application of the accretion doctrine 

. . . unless, perhaps, structures are erected for 

the specific purpose of causing the accretion.” 

And, “Whether the Hoover Dam affected the 

course of the river is of no significance, for it . . . 

was not constructed for the purpose of reducing 

river-bed holdings.” (United States v. Claridge, 

416 F.2d 933 (9th Cir. 1969), cert. denied, 397 

U.S. 961 (1970).)

(3) “It is like the common case of alluvion, 

where something is gradually added to land by 

an imperceptible increase. What is taken from 

the bank is an imperceptible increment to the 

flats, and passes to the owner of it, in the same 

manner, as if there had been a like increment to 

the bank, it would have passed to the riparian 

proprietor. He takes the title, subject to those 

common incidents, which may diminish or 

increase the extent of his boundaries.” (Dunlap 

v. Stetson, 8 F. Cas. 75 (C.C.D. Me. 1827) (No. 

4,164).)

(4) “The rule, everywhere admitted, that where 

the land encroaches upon the water by gradual 

and imperceptible degrees, the accretion or 

alluvion belongs to the owner of the land, is 

equally applicable to lands bounding on tide 

waters or on fresh waters, and to the King or the 

State as to private persons; and is independent 

of the law governing the title in the soil covered 

by the water.” (Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U.S. 1 

(1894).)

(5) Legislation cannot deprive a riparian 

proprietor of the right to future alluvion that 

may be deposited upon the proprietor’s river 

front. The riparian right to future alluvion is 

a vested right. It is an inherent and essential 

attribute of the original property (County of St. 

Clair).

8-113. As a general statement, the law also considers 

erosion to be the opposite of accretion. Therefore, while 

the upland owner gets to keep accretion, he or she must 

also suffer the loss of land by the process of erosion. 

Again, States may have different rules.

8-114. There are practical problems connected with 

the loss of land by erosion under some State laws. It is 

difficult to distinguish between a rapid erosion and an 

avulsion in those jurisdictions that simply define avulsion as the sudden and perceptible change in the course 

of a river. Other State jurisdictions state that any accretions or erosion caused by human activities on a navigable river fixes the boundaries of the State owned beds 

on that river.

The banks of some alluvial rivers consist of a clay soil 

over a deep subsoil of sand. When a river flow is directed 

toward this sort of bank, the sand is quickly eroded 

beneath the surface to such an extent that very large 

slabs of land fall into the river at one time. Witnesses 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

may remember huge chunks of land falling into the river 

that they claim to be evidence of avulsion. The decision 

in Nebraska v. Iowa, above, discusses this fallacy. The 

action is nevertheless erosion.

Lateral Extent of Accretions or Relictions

8-115. The quantity of accreted or relicted land in front 

of surveyed Federal interest land is the subject of accretion surveys. Whether Federal or State law controls the 

ownership of land accreted to riparian holdings has 

been answered in a series of cases.

In Borax Consolidated Ltd. v. Los Angeles, 296 U.S. 10 

(1935), reh’g denied, 296 U.S. 664 (1936), the Supreme 

Court held that: “The question as to the extent of this 

federal grant, that is, as to the limit of the land conveyed, 

or the boundary between the upland and the tideland, is 

necessarily a federal question.” (p. 22.)

The ownership of accretion to land covered by an 

Indian trust patent was considered in United States 

v. Washington, 294 F.2d 830 (1961), cert. denied, 369 

U.S. 817 (1962). The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals 

held that Federal law applied because of the underlying 

Federal title.

The general question of whether Federal or State law 

controls and what the Federal law is, on upland conveyed prior to statehood, as to ownership of accretion 

was considered in Hughes v. State of Washington, 389 

U.S. 290 (1967). The Supreme Court ruled:

The question for decision is whether federal or 

state law controls the ownership of land, called 

accretion, gradually deposited by the ocean 

on adjoining upland property conveyed by the 

United States prior to statehood.

We hold that this question is governed by 

federal, not state, law and that under federal law 

Mrs. Hughes, who traces her title to a federal 

grant prior to statehood, is the owner of these 

accretions.

This brings us to the question of what the federal 

rule is. The State has not attempted to argue 

that federal law gives it title to these accretions, 

and it seems clear to us that it could not. A long 

and unbroken line of decisions of this Court 

establishes that the grantee of land bounded by 

a body of navigable water acquires a right to 

any natural and gradual accretion formed along 

the shore.

We therefore hold that petitioner is entitled to 

the accretion that has been gradually formed 

along her property by the ocean.

Therefore, wherever the United States retains title to 

the original subdivisions along a body of water, either 

navigable or nonnavigable, the Government may subdivide the lands formed by accretion or by recession of the 

water, since these, too, are Federal interest lands.

8-116. Federal law applies as to the limit and ownership of accretions at the time of the grant. In front 

of public domain lands, being lands the Government 

has never conveyed along a body of water either navigable or nonnavigable, the Government may subdivide 

the lands formed by accretion or by reliction. Since 

these too, are Federal lands, the Government may also 

complete sections formerly surveyed as fractional with 

its similarly owned lands, subject to valid existing 

rights.

8-117. Where States have ceded part or all of their 

lands below the OHWM to the upland owners, the 

United States becomes one of the grantees. The boundary between land of the United States and the adjoining 

land of other grantees below the OHWM must be determined by State law of the respective State.

8-118. Some alluvial rivers flow through extensive 

flood plains and have swept over areas several miles 

wide. In such situations, erosion may wash away and 

completely submerge Federal ownership lots along the 

riverbanks. At a later time, rivers are known to swing 

back the other way and accrete across the identical area 

of the eroded lot or lots. This situation is called emergence by accretion.

8-119. The title to record riparian parcels where 

the waterward boundary line has moved by erosion 

past the entire extent of the landward boundary line 

and subsequently the water recedes and soil emerges 

waterward of the landward boundary line by the action 

of accretion, is determined after a careful review of 

the (1) the land status of the impacted parcels, surface and subsurface estates, (2) the ownership of the 

bed of the water body, surface and subsurface estates, 

and (3) the history of the river movement. There are 

apparent conflicts in the cases on the topic, but some 

accepted rules can be summarized. The rules take 

into account not only the practical but the equitable 

considerations in this matter. The question of title to 

the parcel with public domain land status is governed 

by Federal law.
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

8-120. For a record riparian parcel with public domain 

status, the United States is divested of title when there is 

a situation involving all of the following elements:

(1) the surface of the record riparian parcel 

must have been washed away entirely and been 

totally submerged by the action of erosion;

(2) a navigable river; and

(3) the title to the bed has not been relinquished 

by the State in favor of the record riparian owner 

or was reserved by the Federal Government.

In these situations the formerly remote riparian parcel is 

made riparian by erosion and then receives the benefit of 

subsequent accretions.

8-121. Conversely, the United States is not divested of 

title of a record riparian parcel with public domain status where any of the following are present:

(1) the surface of the record riparian parcel 

has not been washed away entirely and totally 

submerged by the action of erosion;

(2) the waterward boundary line of the record 

riparian parcel does not move by erosion past 

the entire extent of the landward boundary line 

of the same parcel;

(3) the action on the land is avulsive; or

(4) the record riparian parcel is submerged by 

the action of submergence (section 8-125).

In the case where the public domain parcel has partially 

eroded to the extent the remote parcel becomes riparian and subsequently upland is formed by accretion, the 

once remote parcel is restored only to the extent of its 

former limits.

8-122. A boundary line cannot be assumed to have 

moved by erosion past the entire extent of the landward boundary of the record riparian public domain 

parcel without positive evidence. Positive evidence is 

direct proof of the facts establishing that the change has 

occurred and does not arise from any presumption. This 

evidence may be in the form of historical aerial photography, local newspaper articles, witness testimony, or 

other evidence of the factual circumstances.

8-123. State law is applicable where the land status of 

the record riparian parcel is acquired or non-Federal. 

The rules vary from State to State. Some States have 

adopted the Federal rule.

8-124. The surveyor must be aware that the question of 

title in these cases will be influenced by the equities in 

cases of erosion and accretion where the river stabilizes 

in its new location for a long period of time and the 

remote riparian parcel owner establishes riparian rights 

through use and occupancy. After all the facts of the 

case have been gathered, the surveyor should consult 

with legal counsel before monumenting the boundaries 

of the Federal interest land.

8-125. The “Doctrine of Reemergence” holds that 

where the record riparian parcel is submerged due to 

an increase in water level, not erosion, and then subsequently reemerges through a subsidence of the water, 

such that the same soil is exposed, title remains in the 

record riparian parcel owner, rather than the remote 

parcel owner. The doctrine is an exception to the rule 

of accretion and involves the easy identification of the 

same identifiable soil that has reemerged and the action 

of the rising and falling of water levels or the rising and 

falling of upland by means other than accretion. The 

doctrine is not applicable where land has eroded away 

and then been restored through the process of accretion.

8-126. Where accretions or relictions to intermingled 

alienated and Federal interest lands are important, an 

accretion or reliction survey is ordered if it is desired to 

mark the boundaries of the Federal interest lands. Any 

riparian owner, including the Government, is entitled to 

accreted or relicted lands in front of their basic holdings, 

in the same relative proportions to neighboring parcels 

as was established by earlier survey.

It is possible the proportionate frontage method could 

result in skewed partition lines placing accretions 

or relictions other than in front of the basic holding. 

Partitioning or the division of accretions must result 

in equitable apportionment and is achieved where the 

results place the accretions in front of the basic holding. 

If a selected method fails to do this, an alternate method, 

such as those discussed in sections 8-133 through 8-145 

should be selected.

8-127. In the case of navigable waters, the extent of the 

survey is to the OHWM. However, the Government may 

own lands below the OHWM in the bed of the navigable waters where State law has relinquished title to 

such lands to upland owners or where title to the bed 

was explicitly reserved by the United States before 

statehood.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

8-128. In the case of nonnavigable waters the extent 

of the survey is to the medial line of the stream, 

the medial line being determined by measurement 

from appropriate lines on the opposing banks or to 

the thread for topography or bank configuration and 

location reasons.

8-129. However, new meanders are shown to delineate 

the uplands from the bed in front of the Federal interest lands only; the process is called remeandering. Only 

Federal interest lands are remeandered; alienated lands 

may be shown on survey plats as a result of an informative traverse to show the present OHWMs. Whether 

called new meanders, remeanders, or informative traverse, they may be shown on the plat.

8-130. The following steps are considered to be 

a minimum requirement for preparation for the 

field survey:

(1) The reach of the river to be analyzed must 

include sufficient upstream and downstream 

sections to understand the processes by which 

the changes have occurred in order to equitably 

locate the partition lines. Studying this extended 

area allows the surveyor to understand how 

the banks moved and whether avulsions were 

involved, provides for zero accretion points 

or their equivalents in proportional frontage 

calculations, and can support an alternative 

method of partitioning if the proportional 

frontage method results do not lie in front of 

the basic holding.

(2) Obtain a series of surveys, reliable maps 

or aerial photographs of the river that were 

produced between the dates of statehood, original 

survey, treaty, order, entry, claim, settlement, 

or patent, as appropriate, and the present time. 

The surveys, maps, and photographs should be 

reduced or enlarged to a common scale and 

common method of showing the OHWM. This 

step is necessary because some older maps 

show sand bars as dotted areas and upland areas 

by appropriate symbols. U.S. Geological Survey 

maps show the edge of the water at the time that 

the aerial photos were flown. These situations 

require the surveyor to estimate the location 

of the OHWM at the time the survey map was 

prepared or the photo was flown.

(3) Define the boundaries of the basic 

holdings by survey of the Federal interest lands. 

Identifiable and existent corners are used to 

locate alienated areas.

(4) Starting with the original survey and the 

oldest map, indicate on a worksheet the effect 

of each newer survey, map or photo. Watch for 

possible avulsive types of changes and record 

the direction and area of accretions for each 

change.

(5) Ensure that each accretion is in direct 

contact with the basic Federal holdings or 

previous accretions. For example, if an island in 

a navigable river formed after statehood from 

the bed of the river and the channel between the 

island and the mainland gradually dried up due 

to accretions, the island and half of the dried 

channel would belong to the State as owner of 

the riverbed, and the other half of the channel 

would belong to the riparian owner on the 

riverbank opposite the island.

(6) When the newest survey or map shows the 

extent of accretions to Federal interest lands, 

meander the current OHWM along the bank or 

banks of the river.

8-131. Accretion and reliction surveys conducted during or in anticipation of a dispute between the Federal 

Government and the State that owns the bed of the 

stream will require extra care and documentation in 

approximating the OHWM while remeandering the 

new accretions.

Partition Lines

8-132. Partition lines for accreted or relicted areas 

are established in accordance with the same principles 

for both rivers and lakes. Some variation is necessary 

in adapting the methods to particular cases. Care will 

be taken to award each basic holding on the shore the 

part of the bed in front of it. If one method fails to do 

this, another method, or a combination of methods, will 

be used.

The processes for surveying partition lines, e.g., division 

of accretion lines, division of reliction lines, or division 

of the bed lines, is similar. Typically, only the type of 

lands being divided is different. Typically, when the bed 

is to be partitioned and there are also substantial accretions or relictions to the upland, the upland is partitioned 

before the bed, a two-step process.
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Lot 4

Lot 5

Lot 3 Lot 2

1428 ft

3660 feet ancient bank

3 9 3 8

f e e t n e w b a n k

Ancient Bank

Meander Line

Partition Lines and Apportionment of 

Accretions on Navigable Waters

8-133. The five different methods for establishing 

division of accretion lines between intermingled 

upland ownerships on navigable waters for use in 

official surveys are:

(1) The proportionate shoreline method. This 

method was specified in the precedent setting 

case of Johnston v. Jones, 66 U.S. 209 (1862). 

In that method, each reach of the river is to be 

considered separately using the proportions of 

each upland lot’s frontage to the total length 

of accreted bank in proportion to the ratio of 

each ownership along the ancient bank (usually 

measured along the meander line) to the total 

ancient bank frontage (figure 8-26). If the bank 

or shoreline has deep indentations or sharp 

projections, the general trend of shoreline or 

bank line is to be used in setting the ratio.

The points used for starting and stopping the 

apportionment are preferably chosen where 

there is no erosion or any accretions to the 

original meanders. These points are called zero 

accretion points (ZAPs). If there are no such 

points available, artificial ZAPs are created 

using lines perpendicular to the general course 

of the river at places where the bank and the 

general course of the river are nearly parallel.

(2) The perpendicular method. Partition lines 

are established between the location of the record 

meander, special meander, or auxiliary meander 

Figure 8-26. The proportionate shoreline method, where the new shoreline length is in direct ratio to the original shoreline length.

Figure 8-27. The perpendicular (normal) method is usually equitable 

where the old bank line is sinuous. It is also useful as a starting place for 

the proportionate shoreline method).

Lot 4

Lot 5

Lot 3 Lot 2

90°

The perpendicular method

sets division lines at 90° to

the medial line of the river.

Medial Line

Ancient Bank

Meander Line

corner and the perpendicular intersection with 

the thread of the stream, medial line, or thalweg 

of the river (figure 8-27). It is possible due to 

configuration of the river bed’s dividing line, the 

thread, medial, or thalweg that no perpendicular 

intersection occurs. (This may happen on an 

outside bend). If this happens, extend the tangents 

of the dividing line, allowing for an intersection, 

and choose the intersection point that best locates 

the partitioned areas so they are in front of the 

basic holding of the adjoining interests. When a 

perpendicular to the bank is used, it is called the 

colonial method (figure 8-28).

(3) The proportionate acreage method.

This method is applied where the area of the 

accretions are considered to be more important 

than the new water frontage (figure 8-29).

(4) The extension of the property line method.

The division line between basic holdings of the 

two owners is merely extended until it meets 

the new bank of the river. Extension of section 

or subdivision-of-section line may be used for 

setting a new meander corner (figure 8-30). 

With a dependent resurvey, accretions have 

often made the location of recovered meander 

corners appear distant from the OHWM. If the 

abutting lands are all the same Federal interest 

lands, a new meander corner may be established 

by extending the section line toward the body 

of water.

(5) A combination of the proportionate 

shoreline method and the perpendicular method.

Because nearly all the precedent litigation on 

these subjects has centered on the requirement 

of an equitable division of the accretions, the 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-28. The colonial method of partitioning.

Figure 8-29. The proportionate acreage method gives the riparian owners 

a proportionate share of the accreted land based on the total extent of their 

frontage, related to the total quantity of the accreted land to be divided.

Figure 8-30. The extension of property line method.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

The Court’s solution bisected angles

between adjacent perpendiculars.

Detail showing how the angles were bisected.

Curre

nt B

ank

A

n

cient B

a

nk

Stream

Lot 2

90°

90°

Lot 1

Division Line Bisector

Accretion

C

urre

nt B

a

n

A

k

n

cie

nt

Ba

n

k

Stream

Accretion

Lot 4

Lot 5

Lot 3 Lot 2

Division by

proportionate area

becomes impossible

in this situation

because lots 4 and 5

cannot recieve their

share attached to

their uplands.

Lot 4

Lot 5

Lot 3 Lot 2

Lot 5 owner would

favor the extension

of property line

method of division

of accretions.

rigid rules above are subject to modification on 

a case-by-case basis. For a division of accretion 

to be equitable, each owner must be allotted a 

fair share of the accretions. To be able to fairly 

estimate what is equitable, the surveyor should 

make a tentative solution to the allocation and 

then consider each ownership in turn, mentally 

or numerically consider the tentative lines as 

each actual owner would see them.

8-134. Once a satisfactory system for partitioning is 

achieved, monuments are to be placed on the corners of 
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Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

the Federal interest land using standard monumentation 

with the caps marked as MC for meander corners and 

SMC for special meander corners.

8-135. The position of previously set meander or special meander corners often needs to be maintained, even 

when new corners are established. To ease identification 

in the field notes and on the plat, the corners should be 

referred to by the year of the survey, when they were 

officially filed, e.g., 1856 meander corner, 2000 meander corner, etc. The new meander corner is then referred 

to by the year of the new survey.

8-136. In the event that a dependent resurvey of intermingled ownership of river front property encounters 

additional accretions that have occurred to a prior 

approved resurvey, the waterward endpoint of the last 

partition line will become the starting point for the new 

division of accretions by a new partition line (figures 

8-31 and 8-32). The prior approved resurvey MC or 

SMC is thus treated as the ancient bank.

8-137. In some cases where no improvements or use 

have been made in reliance on the last partition line and 

the above guidance would unnecessarily complicate 

the record, the landward start point of the last partition 

line may become the starting point for the new division 

of accretions by a new, straight partition line. In these 

cases the waterward end point monument of the last partition line will be tied to, amended, and buried in place 

(figure 8-33).

Division of Relicted Beds of Lakes

8-138. While the shores of lakes do not usually move 

imperceptibly by accretion, it is common to have 

Figure 8-31. Division of accretion survey and establishment of partition 

lines.

Figure 8-32. Dependent resurvey of an intermediate division of accretion 

survey, division of new accretions, and extension of partition lines, i.e., 

broken line partition.

5

12

13

17

15 16

1951 Bank

1878 Bank

1878 orginal survey and meanders

1951 resurvey, new meanders, 

and division of accretion survey 

Lot 17 is Federal interest land

Barn built in 1955 by

lot 15 non-Federal owner

5

12

13

18

15 16

Barn built in 1955 by 

lot 15 non-Federal owner

1951 Bank

2009 Bank

1878 Bank

2009 resurvey, new meanders, 

and division of accretion survey 

Lot 18 is Federal interest land

Using “broken line” partition

5

12

13

18

15 16

Barn built in 1955 by

lot 15 non-Federal owner

2009 Bank

1878 Bank

Using “straight line” partition from the 1878 bank

locates private improvements on Federal lands.

1951 Bank

Figure 8-33. Division of accretions and establishment of new partition 

lines, i.e., straight line partition.

lakes relict. The legal effect of reliction on boundaries 

and ownership, as stated above, is identical to that of 

accretion.

As a survey matter, the apportionment of reliction of 

lakes differs from the ordinary accretion problem in 

that the shape of the relictions are entirely unlike that 

of a river. On a lake, the relictions usually are located 

around the entire lake, or nearly so, because the water 

has permanently dropped in elevation.
213

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

The method of procedure depends on the shape of the 

shore line. The courts have generally held that the bed 

of a round lake should be divided among the riparian 

owners by ascertaining the center point and connecting 

that point by straight lines to the boundary corners on 

the shore. When a lake is long in comparison with the 

width, the methods applied to streams, with converging 

lines only at the ends, make the best division.

In figure 8-34, the ends of the lake have been treated 

as arcs of a circle; the remainder of the bed has been 

divided by use of proportionate measurement along the 

medial line. In this case, perpendiculars to the medial 

line would have resulted in the encroachment of some 

lots in front of others, and two perpendiculars could 

have been projected from several points as indicated by 

the dashed lines.

Examples of the apportionment of the beds of lakes are 

covered in Public Lands Surveying: A Casebook published by the BLM (figure 8-35). There are five general methods for the apportionment of relictions along 

lakeshores:

(1) the round lake method;

(2) the long lake method;

(3) the proportionate medial line method;

(4) the colonial method; and

(5) a combination of the above methods.

8-139. The round lake method treats the bed of the lake 

as a pie (figure 8-36). After a center is chosen, which 

Figure 8-34. Apportionment of the bed of a meandered nonnavigable 

lake.

Sec. 17 Sec. 16

Sec. 20 Sec. 21

2 1

3

3

5

4

4

7 6 5 4 6

3

2

2

2

1

1

1

Figure 8-35. Flagstaff Lake area in Oregon showing the original survey 

pattern. A prior valid survey had created the unusual shape of section 6, 

which did not affect the division of the relictions. Flagstaff Lake was one of 

several nonnavigable dry lakes in Oregon that had been meandered in the 

original surveys and that were mostly dry lakes (playas) being claimed by 

the BLM as public lands. Any alienated lands bordering on the lake were 

to receive apportioned lake beds (relictions) equitably.

Dry Lake Bed

Sec. 4 30

Sec.

25

Sec.

29 Sec.

28

Sec.

33

Sec.

Sec. 3

4

Sec.

5

Sec.

6

MC

MC

MC

MC

R. 24 E.

T. 35 S.

T. 34 S.

T. 35 S.

R. 25 E.

R. 24 E.

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

SMC

MC

Sec.

36 31

MC

AP

Figure 8-36. The round lake method for division of relictions treats the 

lake bed as slices of pie.

Sec. 4 SMC 30

Sec.

25

Sec.

29 Sec.

28

Sec.

33

Sec.

Sec. 3

4 Sec.

5

Sec.

6

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

Sec.

36 31MC

AP

will most equitably divide the relictions, division lines 

are drawn to the center from each ownership boundary 

and these lines become the boundary lines. If Flagstaff 

Lake were to be apportioned in this manner, the division 

would be as shown.

8-140. The long lake method treats the bed of the lake 

as a medial line through the center of the lake, with perpendiculars to the medial line from the meander corners, and with the ends divided using the principles used 

in the round lake method (figure 8-37).

In figure 8-38 the right angles were turned from the 

medial line.
214

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Sec. 4 SMC 30

Sec.

25

Sec.

29 Sec.

28

Sec.

33

Sec.

3 Sec.

4

Sec.

5

Sec.

6

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

Sec.

36 31

MC

AP

Figure 8-37. The long lake method uses a medial line between end 

points at a pie type division. Between the end lines, perpendiculars are 

constructed to the ownership division lines.

Figure 8-38. The proportionate medial line method uses the Johnston v. 

Jones idea between two end points selected by the round lake method.

Sec.

25

Sec.

29 Sec.

28

Sec.

33

Sec.

Sec. 3

4

Sec.

5

Sec.

6

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

MC

BP

EP MC

MC

MC

Sec.

36 31

Note: Points EP and BP are the centers

of round lake method division of the ends.

MC

AP

Sec. 4 SMC 30

8-141. The proportionate medial line method uses the 

Johnston v. Jones idea—each owner receives frontage 

in proportion to his or her original frontage along the 

water body. As in river work, small bays and spits may 

have to be smoothed out to make an equitable division.

8-142. The colonial method measures the 90 degree 

angle from the frontage instead of the medial line.

8-143. Equitable distribution of the relictions of the 

bed is the desired goal in these division problems. Only 

by careful choice of methods and by discussion of values with the owners involved can a surveyor reach an 

equitable solution.

8-144. Where the Government owns all of the upland 

lots fronting on a reliction area, it is possible that the 

pattern of section lines is extended across the relicted 

area. This is termed a completion survey.

8-145. Cases are known where upland owners have 

made boundary line agreements among themselves 

which effectively completed the sections on relicted 

areas. That happened along Devils Lake, North Dakota. 

Owners filed plats that showed how the divisions were 

made between them using a completion-of-the-sections 

pattern and that were upheld by the courts. If the United 

States is not deprived of significant lands and there is 

no conflicting overriding Federal interest, this type of 

local agreement will be acceptable in defining Federal 

ownership and boundaries of relicted lands.

Division of the Beds of 

Meandered Nonnavigable Rivers, Including 

Accretions or Relictions

8-146. Because each upland owner along a meandered 

nonnavigable stream owns to the medial line, median 

line, or the thread, depending on the wording and intent 

of the original grant, the first thing to be addressed is 

the position of this boundary line. Second, the extent 

of each of the ownerships toward this boundary line is 

to be determined and, concurrently, the location of the 

upland points along the bank where partition lines are 

to originate must be determined. Third, the end points 

of the partition lines are located along the medial line, 

median line, or the thread such that the division is equitable to all parties. Finally, the present day division of 

the bed is determined, including accretions or relictions 

(sections 8-133 and 8-152).

8-147. Factors influencing ownership and boundary 

location for the above include:

(1) land status of the Federal interest lands;

(2) spatial relationship to the Federal 

interest lands;

(3) common grantor source of law (foreign, 

Federal, or other) of the grant; and

(4) State law.

8-148. The presence of islands in such rivers may affect 

the location of the medial or median line. If one or more 

islands have been surveyed and meandered, there are at 

least two lines to be determined, one on each side of a 

surveyed island. If a Federal interest island is identified 

to be meandered, the current OHWMs along the circumference of the island are meandered. The low water 
215

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

mark may be substituted for OHWM in States where the 

low water mark affects non-Federal lands.

8-149. A surveyed and meandered public domain island 

represents an irregular unit, typically identified as a lot, 

bounded by the medial or median lines in the channels 

on either side of the island. Where an island is totally 

submerged, at OHWM, by the action of erosion, the 

island is no longer considered in the medial or median 

line determination, i.e., there is no island OHWM to 

locate a medial or median line. If, through later accretion 

to the bed, a new island is subsequently reestablished 

above the OHWM at the approximate record location 

of the former island, and title to the uplands is held by 

the Federal Government, the OHWM of the new island 

should be used in the medial or median line determinations in the two channels, and a new unit identified.

However, if the title to only one upland of the water body 

remains in the Federal Government, when a new island 

is reestablished above the OHWM at the approximate 

record location of the former island, then the medial or 

median line of the entire water body, disregarding the 

new island, is found. This may result in all, part, or none 

of the new island being in Federal interest, depending on the relationship of the island to the medial line. 

The ownership of the former bed will be reflected in 

the ownership of the subsequently formed island. After 

ownership of the newly formed island is established, 

the OHWM of the new island is not used in subsequent 

medial or median line determinations for purposes of 

jurisdictional boundaries or title to subsequent islands 

formed by accretion.

8-150. For a meandered island that has been alienated 

or acquired, where the island is totally submerged by 

the action of erosion, State law must be examined to 

determine whether the record owner of the island has 

been divested of title. If through later accretion to the 

bed a new island is subsequently reestablished at the 

approximate record location and the title determination 

concludes the record owner still has title, the current 

OHWM of the new island is to be run and considered in 

the medial or median line determinations.

The next step in the process is to determine the upland 

division lines and placement of the upland end of the 

partition lines. Where there has been a general trend 

of accretion to the record banks, the restoration of the 

record meander line can proceed as in section 8-17 and 

sections 8-182 through 8-186.

8-151. If erosion of the record bank has occurred, the 

owners of alienated or acquired lands may have a valid 

claim to the exposed bed between the present day bank 

and the record meander line. State law must be examined to determine whether the direction of the lot line 

from a remote corner is used to intersect the present 

bank or whether the record position of the original subdivision corner is to be used. It has always been recognized that an upland owner of nonnavigable waters 

owns the bed of the waters from his or her upland to 

the medial line.

8-152. If proportionment along the medial line, 

median line, or thread is used to reach an equitable 

solution to the division of accretions, then the division 

of accretions, as well as division of the active river bed, 

can be done without involving separate determinations 

of the partition line and the division of the active river 

bed (sections 8-133, 8-146, and 8-154).

8-153. Where an equitable division of the upland 

involves a combination of proportionment measurement and, say, the perpendicular method, the additional 

step of dividing the bed may be required. Again the goal 

is to achieve resulting division lines that are equitable 

to all parties. A straight-line proportionment along the 

medial or median line is the method of choice, at least 

for a first partition, but again a combination of methods 

may be necessary.

8-154. Instructions for surveying the partition lines 

within the beds of meandered nonnavigable rivers are 

found in Rule for Establishing Boundaries of Riparian 

Claims in the North Half of the Bed of Red River, 

Oklahoma, 50 Pub. Lands Dec. 216 (1923). As stated 

in the syllabus:

In establishing the side boundaries of claims 

of riparian proprietors to the area between 

the original meander line on the north and 

the medial line of Red River in Oklahoma in 

accordance with the decisions of the Supreme 

Court in the case of Oklahoma v. Texas, lines 

should be run from points representing the 

limits of frontage of the original claims on the 

meander line to points on the medial line at 

distances thereon proportionate to the lengths 

of frontage of the respective abutting owners.

This is an adaptation of the rule outlined in the case of 

Johnston v. Jones, 66 U.S. 209 (1862); the new frontage along the water boundary of an accreted area is 

apportioned in the same ratio as the frontage along the 

ancient bank. In applying the rule, if the shore has deep 

indentations or sharp projections, the general shoreline, 
216

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

not the actual length, should be taken in setting the 

ratio. The division of accretion lines will connect the 

claim corners on the original meander line with the 

claim corners on the new meander line.

Perpendicular lines to the meander lines are extended 

to the medial line, above and below each bend in the 

river in the area to be apportioned, at points where the 

river’s course is straight, or nearly so. The intermediate 

distance along the medial line is then prorated according to the new frontage (figure 8-39). The division of 

the bed (partition) lines will connect the claim corners 

on the new meander line with the claim corners on the 

medial line.

An alternate method is to extend each partition line 

perpendicular to the medial line. This method 

awards to each riparian lot the area immediately in 

front of it (figure 8-40).

8-155. Where a winding stream course causes the perpendiculars to deflect rapidly, more than one perpendicular can sometimes be extended from a single point on 

the shore, or perhaps no suitable perpendicular can be 

Figure 8-39. A method of apportioning the bed of a meandered nonnavigable river. Points were selected above and below the bend from which perpendiculars to the meander lines were extended to the medial line. The intervals along the medial line were determined by proportionate measurement.

Sec. 15 Sec. 14

Sec. 22 Sec. 23

3

3

4

2

4

5

5

5

7

7

8

6

6

3

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2 1

2

2

90°

90°

90°

90° 90°

90°

90°

90°

90°

90°

90°

Step 2. Proportion each ancient frontage along the same side

of the medial line.

Step 3. Consider each owner’s portion of the bed—it must

be equitable.

Step 1. Prepare the medial line and extend perpendiculars to meander/

property corners to the medial line to isolate each seperate river bend.

The points of perpendiculars are sometimes called stoppers, marked 

with circles above.
217

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-40. An alternate method of apportioning the bed of a meandered nonnavigable river by extending perpendiculars to the medial line to the 

meander/propery corners.

drawn. A combination of methods should then have to 

be used to obtain equitable results. For instance, perpendiculars might be extended to the medial line at straight 

parts of the river, and the intermediate parts apportioned 

along the medial line.

8-156. In some cases a method of holding the section line as the boundary across the river is used if the 

river (1) was meandered to segregate upland acreage but 

was never a basis for a riparian boundary in a patent or 

subsequent deed or (2) is relatively narrow and/or still 

active, and other apportionment methods would unnecessarily complicate the record.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies on gradual 

changes and boundaries.

Boundaries in Front of 

Riparian Acquired or 

Non-Federal Lands

8-157. Surveys of alienated lands that are in the process of consideration for acquisition (future interest) or 

previously alienated land that has already been acquired 

(acquired lands) are within Federal survey jurisdiction. 

Sec. 15 Sec. 14

Sec. 22 Sec. 23

3

3

4

2

4

5

5

5

7

7

8

6

6

3

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2 1

2

2

90° 90°

90°

90°

90° 90°

90°

90°

90°

90°
218

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Once lands have left Federal ownership, the potential for unwritten rights to ripen into fee title exists. 

These rights are defined by State law and must be 

examined as part of an official survey using State law 

as guidelines.

In order to assure that those rights are respected, 

acquired lands surveys are to be based upon State laws 

unless a proper source of law decision determines otherwise. In many cases the State may borrow Federal law. 

Special instructions must address these requirements. 

Survey field notes of acquired or non-Federal lands will 

describe when State law was applicable and how it was 

applied.

Islands and Sandbars

8-158. Islands in meandered nonnavigable rivers in 

existence at the time of an official survey but left unsurveyed remain part of the public domain and subject to 

survey and identification.

By policy and statute, islands in rivers, lakes, and offshore were surveyed if worth the expense of surveying. Isolated small island tracts were seldom surveyed, 

for practicable and economical reasons, but have been 

always considered “unsurveyed public lands” until surveyed and platted (Act of August 3, 1846, sec. 5, 9 Stat. 

51 as amended; Rev. Stat. 2455; 43 U.S.C. 1171 (repealed 

sec. 703(a) of Pub. L. 94-579); and Act of May 30, 1862, 

sec. 10, 12 Stat. 409 as amended; Rev. Stat. 2401; 43 

U.S.C. 759). Many islands were surveyed only after 

application was made by settlers with a sum sufficient 

to pay for the survey. The special instructions should 

be clear on what is expected if unsurveyed islands are 

encountered during survey.

8-159. Some court decisions have not recognized 

United States ownership of unsurveyed islands in meandered nonnavigable waters where the United States did 

not reserve permanent access along the riverbank or lake 

shore. Where a river is navigable, the public, including 

the United States, has access to the island by water at all 

practical times.

8-160. Meandered islands in Federal ownership are 

subject to remeandering. However, no island, patented 

or otherwise alienated, is ordinarily remeandered, as 

is the case with other alienated lands, unless a medial 

or median line calculation is needed. In that case, 

informative traverses are run (sections 3-191 through 

3-201).

Accretions to Islands

8-161. Islands in navigable as well as nonnavigable 

rivers may change their lateral boundaries by the process of erosion and accretion, identical to uplands. 

This statement applies to unsurveyed islands, surveyed 

public domain islands, acquired islands, and alienated 

islands.

Erosion of the upstream end of islands and deposition on the downstream end of islands has the effect of 

moving the entire island downstream. On a meandered 

nonnavigable river where the upland owners take to 

the medial line, State law may govern whether a downstream owner owns an island or part of an island, surveyed or unsurveyed, moving onto his or her portion of 

the riverbed. An island moving downstream in a navigable river where the same State owns the riverbed around 

the island has no change of ownership boundary as the 

island moves.

8-162. In a case where the channel between an island 

and the mainland that are in different ownership and the 

channel flow imperceptibly diminishes until the former 

channel is dry, the boundary between the ownerships 

will be fixed at the middle of the last trickle of flow (the 

thread) through the channel.

8-163. Islands formed subsequent to the filing of the 

latest official survey in meandered nonnavigable rivers 

are generally classed as riverbed. The recently formed 

island is thus located on the land of the riverbed owner. 

The medial line between the outer banks of the water 

body will divide the island as well as the riverbed.

8-164. Where an island was meandered in a nonnavigable river during the original survey, there are medial 

lines on each side of the surveyed island and an owner 

fronting on the river would have his or her boundary on 

the medial line between the island and the mainland.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies on islands.

The Island Rule

8-165. The Island Rule is a rule of decision on navigable rivers used as boundaries. The rule states that ownerships are fixed when the volume of flow in the main 

channel of a river becomes less on one side of an island 

than on the other side, and navigation changes from the 

low flow side to the other side of the island. In that situation the boundary remains in the old channel akin to an 

avulsion. Unlike the case of avulsion, however, because 
219

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

water is still flowing in the old channel the boundary 

there may continue to move by erosion and accretion.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies on the 

island rule.

Erroneously Omitted Lands

8-166. The title erroneously omitted lands is applied to 

lands, not shown on the plat of the original survey, that 

were excluded from the survey by some gross discrepancy in the location of a meander line. The unsurveyed 

land typically lies between the actual bank of a lake, 

stream, or tidewater and the record meander line. Lands 

exposed by changes in water level or accreted subsequent to survey are not erroneously omitted lands.

8-167. In some older surveys temporarily flooded 

lands, swamp and overflowed lands (section 3-211) were 

meandered as if they were permanent bodies of water. In 

a few cases, meander lines were reported where no body 

of water ever existed in fact. In still other instances, several lakes have been surveyed as one lake. All are treated 

in the same manner as those where the discrepancy is a 

grossly erroneous position of the record meander line. 

The converse is sometimes found where the record 

meander line leaves the bank and extends into the body 

of water. A water area will thus be shown as land.

8-168. Discrepancies between the original meander 

lines and OHWM or line of MHT of water bodies at 

the time of survey fall into two classes. The first class 

includes merely technical differences found in many 

older surveys including meander lines that were run (1) 

along bluffs above the river banks or (2) at some insignificant distance (for the date and locale) from the OHWM 

or line of MHT and also where the meanders prove to be 

located at some insignificant distance in the water. Such 

technical differences, when combined with the longstanding policy of conveyance of all the public lands in 

front of riparian lottings, are usually included with accretions. Such technical differences do not contradict the 

principle that in a public grant nothing passes by implication. Unless the grant is clear and explicit regarding the 

property conveyed, a construction shall be adopted that 

favors the sovereign rather than the grantee.

The second class includes discrepancies that are considered to be gross error such that had the Government 

been aware of the magnitude of the error, patent would 

not have been issued. These areas are considered to 

be “erroneously omitted lands.” The guidelines for 

determining the class of a particular case are laid 

down in court and departmental decisions, particularly 

Wackerli v. Morton, 390 F. Supp. 962 (D. Idaho 1975); 

Burt A. Wackerli, 73 Interior Dec. 280 (1966).

8-169. If land is to be regarded as erroneously omitted from survey, it must first be shown affirmatively that 

the area was land in place at the date of the original 

subdivision of the township. Then, if the land is similar 

in character to the adjoining surveyed lands, the usual 

inference that the official survey was correct may be set 

aside, and the conclusion substituted that the omitted 

land should have been covered by that survey. Where 

these facts exist, the original meander line becomes a 

“fixed and limiting boundary,” and the omitted lands 

remain in Federal ownership, subject to survey and disposal or retention. There must be clear and convincing 

evidence to show that the representations of the original 

plat and field notes are grossly erroneous.

8-170. The determination as to whether a particular situation falls within the general rule that meander 

lines are not run as boundaries and the river establishes 

the boundary of the alienated land, or the erroneously 

omitted lands exception to it is in close cases difficult 

to make. The area of the land omitted as compared with 

the area patented, the value of the land at the time of 

the original survey, the difficulty involved in surveying the land due to its topography, and the distance of 

the original meander line from the actual water line are 

some of the factors that are considered in making this 

determination.

8-171. A common measure of the error is the ratio of 

the acreage omitted in front of a lot or lots to the area of 

the alienated lot or lots. If the omitted area is, e.g., two 

times the area of the base lot or more, the patentee must 

have been aware of the windfall at the time of entry or 

patent, and the error was grossly erroneous. However, 

the erroneously omitted lands exception must not be 

applied solely on the basis of mere quantitative analysis, 

but also upon consideration of the particular equitable 

factors bearing on unjust enrichment.

8-172. A long line of litigation has addressed omitted 

lands. There is no requirement to show the source of the 

error in the meander line but only that the line as run 

and as represented on the plat and in the field notes is, 

in effect, grossly in error. The rule is concisely stated in 

John McClennen, 29 Pub. Lands Dec. 514 (1900):

It is not necessary to search for the source of the 

error. The result is the same whether such error 
220

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

arose from mistake, inadvertence, incompetency 

or fraud on the part of the men who made the 

former survey.

8-173. Surveys to identify omitted lands make the 

adjusted original meander line a fixed and limiting 

boundary, segregating the previously surveyed areas 

from the unsurveyed public lands. The meander line is 

reestablished and marked with permanent monuments 

at the old angle points.

8-174. Retracement between successive meander 

corners nearly always will show differences from 

the record in latitude and departure. The positions of 

the angle (meander) points are adjusted by the broken 

boundary method described in section 7-53. The angle 

points are given serial numbers that do not duplicate 

numbers that have been previously assigned in that 

section. The monuments are marked as shown in 

section 4-48.

8-175. The position of the original meander line having been determined, the survey is extended across the 

unsurveyed areas. Fractional sections should be completed, and new meander corners set on the extended survey lines. Finally, a new meander line is then surveyed in 

front of the omitted land. Auxiliary meander corners are 

then established at the intersection of the original meanders, now a fixed and limiting boundary, with the new 

meanders.

8-176. Applications for the extension of the subdivisional lines to include the areas erroneously omitted from 

the original survey may be initiated either by settlers on 

the omitted land or by the owners of the adjoining land. 

Occupants, local political subdivisions, and States may 

be conveyed such omitted lands, after identification by 

survey, as described in section 211(b) of the Federal Land 

Policy and Management Act (43 U.S.C. 1721(b)).

The owner of the surveyed land, or a claimant who 

has purchased from the owner, may apply for the survey 

as a preliminary to quieting the title. There may or may 

not be adverse claims. The immediate question is the 

merit of the application under the Acts of Congress that 

grant relief in these cases. A field examination is nearly 

always required to verify the conditions alleged in the 

applications. In principle, a plat should not be amended 

unless large and unwarranted discrepancies can be 

shown.

8-177. The survey of erroneously omitted lands may 

also be undertaken as an administrative responsibility 

for identifying Federal interest lands. Such cases may be 

brought to the attention of the BLM by a Federal agency 

having administrative authority over the general area or 

a federally recognized Indian tribe with historical ties to 

the area.

The need for work of this type will be brought out clearly 

in the special instructions for the survey or in supplemental special instructions if the facts are developed 

after the survey has been commenced.

8-178. The requirements for making the plats to represent omitted land surveys are outlined in sections 9-108 

through 9-113. The plat will carry a memorandum precisely stating the situation with reference to the survey 

represented, as in the following cases:

The position of the original record-meander 

courses of the so-called Moon Lake is shown 

by an irregular line with numbered angle points. 

This line as thus originally reported was grossly 

in error, and has therefore been marked as a 

fixed boundary, with the directions and lengths 

of the several courses adjusted to the record of 

the original survey.

The position of the original record-meander 

courses of Ferry Lake fronting along lot 4, 

section 9, and lots 2, 3, and 4, section 10, is 

shown by an irregular line with numbered angle 

points. This line as thus originally reported was 

grossly in error, and has therefore been marked 

as a fixed boundary, with the directions and 

lengths of the several courses adjusted to the 

record of the original survey.

The position of the original record-meander 

courses of a lake reported as having been 

located in section 36 is shown by an irregular 

line with numbered angle points. This line as 

thus originally reported was grossly in error, 

and, with the exception of certain courses 

fronting along lots 1, 2, and 9, has therefore been 

marked as a fixed boundary, with the directions 

and lengths of the several courses adjusted to the 

record of the original survey.

This memorandum is in addition to the memorandum 

referring to the dependent resurvey of the original 

section lines. The three case studies represented by 

the memoranda are situations where the survey of 

erroneously omitted lands has been necessary. An 

examination of the manner in which each type was 
221

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

treated should help in determining how to approach 

similar cases.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies on erroneously omitted lands.

Accretion Prior To Entry

8-179. Occasionally, subsequent to survey, but before 

entry, claim, or patent, a large body of land forms by 

accretion between the meander line and the OHWM. 

This special situation falls in the classification of the 

Madison v. Basart (or Basart) Doctrine. Under this 

doctrine, announced in the case Madison v. Basart, 59 

Interior Dec. 415 (1947), a substantial area equivalent to 

an omitted lands area is treated as remaining Federal 

lands and the original meander line is considered to 

be a fixed and limiting boundary, and entry, claim, or 

patent is construed to convey only the lands within the 

meander line.

8-180. The lands accreted after survey but before entry 

are not usually surveyed as would be ordinary accreted 

lands. Instead, the regular rectangular survey is extended 

to the body of water. The same procedure would be followed in surveying regular accreted lands only if none 

of the riparian lots had been alienated and it was desired 

to extend the survey. If such land had formed after 

entry, claim, or patent, the land would merely attach 

to the riparian holdings. If all the accreted land had 

been in place before the survey and remained in place 

at all times, the land would be considered erroneously 

omitted lands.

8-181. In determining what constitutes a “substantial” accretion, to which the rule in Madison v. Basart

is applicable, the area of accretion will be compared 

quantitatively with the riparian lots to which the accretion is attached. Some consideration will also be given 

to the total area accreted. Accretion to a small lot might 

be large in proportion but negligible in absolute size. 

From the standpoint of size and relative size, the area 

in question can be weighed as in the case of omitted 

lands.

An accreted area several times a basic upland lot of 

small area, say less than 5 acres is not substantial unless 

the economic value of the area is high and the original 

entryman, claimant, or patentee certainly would have 

been aware of the excessively valuable accretions. The 

substantial accretion exception has not been applied 

solely on the basis of mere quantitative analysis, but 

also upon consideration of the particular equitable factors bearing on unjust enrichment.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for a case study on the 

Basart Doctrine.

Land Outside Meanders with 

No Gross Error in Survey

8-182. Lands omitted from the original survey lying 

between the position for the record meander line and the 

actual bank of a lake, stream, or tidewater, situated in 

front of Government-owned subdivisions, are subject to 

survey as public land; although, they may not be of sufficient size and extent to constitute gross error or fraud 

in the original surveys.

8-183. If title to all the subdivisions in a section, shown 

to be riparian by the plat of the original survey, is still 

in the United States, and there is no reason for retaining the original lottings, new areas and/or designations 

may be returned for the Federal land. This procedure 

ordinarily is not undertaken unless warranted by the 

values involved, or justified by the difference in area of 

the subdivisions.

8-184. When title to some of the record riparian subdivisions has passed into non-Federal ownership and 

no claim can be maintained by the United States to the 

omitted land in front of these subdivisions, partition 

lines are run and monumented segregating the Federal 

interest land from the area belonging to the nonFederal owners. Generally, it is necessary to subdivide 

the sections in the regular manner, reestablish the original meander line, and remeander the body of water. 

Lot numbers and areas are shown on the official plat 

for the Federal land being surveyed for the first time.

8-185. Where title to all the land in a section based 

upon the plat of the original survey has passed from 

the Government, it is not necessary to reestablish the 

original meander line. This line is protracted upon the 

survey plat, which should be prepared in the manner 

similar to the method adopted for showing an area 

formed by accretion in front of patented lands (figure 

9-8). The division lines between patented holdings are 

not surveyed in the field or shown by protraction upon 

the plat.

8-186. The partition lines between the Federal interest land and nonfederally owned land are run in the 
222

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

same manner as partition lines dividing areas formed 

by accretion. The general rule is to follow the method 

described in Johnston v. Jones, 66 U.S. 209 (1862), that 

is, to apportion the new frontage along the water boundary in the same ratio as that along the line of the record 

meander course. There are acceptable variations to this 

rule where local conditions prevail and the added lands 

are not of great width or extent. In such cases the extension of normal lines to the water boundary is an equitable division to the avoidance of unrealistic or oblique 

lines that are not commensurate with the considered 

manner of the land’s formation.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for a case study of land outside meanders with no gross error in survey.

Mineral Lands Survey and 

Water Boundaries

8-187. A surveyed or patented mining claim or site that 

is described in the field notes and on its plat as abutting on a navigable or other meanderable body of water 

has the right to remain riparian. The test as to whether 

the claim or site is riparian requires that the location 

notice and the field notes describe a meander line not 

as a boundary of the claim or site but for the purpose of 

defining the sinuosities of the bank or shore of a body 

of water. The general rule states that when one of the 

boundaries of a located or patented mining claim or site 

is a navigable body of water, all accretions formed after 

the patent survey date and prior to the patent date of the 

claim or site passed under the patent, and all accretions 

that may thereafter form are the property of the riparian 

proprietor.

8-188. An operator of an unpatented mining claim or 

site has only a revocable license to search for valuable 

mineral deposits and a right of possession as against 

other potential mining claimants. Any riparian right is 

held by the Government as owner of the mineral land.

8-189. As a general rule, the subsurface mineral estate 

beneath riparian areas follows the surface estate during 

changes in OHWM or line of MHT. When such subsurface mineral estates are severed from the surface estate, 

the subsurface mineral estate boundary may be fixed as 

of the date of such severance.

Mineral lands surveys and their relation to water boundaries are discussed further in sections 10-201 through 

10-207.

Mineral Leasing Act surveys and their relation to water 

boundaries are discussed in sections 10-78 through 

10-80.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for a case study of water 

boundary of a lode mining claim.

Acquired Lands and 

Tidal Waters

Resurvey of Acquired Land Uplands and 

Tidelands Boundaries

8-190. Alienated lands to be acquired, or that that have 

been acquired by the Government, have rights under 

State law. Any resurvey must be conducted according to 

the rules establishing such boundaries. Original surveys 

and meandering of tidelands is discussed in sections 

3-202 and 3-203.

8-191. In the Supreme Court case Borax Consolidated 

v. Los Angeles, 296 U.S. 10 (1935), the Court addressed 

the question of the exact boundary between the upland 

described by a Federal patent and the tidelands. The 

Court stated the question as to the extent of a Federal 

grant of land, that is, as to the limit of the land conveyed, 

or the boundary between the upland and the tideland, is 

necessarily a Federal question. The case established the 

rule to be applied in interpretation of the term “line of 

mean high tide” when construing a Federal grant. The 

case also established the first precise standard for the 

demarcation of such boundary on the ground.

The specific instruction was that in determining the 

limit of a Federal patent the exact line was to be the line 

of the mean height of all the high tides over a period of 

one entire lunar cycle of 18.6 years, “as nearly as possible.” This value is termed “mean high water.” It is 

identical with the line of MHT.

Thus, in establishing the title boundary along tidelands 

where the uplands have been alienated or where the 

boundary is to be determined with requisite certainty 

and in relation to the value of the lands affected, a 

method will be chosen to approximate the line of MHT 

commensurate with the required accuracy identified in 

the special instructions.

There was no problem in determining such a mean for 

the Borax case because the height had already been 

determined at the time of the trials; there was a longterm tidal benchmark station near the site.
223

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

8-192. Where a precise determination of the line of MHT 

is required, a present time series of tide observations is to 

be simultaneously observed at the required location and 

compared with a control tide station in order to derive the 

equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. 

Refer to the U.S. Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

National Ocean Service, Computational Techniques for 

Tidal Datums Handbook (NOAA NOS CO-OPS2), or 

equivalent, for proper procedures.

8-193. Whatever method is used, the final result is an 

elevation of the line of MHT that is then projected as a 

mark on the beach surface defining the horizontal position of the proper boundary. These marks are an elevation contour for stretches of uniform beach. However, 

the height of the tide at any place along the coast varies 

according to the bathymetry outward from the coast as 

it interferes with the flow of the tidal wave as it moves 

back and forth. Nearby but isolated areas of interest 

may require a separate determination of line of MHT 

because of the effects of the wind, land mass, and alongshore currents. Unless some physical structure, such as a 

sea wall, retains the sand on a beach, it is to be expected 

that the surf will move the beach sands and gravels over 

time, requiring repeated leveling.

Survey of Acquired Lands Fronting on a 

River Near Its Mouth on Tidewater

8-194. Consider meanders along the bank of an inland 

river that empties into a tidewater bay. Along the bay, 

meanders are run along the line of MHT where that 

elevation intersects the upland. This location may be 

evidenced by a certain type of vegetation or escarpment 

but the boundary is determined by reference to, normally, the elevation of the line of MHT.

Upstream from the bay, the river’s surface is still subject 

to the ebb and flow of the tides, but due to the damming 

effects of those tides, the river surface will be above the 

elevation of the line of MHT. In these locations, elevation no longer can be used because of the river’s gradient, and the meanders follow the normal inland tests of 

vegetation and soil.

Above the point of tidal influence, where the daily ebb 

and flow of the tides no longer affects the river surface 

elevation, the meanders follow the normal inland tests 

of vegetation and soil.

The distinction is important because of bed ownership 

arising from navigability issues. Tidal waters upstream 

to the upper point of tidal influence are navigable as a 

matter of law and, normally, are meandered. Above the 

point of tidal influence, the river may be navigable as a 

matter of fact and thus as a matter of law.

Division of Tidewater Flats

8-195. Because the 13 Original States reserved their 

rights to the tidelands, the Federal Government, when 

it was formed, did not receive the tidelands. Under the 

principal of comity, other States that entered the Union 

also received ownership of the tidelands within their 

borders. Tidal flats here are intended to describe the 

area between the line of MHT and extreme low water 

or extreme lower low water, also defined as the shore 

space.

A 1641 Massachusetts Colonial Ordinance strongly 

influenced the laws regarding tidal flats. Under the 

Massachusetts Ordinance of 1641-1647, the title of 

the owner of land bounded by tidewater extends from 

high-water mark over the shore or flats to low-water 

mark, if not beyond 100 rods (1,650 feet or 25 chains) 

from high water mark. Grants made to the colony 

before adoption of the ordinance carried title to the 

high-water mark only (Iris v. Town of Hingham, 303 

Mass. 401 (1939)).

The original wording of the Ordinance was as follows 

in this regard:

“[I]t is declared, that in all creeks, coves and 

other places about and upon salt water, where 

the sea ebbs and flows, the proprietor of the 

land adjoining shall have propriety to the low 

water mark, where the sea doth not ebb above a 

hundred rods, and not more wheresoever it ebbs 

further: provided that such proprietor shall not 

by this liberty have power to stop or hinder the 

passage of boats or other vessels in or through 

any sea, creeks, or coves to other men’s houses 

or lands.”

Most of the special litigation involved disputes over the 

division lines between adjacent owners of uplands who 

claimed the flats. Other popular subjects for litigation 

included determination of whether the shore space was 

included with the upland deed where the shore space 

was not specifically mentioned in the deed.

See the Chapter VIII Notes for case studies of division 

of tidewater flats.
224

Chapter VIII - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Protraction Diagrams

8-196. Where protraction diagrams show plans of 

extension of the rectangular system that front potentially meanderable water bodies, the meander lines may 

be indicated by an irregular line traced from existing 

map or photographic information. The irregular line is 

in lieu of a plot of a traverse.

Protraction diagrams are preparatory for a plan of survey 

and to be able to describe and lease unsurveyed Federal 

lands. The protraction diagrams are of unsurveyed lands, 

and all lines, including the meander lines, are calculated 

from existing records or photography. Where water is 

segregated, the water area is taken out of the protracted 

upland area. The plan of survey protracts but does not 

determine the meander lines or riparian lots.

A lot shown as riparian by protraction may not be riparian upon survey. Therefore, when it becomes time to 

survey a township with protracted segregated water 

bodies the surveyor will not survey the water bodies 

where protracted but where the water bodies physically 

are. All surveys of protraction diagrams shall protect 

bona fide rights as to location.

See sections 3-138 through 3-149 for further discussion on protraction diagrams and amended protraction 

diagrams.
225

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Navigability (Case Studies)

8-21(n) through 8-56(n). The following case studies 

illustrate some of the various legal settings in which 

navigability is an issue. Whether the case centered 

around the issue of title to land, commerce, or admiralty jurisdiction, the Supreme Court has pointed out 

that the words defining navigability are the same but 

the application and the result are very different in each 

application. Surveyors need to be aware of these situations, which may affect their resurvey work.

United States v. Holt State Bank, 270 U.S. 49 (1926)

This case centered on the issue of 

title to land. Mud Lake in Minnesota 

was claimed by the United States 

to have been a marsh covering 

about 5,000 acres at the date of 

Minnesota’s statehood. The United 

States claimed that the GLO surveyors should have extended the survey 

across the “lake,” breaking it up into 

sections for sale. This case is helpful in determining 

navigability of a lake that had been drained or was difficult to navigate at time of statehood.

The Court found that in its natural condition the lake 

area was traversed by Mud River, a tributary of the 

Thief River, a navigable river leading into Canada. 

Mud Lake was formerly part of the Red Lake Indian 

Reservation for Chippewa Indians. Most of the reservation was ceded back to the United States and surveyed 

for sale after classification as “agricultural” lands or 

“pine” lands.

After the survey, classification and sale, patents around 

Mud Lake were issued.

Under a combination of Federal and Minnesota laws, a 

project to drain the lake was undertaken. By 1912 it was 

completely drained by a ditch that passed through the 

“lake” and emptied into the Thief River (figure 8-42). 

The United States claimed ownership and proposed to 

survey the former lake bed and sell the land for the benefit of the Chippewa Tribe.

Figure 8-41. Vicinity 

map.

MN

Figure 8-42. Mud Lake vicinity.

The State claimed the lake had been navigable and 

that it had become owner of the now-drained lakebed. 

Because Minnesota had granted the beds of navigable 

waters to the adjoining upland owners, the State claimed 

that the surrounding patented landowners became owners of the lakebed.

The State courts using Minnesota law standards found 

for the defendant, Holt State Bank, on the basis that the 

lake had been navigable. The United States appealed.

From the U.S. Supreme Court decision: “Navigability, 

when asserted as the basis of a right arising under the 

Constitution of the United States, is necessarily a question of federal law . . . .” (p. 55.)

Farther down the Court states: “But notwithstanding the 

error below in accepting a wrong standard of navigability, the findings must stand if the record shows that 

according to the right standard the lake was navigable.” 

(p. 56.)

Although lengthy, the Court’s description of the river 

conditions is worthy of study and it follows:

In its natural and ordinary condition the 

lake was from three to six feet deep. When 

meandered in 1892 and when first known by 

N

0 3 6 Miles Thief

River

Mud

Lake

Thief

Lake

(Mud Lake - now drained)

These case studies are provided as training tools, and must be viewed 

in their historical context. Please be aware that to the extent they refer to 

case law or legal analyses, such references have been provided in order 

to explain why certain surveys were conducted in the manner they were. 

Such case law may, however, have been subsequently superseded and/or 

may not be applicable outside the particular circumstances and timeframe 

of that case. Questions in this regard should be directed to the Office of 

the Solicitor.

The notes presented here are case studies that 

elaborate on or continue to discuss the topics 

presented in chapter VIII. The section numbers 

correspond to the section numbers in the chapter 

and are followed by “(n)” to indicate that they are 

additional notes. The case studies on pages 225 to 

262 and 268 to 272 are used by permission from 

River & Lake Boundaries, by James A. Simpson.

Chapter 

VIII

Notes
226

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

some of the witnesses it was an open body 

of clear water. Mud River traversed it in such 

way that it might well be characterized as an 

enlarged section of that stream. Early visitors 

and settlers in that vicinity used the river and 

lake as a route of travel, employing the small 

boats of the period for the purpose. The country 

about had been part of the bed of the glacial 

Lake Agassiz and was still swampy, so that 

waterways were the only dependable routes 

for trade and travel. Mud River after passing 

through the lake connected at Thief River 

with a navigable route extending westward to 

the Red River of the North and then northward 

into the British possessions. Merchants in the 

settlements at Liner and Grygla, which were 

several miles up Mud River from the lake, 

used the river and lake in sending for and 

bringing in their supplies. True, the navigation 

was limited, but this was because trade and 

travel in that vicinity were limited. In seasons 

of great drought there was difficulty in getting 

boats up the river and through the lake, but this 

was exceptional, the usual conditions being as 

just stated. Sand bars in some parts of the lake 

prevented boats from moving readily all over 

it, but the bars could be avoided by keeping the 

boats in the deeper parts or channels. Some 

years after the lake was meandered, vegetation 

such as grows in water got a footing in the lake 

and gradually came to impede the movement 

of boats at the end of each growing season, 

but offered little interference at other times. 

Gasoline motor boats were used in surveying 

and marking the line of the intended ditch 

through the lake and the ditch was excavated 

with floating dredges. (p. 56.)

Our conclusion is that the evidence requires a 

finding that the lake was navigable . . . . (p. 57.)

According the United States’ claim was denied and 

under State law the former bed of the navigable lake 

passed to the adjoining upland owners.

The final conclusion that the ditch was excavated with 

floating dredges may not necessarily be a valid indicator. See U.S. v. Crow, Pope & Land Enterprises, Inc., 

340 F.Supp. 25, 35 (1972) where the “isolated and 

exceptional example of a person using the river for a 

few miles primarily along his own property, to extract 

gold-bearing silt from the river bed” was insufficient to 

demonstrate navigability.

United States v. Appalachian Electric Power Co., 

311 U.S. 377 (1940), reh’g denied, 312 U.S. 712 (1941)

This case centered on the issue 

of the Commerce 

Clause and decided 

whether the bed 

of New River in 

Virginia and West 

Virginia was a navigable water of the 

United States. The Appellate Court held that navigability in fact must exist under natural and ordinary conditions rather than by human-made improvements. We 

study this case because the effect of improvements must 

be considered in all navigability questions.

Appalachian Power had obtained a license from the 

State of Virginia to construct a dam in New River at a 

point just upstream from the town of Radford.

The dispute started when Appalachian Power proceeded 

to build the dam under the State of Virginia license only.

The Federal Power Commission and the U.S. Corps 

of Engineers (The Corps of Engineers was charged 

with administration of navigation permits) claimed the 

dam would have an adverse affect on navigation of the 

Kanawha River many miles downstream. New River 

was a principal tributary of the Kanawha (figure 8-44). 

The Government filed suit in Federal District Court in 

Virginia (23 F.Supp. 83 (1938)).

Figure 8-44. New River flows to the Kanawha River and then to the Ohio 

River.

OHIO

VIR GINIA

KENTUCK Y

W E S T V I R G INIA

Proposed Damsite X

Hinton

Kanawha Falls

River

Ohio

River

Kanawh

River

a

New 

WV

VA

Figure 8-43. Vicinity map.
227

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

The Government asked the Court to stop the construction and require the work be removed because New 

River was a navigable water of the United States.

Appalachian Power claimed New River in the vicinity 

of the dam site was not navigable and that it owned all 

the land where the dam was to be built; also that the 

State of Virginia controlled such construction on nonnavigable streams.

Whether the entire length of New River from the proposed dam down to the Kanawha was navigable became 

the final issue at trial.

The District Court decision contains a very detailed 

description of the river’s hydrology, hydraulics, geography and geology. A substantial amount of evidence was 

entered on these subjects.

The Government contended in the trial that New River 

and Kanawha River was really all one long river and 

that because the Kanawha was concededly navigable, 

therefore the entire river was navigable. The District 

Court rejected that claim, saying that if that were true, 

all mountain brooks and rivulets would then need to be 

classed as navigable.

The Government also claimed that both the State and 

Federal governments had always treated New River as a 

navigable river. The Court rejected that claim also, quoting a 1912 report from the Chief of (Army) Engineers. 

The conclusion quoted was that New River “could not 

be connected with navigation in the Kanawha by the 

expenditure of any reasonable amount [of money].”

The Government claimed New River had been used in 

the past for movement of substantial amounts of commerce between the States of Virginia and West Virginia. 

Also they claimed it was susceptible to such use.

The District Judge ruled that the reach between head of 

navigation of the Kanawha (at Kanawha Falls) and the 

town of Hinton was steep and obviously not practicably 

susceptible for navigation. Some schemes for building a 

canal in the 1870s never materialized.

The District Court decision alludes to much evidence 

on navigability concerning the reach above Hinton 

to a point above the proposed dam site near Radford, 

Virginia. The types of evidence are worthy of study 

from the lower court’s decision.

The Judge stated that the question of navigability is one 

of fact to be determined from evidence. The Judge had 

allowed witnesses to express opinions as to the navigability but that the final decision in the trial was his 

alone.

The District Court’s finding of fact was that “there is 

at present no commerce or navigation on New River or, 

if any, it is entirely local and in a trivial and unnoticeable amount; that the Federal Government has made 

no improvements on the river since those heretofore 

discussed and that it does not have in contemplation 

any improvements affecting the navigable condition.” 

(p. 98).

The finding of local or trivial use in commerce was in 

spite of the testimony of use of the river above Radford 

by keelboats of 2- to 4-foot draft. They had been used in 

hauling ores and supplies. A gasoline powered boat was 

described that drew 12 inches of water when loaded. It 

had been used in the river near Radford.

The District Court thus refused to stop the 

construction.

Appeals were taken to the Circuit Court of Appeals and 

thence to the Supreme Court of the United States.

The Supreme Court divided the river into three reaches 

according to the general topography contained. The 

lower reach was from the town of Hinton up as far as 

Wylie Falls. Some improvements to this stretch had been 

made in aid of navigation during the years 1876 to 1883.

The middle reach was from Wylie Falls to Radford, a 

59-mile stretch. That reach had never been improved in 

aid of navigation except at the Wylie Falls vicinity. The 

upper reach was from Radford to the town of Allisonia, 

which had also been improved by the United States during the 1876 to 1883 period (figure 8-45).

The U.S. Supreme Court found that the evidence of 

navigability for the upper and lower reach was more 

convincing than that of the middle reach. Their opinion 

was, then, to be directed to the middle reach primarily.

The decision describes the use of keel boats and the difficulties of navigating New River between these points. 

A railroad was built in the 1880s that paralleled the 

river. Following the coming of the railroad, the use of 

the river in commerce practically ceased.

The Supreme Court said, in part:

Use of a stream long abandoned by water 

commerce is difficult to prove by abundant 
228

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

evidence. Fourteen authenticated instances 

of use in a century and a half by explorers 

and trappers, coupled with general historical 

references to the river as a water route for the 

early fur traders and their supplies in pirogues 

and Durham or flat-bottomed craft similar to 

the keelboats of the New River had been found 

adequate for proof of navigability in an earlier 

case, Economy Light and Power Company v. 

United States, 256 F. 792 (1919), aff’d, 256 U.S. 

113 (1921).

Thus, the Supreme Court concluded that the Wylie 

Falls to Radford stretch, as well as the lower and upper 

reaches, were navigable waters of the United States. The 

right to build the dam would thus necessarily be subject 

to U.S. Corps of Engineers regulations.

Perhaps the most important finding by the Court was 

that a waterway that by reasonable improvement can be 

made available for navigation in interstate commerce is 

a navigable water of the United States, provided there 

be a balance between cost and need at a time when the 

improvement is needed.

The fact that there is a dam now in place at a point above 

the town of Radford and there is a sizable reservoir above 

it indicates the eventual use of the site. Presumably the 

power company was required to obtain a Federal license 

and to comply with Corps of Engineers requirements in 

order to continue construction.

United States v. Ross, 74 F.Supp. 6 (E.D. Md. 1947)

This case centered on the issue of 

jurisdiction for admiralty purposes. 

The U.S. Attorney wanted to prosecute Howard Ross. In order to make 

the charge stick, the crime had to 

have been committed on navigable 

waters of the United States. We take 

up this case because it shows how the 

courts have considered small but deep channels alongside a navigable river to be nonnavigable. Contrast this 

case with Packer v. Bird, 137 U.S. 661 (1891).

Howard Ross was charged with reckless operation of a 

boat in violation of a Federal law. The incident occurred 

in a borrow pit alongside a levee on the Missouri side 

of the Mississippi River. The borrow pit was filled with 

river water at the time. Ross had loaded his boat with 10 

hunters and, when it sank, three passengers drowned.

Because there was a 3-foot deep waterway connection 

to the Mississippi River and because the water was 6 

to 7 feet deep, the Government contended the borrow 

pit was a navigable water of the United States (figure 

8-47). The only evidence of use of the borrow pit for 

commerce was that Howard Ross provided duck hunters with an informal ferry service to the hunting on the 

levee banks. This only occurred during hunting season. 

During dry spells the opening to the Mississippi dried 

up and motorboats could not operate in the borrow pit.

The Court found that this was not evidence of use in 

interstate commerce and that, “Mere depth of water, 

without profitable utility, will not render a water course 

navigable in the legal sense,” quoting Harrison v. Fite, 

148 F. 781 (1906). The borrow pit was held to be nonnavigable (p. 9).

Remember that this trial considered navigability as 

affecting application of Federal criminal jurisdiction, which is based on the requirement of interstate 

commerce.

Figure 8-46. Vicinity 

map.

MO

Figure 8-45. Reach designations of New River.

Flow

0 2 4 6 MILES

VIR GINIA

V I R G I N I A

W E S T V I R G I N I A

Hinton

Wylie

Falls

Glen Lyn

Narrows Pearisburg

Radford

Claytor

Lake

Allisonia

Lower

Reach

Upper

Reach

Middle Reach

extends from

Wylie Falls

to Radford

N

Damsite

X
229

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-47. Vicinity map for the Ross case on the Mississippi River.

Opening

to

Borrow

Pit

4 X

ENLARG.

Mississippi River

Levee

Levee

Island

L I N C O L N C O . , M I S S O U R I

0 F 2000 4000 6000 EET

N

Figure 8-48. Vicinity 

map.

MN

Minnehaha Creek v. Corps of Engineers, 449 F.Supp. 

876 (1978), aff’d in part & rev’d in part, 597 F.2d 617 

(1979)

This case centered on the issue of 

the Commerce Clause. It concerned 

the navigability of Lake Minnetonka 

and Minnehaha Creek in Minnesota 

among other issues. Navigability 

claimed by the Corps of Engineers 

was disputed. If the waters were 

classed as “navigable waters of the 

United States” local owners were 

required to get a permit from the 

U.S. Corps of Engineers for any construction involving 

the bed of the lake or stream (figure 8-49).

Findings of fact by the Court relating to navigability 

were:

(1) Lake Minnetonka’s water levels were 

controlled by a fixed crest dam constructed in 

1852. The depth of the lake averages 40 feet 

with some depths up to 100 feet. Minnehaha 

Creek is the lake’s single outlet.

(2) Minnehaha Creek flows into the Mississippi 

some 20 miles from the lake outlet. Flow is 

variable and intermittent. During the summer 

and fall there is not enough depth for any form 

of navigation.

(3) There is no history of navigation, private or 

commercial, on Minnehaha Creek.

(4) The history of navigation on Lake 

Minnetonka included canoe travel prior to 

settlement. After the dam raised the lake level, 

steam powered boats used the lake as well as 

log rafts.

Luxury steamboats operated on the lake from 

Civil War times until 1926. After 1867 steamers 

carried rail passengers from a railroad at 

Wayzata across the lake to Excelsior, a major 

town on the lake shore. Mail was carried by 

boat to Minnehaha Creek and thence by horsedrawn stage to other points.

Grain and lumber products were carried to 

mills and shipped by rail from that point on.

(5) In 1916 the Corps of Engineers had 

advised a railroad company that their permit 

was required for construction of a bridge across 

an arm of Lake Minnetonka. No other action by 

the U.S. Corps of Engineers had exercised any 

authority over the lake from 1916 until 1945.

(6) In 1945 the U.S. Corps of Engineers 

advised the State of Minnesota that Minnehaha 

Creek was navigable and the State had treated 

the stream in that manner since 1945.

(7) The 1976 use of the lake was limited to 

recreational use by small boats, except that 

three excursion boats carried passengers for 

hire and several marinas rented out boats for 

recreation.

(8) The St. Paul District of the Corps of 

Engineers issued a report in 1975 declaring 

Lake Minnetonka and Minnehaha Creek to be 

navigable waters of the United States.
230

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

The Corp’s claim was not based on Lake Minnetonka 

and Minnehaha Creek being a part of a channel that 

formed an interstate waterway. Instead they claimed that 

the waters were used for interstate commerce through 

railroad and other forms of commercial transportation.

The first thing the Court did was to rule that the Corp’s 

finding of navigability was not binding on the Court; the 

determination would be made from examination of evidence only.

Quoting Economy Light and Power Co. v. United States, 

256 U.S. 113 (1921), the Court agreed that navigability 

in law is not destroyed just because the watercourse is 

interrupted by occasional natural obstructions. Also, 

a river that has not been used for navigation for over 

100 years is still considered navigable for Federal regulatory purposes. Further, a water body that can be made 

navigable by reasonable improvement could be considered navigable.

However, the ruling was that the navigability had to be 

based on use in interstate commerce as a link to other 

navigable waters. The Court cited a case on the Great Salt 

Lake (obviously navigable) where use in interstate commerce was denied although salt was carried by barges 

to a railroad siding for shipment to other points, which 

could have been out of State (Hardy Salt v. Southern 

Pacific, 501 F.2d 1156 (1974)).

Because Minnehaha Creek was never part of any 

link in interstate commerce—via the Mississippi for 

instance—Lake Minnetonka was not part of the navigable waters of the United States. The lake would remain 

navigable under the State’s waters test, it is believed.

United States v. Utah, No. 14 Original; 283 U.S. 64 

(1931)

This case concerned title to the beds 

of the Green River, the Grand River 

and the Colorado River within the 

State of Utah. What was then called 

the Grand River is now named 

as part of the Colorado River in 

the States of Utah and Colorado 

(figure 8-51).

This case is particularly important 

to us because it sets out clearly that a river need not be 

navigable in all of its reaches. The same river can be 

not navigable in part mixed in with navigable stretches. 

The case also sets out that the susceptibility or capability for navigation at the time of statehood must also be 

considered.

The United States, as owner of the uplands in Canyon 

Lands National Park and of other public lands, had 

issued oil and gas prospecting permits on areas covered 

by the beds of these rivers under the assumption that 

these rivers were not navigable and the beds belonged 

to the United States. The United States claimed that it 

acquired the land from Mexico and its title included the 

Figure 8-50. Vicinity 

map.

UT

Figure 8-49. Lake Minnetonka vicinity.

N

Minnehaha

Creek

0 F 6000 12000 EET

Lake

Minnetonka

Wayzata

Excelsior
231

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

beds of all the rivers except where recognized grants 

existed.

Utah, claiming the rivers were navigable, has issued 

and delivered oil and gas leases covering the same 

areas of the river beds.

The question of navigability was not tried to determine whether the waters were “navigable waters of the 

United States” presumably because there was no claim 

of usage of the river in interstate commerce.

Whether the waters were “navigable waters of the State 

of Utah” was the question.

A Special Master tried the case and found that some 

reaches were navigable and some were not navigable. 

Both parties disagreed with the findings.

The U.S. Supreme Court stated the primary question 

thus:

The question here is not with respect to a 

short interruption of navigability in a stream 

otherwise navigable, or of a negligible part, 

which boats may use, of a stream otherwise nonnavigable. We are concerned with long reaches 

with particular characteristics of navigability or 

non-navigability, which the Master’s report fully 

describes. (p. 77.)

The Court described each of the rivers: “The question 

of that susceptibility [of use in commerce] in the ordinary condition of the rivers, rather than of the mere 

manner or extent of actual use, is the crucial question.” 

(p. 82.)

And later:

The extent of existing commerce is not the 

test. The evidence of the actual use of streams, 

and especially of extensive and continued 

use for commercial purposes, may be most 

persuasive, but where conditions of exploration 

and settlement explain the infrequency or 

limited nature of such use, the susceptibility 

to use as a highway of commerce may still be 

satisfactorily proved. (p. 82.)

And still later:

Utah, with its equality of right as a state of the 

Union, is not to be denied title to the beds of 

such of its rivers as were navigable in fact at the 

time of the admission of the state either because 

the location of the rivers and the circumstances 

of the exploration and settlement of the country 

through which they flowed had made recourse 

to navigation a late adventure, or because 

commercial utilization on a large scale awaits 

future demands. (p. 83.)

With regard to sand bars, the U.S. Supreme Court 

describes the difficulties of navigation where crossing bars and rapids are present. It also referred to the 

known difficulties of navigation of the Missouri and 

the Mississippi River because of sand bars. With that 

it ruled, however, that “the river is navigable in fact, 

although its navigation may be encompassed with difficulties by reason of natural barriers such as rapids and 

sandbars.” (p. 86.)

Of some importance also is that one of Utah’s exceptions to the Special Master’s report was that a 4.35-mile 

stretch of river just below the junction of the Green 

and the Colorado Rivers was considered nonnavigable 

along with the next reach which was agreed to be nonnavigable. Utah pointed out that there was more water 

available in the 4.35 miles because of the combined 

flow and that there were no more difficulties in navigation than in the Colorado above the junction. The U.S. 

Figure 8-51. The Colorado River in Utah.

Mexican Hat

Glen Canyon Dam

Bluff

Blanding

Monticello

*

* shown prior to

 Lake Powell

Moab

U TA H

A Z

C O

N M

Colorado

River

Castle

Creek

(formerly Grand River)

River

San Juan

Green Riv

er

0 20 40 60 MILES

N
232

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Government did not present facts to refute the challenge and the Court made the change in the point of 

differentiation, subject to precise determination of the 

point where it became nonnavigable.

Oklahoma v. Texas, No. 20 Original; 258 U.S. 574 

(1922) 

A series of cases of the Supreme Court resulting in 19 

opinions and 33 decrees address the boundary between 

Texas and Oklahoma along the bed of the Red River. 

The segment of the bed of the Red River from the 

100th to the 96th meridian is the most thoroughly surveyed and litigated riverbed in the history of the United 

States. The Court found that the Red River bed was a 

braided stream that ranged in width from 3 to 15 miles. 

Eventually it was decided that the boundary between 

Texas and Oklahoma was along the right bank of the 

Red River when it is full but not in flood. The Court 

undertook the determination of navigability under the 

Property Clause and all of the facts in the bed of the 

river and its history that border on that answer.

A very important point made by the Court was that 

the river must be suitable for commercial navigation 

for a majority of the year. Seasonal rises in the river 

due to spring and fall rains that lasted only a few weeks 

were not sufficient to make a river navigable under the 

Property Clause even though commercial navigation 

sometimes occurred during those temporary rises.

The Court found the Red River to be nonnavigable; 

therefore, Oklahoma and its riparian owners only 

owned half of the riverbed extending from the left 

bank. Since Texas could have no ownership outside its 

boundary, the United States owned the half of the bed 

measured from the right bank, i.e., unsurveyed public 

domain land.

Avulsion and Boundaries (Case Studies)

8-57(n) through 8-107(n). The following case studies 

illustrate some of the various legal settings in which 

avulsion is an issue. Surveyors need to be aware of 

these situations, which may affect their resurvey work.

Nebraska v. Iowa, No.4 Original; 143 U.S. 359 

(1892)

The State of 

Nebraska claimed 

that the soil along 

the Missouri 

River was so 

sandy, and avulsive changes in 

channel occurred so often, that the common law rule of 

avulsion should not apply. Immediately above Omaha, 

Nebraska, an oxbow bend was created rapidly by the 

river and then cut through by an avulsion; Nebraska 

claimed Iowa should not get to keep the island left 

behind (figure 8-54).

This case is among those of the most important to surveyors because here the U.S. Supreme Court distinguished between rapid erosion and an avulsion. The 

Court determined that rapid erosion and accretion was 

not the legal equivalent of avulsion. The Court also 

defined an avulsion in clearly understandable terms, 

especially where areas of river bank have been alleged 

to cave off into the river during flood.

The U.S. Supreme Court quoted at length from international legal authorities that universally applied the 

avulsion concept between sovereigns. Significantly, the 

Court defined an avulsion as “where a stream, which is 

a boundary, from any cause suddenly abandons its old 

and seeks a new bed, such change of channel [termed 

avulsion] works no change of boundary; and that the 

boundary remains as it was, in the center of the old 

channel, although no water may be flowing therein.” 

(p. 360.)

Nebraska contended that in the normal course of 

events along the Missouri River, great slabs of soil 

and trees would fall into the river during high water 

Figure 8-53. Vicinity map.

Figure 8-52. Vicinity map.

IA NE

OK

TX
233

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

times, a common happening during a classic avulsion. 

Nebraska claimed that because it was a normal event 

such an application of the avulsion rule would not be 

practical and the avulsion rule should not apply.

Quoting from the decision:

The Missouri River is a winding stream, 

coursing through a valley of varying width, 

the substratum of whose soil, a deposit of 

distant centuries, is largely of quicksand. 

In building the bridge of the Union Pacific 

Railway Company across the Missouri River, 

in the vicinity of the tracts in controversy, the 

builders went down to the solid rock, sixty-five 

feet below the surface, and there found a pine 

log a foot and a half in diameter—of course a 

deposit made in the long ago. The current is 

rapid, far above the average of ordinary rivers; 

and by reason of the snows in the mountains 

there are two well known rises in the volume 

of its waters, known as the April and June 

rises. The large volume of water pouring down 

at the time of these rises, with the rapidity of 

its current, has great and rapid action upon the 

loose soil of its banks. Whenever it impinges 

with direct attack upon the bank at a bend of 

the stream, and that bank is of the loose sand 

obtaining in the valley of the Missouri, it is not 

strange that the abrasion and washing away is 

rapid and great. Frequently, where above the 

loose substratum of sand there is a deposit of 

comparatively solid soil, the washing out of the 

underlying sand causes an instantaneous fall of 

quite a length and breadth of the superstratum 

of soil into the river; so that it may, in one sense 

of the term, be said that the diminution of the 

banks is not gradual and imperceptible, but 

sudden and visible. Notwithstanding this, two 

things must be borne in mind, familiar to all 

dwellers on the banks of the Missouri river, and 

disclosed by the testimony: that, while there 

may be an instantaneous and obvious dropping 

into the river of quite a portion of its banks, 

such portion is not carried down the stream as 

a solid and compact mass, but disintegrates and 

separates into particles of earth borne onward 

by the flowing water, and giving to the stream 

that color which, in the history of the country, 

has made it known as the “muddy” Missouri; 

and, also, that while the disappearance, by 

reason of this process, of a mass of bank may 

be sudden and obvious, there is no transfer of 

such a solid body of earth to the opposite shore, 

or anything like an instantaneous and visible 

creation of a bank on that shore. (p. 368.)

Later the Court continued: “The only thing which distinguishes this river from other streams, in the matter 

of accretion, is in the rapidity of the change caused by 

the velocity of the current; and this in itself . . . works 

no change in the principle underlying the rule of law in 

respect thereto.” (p. 369.)

The Court rejected Nebraska’s argument and held that 

the rule of avulsion applies on the Missouri River and 

that the abandonment of an ox-bow channel caused the 

boundary to be fixed in its former position.

The Court held that avulsive changes in boundary rivers between States leave the former boundary fixed.

Figure 8-54. Before the avulsion, the river formed a tight loop back to the 

north. When the breakthrough occurred, the old channel remained as a 

remnant lake.

Sec. 3

Sec. 10

Sec. 15

Sec. 22 Sec. 23

C ouncil Bluffs,IA

Omaha,

N E

I O WA

NEBR A S K A

Missouri

Riv

er

Omaha-Council Bluffs

Vicinity

State Line per

USGS map

State

Boundary

Fixed by

Avulsion

from

USGS Maps of 1984

Union Pacific R. R.
234

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Arkansas v. Tennessee, No. 4 Original; 246 U. S. 158 

(1918)

Following an 1876 avulsion of the Mississippi River, 

both Arkansas and Tennessee agreed that the prior 

boundaries became fixed but Tennessee claimed the 

middle of the river should be used according to the original 1823 meanders. Arkansas claimed that all erosion 

and accretion between 1823 and the time the avulsion 

was complete should belong to Arkansas. As shown by 

the original surveys of 1823, the Mississippi River had 

a channel averaging about a mile in width and, in the 

contested area, formed a large loop nearly 20 miles long 

(figure 8-56).

This case is included for study because the U.S. Supreme 

Court defined the completion of an avulsive change, 

especially as it concerns the time at which the abandoned channel becomes a fixed boundary.

Subsequently, the river continued to erode down valley 

and outward in places (figure 8-57).

By 1876 the river had eroded down-valley and outward 

in places such that the river broke through in a classic 

avulsion, short circuiting the 20-mile loop. Within 

60 hours the river had widened the new breakthrough 

to about a mile wide and 40 to 50 feet deep. Barns and 

houses fell into the new channel so quickly that people 

could not rescue their household goods in some cases. 

Two thousand acres of cultivated land were eroded in 

that 60 hours, or about 33 acres per hour.

The avulsive cutoff was called the Centennial Cut 

because it coincided with the 100th anniversary of the 

Declaration of Independence.

For 3 or 4 years after the avulsion, the old channels 

remained navigable for small boats only. By 1880 the 

old beds were substantially dry except during floods. 

The drying up was caused by sediment deposited by the 

river, mainly in the upstream end of the old channel.

A map by the Mississippi River Commission in 1883 

shows the condition after the avulsion, except that Island 

No. 37 appeared as a blank space on the Commission’s 

map (figure 8-58).

As the upper parts of the abandoned bed filled in with 

sediments, the old bed became usable for agriculture 

and was suddenly valuable (figure 8-59). Most of those 

valuable additions were benefiting the owners on the 

Arkansas side of the abandoned bed because of the way 

the deposits formed.

Figure 8-56. By the early 1800s, a 9-mile-long loop had formed in the 

Mississippi River.

A R K A N S A S

Devils

Mississippi

River

Chute

Island No. 37

Island

No. 37

19 20 21

29 28

32

33

Dean’s Island

TENNESSEE

1823 Original Surveys

from

Humphreys’ Map of 1904

Elbow

McKenzie

Figure 8-57. An 1874 map shows a large peninsula of Tennessee 

between the river loops at Dean’s Island and Brandywine Point. 

Subsequently, Centennial Cut severed the peninsula.

Brandywine

Island

Dean’s

Island

Island

No. 37

Line of

Navigation

N

Chute

McKenzie

Figure 8-55. Vicinity map.

AR

TN
235

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Tennessee and Arkansas each formed a commission to 

decide on the boundary location. The respective commissions did not agree.

Tennessee claimed that the boundary should be fixed 

at the middle of the abandoned channel as defined 

by the original 1823 surveys. Tennessee also claimed 

that the owners of the banks and the bed should be 

restored to their lands according to the 1823 original 

boundaries. A Tennessee Supreme Court Decision even 

ruled that way. State v. Muncie Pulp Co., 119 Tenn. 47 

(1907) rev’d, Cissna v. Tennessee, 246 U.S. 289 (1918). 

Tennessee additionally claimed that because there was 

no reason for navigation in the old channel after the 

avulsion that the thalweg should be abandoned after an 

avulsion and not used as a boundary.

Arkansas, on the other hand, contended that the dividing line should be exactly where the middle of the navigable channel was at the time of the avulsion. Also, it 

claimed, each owner should get to keep accretions that 

had occurred up to the time of the avulsion.

The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed that the boundary 

between two States was at the “middle of the navigable 

channel” and not between the middle of the banks at 

normal water nor between the meander lines.

The U.S. Supreme Court also affirmed the legal principles of avulsion and cited their previous language in 

Nebraska v. Iowa, above, defining avulsion as “if the 

stream from any cause, natural or artificial, suddenly 

leaves its old bed [and] forms a new one, by the process 

known as an avulsion, the resulting change of channel 

works no change of boundary.” (p. 173).

The Court also discussed the “doctrine of submergence 

and reappearance of land” and held that, where the 

record riparian parcel has been submerged and then 

subsequently reemerges through a subsidence of the 

water such that the same soil is exposed, title is in the 

record riparian parcel owner, rather than the remote 

parcel owner. The doctrine is an exception to the rule 

of accretion. It rests on the easy identification of the 

same identifiable soil that has reemerged. In any event, 

the doctrine of “re-emergence” is not applicable where 

land has eroded away and then been restored through 

the process of accretion.

Most importantly, the Court ruled that as long as the 

abandoned channel remains a running stream, erosion 

and accretion still apply, “but when the water becomes 

stagnant, the effect of these processes [erosion and 

accretion] is at an end; the boundary then becomes 

fixed in the middle of the channel . . . and the gradual 

filling up of the bed that ensues is not to be treated as 

an accretion to the shores but as an ultimate effect of 

the avulsion” (p. 175).

As to how the property on each side of the abandoned 

bed is to be allocated between the State, as owner of the 

bed, and the upland proprietor was to be determined 

by the law of each State. “Arkansas may limit riparian ownership [upon navigable streams] by the ordinary high-water mark; and Tennessee, while extending 

riparian ownership upon navigable streams to ordinary low-water mark, and reserving as public the lands 

Figure 8-58. Maps from 1883 show Centennial Island has been isolated 

by an avulsion. The island remained in Tennessee under the principles of 

avulsion.

Chute

McKenzie

0 5000 10000 15000 FEET

A R K A N S A S

T E N N E S S E E

Dean’s Island

Estimated

Island No. 37

Centennial Island

Brandywine

Island

N

Centennial Cut

Mississippi River

Figure 8-59. By 1904, the abandoned bed had filled in to become valuable farm land.

Centennial Cut

Chute

Abandoned Bed

Filled In

Sec. 29 Sec. 28

Sec. 19 Sec. 20 Sec. 21

Sec. 33 Sec.

32

Dean’s

Island River

N

McKenzie

Island

No. 37

Mississippi 
236

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

constituting the bed below that mark . . . may . . . recognize [prior ownerships.]” (citations omitted) (p. 176).

Finally the Court appointed a commission to locate 

the boundary line between the States at the middle of 

the channel as it was at the time the current ceased to 

flow as a result of the avulsion. Centennial Island thus 

remained as part of Tennessee (figure 8-60).

Uhlhorn v. U.S. Gypsum Company, 366 F.2d. 211 

(8th Cir. 1966), cert. denied, 385 U.S. 1026 (1967)

In the same locality as Arkansas v. Tennessee, this case 

involved a change of channel where the “island” formed 

was 4 feet below the OHWM of the river. Mrs. Uhlhorn 

claimed to own an “island,” or towhead, which was the 

disputed area. The Massey Towhead was located off 

Figure 8-61. Vicinity map.

AR

TN

Brandywine Island as shown on the maps of the case 

immediately above. If avulsion applied, the State boundary would not move to the newer and dredged channel. 

If the State line moved, she could have an earlier trial 

thrown out for want of jurisdiction.

The case is important to us because the facts describe 

an artificial channel change that took place within the 

bed of the river and in a suit between private landowners 

whose common boundary was a State boundary. The 

Court’s final ruling accepted the change as an avulsion.

Referring to Arkansas v. Tennessee, recall that after the 

river avulsed Centennial Island was on the right bank 

of the river but remained a part of Tennessee. Also, 

Brandywine Island as shown on the 1883 map was 

now on the left bank of the river but remained a part of 

Arkansas (figure 8-62).

The river bend that curved around Brandywine Island 

was known as the Bendway Channel.

Between the time of the 1883 map and the 1920s 

the river in the Bendway Channel had been moving 

Figure 8-60. The Mississippi River from 1970 USGS mapping. The river is now straightened, leaving the former islands attached to the 

Arkansas mainland.

0 4000 8000 12000 FEET A R K A N S

A S

A R K A N S A S

A R K A N S A S

A R K A N S A S

A R K A N S

A S

T E N N E S S E E

T E N N E S S E E

T E N N E S S E E

T E N N E S S E E

T E N N E S S E E

State Line

Mississippi

River

Island No. 37

Dean’s Island

Devil’s

Elbow

Centennial

Island

Centennial

Island

Brandywine

Island

N

McKenzie Chute
237

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Brandywine Island. Because the channel was across the 

bar, and because the towhead was below the OHWM, the 

Corps could do this under the navigable (navigational) 

servitude doctrine without purchasing the property.

Some dredging was continued in the old Bendway 

Channel as well as in the new Pointway Channel as it 

was called.

The Engineers attempted to forcibly change the main 

river flow to the Pointway Channel. They pumped the 

dredge spoil from the Pointway Channel to the entrance 

to the Bendway Channel. This attempt to dam the 

Bendway Channel failed; the river kept washing it out.

A 1937 sketch shows the conditions where the main flow 

was through the Bendway Channel but the Pointway 

Channel was increasing slowly (figure 8-64).

A flood in 1938 provided enough energy to erode 

Pointway Channel so that it was usable for navigation (figure 8-65). Some traffic still used the Bendway 

Channel until 1940.

Massey Towhead was now separated from Brandywine 

Island and Massey Bar by the main navigational channel of the Mississippi.

The Court was asked to find that these gradual changes 

were avulsive in nature. If the change were avulsive the 

boundary would be fixed at Bendway Channel.

A Special Master appointed by the District Court below 

found that the elevation of Massey Towhead was 4 feet 

Figure 8-62. The 1883 map from the Arkansas v. Tennessee case is 

repeated for reference.

Chu

M

te

cKenzie

0 F 5000 10000 15000 EET

A R K A N S A S

T E N N E S S E E

Dean’s Island

Estimated

Island No. 37

Brandywine

Island

N

Centennial Island Centennial Cut

Mississippi River

Figure 8-63. Massey Towhead in 1935, before the Pointway Channel 

was dredged.

A R K A N S A S

Happy Valley Bar

T E N N E S S E E

Brandywine

Island

Massey

Towhead

Massey Bar

Channe

N

l

Bendway

Figure 8-64. Progressive changes from 1935 took place as shown on a 

1937 map.

northwesterly, eroding into Centennial Island and accreting to Brandywine Island (figure 8-63). Also, a towhead built up naturally along the point of the Bendway 

Channel. (A towhead is defined as an alluvial obstruction in a river.)

Because the Bendway Channel was becoming increasingly curved, the sharp bend required tugs to uncouple 

barges to navigate them around the curve. To alleviate 

that condition the U.S. Corps of Engineers began dredging in the early 1930s. Dredge spoil was added to the 

towhead by the U.S. Corps of Engineers’ operations.

In 1933 the Engineers opened a new channel across 

Massey Bar, the point bar on Brandywine Island. 

The new channel was between Massey Towhead and 

Happy Valley Bar

Brandywine

Island

Massey Bar

Channel

Pointway Channel

A R K A N S A S

T E N N E S S E E

Massey

Towhead

N

1937

Bendway
238

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

below the water surface when the river was at ordinary 

high water.

Note that Tennessee is a “low water mark” State but 

Arkansas claims to the high water mark.

Mrs. Uhlhorn disputed that finding saying that her deed 

for Massey towhead called for 705 acres above the 

OHWM.

The Special Master’s finding was that the channel 

change, from the Bendway to the Pointway, was not a 

true avulsion because the identifiable land was below 

the OHWM.

The Appeals Court disagreed with the Master. The 

Court stated that Massey Towhead was a dense compact mass that resisted dredging by the U.S. Corps of 

Engineers and that it remained unchanged. It stated “we 

do not think the elevation of the land mass between 

an old channel and a new one that is cut by avultive 

processes is a decisive criterion for a change in a state 

boundary.” (p. 219.)

The Court held that this in-stream artificial narrowing 

and change in channels was an avulsion and the boundary remained fixed at the Bendway Channel. This situation should properly be classed as a channelization 

avulsion within the bed of the river, one that was 

approved by the Courts.

Bonelli Cattle Co. v. Arizona, 414 U.S. 313 (1973), 

reh’g denied, 434 U.S. 1090 (1978), partially overruled by Oregon ex rel. State Land Board v. Corvallis 

Sand and Gravel Co., 429 U.S. 363 (1977)

Bonelli bought land that 

consisted mostly of sandy 

river bed. When the land 

was originally patented in 

1910, it was on the Arizona 

bank of the Colorado River, a 

navigable river in this reach. 

A few years after Bonelli 

bought the land, the Bureau 

of Reclamation began a 

levee project to correct sediment problems and to permit navigation. The river was 

changed from a wide sandy bed to a much narrower 

channel. The channelization left a large area of former 

river bed exposed that the State of Arizona claimed as 

State lands although it was identical in location with 

the Bonelli purchase. If the river had avulsed, the State 

would get the land; but if the process was accretion, 

Bonelli would get the land.

This case is important because here the U.S. Supreme 

Court defined the boundary effect of channelization 

where engineering works have narrowed the riverbed, 

in a suit between a private landowner and a State claiming title as owner of the riverbed.

The GLO surveyed section 3, T. 19 N., R. 22 W., Gila 

and Salt River Meridian, Arizona in 1905. The section 

was patented to the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad in 

1910.

In 1900, 5 years before the GLO Survey, the flowing part 

of the river was over a half a mile to the west of the 

disputed lands (figure 8-67). The Colorado River at that 

time was completely uncontrolled. Large floods would 

pass through during spring and summer but during some 

periods the river could be waded. During the low flow 

times the river bed would be almost totally exposed.

Between 1905 and the 1930s there are few known 

detailed maps showing this reach of the river. In 

1928 a resurvey of the Fort Mojave Indian Reservation 

shows the river within section 3 although the 

position of the river was incidental to the survey 

(figure 8-68).

Figure 8-65. Progressive changes from 1937 took place as shown on a 

1939 map.

Happy Valley Bar

Brandywine Ma

Island

ssey Bar

Pointway Channel

A R K A N S A S

T E N N E S S E E

1939

Massey

Towhead

N

Channel

Bendway

Figure 8-66. Vicinity map.

NV

CA AZ
239

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-67. The Bonelli lands were over a mile from the Colorado River at the time of the 1905 original survey by the GLO. The river shown here is 

taken from a 1902 USGS survey map.

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET

N

Colorado Rive

r

State Line Per

1902 U.S.G.S. MAP

Meanders

Record

ARIZ ONA•NE VA D A

Sec.

4

Sec. 3 Sec. 2

Sec. 10

shack

shack

1902 Low Water Channel

shack

Bonelli

Lands

Description

Colorado River

Sec. 3

Sec. 10

Sec.

To NW cor. 4

Reservation

1905

Record

Meanders

N E VA D A

A R I Z O N A

Fo r t M o h a v e I n d i a n R e s e r v a t i o n B o u n d a r y

Figure 8-68. A 1928 GLO survey of the Fort Mojave Indian Reservation 

mapped the river at the Bonelli lands as an incident to that work.

Hoover Dam was being built about 75 miles upstream 

and closed the high flows in about 1935. Because sediment from further upstream was trapped by the dam, 

the bed below the dam began to erode and moved sediment to the Bonelli area. It was a common problem 

that normally causes deposition (aggradation) farther 

downstream.

To permit navigation and to solve the aggradation of 

sediments, the Bureau of Reclamation began design 

and construction of training walls (levees) in 1955 

(figure 8-69). Dredging then lowered the bed between 

the levees.

Navigational servitude allowed the Bureau of 

Reclamation to do this work in the river bed without 

compensation to the record land owners, the Bonelli 

Ranch.
240

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

What had been river bed in the disputed area was now 

dry and protected by the new levees (figure 8-70).

The State of Arizona, as owner of the east half of the 

river bed, claimed the newly protected area. The State 

claimed the area had been avulsed.

Bonelli brought suit in the local Court and a trial was 

held based on an agreed-upon set of facts as to how 

the river moved. The local Judge ruled that the land 

belonged to Bonelli as accretions. The State appealed.

A panel of Appellate Judges ruled (11 Ariz. App. 412 

(1970)) that under Arizona law if there was doubt as to 

accretion or avulsion, the presumption was that accretion occurred and affirmed Bonelli’s rights. The panel 

also accepted the Bonelli theory that the land had 

reemerged due to reliction.

Because the change had the aspect of being sudden and 

changing the course of the river the State appealed to 

the full Arizona Supreme Court.

Colorado River

Sec. 22

bank abandoned during channelization

Government.

by

Federal

A R I Z O N A

N E

VA

D A

U.S.

U.S.

U.S.

Sec. 2

Sec. 10

Sec.

3

(later sold to State of Nevada)

Indian Reservation Bdy.

T. 19 N., R. 22 W., G.&S.R.M.

Assuming that lands

accrete from point of

maximum erosion on

a line normal to the river.

T. 33 S., R. 66 E., M.D.M.

Figure 8-70. The remaining Federal lands adjacent to the Bonelli lands. If under Federal law a channelization was equivalent to accretion, the Federal 

lands would extend to the present river as shown. If equivalent to avulsion, the Federal lands would extend to the former ordinary high water mark under 

the same theory as the State’s.

Figure 8-69. After channelization in 1961, the river was confined to a 

relatively narrow alignment through the Bonelli lands.

Colorado River

Pre 1961 Indian Reservation Bdy.

Left

Bank

N E VA D A

A R I Z O N A

Sec. 3 Sec. 2

U.S.

Sec. 10

U.S.
241

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

The Arizona Supreme Court, at 107 Ariz. 465 (1971), 

proceeded to define the OHWM as having the same 

meaning as the ordinary high water line and to affirm 

that Arizona employs the vegetation and the agricultural uses test for determination of the OHWM. They 

also affirmed, at 108 Ariz. 258 (1972), that Arizona law 

follows California law in that any human-made change 

to a river fixes the boundaries of the State-owned beds. 

The opinion did not even address the avulsion issue but 

it stated that Arizona law equates channelization to an 

avulsion.

The State Lands Department still did not agree so it 

appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States.

Mixed with all the legal arguments the U.S. Supreme 

Court held that Federal law controlled this decision 

(later overruled by the Corvallis decision discussed 

below) and because of the limited interest of the State 

in the former riverbed, held the doctrine of accretion 

applicable to this suit between the State and a private 

riparian owner who is seeking title to surface land 

identifiable as part of his original parcel.

It also held that when the area was dried up there was 

no need for reserving the bed for navigation so the 

State should not get the disputed land that was just a 

windfall. Therefore, it said, the doctrine of avulsion 

should not apply to this situation because the channelization project was not undertaken to give the State 

title to the subject lands for the protection of navigation 

or related public goals. We can only read the outcome 

as the result of the confusion we described at the outset 

of this chapter over the purpose for which navigability 

is determined. The Court appears to have confused, 

or at least to have used, navigability for purposes of 

protecting navigation in a case involving navigability 

for title purposes.

The lower Courts were instructed to issue an order 

returning the land to the record owners—Bonelli had 

sold in the meantime.

As it stands, because of the later overruling in Corvallis

as to the application of State law, a channelization 

is treated as an avulsive change under Arizona law. 

What the law is in other States is best left up to the 

solicitors and attorneys, but there are these conflicting 

precedents.

The Court did not determine whether Federal law is 

to be applied in a suit between private landowners (or 

where the State claims title in some capacity other than 

Figure 8-71. Vicinity map.

NV

CA AZ

Sec. 2

Sec. 15

Sec. 22

Sec. 10

Sec.

3

N E VA D A

A R I Z O N A

Colorado

Riv

er

Arizona Hwy. 95

Indian Reservation Bdy.

T. 33 S., R. 66 E., M.D.M. T. 19 N., R. 22 W., G.&S.R.M.

Figure 8-72. Peterson owned the part of section 3 that remained from the 

Bonelli purchase.

as owner of the riverbed), the differing interests of the 

parties might require a holding that channelization 

should be treated as an avulsion.

As a Federal matter, however in a case with the same 

facts, Bonelli may still be the law because the Corvallis

decision did not completely reverse Bonelli. In a riverbed channelized in front of Federal lands of the United 

States, the doctrine of accretion as utilized in Bonelli

may be the rule.

Peterson v. Morton, 465 F.Supp. 986 (D.Nev. 1979), 

remanded by, vacated by, in part on other grounds

Peterson v. Watt, 666 F.2d 361 (9th Cir. Nev. 1982)

Blanche Peterson held a 

deed, which was based on 

a 1910 patent to the Santa 

Fe Railroad, to land on the 

Arizona side of the Colorado 

River. Movements of the river, 

erosion on the Arizona side 

and accretion on the Nevada 

side, eventually created land 

at the same geographic location as her Arizona deed but 

on the Nevada side of the river (figure 8-72). Peterson 

claimed that the river moved by a series of small but 

frequent avulsions rather than by erosion and accretion. 

She also claimed that these small avulsions fixed the 

boundaries at each event such that the now emerged 

Nevada land was still her land in Arizona.
242

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

This case is important because it is a relatively modern 

Federal case that rejected the claim that channel changes 

within the bed of a river were avulsions. Instead, the 

Court found that the river moved by the process of erosion and accretion.

The site of this controversy is nearly identical with the 

disputed lands in Bonelli v. United States, 414 U.S. 313 

(1973). In fact, the Petersons owned the balance of section 3 not owned by Bonelli.

The Trial Judge described these small avulsions as 

follows: 

This Court is persuaded, by a preponderance 

of the evidence, and finds that there were no 

avulsions of any significance between the chalk 

cliffs and Mojave Point between [dates] . . . . This 

Court excludes as not significant any and all 

avulsive movements of the river that may have 

occurred within the river’s modern ordinary 

high water marks, that is, within the bed of the 

river itself. (p. 995.) 

Accordingly, the Court ruled that the accretions had 

accrued to the riparian uplands owned by the United 

States and were now Federal lands within Nevada.

The chalk cliffs and Mojave Point were points up and 

down the river that defined the reach in question.

This decision was appealed on grounds other than the 

ruling on avulsion but, when modified, did not affect the 

holding on avulsion within the bed of a river (666 F.2d 

361 (1982)).

Gradual Changes and Boundaries 

(Case Studies)

8-108(n) through 8-157(n). The following case studies illustrate some of the various legal settings in 

which gradual changes in water boundaries is an issue. 

Surveyors need to be aware of these situations, which 

may affect their resurvey work.

Wallace v. Driver, 61 Ark. 429 (1896)

Driver owned upland along the Mississippi River in the 

State of Arkansas. Some of his upland had been eroded 

by the river but, after a 25-year interval, an island began 

to form in the location where his former holdings had 

been (figure 8-74). Wallace moved onto the island and 

Driver brought suit. A jury found that Wallace was 

unlawfully in possession; Wallace appealed.

This case is presented first so as to affirm that accretions 

must form against the claimant’s upland shores.

Driver owned the “N.W. fractional quarter section 30, in 

township 13 N., range 11 E., Mississippi County, State 

of Arkansas.” Originally there were 154 acres.

After a large part of Driver’s land “caved into the river” 

a chute formed along what remained of his upland and 

an island appeared on what would have been within his 

land description. At low water the chute was dry except 

for a few potholes but at high water the river ran through 

the chute.

The Appeals Court held that because the accretions did 

not form against the uplands held by Driver, that he did 

not own them. “All original lines submerged by the river 

have ceased to exist;” (p. 433).

Driver did not prove his claim of ownership so he lost. 

The Court did not examine Wallace’s right to occupy 

the island, nor the effect of the State line on the Court’s 

jurisdiction.

Figure 8-74. The Mississippi River from 1972 USGS maps at the location 

in question.

Sec.

19

Sec.

24

Sec.

25

Sec.

30

Sec.

36

T. 13 N.

State Line R. 10 E. Driver’s Uplan

d R. 11 E.

Sec.

31 T E N N E S S E E

A R K A N S A S

Mississippi River

Island

Figure 8-73. Vicinity map.

AR

TN
243

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-75. Vicinity map.

CA

NV

AZ

Figure 8-76. Colorado River positions at the Beaver claim from 1879 to 1917.

Beaver v. United States, 350 F.2d 4 (9th Cir. 1965), 

cert. denied, 383 U.S. 937 (1966)

R. A. Beaver and 

others claimed to own 

11.8 acres along the 

Colorado River needed 

by the Bureau of 

Reclamation for levee 

construction. Their claim 

was based on a 1914 patent for the land issued 

on the Arizona side of the river. The geographic location of the record description (in Arizona) was on the 

California side of the river because of river movements.

This case holds that accretion can be claimed only on 

the side of the river where the patented upland is located. 

It also holds that human-made changes that cause accretion to form do not void the claim for accretions.

One earlier trial had determined that the disputed 

land was created by accretion on the California side 

of the river and the proper jurisdiction for trial was in 

California. The trial was held in U.S. District Court in 

California.

A second earlier trial rejected Beaver’s theory that the 

land reemerged by the process of reemergence. The 

doctrine of reemergence is the reappearance of the same 

soil due to a withdrawal (reliction) of water or elevation 

of terrain. It is not the process of formation of a new 

feature in the same location of a previous feature; that 

process is accretion, to either the uplands or to the bed 

of the water body.

The trial court rejected Beaver’s theory that the 

Government induced the accretions and therefore could 

not claim them. Alternately Beaver claimed that there 

had been an avulsion. The trial courts also had found 

that the Government had at all times possessed full title 

to the tract and Beaver appealed.

There were several other allegations, that the 

Government should be estopped in this suit because of 

actions by Government employees and a color of title 

claim. Estopped is a condition where one is stopped or 

barred by law from alleging or denying a fact because 

of previous action, inaction, allegation or denial. It had 

nothing to do with the boundary problem.

The Appellate Court reviewed the trial exhibits and 

found that the Government had presented more than adequate evidence of land formation by accretion by means 

of a series of historical maps (figures 8-76 through 8-79). 

It held that: “The erecting of artificial structures does 

not alter the application of the accretion doctrine (citing County of St. Clair v. Lovingston), unless, perhaps, 

structures are erected for the specific purpose of causing the accretion.” (p. 11.)

The Court said that the Beavers equated the “land lost 

by erosion from the land on the Arizona side” with the 

“land gained by accretion on the California side” and:

Sec.

32

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

Trial exhibits sketches

T. 9 S.

1879

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec.

4

3 Sec.

3

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

3

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 9 S.

1914

Sec.

6

Sec.

5 Sec.

4

17 Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1915

Sec.

6

Sec.

5 Sec.

4

17Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

Sec. 20

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec. 36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1917

Sec.

6

Sec.

5 Sec.

4

Sec. 17 Sec. 16 Sec. 15

Sec. 22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20 Sec. 19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1905

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec.

4

17 Sec. 16 Sec. 15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec. 19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1902-03

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec.

4

Sec.

3
244

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Figure 8-78. Colorado River positions at the Beaver claim from 1932 

to 1972.

Figure 8-79. Composite of 1879, 1905, and 1961 river positions.

Sec.

5

Sec.

19

Sec.

20

C ALIF ORNIA

ARIZ ONA

Sec.

21

Sec.

22

Sec.

4

Sec.

3

1879 Right Bank

1905 Left Bank

1961

River

Sec.

Sec. 17 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1932

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

17 Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1942

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

17 Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1972

Sec.

6 Sec. 5

17 Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

Sec. 22

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Revetments

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

Cut Feb. 1936

1937

Sec.

6

Sec.

5 17 Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

Sec. 21

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

Figure 8-77. Colorado River positions at the Beaver claim from 1921 

to 1930.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1921

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1924

Sec.

6

Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1926

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec.

5

Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22 Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1922

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1923

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

Sec.

32

Sec.

33

Sec.

34

Sec.

35

Sec.

36

T. 8 S., R. 22 E., SBM

T. 9 S.

1930

Sec.

6

Sec.

5

Sec. 16

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

Sec.

21

Sec.

20

Sec.

19

C ALIF.

ARIZ.

17

17

17

17

17

17

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

T. 1 N., R. 24 W., G&SRM

Sec.

3

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

4

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

Sec.

3

Sec.

3
245

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

There is no ‘physical identity’ between the two 

areas of land, even though each is described 

as within the same section . . . . Accreted land 

comes from anywhere in the river above the 

accretion, grain by grain, and so gradually that 

tracing its source is theoretically impossible. 

If directly traceable, it more usually is evident 

that what occurred was the result of an avulsion 

process. (p. 11.)

The Beaver case affirms that, in Federal decisions at 

least, accretions must be claimed on the same side of 

the river as the upland holdings in the absence of any 

avulsion.

County of St. Clair v. Lovingston, 90 U.S. 46 (1874)

East St. Louis, a city in 

Illinois, is on the eastern (left) bank of the 

Mississippi. It has been an 

important rail center since 

the 1850s because of the 

shipping down the river as 

well as the gateway from 

the east to the larger city 

of St. Louis, Missouri, just 

across the river.

The land in question was formerly river bed that was 

dried up by a dike extending from the Illinois bank 

upstream to connect to Bloody Island. The island was 

so named because it was chosen by a number of hotheads who fought their duels on the island. The site was 

chosen for dueling because it was considered unclear 

whether Bloody Island was in the State of Missouri or 

Illinois and that fact would hinder any prosecution.

This is an important case for several reasons. It is usually cited by attorneys for its statement of a test for the 

accretion process as being slow and imperceptible. 

It also contains language of importance to surveyors 

that establishes the riparian nature of a boundary from 

words in the description of the boundary.

Changes in the Mississippi channel affecting steamboat landings in St. Louis began to occur in the 1790s. 

Bloody Island was just a sand bar then and the main 

channel was next to the St. Louis bank and was 75 feet 

deep.

By 1820 the changes were drastic. First it was snags—

the harbor area was full of them. Snagboats drew more 

water than regular steamboats so they couldn’t operate 

at low water. At high water they couldn’t find the snags. 

Only a few weeks a year—during medium flows—could 

the boats operate successfully.

Worse than the snags were the changes in the channels. In 1815 Duncan’s Island was a small bar near the 

mouth of Mill Creek. In 1820 it dominated the harbor 

area. By 1837 it was a 200 acre island with cottonwood 

trees and completely blocked part of the harbor area 

(figure 8-81).

The basic cause of these events was that the Mississippi 

was in the process of changing its main channel to run 

on the east side of Bloody Island. Such a change would 

make the villages such as Cahokia and Carondelet in 

Illinois the main shipping port rather than St. Louis.

Figure 8-80. Vicinity map.

MO

IL

Figure 8-81. St. Louis in 1837 from a map by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Mississippi River

0 1/2 1 1 1/2 MILES

N

Cahokia Creek

Proposed dikes

Bloody Island

Duncan’s Island

City of St. Louis
246

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

A dike was the obvious answer. It would force more 

water through the Missouri channel, scouring away 

both the snags and Duncan’s Island. Congress stepped 

in, sending a team from the Army Corps of Engineers 

to examine the problem.

The desired dike was designed and constructed by the 

Corps. Their map of the area showed the triangulation 

scheme as well as cross sections of the channel in 1837. 

The Corps was prevented from completion of construction by Illinois efforts to stop the work. The Illinois 

Legislature later approved the construction.

Lovingston was leasing land in Illinois claimed by the 

Wiggins Ferry Co. Wiggins Ferry ownership was based 

on United States Surveys 579 and 786 (figure 8-82).

The County of St. Clair, Illinois, was given a grant from 

the United States by Act of Congress of July 15, 1870, 

which read in part:

That the title of the United States to all lots, outlots, tracts, pieces, parcels, and strips of land in St. 

Clair County, State of Illinois, lying and situate 

outside of the United States surveys as noted in 

the field-notes of the United States surveyors, 

and on the Mississippi River near Surveys 766, 

624, and 579; and near and adjacent to fractional 

sections 1, 2, 11, and 12, township one north, 

range ten west, third principal meridian, be, 

and the same is hereby, confirmed and granted 

to said St. Clair County in said State: Provided, 

That nothing herein shall apply to the ancient 

French Commons in Said County.

The County claimed land that had accreted (or relicted 

because of the dike construction) in front of the uplands 

owned by Wiggins (figure 8-83). Its basis for claim was 

that the Wiggins’ land was Ager Limitus that is, bounded 

by a fixed description of boundaries from point to point. 

According to the County’s claim, only land bounded by 

the river could benefit from accretions, which would 

preclude Wiggins from doing so.

Lovingston and Wiggins claimed the accreted land by 

riparian right.

The Court accepted the case with two questions to be 

determined:

(1) Whether the river line was the original west 

boundary of the surveys, or of either of them? A 

mixed question of fact and law.

(2) If No. 1, above, is in the affirmative, to whom 

do the accretions belong? It was a question of 

fact.

Figure 8-83. From an 1878 map of East Louis, with disputed lands 

accented by a heavy shading.

Approx.

Disputed

Lands

Mississippi River

Sur.

766

Sur.

624

Sur.

579 N

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET

N

1843 Illinois

shore line

from

1818 GLO

Surveys

Sur.

766

Sur.

624

Sur.

579

Sur. 786

combined Nos.

579, 624 & 766

1818

Meanders

1843

banks

Bloody Islan

d

Former Illinois Sho

re

Old

Ferry

Landing

Head of

Duncan’s Island

City

o

f

S

aint L

o

uis

Mississippi

River

Figure 8-82. The GLO surveyed lots along the channel between Bloody 

Island and the Illinois bank as well as Bloody Island itself.
247

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Court records show that U.S. Survey 579 was described 

in part as:

Beginning on the bank of the Mississippi River, 

opposite to St. Louis, from which . . . [bearing 

tie] . . .; thence S. 5 West 160 Poles to a point 

in the river from which a sycamore 20 inches 

in diameter bears S. 85 E. 250 links, thence 

S. 85 E. 130 poles (at 30 poles a slash) to a point; 

thence N. 15 W. 170 poles to a forked elm on 

the bank of Cahokia Creek; thence N. 85 W. 70 

poles to the beginning.

The calls of U.S. Survey No. 786 are, in part, “Thence 

N. 85 degrees W. 174 poles, to a post on the bank of 

the Mississippi River, from which [tie omitted]; thence 

N. 5 degrees E. up the Mississippi River and binding 

therewith . . . .”

These two descriptions are plotted in figure 8-84.

The U.S. Supreme Court said that, as to Survey No. 579, 

there could be no reason for having the two corners on 

the river and having the line between them deflect from 

the river. The Opinion stated that there was no doubt 

but that the line intended was to be along the river.

As to Survey No. 786 the U.S. Supreme Court said, “The 

language ‘up the Mississippi River and binding thereon’ 

leaves no room for doubt. Discussion is unnecessary. It 

could not make the result clearer. The river must be held 

to have been the west boundary of this survey also.” 

(p. 66.)

The Court had previously cited some of the axioms of 

the land surveying profession:

It is a universal rule that course and distance 

yield to natural and ascertained objects.” 

(Preston’s Heirs v. Bowmar, 19 U.S. 580 (1821).) 

“A call for a natural object, as a river, a spring or 

even a marked line, will control both course and 

distance. (Newsom v. Pryor’s Lessee, 20 U.S. 7 

(1822) (p. 62).)

Artificial and natural objects called for, have the 

same effect. (Barclay v. Howell’s Lessee, 31 U.S. 

498 (1832); Baxter v. Evett’s Lessee, 7 Monroe 

333 (p. 62).)

Also:

Where a survey and patent show a river to be 

one of the boundaries of the tract, it is a legal 

deduction that there is no vacant land left for 

appropriation between the river and the river 

boundary of such tract. (Churchill v. Grundy, 5 

Dana 100 (p. 63).)

Where a deed calls for a corner standing on the 

bank of a creek, ‘thence down said creek with 

the meanders thereof,’ the boundary is the water 

edge at low water mark. (Lessee of McCullock 

v. Aten, 2 Ohio 307 (1826); Handly’s Lessee v. 

Anthony, 18 U.S. 374 (1820) (p. 63).)

(Other axioms and their citations were given other than 

are repeated here and served to settle question No. 1. The 

river was the boundary.)

As to the owner of the accretions in question No. 2, the 

Court held that the surveys were not in the “category of 

the agri limitati of the civil law” by which “[t]he increase 

by alluvion in such cases did not belong to the owner of 

the adjoining plat” (Wiggins, p. 66).

The Court’s definition of the test as to whether land 

formed slowly or not is much quoted: “The test as to 

what is gradual and imperceptible in the sense of the 

rule is, that though the witnesses may see from time to 

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET

N

Sur.

766

Sec. 12

Sec. Sec. 1

2

Sec.

11

Sur.

624

Sur. 626

Cahokia Creek

Mississippi River

Sur. 625

Sur.

579

Point of

Beginning

Forked Elm on

Bank of Cahokia Creek

Note: Survey 786 included

surs. 579, 624 & 766 Cor. point

in water

Figure 8-84. Corner monument descriptions in the field notes became the 

most important evidence of intent.
248

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

time that progress has been made, they could not perceive it while the process was going on.” (p. 68.)

Finally the Court stated that the United States never 

had any title to the strips of land along the U.S. Surveys 

and that nothing passed to the County by the Act of 

Congress relied upon by the County. The disputed 

accretions thus belonged to the upland owners Wiggins 

and Lovingston.

Islands (Case Studies)

8-158(n) through 8-164(n). The following case studies illustrate some of the various legal settings in which 

islands are an issue. Surveyors need to be aware of these 

situations, which may well affect their resurvey work.

Scott v. Lattig, 227 U.S. 229 (1913), rev’g, 17 Idaho 

506 (1910)

Title to a large island was at issue. 

The Idaho State Supreme Court 

had found that Poole Island in the 

Snake River between Idaho and 

Oregon had been “left out of” the 

1868 survey by the GLO. In the 

field notes there was no mention 

of an island adjacent to sections 

15 and 22 nor did the plat show an 

island (figure 8-86).

We study this case because it is 

a leading case for unsurveyed islands and because the 

State law in Idaho was that upland owners held title to 

the center of navigable streams.

Samuel Poole made an application and purchased lots 

2, 3 and 4 of section 15 by patent in 1894. About half of 

the island lay alongside the lots Poole owned. Poole had 

been living on the island since 1883 and continued to 

live there until the time of the trial in 1912.

Robert Green had occupied the southern portion of 

the island so he applied for and received a Homestead 

Patent for lots 1 and 2 of section 22 in 1895. One S. L. 

Sparks similarly owned the southern part of section 22.

John Scott, an employee of Poole, lived on the island a 

few years and then applied to the GLO to have the island 

surveyed as part of the public domain. (The request for 

the survey was one of the steps required in order to purchase an unsurveyed island from the Government.)

Figure 8-85. Vicinity 

map.

ID

Figure 8-86. A sketch from an 1868 GLO plat of T. 9 N., R. 5 W., Boise 

Meridian, Idaho.

Snake

River

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

Sec.

11

Sec.

14

Sec.

15

Sec.

Sec. 23

22

The island survey was subsequently ordered and was 

completed in 1906 (figure 8-87). Scott was later issued a 

patent to the island.

In the meantime Poole had sold his patented land to 

Lattig. Lattig, Green and Sparks sued Scott. The State 

trial court found that Lattig and his neighbors had owned 

the land along the bank for 20 years, had paid taxes on 

it, managed the island and controlled it. The Court also 

found that the main channel of the river was westward 

of the island and that Lattig and others were the owners 

of the island as part of their mainland holdings.

Scott appealed to the Idaho Supreme Court. The Idaho 

Court started out by saying that the grants of land were 

to be construed according to the laws of the State where 

the land was located. Accordingly, the Government’s 

grant to Scott would be construed by Idaho law.

Idaho law was that upland owners owned the beds of rivers to the center whether the river was navigable or not. 

The Court also said that the channel between the Idaho 

mainland and Poole Island was a high water channel or 

slough that was nonnavigable. 
249

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-87. A sketch from a 1906 GLO plat of Poole Island.

Sec.

15

Sec.

14

Sec.

23

Sec.

22

Snake

River

Lattig’s uplands

Poole Island

Figure 8-88. Poole Island from 1974 USGS mapping.

Sec.

15

Sec.

22

O R E G O N

I D A H O

Poole Island

Duncan’s

Island

Snake

River

Scott appealed to the Supreme Court of the United 

States. The U.S. Court held that the island was in 

existence at the time of the original survey and that it 

remained public land of the United States at the time of 

patents to Poole, Green and Sparks (figure 8-88).

The patent to Scott based on the 1906 island survey was 

thus found valid.

United States v. Hutchings, 252 F. 841 (D. Okla. 

1918), aff’d, Commissioners of Land Office of State 

of Oklahoma v. United States, 270 F. 110 (8th Cir. 

1920), appeal dismissed, 260 U.S. 753 (1922)

Title to the same 

island described in 

Commissioners on 

the Arkansas River in 

Oklahoma was at stake. 

The original surveys in 

1871 and 1872 showed 

the island but the GLO did not survey it as part of the 

Indian Reservation until 1908 (figure 8-90).

This case illustrates how facts may affect application of 

legal theories.

The United States claimed the island on behalf of the 

Osage Tribe of Indians and one Larry Nolegs. The State 

of Oklahoma claimed the island as a part of the bed of a 

navigable stream. Oil and gas leases were issued by the 

State to other defendants in this litigation.

The other defendants set up a defense that there really 

wasn’t any island at all because the original surveyors 

did not survey it for patent. Because they owned upland 

patents on the south bank they claimed the disputed 

Figure 8-89. Vicinity map.

OK

Figure 8-90. The disputed island from the original survey plats.

Sec.

24

Sec.

25

Sec.

30 River

Arkansas

R. 8 E.

R. 9 E.

Quoting Railroad Company v. Schurmeir, 74 U.S. 272 

(1869) and a number of U.S. Supreme Court Decisions, 

the Idaho Court affirmed the lower court’s judgment that 

the upland owner’s title went to the center of the Snake 

River and that the patent to Scott was not valid. There 

was, they said, no evidence that the island even existed 

at the time of the original survey, and it could have been 

a mere sandbar that later formed into an island.
250

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

area as accretions that passed with their titles. The other 

defendants also claimed that the reservation boundary 

was fixed by specified descriptions and acreage, that the 

description of the reservation boundary at the “main 

channel of the river” presented a question of fact as to 

which of two channels was the main channel and, further, that the allotment to Larry Nolegs was illegal.

The Government claimed the river was not navigable 

and that the Osage Tribe owned to the center of the river 

that at the time of the grant from the Government was 

located on the south side of the island.

Held: The Court ruled that the river was not navigable 

at the location of the island—that threw out the State’s 

claim, which was based entirely on navigability.

The Court said:

The assertion that the island had no existence at 

the date of original survey, commenced in 1871 

and finished in 1872, is wholly untenable, as it 

was indicated in the river by the plat and field 

notes, and its substantial formation is clearly 

established by the evidence. The island was not 

meandered or surveyed into lots, but the omission 

is unimportant, as the engineers generally did 

not survey islands in the Arkansas River; and the 

title would not be affected if the island had been 

entirely ignored. Scott v. Lattig, 227 U.S. 229 

(1913) and Moss v. Ramey, 239 U.S. 538 (1916). 

(p. 843.)

As to the channel question, the District Court said:

It was further contended by the same counsel 

that the Act of June 5, 1872, in bounding the 

reservation by the ‘main channel’ meant simply 

the ‘main branch’ of the river in the sense of 

the main Arkansas River. But the terms are 

not equivalent, as a ‘channel’ of a river is less 

comprehensive and means primarily its bed, 

while a ‘branch’ of a river may have two or more 

separate channels. The act clearly indicates a 

legislative intention to designate the main or 

principal channel as a boundary at places where 

this river had more than one channel, as, for 

example, where it divided about an island. In 

such case, the main channel and not the entire 

channel between the extreme shores was fixed, 

therefore, as the true boundary. Otherwise, the 

plain language of the act would not be given 

effect. (p. 844.)

If the boundary had been described merely as 

the Arkansas river, the division line between 

the riparian owners would be the middle of 

the stream; and, if that line had fallen upon 

the island, a division of the island would be 

required accordingly. Whitaker v. McBride, 

197 U.S. 510 (1905). But such was not the case, 

and the location of the main channel on June 

5, 1872, must be found in order to determine 

whether the channel was within or without the 

reservation. (p. 844.)

The District Court held that the southern channel was 

the main channel and confirmed the title of the Indian 

tribe (figure 8-91).

An analysis of the above paragraphs may be useful:

(1) The Act, referred to above, was the Act of 

Congress of June 5, 1872. The language of the 

Act says, “and the main channel of the Arkansas 

river for a southern and western boundary.” 

No clarifying terms appear elsewhere in the 

language of the act.

(2) The word “channel” can mean different 

things to different people. To a hydraulic 

Figure 8-91. A sketch from the 1935 GLO survey to comply with 270 F. 

110.

Sec. 30 O s a g e C o u n t y , O K

P a w n e e C o u n t y ,

O K

Turkey Island Orphan Annie

Island

Medial Line

Osage Nation
251

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

engineer the channel is the waterway crosssectional area that “can” be physically occupied 

by the river during a flood event. To a boat pilot 

it is the part of the flowing water to be used for 

navigation. To the Judge the channel meant the 

entire bed of the river on one side of an island or 

another—presumably at ordinary flows.

(3) The location of the main channel where 

one or more islands divide a river is a question 

of fact to be determined by measurements. 

While a bed on one side of an island may be 

the widest, the larger flow of water in cubic feet 

per second may flow through on the opposite 

side of the island. The Court here found that the 

southern channel was the widest and contained 

the “chief” flow at the time of the Act in 1872.

(4) The syllabus in Whitaker cited by the Court, 

reads as follows: “Where the government has 

surveyed and patented the lands up to the 

bank of a channel in which an unsurveyed 

island is situated, a patentee of the land on 

such bank, although his land may itself be an 

island surrounded by two channels of the river, 

has all the rights of a riparian owner in the 

channel lying opposite his banks, including the 

unsurveyed island if, as a riparian owner, he is 

entitled thereto by the laws of the State.”

(5) In Whitaker, the Court found, “that the 

Government, as original proprietor, has the right 

to survey and sell any lands, including islands in 

a river or other body of water; that if it omits to 

survey an island in a stream and refuses, when 

its attention is called to the matter, to make 

any survey thereof, no citizen can overrule the 

action of the Department, assume that the island 

ought to have been surveyed, and proceed to 

occupy it for the purposes of homestead or 

preemption entry. In such a case the rights of 

riparian proprietors are to be preferred to the 

claims of the settler (p. 516).

Wolff v. United States, 967 F.2d 222 (6th Cir. 1992), 

reh’g denied, 974 F.2d 702 (1992)

Olive Wheeler, 108 IBLA 296 (1989)

Huckleberry Island, approximately 0.9 acres in size 

located in Arbutus Lake in northern Michigan, was 

left unsurveyed by the GLO in 1839 and 1852. BLM 

surveyed the island in 1985 and filed a plat in 1986, 

claiming the island was public domain land. The island 

occupant protested the survey, 

claiming ownership stemming 

from a Federal railroad grant of 

the adjacent uplands that they 

ultimately purchased. The protest was dismissed by the BLM. 

Plaintiff appealed that decision 

to the IBLA, where the BLM’s 

decision was affirmed, Wheeler. 

The occupant sued in District 

Court and won in Wheeler v. United States., 770 F.Supp. 

1205 (W.D. Mich. 1991). The Government appealed.

This case contains an important deviation from previous court decisions on unsurveyed islands. The decision 

distinguishes between a number of previous decisions 

and so is useful for evaluating survey methods.

T. 26 N., R. 10 W., Michigan Meridian was first surveyed in 1839 but the survey was found to be defective 

so GLO resurveyed it in 1852. Neither of the two surveys surveyed or lotted the island in dispute that was left 

unsurveyed in section 9 (figure 8-93). In each case the 

Figure 8-92. Vicinity map.

MI

MI

Figure 8-93. Arbutus Lake from an 1888 GLO survey of T. 26 N., R. 10 

W., Michigan Meridian.

Sec. 4

Sec. 9

Sec. 16

Sec.

10

See

Detail

Island

Surveyed

in 1986
252

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

island was not surveyed consistent with GLO instructions at that time not to survey islands that were unsuitable for cultivation, and according to the trial court’s 

findings.

Section 9 was part of an indemnity selection by the 

State of Michigan to make up for shortage of a previous 

grant in aid of railroad construction.

The State conveyed section 9 to the railroad involved 

and the railroad subsequently sold to the occupant’s predecessors in title.

The occupants paid taxes on the island from 1921 and 

built a cabin.

In 1985 the BLM survey identified the island as Tract 

39. As stated previously, the filing of the plat in 1986, in 

its effect, claimed the island as Government land, which 

led to the litigation.

No claim of navigability or nonnavigability was made 

at District Court trial and it is important to know that, 

under Michigan law, upland owners are considered 

to own the beds of nonnavigable as well as navigable 

waters abutting their property.

The District Court Judge made lengthy comparisons 

with previous cases regarding islands, which are paraphrased here:

United States v. Mission Rock Co., 189 U.S. 391, 404 

(1903): The Court noted that that case involved tide 

waters whereas Huckleberry Island is in nontidal 

waters.

Whitaker v. McBride, 197 U.S. 510 (1905): The Court 

noted that in Whitaker the island was not surveyed 

according to instructions, in that no islands less than 21 

acres were to be surveyed but the island in dispute was 

22 acres in size. This Judge considered that the surveyor 

made a mistake in not surveying the Whitaker island.

Scott v. Lattig, 227 U.S. 229 (1913): The surveyor in the 

Scott case was under a duty to survey the large island but 

failed that duty. By implication, the Judge wrote, where 

the surveyor is under a duty to not survey an island, the 

Federal Government grants the State the authority to 

dispose of the island.

Hardin v. Jordan, 140 U.S. 371 (1891): The Court noted 

that, under Hardin, the riparian owner took title to the 

bed of the lake out to the middle of the lake and owned 

the bed subject to an easement of navigability.

Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad Co. v. Butler, 159 

U.S. 87 (1895): The Court noted that the surveyor did 

not survey the island because it was not of sufficient 

value to warrant survey as opposed to not surveying 

because it was unsuitable for cultivation.

Citing these and other cases, the District Court formulated a series of rules (p. 1208):

Rule: Where the government has not made any 

reservation in its grant, under the common law, 

a riparian owner on a navigable river cannot 

take title to islands in the river by way of his 

ownership of the riparian tract.

Rule: Where the government has not made any 

reservations in its grant, under the common law, 

a riparian owner on a lake, without regard to the 

lake’s navigability, takes title to any unsurveyed 

islands which fall within the area bounded by 

lines drawn from the edges of the riparian tract 

to the center of the lake.

Rule: Where an island was not surveyed 

because it did not appear to be of sufficient 

value to survey (and not because of mistake or 

fraud), without regard to the navigability of the 

water, the riparian owner cannot be divested of 

title to the island by way of a later survey.

Rule Title to islands in unsurveyed navigable, 

tidal waters remains in the United States, 

although ownership of the bed underlying those 

unsurveyed waters is determined according to 

state law.

Rule: Where the government chooses not to 

survey an island, by operation of common law 

a riparian owner’s title to that island is superior 

to anybody else’s title, except perhaps the 

government’s.

Rule: Where the United States fails to survey 

an island because the island is of no apparent 

value, title to the island passes to the riparian 

landholder.

Rule: Where an island is clearly in existence at 

the time of survey, and the surveyor had a duty 

to survey the island but was negligent in that 

duty, title to the island remains in the United 

States.
253

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, 967 F.2d 222, 

affirmed the District Court Decision in favor of Plaintiff 

Wolff who replaced Wheeler as plaintiff.

The Appeals Court held that grants for lands bounded 

on streams and other waters are to be construed as to 

their effect according to the law of the State in which 

the lands lie. It held that in United States v. ChandlerDunbar, 209 U.S. 447 (1908) and the Grand Rapids 

v. Butler, cases (both in Michigan) that a grant of the 

littoral land included an island and that was the 

Michigan Law.

The Appeals Court also considered the comparative area 

of the primary grant and area of the island. They held 

that a purchaser would not be likely to believe that a large 

island was included in the grant but that a small island 

would be considered part of the package. This suggested 

that the United States did not intend to retain the island.

In addition the Appeals Court considered that the 

long period between the surveys and the fact that the 

Government did not reserve an access to the lake—they 

patented the entire shoreline—as suggesting that there 

was no intent to retain the island.

Heretofore the Government has always considered that 

Federal law controlled the interpretation of grants of 

land until the title passed. After title passes it considers State law to control. The Government has also considered, in the past, that title to all unsurveyed islands 

remains in the Government in nonnavigable streams as 

well as navigable streams.

Because of these fundamental differences, this case 

is very significant in determining title to unsurveyed 

islands in the sixth circuit.

Koch v. United States, 824 F.Supp. 996 (D. Colo. 

1993), aff’d, 47 F.3d 1015 (10th Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 

516 U.S. 915 (1995)

Exxon Corp. v. Bureau of Land Management, 118 

IBLA 38 (1991)

In 1975 the United States 

began survey investigations on 22 land masses in 

the Colorado River near 

the town of Rifle, Colorado 

to determine if they were 

unsurveyed islands.

Nine unsurveyed island surveys were eventually accepted and were announced in 

the Federal Register for filing. Filing the surveys constitutes a Federal claim of ownership. Interested landowners protested the proposed findings. The Colorado 

State Director of the BLM dismissed the protests. 

That decision was then appealed and, after a hearing 

before an Administrative Law Judge, was reversed. The 

Government appealed to the Interior Board of Land 

Appeals. The IBLA reversed the Hearings Judge and 

declared the islands had been omitted from the original survey and remained the property of the Federal 

Government. Exxon Corp.

Koch and other upland owners brought suit in Federal 

Court.

The Colorado River, in this reach, was stipulated by 

both parties to be a nonnavigable river. The evidence 

developed that each island had at least one tree that age 

dated to a time before the original survey (meaning that 

the island was in existence at the time of survey). Each 

parcel was found to be above the OHWM of the river 

at the time of the original survey and at all times since.

This case is considered to be important because the 

Appeals Court’s Decision followed Wolff, above, 

and based their holding on an interpretation of the 

Government’s intent when the patents were issued. Prior 

to the Wolff decision nothing had been held to pass title 

by implication.

The Appeals Court found that the most important evidence of the Government’s intent was that the original 

surveyor’s approved field notes and plats are a part of 

the description of the lands granted and that they 

described the islands, respectively, as “a bar or low 

island,” a “long low island, overflowing and unfit for 

cultivation” and a “low overflowing island . . . bar or 

island.” The Court reasoned that the inclusion of these 

descriptions of the islands was highly persuasive of the 

Government’s intent to include the islands in the patents 

of the riparian lands.

Also, the Appeals Court held that the Federal 

Government’s intent to reserve the island was not 

clear because the Government did not expressly 

reserve the islands, they were of little value at the 

time of survey, that the Government did not reserve 

any access to them across the uplands, and that 

they had never been treated as public lands by the 

Government. Accordingly, the Court found the 

islands were included in the patents, State law is to be 

applied to decide ownership, and by Colorado law the 

islands passed to the adjacent owners.

CO

Figure 8-94. Vicinity map.
254

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

By Colorado law, plaintiffs Koch et al. were found to 

have title to the islands.

After making it clear this was not a case about title passing under the equal footing doctrine, the Appeals Court 

stated if the Federal Government intended to retain the 

islands as public land, then the islands remain the property of the United States. The Federal Government’s 

intention controls the disposition of land granted by 

Government patent; thus, the Federal Government is not 

bound by its mistakes.

From an earlier U.S. Supreme Court decision on a navigable river, regarding the Federal Government’s intent, 

and errors and mistakes by the original surveyor, it 

was held that the fact of islands left unsurveyed by the 

Federal Government by mistake provides evidence that 

the Government intended to retain the islands. Moss v. 

Ramey, 239 U.S. 538 (1916).

The parties stipulated that the Government did not 

originally survey the islands because they were of little 

value; the geographic positioning of the islands does not 

clearly show intent; the Government had patented all the 

area around the islands and had no access to the islands. 

The Court found no Government intent either to retain 

or to dispose of the islands. The Court did find that the 

record did not clearly reveal the Government’s intent 

and the patents were silent.

The Appeals Court also rejected the Government’s 

argument to subject the patents to the general rule 

of construction that any ambiguity in a grant is to be 

resolved favorably to a sovereign grantor; that nothing 

passes but what is conveyed in clear and explicit language. The Court citing the Supreme Court said that 

interpretive technique is not used when examining the 

effect of a patent on islands in adjacent nonnavigable 

waters, when the Government’s intention is ambiguous. 

Instead, it is to be taken the Government assented that 

the conveyance may be construed according to the law 

of the State in which the land lies. Oklahoma v. Texas, 

258 U.S. 574, 595 (1922).

The source of law question and analysis is different 

where the Government has never parted with title and 

its interest in the property continues, such as an Indian 

reservation. In those cases the title to the unsurveyed 

islands shall be decided by Federal law.

The Government still claims to own unsurveyed islands 

in nonnavigable streams. The Wolff and Koch cases are 

distinguishable from the usual situation on unsurveyed 

islands because the notations in the field notes described 

‘Parcel 9’ as a “bar or low islands”; ‘Parcel 10’—a “long 

low island, overflowing and unfit for cultivation”; ‘Parcel 

14’—a “low overflowing island”; ‘Parcel 20’—a “large 

island” and etc. The Appeals Court found these descriptions to imply that the Government intended the islands 

to pass with the title to the uplands. Although the Court 

held that the Government did not retain any access to 

the islands, such a reservation is nearly unheard of in 

the land disposals in the 1800s and the early 1900s. The 

Court further held that the Government’s intention controls the disposition of land granted by conveyance, thus 

if the island is not surveyed by reason of mistake, error 

or fraud, the Federal Government is not bound by its 

mistakes.

The ruling found that the question as to the extent of 

this Federal grant, that is, as to the limit of the land conveyed is necessarily a Federal question. Nevertheless, 

the 6th and 10th Federal Circuits has directed the surveyor to look to State law to resolve the dispute; otherwise unsurveyed islands follow the traditional approach.

The Island Rule (Case Studies)

8-165(n). The following case studies illustrate some of 

the various legal settings in which the island rule is an 

issue. Surveyors need to be aware of these situations, 

which may affect their resurvey work.

Commissioners of Land Office of State of Oklahoma 

v. United States, 270 F. 110 (8th Cir. 1920), appeal dismissed, 260 U.S. 753 (1922)

Ownership of a valuable 

island in an Oklahoma 

river was at stake. This 

is the same island at 

issue in United States v. 

Hutchings, 252 F. 841 (D. 

Okla. 1918). The island 

would belong to the Osage Indians if it was located in 

the north half of the river bed when the Reservation was 

established. This case is a leading case under Federal 

holdings on the island rule.

Commissioners of the Land Office of the State of 

Oklahoma claimed an island in the Arkansas River on 

the theory that the river was navigable at the date of statehood in 1907. The State further claimed that the island 

was part of the bed. Aligned with the State was a group 

of upland owners on the south bank of the river. That 

group claimed the island as part of their riparian rights.

Figure 8-95. Vicinity map.

OK
255

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-97. A sketch from the 1935 plat showing the oil wells near the 

disputed premises.

River

Arkansas

R. 8 E.

R. 9 

Sec.

E.

24

Sec.

25

Sec.

30

0 F 800 1600 2400 EET

N

Arkansas River

P a w n e e C o u n t y ,

O K

O s a g e C o u n t y ,

O K

Island

Note: Western half of island

not surveyed concurrently.

Indicates Oil

Well or Drilling

Osage Nation

Figure 8-96. The disputed island from the original survey plats.

Figure 8-98. A sketch from the GLO range line survey.

The township exteriors

survey noted the existence 

of an island between the banks 

or the Arkansas River but no

areas were returned.

There were indications that 

the main channel was on the 

south side of the island.

All this interest in the island was occasioned by the concentration of underground oil in the area.

At trial time the southern channel had largely filled in 

with sand and consisted of a few potholes such that the 

former island was attached to the southern bank.

The United States was defending the Osage Tribe of 

Indians and an allottee named Larry Nolegs. 

The U.S. theory was that the main channel of the river, 

at the time of the establishment of the Reservation, was 

south from the island such that the island was included 

in the Osage Reservation that was on the northern bank.

The trial court found that although the main channel 

was on the northern side of the river at the time of trial, 

it had been on the south side in 1872 (figures 8-96 and 

8-97). The trial court found for the United States and 

this appeal was taken.

The original survey of the range line noted the island 

location as a topographic item but the subdivisional 

surveys disregarded the island from areas returned (an 

unsurveyed island situation) (figure 8-98).

In 1908 the GLO resurveyed the Osage Reservation that 

lay on the northerly bank. This time the island was surveyed (meaning that areas were returned on the plats) 

and presumably included in the Reservation.

On appeal, both sides agreed that the south channel had 

gradually filled in and the flow gradually diverted to the 

north channel.

The Appeals Court said, in part:

The general rule on this subject is: (1) That 

where the thread of the main channel of the 

river is the boundary between two estates and 

it changes by the slow and natural process of 

accretion and reliction, the boundary follows the 

channel; (2) but, where it changes by the sudden 

and violent process of avulsion, the boundary 

remains where the main channel was at the time 

of the avulsion, subject always to such changes as 

may be wrought after the avulsion by accretion 

or erosion while the old channel is occupied by 

a running stream. Counsel rely upon the first 

clause of this rule. That Clause is applicable to 

and governs cases where the boundary line, the 

thread of the stream, by the slow and gradual 

processes of erosion and accretion creep across 

the intervening space between its old and 

new location. To this rule, however, there is a 

well-established and rational exception. It is 

that, where a river changes its main channel, 

not by excavating, passing over, and then filling 
256

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

the intervening place between its old and its 

new main channel, but by flowing around this 

intervening land, which never becomes in the 

meantime its main channel, and the change 

from the old to the new main channel is wrought 

during many years by the gradual or occasional 

increase from year to year of the proportion of 

the waters of the river passing over the course 

which eventually becomes the new main 

channel, and the decrease from year to year of 

the proportion of its waters passing through the 

old main channel until the greater part of its 

waters flow through the new main channel, the 

boundary line between the estates remains in 

the old channel subject to such changes in that 

channel as are wrought by erosion or accretion 

while the water in it remains a running stream. 

(p. 113.)

The Court found for the United States saying that the 

“island never became an accretion to the lands of the 

owners of the south bank of the river.” (p. 114.)

The important point is that the boundary in the old 

channel accretes and erodes until the flow ceases. The 

Supreme Court stated the same thing in Arkansas v. 

Tennessee, 246 U.S. 158 (1918).

Following the Decision in 1920, the GLO surveyed a 

portion of the disputed island. They first surveyed the 

part that was in Township 8 North, Range 9 East. The 

1936 Art Brown GLO Survey was made at the request 

of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Clark Gumm, 

Cadastral Engineer of BLM, surveyed the rest of the 

island in 1952 (figures 8-99 through 8-101).

Sec. 30 O s a g e C o u n t y , O K

P a w n e e C o u n t y ,

O K

Turkey Island Orphan Annie

Island

Medial Line

Osage Nation

Turkey Island

Sec. 25

Arkansas River

Figure 8-100. A 1952 BLM survey shows additional islands.

Figure 8-101. A sketch from the 1935 GLO survey to comply with 270 F. 

110.

Sec.

25

Sec.

30

Osage Junction

Sec.

24

R. 8 E.

R. 9 

Sec.

E.

23

Arkansas River

Figure 8-99. The disputed island as shown on a 1908 GLO survey.

St. Louis v. Rutz, 138 U.S. 226 (1891)

The case began as Rutz v. Seeger, 35 F. 188, in Circuit 

Court of the Southern District of Illinois, decided 

February 11, 1888. Rutz had bought his land from 

one August A. Blumenthal, who had acquired it in 
257

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-102. Vicinity map.

IL

MO

Figure 8-103. In about 1850, the Blumenthal and Rutz property was a 

long narrow strip that fronted on the Mississippi River.

0 2000 4000 6000 FEET

Mississippi River

St. Louis, MO

Blumenthal & Rutz

Cahokia

Prairie duPont, IL

U. S. Arsenal

Prairie duPont Creek

N

Arsenal or

Quarantine

Island

Figure 8-104. Quarantine Island in 1853. Compare the relationship to the 

U.S. Arsenal as shown in figures 8-105 and 8-106.

Mississippi Rive

Quar

r

antine Island

Sec. 35

Sec. 2

Sec. 3

U. S. Arsenal

Figure 8-105. The 1862 Hutawa map shows that the island had eroded 

on the upstream end and accreted on the downstream end. In addition, 

the Mississippi River had eroded the east bank.

Figure 8-106. The record location of the Rutz property at the time of trial 

extended onto the new location of Arsenal Island.

0 2000 4000 6000 FEET

Mississippi

River

Village of

Cahokia

Arsenal

Island sand bar

U. S. Arsenal

Railroad

N

0 3000 6000 9000 FEET

Edward Rutz & Co.

Cahokia

Bluffs

U. S. Arsenal

Arsenal

Island

in 1881

N

East

Carondelet

Mississippi River

1849. At the time of 

Blumenthal’s purchases, 

the land was bounded 

by the Mississippi River 

on the narrow end of the 

tract (figure 8-103). This 

case is cited in nearly all 

briefs on water boundary 

litigation.

The tract, as surveyed, 

extended from the 

Mississippi River to the bluffs above the valley on the 

Illinois side, left bank, and was relatively long and narrow (figure 8-104).

Rutz’s deed also included rights to an accretion or sand 

bar lying northwesterly of the described lands (figures 

8-105 and 8-106).

The trial court found that there was “no dry ground 

formed in the Mississippi river in the year 1850, in front 

of the water’s edge, as it then existed, opposite to the 

said land of the said Blumenthal, on the main shore.” 

(p. 190.)
258

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

land which he obtained from Blumenthal—hence the 

litigation.

The Circuit Court found for Rutz, as well as the subsequent appeal (35 Fed. 188 (C.C.D. Ill. 1888)).

On appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, the City of St. 

Louis claimed that Rutz’s title did not include the bed 

of the river—that it was fixed by a description—and that 

the water line was their island’s boundary no matter 

how far it shifted.

The Supreme Court held, first, that the State of Illinois 

had granted upland owners title to the bed of the river 

and that Blumenthal’s deed gave calls to points to 

the low water mark and that the words “down to the 

extended line between surveys 156 and 157” properly 

meant down the river to the extended line (p. 243).

Next the Supreme Court held that, as riparian proprietor 

whose title includes the bed of the river, Rutz owned the 

land formed on the bed. 

It also stated that the boundary between Missouri and 

Illinois was the “middle of the main channel,” i.e. on 

the west side of the island, and that Arsenal Island was 

an island in Illinois not Missouri (figure 8-107). They 

In short, there was no island in front of his land at that 

time.

Also related to this case is Quarantine Island, which was 

used by the City of St. Louis, Missouri, for confining quarantine cases—hence the name. Because the U.S. Arsenal 

was nearby and the U.S. interest in the island, it became 

known as Arsenal Island at a later time. At low water the 

island would become joined to the Missouri shore.

Back in the year 1853 the City of St. Louis had acquired 

record title to part of Arsenal Island and leased it to 

Seeger who brought the original suit.

During periods of high water, erosion occurred on the 

upstream end of Quarantine (Arsenal) Island. Deposits 

of silt and even the gravels from the upstream erosion of 

the island itself formed on the downstream end of this 

island.

The complaint in the trial alleged that dikes built on 

the western shore of the mainland had deflected the 

current such that Blumenthal’s land (later to become 

Rutz’s land) had been washed away in chunks 10 to 

15 feet wide. In 1872 Blumenthal began to disassemble 

his house because of the river’s invasion. The river carried away part of the foundation eventually.

Thus we have an island eroding on the upstream end and 

depositing on the downstream end and at the same time 

the western channel of the river is widening in relation 

to the Illinois channel.

This situation continued until, finally, the main flow of 

the Mississippi was on the other, or western, side of the 

island and the position of the island was now over a mile 

downstream from its original location.

In 1876 the Government built a dike from the Illinois 

shore to Arsenal Island “about 60 rods northerly of 

Rutz’s land.” Also, in 1878 the Government built a dam 

above the dike from a point near the head of the island 

to the shore and from that time the flow was nearly 

stopped in the Illinois channel.

The Illinois channel eventually silted up below the dike 

by deposits from the river so that it was dry land by 1884.

Seeger claimed his lease of part of Arsenal Island was 

valid in spite of the movement downstream to its new 

position.

The above changes in the island now placed Mr. Seeger’s 

lease from the City of St. Louis in conflict with Rutz’s 

Figure 8-107. Composite map from 1974 USGS mapping. Arsenal Island 

is now part of the Illinois shore.

0 3000 6000 9000 FEET

N

Mississippi River

Edward Rutz & Co

Old

U. S.

Arsenal

East

St. Louis

St. Louis

MISSOURI

ILLINOIS

Bluffs

Bluffs

Old Prairie

Du Pont Creek

Arsenal Island
259

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

carefully excluded the situation where the river changes 

its main channel because the title would not change, 

according to the island rule. This was accomplished by 

saying that the Arsenal Island was only a moving mass 

of soil and not an island!

Finally the U.S. Supreme Court stated that, “The right of 

accretion to an island in the river cannot be so extended 

lengthwise of the river as to exclude riparian proprietors 

above or below such island from access to the river, as 

riparian proprietors. Mulry v. Norton, 100 N.Y. 424, 436, 

437.” (1885) (p. 250).

Houston v. Thomas, 937 F.2d 247 (5th Cir. 1991)

Louisiana v. Mississippi, No. 121 Original; 506 U.S. 

73 (1992), 516 U.S. 22 (1995)

Houston claimed ownership of land attached to 

the Louisiana bank of the 

Mississippi River based 

on an 1881 GLO patent 

to Island No. 94, T. 11 N., 

R. 9 W., Choctaw Meridian, 

Mississippi.

Thomas and other Louisiana owners claimed the disputed land as accretions to their property.

We study this case because the fact situation is quite 

similar to the facts presented over 100 years earlier in 

St. Louis v. Rutz, 138 U.S. 226 (1891), above. History 

really does repeat itself.

The boundary between Louisiana and Mississippi is the 

thalweg of the Mississippi River.

Island No. 94, also known as Stack Island, was relatively near the Mississippi bank at the time of the original survey and the location of the thalweg was an issue 

(figure 8-109). If the State boundary thalweg had always 

been located to the west of the island, the case could be 

resolved by the Federal District Court in Mississippi. If 

not, the case should be tried in Federal District Court 

in Louisiana. The States of Mississippi and Louisiana 

thus became involved in the dispute.

Houston and the State of Mississippi claimed that the 

State boundary was properly determined in the original 

1881 survey and remained west of the island. Further, 

when the channel to the east widened and became the 

main channel, the ownership remained fixed according to the island rule. Thus, even though the disputed 

lands are attached to the Louisiana bank at low water, 

Mississippi claimed them. There was testimony that 

Mississippi had exercised some criminal jurisdiction 

over on the Louisiana side.

Thomas and the State of Louisiana presented evidence 

to show that the main channel of navigation was originally to the east of the island. An avulsion switched the 

main channel to the west of the island but a second avulsion switched the channel back to the east of the island. 

These and other changes, Louisiana claimed, eroded 

the original Stack Island. Along with the erosion, fragments of islands were claimed to form as accretions to 

the upland and the Louisiana-owned riverbed.

Figure 8-108. Vicinity map.

Figure 8-109. Stack Island is claimed to have moved from the Mississippi side of the river to the Louisiana bank. The 1955 position is approximate.

LA

N N N

1883 1932 1955

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

LOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

Lake

Providence

Lake

Providence

Lake

Providence

Disputed

Lands

Mississippi

River

Stack

Island
260

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

The trial court found that the disputed lands are presently located in Mississippi as result of an avulsive shift 

in the thalweg.

The State of Louisiana appealed. Louisiana also disputed the claim that Mississippi had exercised dominion over the disputed areas. The State of Louisiana 

requested the United States Supreme Court to take 

jurisdiction as an original action between the two 

States, but the request was denied because there were 

private parties on each side seeking a ruling.

The Court of Appeals examined the conflicting evidence and ruled that the trial court relied primarily on 

Mississippi’s witness who had disregarded conclusive 

evidence in reaching his conclusions. The conclusive 

evidence he ignored was described as a hydrographic 

survey of the channel bottom that indicated depths 

adequate for navigation. Instead, the witness relied on 

shoreline survey information that did not show depths 

at all.

The Appeals Court reversed and awarded the disputed 

lands to the Louisiana owners.

The State of Mississippi sought Certiorari to the U.S. 

Supreme Court, which was granted (Mississippi v. 

Louisiana, 503 U.S. 935 (1992)).

In the meantime, all of the Louisiana owners deeded 

their lands and interest in the litigation to the State of 

Louisiana.

In December of 1992 the U.S. Supreme Court reversed 

the Court of Appeals, ruling that the boundary between 

the two States must be tried in the U.S. Supreme Court 

that has original jurisdiction in such matters. As to the 

title of the owners on each side of the river, the Court 

remanded the dispute for further proceedings on the factual issues (Mississippi v. Louisiana, 506 U.S. 73 (1992)).

In 1995 the Supreme Court ruled for Mississippi as the 

Court adopted the Special Master’s opinion that the land 

once was an island in Mississippi known as Stack Island 

and that it therefore is part of Mississippi (Louisiana v. 

Mississippi, 516 U.S. 22 (1995)).

Port of Portland v. Island in the Columbia River, 

479 F.2d 549 (9th Cir. 1973)

Sand Island formed in the Columbia River at a time 

after the boundary between the States of Washington 

and Oregon was fixed by Congress at statehood. The 

island first appeared on navigation charts as shoal water 

and as a sand bar. At the time 

of trial the island was used for 

recreation and as a source of 

sand and gravel (figure 8-111). 

It was flooded at high water.

Port of Portland is a Municipal 

Corporation that received a 

deed from the State of Oregon 

for the disputed land in 1970.

The name of the case indicates that the Port Authority 

started out to condemn the land. The defendants in the 

case held deeds from the State of Washington dating 

from 1929. The State of Washington also claimed the 

mineral rights under the island that they reserved in the 

1929 deed.

Ownership of the island depended upon the location of 

the boundary between the two States at the time they 

were admitted to the Union. We study the case for that 

reason.

Congress described the boundary, in part, as follows: 

“[T]hence easterly, to and up the middle channel of said 

river, [the Columbia] and, where it is divided by islands, 

up the middle of the widest channel thereof, to a point 

near Fort Walla-Walla . . . .” 11 Stat. 383.

In a previous dispute between Oregon and Washington 

the U.S. Supreme Court had defined the “widest channel” saying that the term did not mean the broadest 

expanse of water. Rather, it was the widest waterway 

that could be used by vessels in the river.

The navigational charts indicated that the “widest channel” had always been between the Washington bank and 

the island although everyone agreed that the shipping 

had used the channel between Sand and Government 

Islands for a few years in the late 1920s.

The State of Washington issued its deeds at a time when 

the shipping channel was on the Oregon side of Sand 

Island under a thalweg theory.

The Trial Judge said that because the widest channel was 

on the north side of the island and because Congress had 

intended that channel to be the boundary, he would rule 

in favor of the Port of Portland. He held that the thalweg 

rule had no application to the ownership of the island 

and Washington’s deed was issued by mistake.

Figure 8-110. Vicinity map

WA

OR
261

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

On appeal, the Appellate Court held that the “widest 

channel” test did not apply where the island in question was not present at the time the State boundary was 

described.

The Court also said:

If the island is formed by gradual deposits in 

midstream, it is equally well settled under the 

common law that the island belongs to the 

owner of the river bed in the place where the 

island arose. If the river is the boundary between 

two states the island would belong to the state on 

whose side of the middle of the main channel it 

was formed. (p. 552.)

Note that this holding does not divide the island at the 

boundary between the two States but instead presumes 

that the island arose in only one State and that accretions then formed to that island.

Georgia v. South Carolina, No. 16 Original; 257 U.S. 

516 (1922)

By agreement, the boundary 

between Georgia and South 

Carolina was to be at the middle 

of the Savannah River regardless of the navigation channel. 

South Carolina insisted that 

the low water line on the southern or Georgia shore was the 

true boundary. South Carolina 

acknowledged, however, that the middle line could be 

used where there were no islands.

Georgia maintained that the middle of the channel 

should be used for the boundary as determined at the 

ordinary stage of the water rather than at low water 

position.

Figure 8-111. Sand Island as shown on USGS mapping. The island was regularly submerged during high water events.

Figure 8-112. Vicinity map.

GA

SC

Portland International Airport

Lemon Island

Government Island

Sand Island

Columbia River

Terminal

Entrance Road

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET

N

WA SHING T O N

ORE G O N
262

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

meandered lake occupying the greater part of sections 

22 and 27, and extending a short distance into section 

26. The field notes of the line between sections 26 and 

27 call for an intersection with the southeast side of 

“Sunk Lake,” here classed as impassable and navigable. 

The surrounding fractional subdivisions as surveyed 

were all patented to the State under the provisions of the 

swamp land grant.

The case originated on the report of the removal of timber from portions of the area under the color of title 

arising through the ownership of the adjoining land. 

The report indicated that practically all of the area was 

high, dry land, covered with a growth of large timber, 

with no difference in the character of the land from that 

included in the original subdivision. The topography, 

elevation, and timber all revealed little if any change 

since the date of the subdivision of the township.

The greater part of the excluded area was found to be 

covered with various species of oak, maple, cottonwood, 

hickory, sycamore, hackberry, cypress, and willow. 

Many of the trees were of great age, 300 years or more, 

and many of them indicated strictly upland site conditions. The area was found to be level land, at about the 

same elevation and in some places higher than the surrounding lands, though there was evidence of what had 

been a slough along parts of the edge of the so-called 

lake (figure 8-114).

By decision dated November 30, 1909, bearing departmental approval, the Commissioner of the GLO held 

that the area, 853.25 acres, was not a navigable lake on 

June 15, 1836, the date when Arkansas was admitted 

into the Union, nor in 1841 at the date of the subdivision 

of the township. As the land was in place at that period 

and was not permanently covered by water, it was part 

of the public domain, and title had not passed from the 

Government.

On November 5, 1917, the Supreme Court announced 

an opinion (Lee Wilson & Company v. United States) 

denying the merits of the riparian claims to the area 

within the meander line of the so-called lake, restating 

two legal propositions held indisputable because settled 

by previous decisions:

There was another question of control of islands and 

whether the low or the ordinary water line should be 

used for determination of the boundary where islands 

were present. The dispute should have been settled by a 

Treaty signed in 1787 by Commissioners from the two 

States.

The Court pointed to South Carolina’s acknowledgment that the middle line could be used and that the 

South Carolina General Assembly repeated the phrase 

“middle of the river” when adopting the treaty of 1787.

The use of the south Georgia bank at low water was 

thus ruled out where no islands existed.

Under previous Supreme Court Decisions and international law where a navigable channel is not involved, 

each State’s jurisdiction extends to the middle of the 

stream.

The river was admittedly navigable in this area but the 

middle had been agreed upon in 1787 and each State 

was to have equal rights to navigation.

The Court held that where there are no islands in the 

boundary rivers, the location of the line between the 

two States is on the water midway between the main 

banks of the river when the water is at ordinary stage. 

The decision also defined the boundary when it passed 

between an island and the South Carolina shore in a 

similar manner and decided on the island ownership.

Erroneously Omitted Lands (Case Studies)

8-166(n) through 8-178(n). The following case studies illustrate some of the various legal settings in which 

erroneously omitted lands are an issue. Surveyors need 

to be aware of these situations, which may affect their 

resurvey work.

Lee Wilson and Company v. United States, 245 U.S. 

24 (1917), aff’g, 227 F. 630 (8th Cir. 1915), aff’g, United 

States v. Lee Wilson and Company, 214 F. 630 (E.D. 

Ark. 1914)

Arkansas Sunk Lands, 37 Pub. Lands Dec. 345 

(1908), Arkansas Sunk Lands (On Review), 37 Pub. 

Lands Dec. 462 (1909)

Nonexistent Moon Lake

The plat of T. 12 N., R. 9 E., Fifth Principal Meridian, 

Arkansas, approved October 27, 1845, shows a 

Figure 8-113. Vicinity map.

AR

TN
263

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-114. The nonexistent “Moon Lake.”

79.5

9

(19.90) 14.41

S.89°49’W.

S.89°47’W. 67.10

(11.18) (20.07) (20.07) (15.78)

79.84

N.0°01’E.

N.0°18’W. 40.2

0 N.0°18’W. 39.9

3

S.89°45’W. 4.25

(5.48)

2.50

 N. 89°45’ E.

 8.89 40.2

6

N.0°01’E.

39.9

2

N.0°13’W.

80.1

2

N.0°01’W.

37.30

S.89°22’W.

80.03

Sec. 26

17. 80

Sec. 27

346. 60

Sec. 22

488. 85

4 40 40

39.30

5

32.15

7

31.20

6

31.95

8

19.05 9

31.75

1

36.80

1

17.80

1

8

7

5 6

4

3

2

1

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4 3

2

1

2

3

9

3

46.40

6

21.55

5

36.20

4

28.45

2

17.20

80

80

80

40 40

3

19.00

2

25.20

1

19.25
264

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

First. Where, in a survey of the public domain 

a body of water or lake is found to exist and 

is meandered, the result of such meander is to 

exclude the area from the survey and to cause 

it as thus separated to become subject to the 

riparian rights of the respective owners abutting 

on the meander line in accordance with the 

laws of the several States. Hardin v. Jordan, 

140 U.S. 371 (1891); Kean v. Calumet Canal 

Co., 190 U.S. 452 (1903); Hardin v. Shedd, 190 

U.S. 508 (1903).

Second. But where upon the assumption of the 

existence of a body of water or lake a meander 

line is through fraud or error mistakenly run 

because there is no such body of water, riparian 

rights do not attach because in the nature of 

things the condition upon which they depend 

does not exist and upon the discovery of the 

mistake it is within the power of the Land 

Department of the United States to deal with 

the area which was excluded from the survey, to 

cause it to be surveyed and to lawfully dispose 

of it. Niles v. Cedar Point Club, 175 U.S. 

300 (1899); French-Glenn Live Stock Co. v. 

Springer, 185 U.S. 47 (1902); Security Land & 

Exploration Co. v. Burns, 193 U.S. 167 (1904); 

Chapman & Dewey Lumber Co. v. St. Francis 

Levee District, 232 U.S. 186 (1914).

Other important points in this and similar cases are 

found summarized in the syllabus to the Lee Wilson

decision:

If, in the making of a survey of public lands, an 

area is through fraud or mistake meandered as 

a body of water or lake where no such body of 

water exists, riparian rights do not accrue to the 

surrounding lands, and the Land Department, 

upon discovering the error, has power to deal 

with the meandered area, to cause it to be 

surveyed, and lawfully to dispose of it.

The fact that its administrative officers, before 

discovery of the error, have treated such a 

meandered tract as subjected to the riparian 

rights of abutting owners, under the State laws, 

and consequently as not subject to disposal 

under the laws of the United States, cannot 

estop the United States from asserting its title in 

a controversy with an abutting owner; and even 

as against such an owner, who acquired his 

property before the mistake was discovered and 

in reliance upon such actions and representations 

of federal officers carrying assurance that such 

riparian rights existed, the United States may 

equitably correct the mistake and protect its 

title to the meandered land. The equities of the 

abutting owner, if any, in such circumstances, 

are not cognizable judicially, but should be 

addressed to the legislative department of the 

government.

The Swamp Land Act of September 28, 1850, 

c. 84, 9 Stat. 519, did not convey land of its own 

force, without survey, selection or patent.

The surveying in the Moon Lake case consisted of a 

retracement of the boundaries of the several sections, a 

restoration of the obliterated corners, a remonumentation of all of the corners, a retracement of the record 

meander line with monumentation of the angle points, 

and a completion of the fractional section lines.

Jeems Bayou Fishing and Hunting Club v. United 

States, 260 U.S. 561 (1923), aff’g, 274 F. 18 (5th Cir. 

1921)

State of Louisiana, 47 Pub. Lands Dec. 366 (1920)

Erroneously Meandered 

Ferry Lake

Ferry Lake is one of the 

lakes formed by the “Great 

Raft” of the Red River. The 

“Great Raft” was a complex 

series of logjams which 

probably began to form in 

the 15th century. Over a long 

period of time the raft moved upstream as the lower 

end decayed and additional material lodged against the 

upper end. As the raft moved, it blocked off tributaries 

and forced the main river into new channels. Numerous 

lakes and bayous were formed which extended almost 

to the Arkansas-Louisiana State line. Ferry Lake was 

formed near the close of the 18th century. It was a permanent, navigable body of water in 1812 when Louisiana 

was admitted into the Union (figure 8-116). Because the 

“Great Raft” was a hindrance to navigation and transportation, Congress provided funds by the Act of May 

23, 1828, to remove it. Clearing the river was a slow 

process, and the removal of the “Great Raft” was not 

completed until 1873. Most of the lakes were thereby 

artificially lowered or drained, and the State retained 

the uncovered portions of the beds. Only lands above 

Figure 8-115. Vicinity map.

LA
265

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-116. The contour representing the ordinary high water mark of Ferry Lake in 1812, when Louisiana was admitted into the Union, and in 1839, 

when the township was subdivided, is shown thus:

10.57 (20.14) (20.14)

(20.14) (19.43) 24.02

0.70

16.01 40.03

39.9

9 9.00

West 63.00

66.29 111.21

28.33 23.84

23.00 40.00

N.89°30’W. 80.06

S.0°48’W. 48.9

9

39.365 3

9.36

5

S.0°30’W. 78.7

3

N.89° 30’W. 50.85

S.0°35’W. 39.5

7

(20.00)

40.7

0

(20.00)

Sout

h Sout

11.38

17.33 h

West

20.00 11.51

East 34.51

3.

00

15.61 24.67

Sec. 10

Sec. 15

Sec. 9

Sec. 16

Sec. 4 Sec. 3

7

40.20

6

25.99

4

2

4

2

1

1

2

5

3

1

6

35.71

1

28.33

2

15.75 1

8.09

9

6.20

12

11

10

10 11

12

7

6

5

4

3

2

8 9

13

14 15

16

8

38.82

5

30.58

3

1839

1871

1917
266

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

the OHWM before reliction were considered in determining if there had been an erroneous omission from 

the original survey. Location of the OHWM was one of 

the complications of the case.

The plat of T. 20 N., R. 16 W., Louisiana Meridian, 

Louisiana, approved August 31, 1839, shows the north 

boundary of the township discontinued on the bank of 

Ferry Lake (now Caddo Lake). The line between sections 10 and 11, in harmony with the remaining subdivisions, was discontinued on the lake bank, but the line 

between sections 3 and 10, instead of being extended 

to the main lake front was stopped on an arm or bay 

of the lake. The meander line through section 3 could 

be and was run with reasonable conformity, but in section 10, owing to the failure to extend the northern 

section boundary to the main lake front, there was no 

possibility of running a true meander line. Excepting 

the end courses, the record line, as developed, bears no 

proper relation to the bank as it existed at the time of 

the survey.

The plat of fractional sections 4, 9, and 10 of the same 

township, approved August 18, 1871, represents an 

extension of the lines between sections 3 and 10, and 

between sections 4 and 9, to the main lake front. The 

corner of sections 3, 4, 9, and 10 was established in this 

survey, as was a meander corner on the west side of a 

narrow bayou, which drains out of the north part of 

section 9; but again, for no apparent reason, in running 

south on the line between sections 9 and 10 the survey 

was terminated at a point more than 3,400 feet north of 

the bank of Ferry Lake. A part of the meander courses 

in sections 4 and 9 were actually run, but the remaining courses, particularly those that connected with the 

terminal point on the line between sections 9 and 10, 

were merely a traverse line through the woods, though 

represented in the field notes and shown on the plat to 

be the bank of the lake.

Following the discovery of oil and gas, mineral applications were filed with the Department in 1909 and 

1910. The locations covered not only the omitted area 

but the bed of the lake. It was alleged that large errors 

had been made in running the meander lines, that the 

lake was merely a temporary body of water, and that 

it had not been navigable in 1812 when Louisiana was 

admitted to the Union. By 1910 all of the fractional lots 

adjoining the omitted area had been disposed of by the 

United States.

The report of the field investigation covered the historical data, the geology of the lake basin, an examination 

of the forest trees, and the surveying situation. It was 

concluded that Ferry Lake existed as a navigable body 

of water in 1812, though there had been a marked 

recession of the lake by 1910; and that in neither of the 

surveys of 1839 and 1871 had the lake been correctly 

meandered in sections 9 and 10, either as it was at the 

dates of the surveys or as it was in 1812.

The soil, topography, and timber on the omitted area 

were the same as found on the surveyed land. Along 

most of the meander line there was no indication of 

there ever having been a lake bank or water-washed 

escarpment of any kind.

The forest growth on the omitted land included overcup 

oak, sweet gum, and red gum on the lower levels, and 

on the higher levels post oak, blackjack oak, Spanish 

oak, hickory, pine, and other varieties, many of them of 

great age, and clearly the descendants of a mixed forest 

that had existed for many centuries. The overcup oak 

was found in a belt immediately above a belt covered 

predominately by cypress, which occupied the plain 

terraces above and below an easily traceable escarpment. This bank, which had been made by the waters of 

Ferry Lake, continued without interruption around the 

entire basin. A contour survey showed the elevations in 

the omitted area in sections 9 and 10 to range up to 17 

feet above the former lake level. The area omitted in 

these sections amounted to 229.67 acres.

Upon a review of the record, the Attorney General of 

the United States, in a letter to the Secretary of the 

Interior, dated September 11, 1916, concluded:

That no action should be taken to enforce or 

assert any claim by the Government to that 

portion of the area involved which is covered 

by the waters of the lake because if the State’s 

title by virtue of its sovereignty should fail 

for any reason, I see no way of successfully 

resisting her claim under the swamp land grant.

However, in so far as concerns the land lying 

between the old meander line and the waters 

of the lake, I entirely agree with you that it 

constitutes unsurveyed public land of the 

United States, and . . . .

On January 2, 1923, the Supreme Court of the United 

States announced an opinion (Jeems Bayou Fishing & 

Hunting Club v. United States), denying the claims to 

the land in sections 9, 10, 15 and 16, adverse to those of 

the Government, and commented:
267

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

The inaccuracy of the plat is plainly apparent 

upon a like inspection. Why Warren made the 

survey and returned the plat as he did is a matter 

of speculation, but the facts demonstrate that 

no survey of the large, compact body of land, 

which includes the tract in controversy, was 

ever made. The circumstances, as well as the 

extent and character of the lands, necessitate the 

conclusion that the omission was of deliberate 

purpose, or the result of such gross and palpable 

error as to constitute in effect a fraud upon the 

Government. p. 563.

Surveying the Ferry Lake case consisted of the steps 

mentioned in the Moon Lake case, also a monumentation of the contour that agreed with the evident OHWM 

of the lake as it was in the year 1812.

Crooked Lake and Bear Lake, Letter from 

Commissioner of the General Land Office 

(April 16, 1923)

The plat of T. 43 N., R. 

6 E., Fourth Principal 

Meridian, Wisconsin, 

approved April 6, 1863, 

shows a meandered lake 

in section 36. Meander 

corners were established 

regularly on the south 

and east boundaries of 

the section. The field 

notes show the running of 

meander courses through 

the section on opposite sides of the lake, and call for 

high banks, along timbered land. No mention is made 

of an arm of a lake extending northwesterly into section 

25. The fractional lottings were disposed of according 

to the representations of the plat.

By letter dated April 16, 1923, the Commissioner of the 

GLO advised the Secretary of the Interior of an application to make a forest lieu selection for the NE1⁄4SW1⁄4 

sec. 36 (lot 15, figure 8-118), which according to the 

representations of the township plat would be located 

entirely within the bed of the meandered lake as above 

described. This letter contains a review of the facts as 

developed by a field examination, and concludes with 

a recommendation that the land theretofore shown as 

a meandered lake be surveyed and a proper plat constructed. The proposed action bears departmental 

approval.

Figure 8-117. Vicinity map.

WI

Figure 8-118. The Crooked Lake and Bear Lake case.

N.89°58’W.

77.36

N.88°45’W. 23.10 N.89°56’W.

39.81

Bear Lake

West

15.91

N.0°25’W. N.0°06’W. N.0°15’E. N.0°58’E.

40.0

0 15.77 16.9

2

N.1°29’E.

79.36

7.24

Crooked Lake

W.C.A.P.

11

17.65

10

20.67

13

12 33.27

41.97

16

18.34

15

38.84

17

44.26

14

13.52

Sec. 36

236. 90

2 3

4

5

6

1

9

8

7

18

8.38

13

12

11

10

9

8 5

6

7

4

19

18

17

16

15

14

20

The report of the field examination showed the following facts:

The south and east boundaries of the section 

cross two lakes instead of one, the lakes being 

separated by a body of land amounting to 

236.90 acres contained within the lines 

represented on the original plat as the banks 

of the one meandered lake. This area is rolling 

upland ranging up to 50 feet above the level 

of either lake, and forested with pine, hemlock, 

birch, maple and spruce timber. There was 

no evidence of any changes in the water level 

of the lakes, nor of any escarpment along the 

fictitious meander courses connecting them, 

these lines having been found to traverse 

rolling land instead of following a contour, 

with not the slightest difference between the 

character of the land, soil, or timber on the 

area theretofore surveyed and that which had 

been omitted. The shores of the two lakes were 

well defined, with banks from 3 to 8 feet high, 

bordered by a strip of level land from 10 to 30 

feet in width, surrounded by rolling hills. The 

geologic formation, as well as the forest trees, 

indicated great age.

The surveying work to be done consisted of the steps 

previously outlined in the Moon Lake case.
268

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Between the time of the 1920 survey and the entry, 

some 105 more acres had been added by naturally occurring accretions. By 1977, an additional 

107 acres had accreted, making the total acreage held 

by DeBoer at about 377 acres (figure 8-121).

The extra land was discovered by the State of Alaska. 

Under a law granting Alaska rights to select lands as a 

Federal grant, the State selected the accretions in front 

of DeBoer’s patented lots.

When the United States agreed with the State that 

the lands, indeed, were federally owned and subject 

to State selection, DeBoer went to court to quiet his 

title. The Trial Judge’s decision describes the history 

of the subject from the original Madison v. Basart

case (59 Interior Dec. 415 (1947)) through Wittmayer 

v. United States, 118 F.2d 808 (9th Cir. Mont. 1941), 

Smith v. United States, 593 F.2d 982 (10th Cir. 1979) 

an Oklahoma case where large accretions had formed 

after the survey but before entry and patent and finally 

United States v. 11,993.32 Acres of Land in North 

Dakota, 116 F.Supp. 671 (D. N.D. 1953).

After expressing his own (the Judge’s) disapproval 

of the Basart Doctrine, the Court recognized that 

Wittemayer was an Appellate Decision and that he was 

compelled to follow it.

Figure 8-121. Naturally occurring accretions forming uplands after survey 

and prior to entry.

Mud Flats at Low Water

Salmon Ri

ver

Gustavus

Airport

DeBoer

Pat.

Mud Flat

Accretion Lands

s

Sec.

8

Sec.

7

Sec.

18

Sec.

17

Accretion Prior to Entry:

The Basart Doctrine (Case Study)

8-179(n) through 8-181(n). The following case study 

illustrates some of the various legal settings in which 

the Basart Doctrine is an issue. Surveyors need to be 

aware of these situations, which may affect their resurvey work.

DeBoer v. United States, 470 F.Supp. 1137 (D. Alaska 

1979), rev’d on other grounds, 653 F.2d 1313 (9th Cir. 

1981)

In Alaska, some upland lots were originally surveyed 

in 1920 and contained 165.05 acres. Thirty-nine years 

later DeBoer made entry on the lots in question and 

was granted a patent in 1961 (figure 8-120).

Figure 8-119. Vicinity map.

AK

Figure 8-120. Accretions formed after the time the original plat was 

surveyed.

Icy Strait

Salmon River

DeBoer’s

patented

upland

Sec.

7 Sec.

8

Sec.

18

Sec.

17
269

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

WY

From the Decision, “The only question left to be decided 

is whether the 105.22 acres added to the 165.05 acres 

lot between 1920 and 1959 is ‘substantial.’ As noted 

above there is little to guide the courts in deciding what 

is ‘substantial.’ The United States Manual of Surveying 

Instructions (1973) at 172 states that:

In determining what constitutes a ‘substantial’ 

accretion, to which the rule in Madison v. 

Basart is applicable, the area of accretion 

should be compared quantitatively with the 

riparian lots to which it is attached. Some 

consideration should also be given to the total 

area accreted. Accretion to a small lot might be 

large in proportion but negligible in absolute 

size. From the standpoint of Size and Relative 

size, the area in question can be weighted as in 

the case of omitted lands.

After quoting the Manual as authority, the Court found 

that the 105 acres was substantial and awarded the land 

to the Federal Government as well as the 107 acres that 

accreted afterward.

Notice that the additional 107 acres of land accreted 

after Entry and before 1975 was not at issue in the decision as to the “substantiality” but was included in the 

judgment.

The appellate court confirmed the Judge’s decision and 

expanded on the substantial accretion exception rule 

by including weighing of equity factors, such as unjust 

enrichment. The Court expressed its disagreement with 

an application of a substantial accretion exception based 

solely upon purely quantitative factors. “We note, however, that even in Madison v. Basart itself, equitable factors such as the landowner’s knowledge of a discrepancy 

and lack of any risk to the particular landowner involved 

were considered.”

Land Outside Meanders with 

No Gross Error in Survey (Case Study)

8-182(n) through 8-186(n). The following case study 

illustrates some of the various legal settings in which 

land outside meanders with no gross error in survey is 

an issue. Surveyors need to be aware of these situations, 

which may affect their resurvey work.

Walton v. United States, 415 F. 2d 121 (10th Cir. Wyo. 

1969)

Figure 8-122. Vicinity map.

Figure 8-123. The Snake River was shown on the original GLO plats as 

about one-half mile wide although trees were growing in the river bed area 

at the time of the survey, according to tree-ring dating.

Sec. 23 Sec. 24

Snake Riv

1901 Burnham Su

er

rvey

1892 Owens Survey

Walton owned riparian 

lots along the Snake River 

in Wyoming, which were 

located on bench land 

overlooking the river. The 

record area of the lots was 

111.55 acres. Between 

Walton’s lots and the 

river were an additional 

323.59 acres of relatively flat pasture land containing 

large cottonwood trees. Some of the trees were dated to 

a time before the original surveys were executed.

The Government brought suit in 1967 claiming the 

323 acres as erroneously omitted lands. The suit was 

initiated because Walton had prevented Government 

surveyors from restoring the meander line.

At a District Court trial the witnesses for both sides 

agreed that the river could not have been located at the 

meander line (figure 8-123). In the findings of fact the 

Court said:

By superimposing the meander lines established 

by the GLO original surveyors Owens and 

Voight on an aerial photograph of the area 

made in 1960, it is immediately apparent that 

the meander lines do not even superficially 

define the sinuosities of the main channel [of the 

river] nor approach the line of mean high water. 
270

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

United States v. Walton, 266 F.Supp. 257, 261 

(Wyo. 1967) (figure 8-124).

The trial court went on to describe the meander line as 

traversing over hills and along a bench that was as much 

as 140 feet above the river.

The Snake River in this vicinity is a fast flowing mountain stream, which runs through a bed of large cobblestones. As such it did not erode rapidly in its natural 

state. Normal runoff in the spring would, however 

cause the Snake River to occupy many small intertwining channels paralleling the main stream. These small 

channels were typical of a braided stream when the 

river was at higher flows (figure 8-125). During the low 

flow summer months the river occupied only the main 

channel.

The field notes of the Owens survey describe the difficulties he had with deciding where the bank of the 

Snake River was located. By retracing the meander 

locations along the entire townships surveyed by Owens 

and Voight, it becomes clear that the original surveyors 

called the outermost braid of the river, at that time, the 

bank of the river (figure 8-126).

The trial court held that the 323 acres of land were omitted lands that belonged to the United States; Walton 

appealed.

The Appellate Court held that the finding of the trial 

court met the “substantial area” test. The finding was 

based on the evidence of the age of the trees and because 

witnesses on both sides agreed it was possible that the 

surveys did not follow the river bank.

The Appellate Court affirmed the trial court decision. 

The land belonged to the Government.

There are many miles of perfectly valid original meanders in the United States that are 100 feet or more up a 

steep slope above the water.

If there was an outer braid of the river at the base of 

the 140 foot bench land, then there must have been an 

island between that outer braid and the main channel of 

the river. That island would have been an unsurveyed 

island, which may also have belonged to the United 

States so that the ultimate effect on the ownership might 

have been the same as the Appellate Court’s finding.

What evidently happened is that the Government was 

able to convince the Court that the lands were omitted 

Figure 8-124. A vicinity sketch taken from a 1960s survey by the BLM; 

which restored the meanders of the original surveys and claimed the 

entire area between the meanders as Federal interest lands. The survey 

was eventually cancelled. Note that the river has been squeezed between 

levees by a flood control project.

Snake River

Sec. 23

Sec. 24

Restored Meanders

Restored Meanders

Levees

Figure 8-125. A portion of section 32, T. 42 N., R. 116 W., 6th P.M., Wyoming, from 1963 photographs. All areas between opposite restored 1892 

meander lines were claimed as omitted lands.

Snake River N

0 500 1 1000 500 2000 FEET Restored 1892 Meanders

Restored 1892 Meanders

Bank Protection
271

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

when the land was actually an unsurveyed island that 

had become attached to the upland lots. The difference 

is that Owens and Voight were widely known to have 

been reliable surveyors and there was no error or fraud 

in their surveys.

Walton highlights the principles that (1) the official plat 

is part of the instrument of conveyance, (2) in a public 

grant nothing passes by implication, (3) in a public grant 

a construction shall be adopted that favors the sovereign, and (4) the substantial area test is applied to determine if omitted lands are extant.

Mineral Lands Survey and 

Water Boundaries (Case Study)

8-187(n) through 8-189(n). The following case study 

illustrates some of the various legal settings in which 

water boundary of a lode mining claim is an issue. 

Surveyors need to be aware of these situations, which 

may affect their resurvey work.

Alaska United Gold Mining Co. v. CincinnatiAlaska Mining Co., 45 Pub. Lands Dec. 330 (1916), 

reh’g denied, 45 Pub. Lands Dec. 344 (1916)

Alaska United Gold Mining Company had patent for 

lode mining claims that lay along the Gastineau Channel, 

a navigable body of water. Accretions, which probably contained gold, had occurred between the mineral 

Figure 8-126. A sketch showing the approximate location of the low bluff 

where the meanders were located and the irrigation ditch directly below 

the bluff. The original surveyors had actually meandered the outer braid 

of the river. The Owens and Voight survey was not erroneous in light of all 

the facts.

Snake River

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET

N

Bluffs

Highway

Sec. 24

Levees Irrigation Ditch

Disputed Lands

Patented

Uplands

Figure 8-127. Vicinity map.

AK

survey meander line and the line of MHT, and adverse 

claimants located mining claims on the lands formed by 

accretion. Alaska United argued that the lands conveyed 

under the patent were bounded, as described in the plat 

and field notes, by the meander line and thus included 

the accreted lands; consequently those lands were not 

open to location by the adverse claimants. See id. at 333. 

The adverse claimants argued that the description in the 

patent only mentioned the water’s edge of the channel 

at one corner, and that the plat and field notes were not 

admissible to explain the patent description. Id. at 338. 

The Assistant Secretary disagreed, showing that the plat 

corresponding to the patent showed the area of the grant 

to lie along the meander line for several courses (figure 

8-128). The field notes also described the meander line 

on those courses.

The Assistant Secretary held that the references in the 

patent to the plat and field notes were sufficient to admit 

them as evidence for the purpose of showing that certain 

lines of the survey supporting the patent were meander 

lines. Id. at 339. Consequently, the Assistant Secretary 

found that the patented lands included the accretions 

because the lands conveyed were bounded by the line 

of MHT, as depicted by the plat, which corresponded to 

the meander line of the original survey.

As the Assistant Secretary stated:

It has been repeatedly held by both State and 

Federal courts that plats and field notes referred 

to in patents may be resorted to for the purpose 

of determining the limits of the area that passed 

under such patents. In the case of Cragin v. 

Powell, 128 U.S. 691, 696 (1888), the Supreme 

Court said:

It is a well settled principle that when 

lands are granted according to an 

official plat of the survey of such lands, 

the plat, itself, with all its notes, lines, 

descriptions and landmarks, becomes 

as much a part of the grant or deed by 
272

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

which they are conveyed, and controls 

so far as limits are concerned, as if such 

descriptive features were written out 

upon the face of the deed or the grant 

itself. Alaska United Gold Mining Co. 

v. Cincinnati-Alaska Mining Co., 45 

Pub. Lands Dec. at 336.

In other words, it can be assumed that patents were 

issued upon the surveys made under the direction of the 

Unites States surveyor general and a reference in a patent to the official plat and survey makes such plat and 

field notes of such survey a part of the description of the 

land granted, as fully as if they were incorporated at 

length in the patent.

Acquired Lands and

Tidal Waters (Case Studies)

8-190(n) through 8-195(n). The following case studies illustrate some of the various legal settings in which 

Figure 8-129. Vicinity 

map.

ME

Figure 8-128. After accretions formed and a railroad was constructed, adverse claimants moved onto the accretions.

Railroad

Golden Chariot Lode Sur. No. 104

Golden Chariot Lode Sur. No. 104

Omega Lode Sur. No. 105 A

Ready Bullon

No. 3 Lode

Ready Bullon No. 4 Lode

Omega U.S.S. No. 105 A

Omega M.S.

U.S.S. 105B

The Omega and Golden Chariot Patented Lodes were platted as riparian to the channel.

The rejected claims were squeezed into a 120 ft. average width between

the channel and the patented lodes and mill site.

Gastineau Channel

Gastineau Channel

division of tidewater flats is an issue. Surveyors need 

to be aware of these situations, which may affect their 

resurvey work. The case studies on pages 272 to 282 are 

used by permission from Water Boundary Problems . . . 

Resolved, by Donald A. Wilson.

Maine Cases

Emerson v. Taylor, 9 Me. 42 (1832)

The Massachusetts Colonial 

Ordinance of 1641 was found to 

apply in Maine.

The particular problem solved in 

this case was the manner in which 

the side lines of the riparian lots 

were to be extended to the low water 

mark. Taylor, owner of lot number 5, 

claimed that his side lines should be 

extended to low water mark, which 
273

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-130. Division of the flats was in dispute.

7

Disputed

Flats

Kenduskeag Stream

6

5

4

3

2

1

Hig

h

Water Mark

Low

Water Mark

Figure 8-131. The Court’s solution bisected angles between adjacent 

perpendiculars.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Kenduskeag Stream

Low

Water Mark

Hig

h

Water Mark

Flats

Base Lines

Figure 8-132. Detail showing how the angles were bisected.

Lot 2

90°

90°

Lot 1

Division Line

Base Line

Bisector

Flats

High 

Water Mark

Low Water Mark

Stream

would deprive Emerson, owner of lot number 6, of most 

of his division of the flats. The Court decided that they 

could not rationally decide the question solely between 

the parties to the suit, so it included the entire block in 

its decision (figure 8-130).

The decision was, for each lot, to draw base lines that 

extended from one lot corner on the high water mark to 

the other lot corner on the high water mark. Then draw 

perpendiculars to the base lines at each lot corner. The 

next step was to bisect the angles between each pair of 

perpendiculars at each corner. The bisectors are shown 

as solid lines (figures 8-131 and 132).

Figure 8-133. 

Vicinity map.

ME

Whitmore v. Brown & Gilley; Smallidge et al. v. 

Brown & Gilley, 100 Me. 410 (1905)

Gilpatrick’s Cove on Mt. Desert 

Island off the coast of Maine was 

owned by John Barnard and Maria 

Teresa De Gregoire in common and 

undivided. In 1788, under a partition 

hearing, the easterly part of the island 

was set off to Madame De Gregoire 

in severalty, i.e. in her own right.

The first question was whether 

Madame De Gregoire owned the 

flats. The Court stated that a deed 

could withhold title to the flats in a conveyance but that 

specific terms of the grant are required to give effect 

to the intent of the grantor to withhold the flats (figure 

8-134).

The Court stated that, in a deed, the words “to the 

shore” is a phrase of exclusion. For example, it held, “to 

the shore and then by the shore” unqualified, excludes 

the shore, which is the flats between high and low water 

mark. But if the description begins or ends at the low 

water mark then the shore will be included.

The following language is from the Court’s decision:

The Whitmore Case. The boundary in the last 

named deed is as follows: “Beginning in the 
274

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

N.E. corner of Nathan Smallidge’s land; thence 

running W. on Smallidge’s line to the shore at 

the mouth of Somes’s River; thence N. Westerly 

to a stake south of Thomas Manchester’s 

wharf; thence E. to Samuel Gilpatrick’s line; 

thence south on Gilpatrick’s line to the head of 

Gilpatrick’s Cove; thence around the western 

side of the cove to the first mentioned bounds.” 

The Gilpatrick line spoken of is the same as the 

Richardson line in the older deeds.

The question is, — Does the line “to the head 

of Gilpatrick’s Cove,” end at high water mark? 

Or does it extend to or toward low water mark? 

We think it ends at high water mark. The words 

“head of the cove,” in their natural significance, 

seem to us to mean that place farthest up the 

cove where the water stands at high water, and 

not down the cove at low water mark, a place 

which in this case is near the mouth of the cove. 

Moreover the plans in evidence in this case show 

that the Gilpatrick line, if extended across the 

flats in the cove, would strike the upland on the 

westerly side before it would strike low water 

mark, and then it would be on the outside of 

the cove. The words, “to the head of the cove” 

exclude the cove and the flats. The next call in 

deed strengthens our conclusion. It is, — “thence 

around the western side of the cove to first 

mentioned bounds.” It helps to make clear what 

was in the minds of the parties. If “the western 

side of the cove” starts at the Gilpatrick line at 

high water mark, and proceeds along high water 

mark, the course seems a reasonable, natural and 

probable one. On the other hand, if the Gilpatrick 

line be extended southerly across the flats, the 

next call, “around the western side of the cove,” 

has little or no meaning. There is no place which 

it fits. It seems very improbable that the parties 

actually intended the conveyance to cover 

anything below high water mark. A glance at the 

sketch is sufficient to show how improbable it is 

that such a line was intended. There is another 

ground which also seems to us conclusive that 

the deed in question did not convey the flats. 

The description begins “at the N.E. corner of 

Nathan Smallidge’s land,” and it ends at “the first 

mentioned bounds.” As we shall show when we 

consider the Smallidge case, the Smallidge land 

did not include the flats. The northeast corner of 

the Smallidge land, therefore, was at or above 

high water mark. So that the description in the 

Whitmore deed now in question begins at a 

point at or above high water mark, proceeds by 

several courses to the head of Gilpatrick’s Cove, 

thence around the western side of the cove, to the 

point of beginning, which was at or above high 

water mark. Such a description, in the absence of 

other calls or circumstances showing a contrary 

intention, will be construed as excluding the 

shore. Parker v. Dunton, 97 Maine, 461. To hold 

otherwise would be to ignore all the previous 

decisions of this court. The plaintiff’s grantor 

therefore obtained no title to the flats by grant, 

and conveyed none to her.

The Smallidge Case. The plaintiffs’ lot lies 

next south of the Whitmore lot just considered, 

and they have the title which was conveyed to 

Nathan Smallidge by Wentworth Kenniston, by 

deed dated December 11, 1839. The description 

in that deed is as follows:—”Beginning at 

Figure 8-134. Gilpatrick’s Cove.

N

Defendant

Lot

(Brown & Gilley)

Whitmore Lot

Not to Scale

Manchester Lot (formerly)

Smallidge Lot

Jame s

Richar dson

L o t (f ormerly)

Samuel 

Gilpatrick’ s

L o t

Mean High Water Mark

Mean High Water Mark

Mean High Water Mark

Mean Low Water Mark

Bridge

Gilpatrick’s

Cove
275

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

a spruce tree on the shore near the head of 

Gilpatrick’s Cove, so called, on Mt. Desert 

Island and running west across the point to the 

shore; thence south Easterly and northwardly 

running the shore to the point of beginning, with 

all the privileges thereto.” It must be considered 

that the spruce tree which was “near the head 

of the cove” and which was both the beginning 

and the ending of the boundary as expressed, 

was on upland. And although it may properly 

be held, under some circumstances, that a tree 

or other object on the bank of a river or cove, 

which marks the starting point of a boundary 

line, is intended rather to mark the course of 

the line than its precise terminus, at water line, 

and even that flats beyond may pass, Erskine v. 

Moulton, 66 Maine, 280, we do not think such 

a rule can be applied to the description in this 

case, so as to carry the starting point to low 

water mark, particularly since the other calls in 

the deed exclude the shore. They are, “running 

west across the point to the shore; thence . . . 

running the shore to the point of beginning.” As 

we have already said, “running the shore” means 

“running by the shore.” These calls exclude the 

shore. Proctor v Maine Central R. R., supra. And 

the whole description is brought within the rule 

that where the two ends of a line by the shore are 

at high water mark, in the absence of other calls 

or circumstances showing a contrary intention, 

the boundary will be construed as excluding 

the shore. Moreover, a glance at the sketch will 

show the improbability that the parties intended 

the northeast corner of the lot to be at low water 

mark.

It is admitted that in all the deeds the 

words, “together with all the privileges and 

appurtenances thereto belonging,” are inserted in 

habendum clause. And in the Smallidge deed the 

description of the premises granted is followed 

by the words “with all the privileges thereto.” 

The plaintiffs claim that the flats are appurtenant 

to the upland, and that under such descriptions, 

or clauses, they passed by a conveyance of the 

upland. It was suggested in Snow v. Mt. Desert 

Isl. R. E. Co., 84 Maine, 14, that flats are in a 

sense considered as appurtenant to the upland. 

But it must be remembered that the effect of 

the Colonial Ordinance upon the construction 

of deeds is merely to fix boundaries. A deed 

of the upland prima facie conveys flats,—not 

appurtenances nor privileges merely, but the 

MA

Figure 8-135. Vicinity map.

land itself, subject to public uses,—to low water 

mark. On the other hand, we think it must be 

held that if by the descriptive terms in the deed, 

the flats are excluded, they do not pass even as 

appurtenances or privileges. They are outside 

the boundaries fixed by the deed. No interest 

in land in the flats passes which is beyond the 

dividing line.

The entry in each case was judgment for defendants 

(pages 414-417).

Massachusetts Cases

Stone v. Boston Steel & Iron Company, 14 Allen 

(96 Mass.) 230 (1867)

A plan for division of 

tidal flats prepared by 

a surveyor following an 

order by a court showed 

the disputed area at the 

deepest part of a cove in 

Massachusetts. A 60 chain 

long baseline was drawn 

across the cove from headland to headland [at high 

water mark]. The greatest distance at right angles from 

the high water mark to such base line was about 500 feet 

and the low water mark was almost entirely outside of 

and nowhere more than a few feet within the base line 

as shown in figure 8-136.

Figure 8-137 shows lots in litigation and the contentions 

by the parties of how the side lines should be run. The 

first deed was to N. Tufts described as sketched including “ninety four feet breadth of flats adjoining the above 

described lot to low water mark, with all the privileges 

and appurtenances thereunto belonging.”

The second deed was to D. Tufts and was similarly 

worded including the shore space wording. Likewise, 

the third deed was to Little, which was worded in a 

similar manner.

Successor in interest to the Tufts and Little deeds 

believed that their flats were run on an extension of their 

side lines.

Another successor in interest to the Harris and Hall lots 

in figure 8-137 later sold to Stone, called the demandant in the case. The demandant’s deed read, in part, 

“northeasterly on Medford River” and “with all the flats 
276

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

belonging to the same and all privileges and appurtenances thereto belonging, be the same more or less.”

Stone claimed his side lines should extend at right 

angles to the base line.

The court stated the general rule intended but not 

expressly stated in the Colonial Ordinance was, “that in 

all cases, when practicable, every proprietor is entitled 

to the flat in front of his upland of the same width at low 

water mark as they are at high water mark.”

Also, in Porter v. Sullivan, 7 Gray (73 Mass.) 441 (1856), 

each proprietor, “must be in front of the land, that is, 

directly to the sea from which the tide flows, by lines as 

nearly as practicable perpendicular to the line of shore 

or the line of ordinary high water mark.”

Figure 8-138 illustrates the Court’s decision, the side 

lines drawn at right angles with the base line of the 

cove, to low water mark. It may be seen that any owner 

along the high water mark line would be granted a 

share of the flats according to his frontage in the direction of the sea.

Figure 8-138. Tidewater cove showing the Court’s decision—division 

lines at right angles to baseline.

N

Not to Scale

Harris

90°

Hall

Little

D.

Tufts

N. 

Tufts

High Water Mark

Low Water Mark

Base Line of Cove

Tidal Flats

1 1 7

7 9. 6

6 7 7 9. 6

102. 4 2 6 2

1 5

0

2 5 2

2 5 7

2 5 7

2 5 7

2 5

0

74

74

9 4

9 4

Figure 8-136. Tidewater cove.

Figure 8-137. Division of tidal flats by property lines extended.

N

Not to Scale

Harris Hall

Little

D.

Tufts

N. 

Tufts

High Water Mark

Low Water Mark

Base Line of Cove

Tidal Flats

1 1 7

7 9. 6

6 7 7 9. 6

102. 4 2 6 2

1 5

0

2 5 2

2 5 7

2 5 7

2 5 7

2 5

0

74

74

9 4

9 4

N

Not to Scale

Harris Hall

Little

D.

Tufts

N. 

Tufts

High Water Mark

Low Water Mark

Base Line of Cove

Tidal Flats

1 1 7

7 9. 6

6 7 7 9. 6

102. 4 2 6 2

1 5

0

2 5 2

2 5 7

2 5 7

2 5 7

2 5

0

74

74

9 4

9 4
277

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-139. Vicinity map.

MA

Figure 8-140. A plan for division of the flats.

N

Mill Pond

Channel

Channel

Channel

Somerville

Scale 500 Ft. to an Inch.

S.P.Fuller, Surveyor

Boston & Maine R. Road

Tide Mills

Solid 

Wharf

Draw

Goulds

Wharf

Main Street

Burying

Ground

State Prison

L.J. Walker’s Flats

L.J.

Walker

Prison Pt. Bridge

Fitchburgh R.R.

C h a r l e

s t o w

n

Mill

Dam

90°

A

B

C

D

M a r k

H i g h

Wate r

Headland

Base Line

Walker v. The Boston & Maine Railroad, 3 Cush. 

(57 Mass) 1 (1849)

Walker owned a lot 

along the high water 

line of a large shore 

space in Charlestown, 

Massachusetts. Walker’s 

surveyor prepared a plan 

for division of the flats in 

front of his property (figure 8-140). The plan included 

drawing a base line from a headland to headland as 

shown by the dashed line. The division lines of the 

claim were set as perpendiculars to the base line and 

they extended outward to a channel. Walker thus admitted that her claim could not extend beyond a channel 

that contained seawater at the lowest tides.

Figure 8-141. Vicinity map.

MA

The conflict arose because the railroad had taken land 

to construct their railroad that crossed the area of the 

flats claimed by Walker.

The area of flats included a dam that was operated as 

a tide powered mill. From the outfall of the mill the 

tidal channel ran westerly after crossing the railroad 

and thence curved back around to join with a second 

and smaller channel near the bottom of figure 8-140. 

The longer channel they defined as the terminus of the 

flats in that direction. The smaller channel began near 

the state prison running below the railroad and curving southerly to join the longer channel. The alignment 

of the smaller channel was extended to the upland and 

the Court defined it as the terminus of the flats in the 

direction of the State Prison, citing Sparhawk v Bullard, 

1 Met. (42 Mass.) 95 (1840).

The Court found in favor of the railroad. It held that the 

railroad alignment was as short a distance across the 

flats as any place between the two creeks. It stated the 

rule thus:

To form the outer or low water line, draw a 

line across the narrowed space between the 

two creeks, as the mouth of the cove. If the 

low water line is shorter than the high water 

line, take the whole length of the upland, and 

ascertain each owner’s proportion, and give him 

the same proportion on the low water line, and 

in the same order, and then let lines be drawn 

from each proprietor’s lines, at high water, to 

his corresponding point in the low water line, 

and this will define the limits of the flats of each 

owner.

The Court ended the discussion stating that though the 

method chosen for division of flats may be liable to 

objections, “we know no mode of dividing these flats, 

which would be free from objection.”

Gray v. Deluce, 5 Cush. (59 Mass.) 9 (1849)

One-time tenants of 

the Deluce property in 

Boston, Massachusetts 

built a wharf in 1808 in 

trespass on part of the 

flats demanded by Gray. 

They extended the wharf 

in 1812 and again in 1826 

and used it during those times. Presumably the extensions to the wharf were also in trespass (figure 8-142).
278

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Adams contended that the flats in dispute were appurtenant to a tract of upland formerly owned in common by 

Perkins, Mason, Gardner and others. The flats in dispute 

were part of a plan made in 1803-04 for a large Addition 

to the town of Boston. On that overall plan, the division 

of the flat was made parallel to A Street, to the west, 

and B Street and thus perpendicular to Second Street 

(figure 8-144).

Adams at time of trial presented a plan that showed 

the base line of the cove and his claim that the correct 

division lines were perpendicular to the base line of the 

cove as approved in Gray v. Deluce, 5 Cush. (59 Mass.) 

9 (1849) (figure 8-144). The reason Adams made the 

request is not given in the text of the trial.

The Court found that Adams was correct in that the 

rule for division of flats was to draw straight lines from 

the two shore corners of the upland, perpendicularly to 

a base line extended across the cove. Also, the Court 

admitted that by that rule the flats in dispute would 

belong to the Adams’ upland.

One of the original requirements of the 1803-04 

Addition was that the entire estate, flats as well as 

uplands, be divided. It seems that the owners of the 

land in the proposed Addition and the officers of the 

The Court stated that the rule in Massachusetts followed 

the Colonial Ordinance of 1641 such that the proprietor 

of upland shall have ownership of the flats to the low 

water mark but no farther than 100 rods. Where the flats 

are located in front of coves, the Court found, the rule 

in Massachusetts is that, if practical, the upland owner 

shall get the flats in front of him in width equal to his 

width at high water mark.

The case as reported does not describe how the trespass 

was decided but only addressed the division of the flats. 

The division was made by drawing lines perpendicular 

to the base line of the cove.

Adams v. Boston Wharf Company, 10 Gray 

(76 Mass.) 521 (1858)

This was a case in Boston, 

Massachusetts where the 

rule that the division line 

of flats is to be perpendicular to the base line of 

the cove was not upheld. 

This was because of the 

long continued acquiescence by the parties for at least 

35 years to a previous legal proceeding.

Figure 8-143. Vicinity map.

MA

Figure 8-142. Boston Harbor.

N

South

Boston Harbor

Old Harbor

Bay

South Boston

By E. P. Fuller

Eng’d by Taylor & Adams

Plan of

Base drawn from high water at A, to high water at B.

South Boston 

Point

Line 

esta

blished

Line parallel with First St.

First

Broadway

Broadway

B Stre

Tu

et

rnpike

First Street

Gray

Deluce

Street

Dorchester Street

High Water Mark A

High Water Mark

B

Not to Scale
279

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-144. Two approaches to division of tidewater flats.

Figure 8-145. Vicinity map.

MA

N

B. Street

Flats in Dispute

Perkins

Mason

Adams

Second Street

Channel

Base Line of Cove

High Water Mark

town had a mutual agreement that the lines of the flats 

would not be deflected to the base line because those 

lines could not cross B Street, [side lines extended]. All 

the owners of the uplands involved in 1803-04 except 

one, Harriet Denny, had agreed that the lines of the flats 

lines could not cross B Street.

By 1845 Mrs. Denny and her successors had not protested the division approved in 1803-04. The Court 

found that all the interested parties for a period of at 

least 35 years had acquiesced in the former division 

and therefore could not claim across B Street to the 

flats in dispute.

Wonson v. Wonson, 14 Allen (96 Mass.) 71 (1867)

William C. Wonson, 

Samuel Wonson, James 

Davis, and William 

Parsons each owned 

upland around Coos’ 

Cove, a deep salt water 

cove between two headlands in Massachusetts. Each of the parties had wharves 

that they used for shipping by water. William C. Wonson 

and Davis wanted to settle the boundaries of the flats 

between themselves but unless all the owners involved 

in the settlement were included, no real settlement could 

be reached.

The Court appointed three commissioners to settle the 

matter. The commissioners used a plan prepared by 

one A. Boschke, civil engineer, which was made part 

of the transcript. The outline of the wharf construction 

by each owner is shown on the plan as well as a base 

line that was drawn from headland to headland connecting the line of high water at ordinary high tides. 

The commissioners all agreed that the cove was so deep 

that a division by line perpendicular to the base line was 

impractical. The main problem was that the tide never 

ebbed beyond the base line.

In order to arrive at an equitable answer the commissioners created a number of alternative methods of division of the flats. All of the methods used the ratio of 

each owner’s frontage at the line of high water at ordinary high tides to the total length at the line of high 

water at ordinary high tides.

Method 1, the mode preferred by the commissioners, 

created division lines by the proportionate ownerships 

dividing lines equidistant from the line of high water at 

ordinary high tide to the line of extreme low water in 

the ratio as the length of the lines of upland owned by 

the party, giving to each shore owner his proportionate 

share of the area of each belt of flats within the cove 

(figure 8-146).

Method 2 created division lines by the proportionate 

ownerships dividing the baseline (figure 8-147).

Method 3 created division lines by the proportionate 

ownerships dividing the line of extreme low water using 

straight lines (figure 8-148).

Method 4 created division lines by the proportionate 

ownerships dividing the line of extreme low water to 

the extent that it fell within the base line (figure 8-149).

The Court held that the Commissioners had no authority 

to make a division according to the location of wharves 

that had been in place more than 20 years. Method 1 

was discarded because the dividing lines were not 

straight, but curved and serpentine, making each lot of 

a shape peculiarly inconvenient for the building and use 

of wharves and bears injustice upon Davis, giving him 

a disproportionately narrow strip of flats, especially at 

low water mark.
280

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Figure 8-147. Method 2 for the division of tidewater flats.

74° 53’ 90°

S outherl y

Headland

Method No. 2

Tangent or Base Line

James Davis

S a m u e l Wo n s o n

2 2

C

B

A

2

Extreme Low Water

O r d i n a r y

H i g h

W a t e r

L i n e

N

Not to Scale

Nor therl y

Headlan d

Wharf

Construction

Outline

100 Rod Line

is 100 rods from

the ordinary high

water line

W m. P a rsons & Co .

W m . C . Wo n s o n

Figure 8-146. Method 1 for the division of tidewater flats.

74° 53’ 90°

Nor therl y

Headlan d

S outherl y

Headland

Method No. 1

Wharf

Construction

Outline

100 Rod Line

is 100 rods from

the ordinary high

water line

N

Tangent or Base Line

W m. P a rsons & Co .

James Davis

S a m u e l Wo n s o n

W m . C . Wo n s o n

C

B

A

1 1

1

Extreme Low Water

O r d i n a r y

H i g h

W a t e r

L i n e

Not to Scale
281

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries

Figure 8-148. Method 3, the Court approved division of tidewater flats.

Figure 8-149. Method 4 for the division of tidewater flats.

74° 53’ 90°

S outherl y

Headland

Method No. 3

Nor therl y

Headlan d

Wharf

Construction

Outline

100 Rod Line

is 100 rods from

the ordinary high

water line

W m. P a rsons & Co .

W m . C . Wo n s o n

Tangent or Base Line

James Davis

S a m u e l Wo n s o n

C

B

A

3 3

3

Extreme Low Water

O r d i n a r y

H i g h

W a t e r

L i n e

N

Not to Scale

74° 53’ 90°

S outherl y

Headland

Method No. 4

Nor therl y

Headlan d

Wharf

Construction

Outline

100 Rod Line

is 100 rods from

the ordinary high

water line

W m. P a rsons & Co .

W m . C . Wo n s o n

Tangent or Base Line

James Davis

S a m u e l Wo n s o n

C

B

A

4 4 4

Extreme Low Water

O r d i n a r y

H i g h

W a t e r

L i n e

N

Not to Scale
282

Chapter VIII Notes - Resurveys and Water Boundaries Manual of Surveying Instructions

Method 2 established points of division beyond the line 

of extreme low water and thus did not conform to the 

Ordinance of 1647 and was rejected.

Method 4 would not allow a wharf to be built to the line 

of extreme low water because of the restriction so that 

method was rejected.

Method 3, which divided the flats to the proportionate 

ownerships applied to the line of extreme low water, 

was the approved method.
283

Chapter IX

Special Instructions,

Field Notes, and Plats

Special Instructions

9-1. The detailed specifications for each survey are set 

out by the officer in administrative charge of the work in 

a written statement entitled “Special Instructions.” The 

special instructions are an essential part of the permanent record of the survey, both as historical information and because they show that the survey was properly 

authorized and conducted. The immediate purpose is to 

outline the extent of the field work and the method and 

order of procedure as well as to guide the assigned surveyor. Coupled with the Manual, the special instructions 

contain the technical direction and information necessary for executing the survey. Emphasis is given to any 

procedure unusual in application, but no lengthy discussion is required of procedures that are adequately covered in the Manual. The special instructions are written 

in the third person.

9-2. Shown below is the arrangement of subject matter in the special instructions. Italicized portions denote 

standard phraseology:

(1) Title: Special Instructions

 Group No. ____, (State)

(Nature of survey, and location by township, 

range, and meridian)

(2) Preliminary statement:

In the execution of the surveys included under 

Group No. ____, (State), the chief of field party 

is authorized and directed to make the described 

examination, retracements, reestablishment 

of points of control, surveys, and resurveys 

set out in these instructions. The surveyor 

will be guided by the Manual of Surveying 

Instructions (edition), hereinafter referred to 

as the Manual, the provisions of the following 

special instructions, and such supplemental 

special instructions as may be issued during the 

progress of the work.

(3) Authority

A brief statement must include the nature 

of the survey and the Federal agency or 

party requesting the survey. Cite departmental 

or BLM instructions or authorization, if 

applicable, and authority to execute the survey 

or any special act of Congress relating to the 

survey.

(4) Appropriation

The costs of the field and office work incurred 

in the execution of the survey, within approved 

official regulation, are payable from the 

appropriation: Give the title of the applicable 

appropriation, fund, or deposit, and cite the act 

of Congress under which a deposit has been 

received.

(5) Limit and Character of Work

Describe the lines to be surveyed by township, 

range, and meridian, with designation by section 

where only parts of townships are authorized. If 

the work involves other than original surveys, 

indicate the character of the fragmentary 

survey, the type of resurvey, or the nature of 

the field or office examination or investigation. 

Legal or technical questions related to the work 

may be pointed out here or in the part of the 

instructions dealing with methods, whichever 

is most appropriate. Similarly treated would be 

known facts concerning private rights that may 

be affected and directions for protecting those 

rights.

If the work involves meanders of water bodies, 

and the meandering of all islands is not 

authorized in the township or section where only 

parts of townships are authorized, indicate that 

title determination and survey of the remaining 

islands may be accomplished under future 

special instructions.
284

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

(6) History of Surveys

Each new survey, retracement, or resurvey is 

predicated on the survey(s) accepted previously. 

The pertinent existing surveys are reviewed in 

the special instructions with an explanation of 

known or presumed complications.

(7) Method and Order of Procedure

If the projected work is an extension of original 

surveys, it will be taken up in the following 

order in the special instructions:

(a) Standard parallels and guide 

meridians

(b) Township exteriors

(c) Subdivisions, including meander lines

(d) Subdivision of sections if included

The special instructions for each township 

should be completed separately. If complications 

are anticipated, the surveyor will be informed 

what to expect and what methods to apply. 

References to Manual rules are made by 

chapter and section numbers, but the surveyor is 

expected to understand regular practices and to 

be familiar with the Manual as a reference guide 

in unusual cases. The burden of this should not 

be transferred to the special instructions.

If the work involves other than original surveys, 

detailed specifications are stated for required 

examinations, investigations, fragmentary 

surveys, resurveys, topographic surveys, or 

special monumentation. Chapter X discusses 

how the usual types of special surveys are 

treated.

Where precautions need to be taken for 

the preservation of esthetic values in the 

environment, such as the elimination of blazing 

on the lines or the limitation of vehicular 

use, the special instructions should so state. 

Additionally, the surveyor will be directed to 

exercise care in situations that arise in the field 

that were not covered by the special instructions.

(8) Diagrams and Supplemental Data

A diagram should be furnished as a part of 

the special instructions. The assigned work 

is usually shown by dashed lines and the 

adjoining previous surveys by solid lines. The 

diagram should indicate the directions and 

lengths of lines of the established surveys 

within 2 miles of the new assignment. Outlying 

areas protracted as though surveyed on the 

previous plats should always be shown. Digital 

geographic information data may be furnished 

as a part of the special instructions.

A notation may be made in the special 

instructions that copies of the plats and field 

notes of previous surveys pertinent to the 

assigned work will be furnished to the surveyor 

prior to commencement of the field work.

Known claims, improvements, or monuments 

of other official and local surveys will be noted 

in the special instructions.

When pertinent to the survey, the special 

instructions are supplemented by a status report, 

usually in the form of a diagram, showing 

disposals, withdrawals, and administrative 

units in the area to be surveyed or resurveyed. 

Streams upon which withdrawals for power 

sites or other purposes have been or may be 

made, and streams, ridges, or divides that 

constitute the boundaries of reserves, should 

be specified.

As a precaution to insure that the necessary 

accuracy be secured with reference to the 

cadastral geographic information system, 

there may also be supplied with the special 

instructions a list showing the geographical 

and administrative features in the area to be 

surveyed or resurveyed. A list of available 

topographic maps, aerial photographs, and 

other data showing important map features 

may be supplied with the special instructions. 

Any required additional mapping to be done in 

the field should be indicated.

(9) Field Notes, Plats, and Reports

The special instructions should include 

directions for the preparation of the field 

notes and point out the parts of the returns 

that will require special attention in the field. 

If a preliminary report or diagram is to be 

submitted during the progress of the field work, 

the special instructions will so state. Special 
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only to the Act of May 18, 1796 and the general requirements of law governing the management of Federal 

agency records.

Field Notes

Purpose and Style

9-6. The field notes are the written record of the survey. This record identifies and describes the lines and 

corners of the survey and the procedures by which 

they were established or reestablished. The field notes 

describe the evidence found and the new evidence 

established. They provide the explanation and justification for the decisions made to locate the lines and corners. The new subdivisions to be platted (or replatted 

in the case of some resurveys) and the quantity of land 

in each unit are derived from the field notes. The laws 

governing surveys of the public lands have required the 

return of field notes from the beginning. Field notes are 

official after approval by the authorized official and official filing. The chosen manner of recordation shall be 

clear and consistent, making the field notes accessible to 

Federal personnel and the general public.

9-7. Approved field notes are a part of the permanent 

official records of the Department of the Interior and 

are competent evidence in courts with the force and 

effect of a deposition. They rank as the deposition of 

a surveyor, charged under oath with the duty of noting 

on the spot, and at the time he or she makes the survey, 

the quality of the land (Mason v. Cromwell, 26 Pub. 

Lands Dec. 369 (1898); Kirby v. Lewis, 39 F. 66 (C.C. 

Ark. 1889)).

9-8. The initial notes are gathered, utilizing various 

written and electronic forms, by the surveyor while in 

the field. The transcribed record that is derived from 

the field record data is termed the field returns. The 

field returns consist of the draft field notes and sketch 

plat which are transcribed from the field data and submitted to the appropriate official for review, approval, 

and filing. The final field notes prepared for filing are 

printed in regulation field note format or placed upon 

the survey plat.

It is desirable that the draft and final field notes conform to the general arrangement and phraseology set 

out in the Manual. A large part of the final field notes 

must be extended from an abbreviated field record. At 

the same time, much of the minute detail of the initial 

field record data may be summarized into a form of 

lottings or other unusual matters that are to be 

considered when the final returns are prepared 

should be specified.

Direction will be given to return for official use 

the special instructions and other papers that 

belong with the official record, data added in the 

field, and field computation sheets.

(10) Modification of Special Instructions

The special instructions should direct the chief of 

field party to report promptly conditions that call 

for additional or modified special instructions 

together with a recommended procedure.

9-3. The special instructions are ordinarily prepared 

and signed by the technical officer in direct administrative charge of the particular surveying program. 

Approval of the special instructions is by the Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor in administrative charge of the area 

where the survey is made, or as delegated by current 

regulations. The date of the special instructions and 

date of approval are always shown.

9-4. Assignment instructions are the written instructions to the Federal authority surveyor authorizing the 

surveyor to execute a specific part, or all, of a particular survey. Although a survey may be authorized by the 

special instructions, a surveyor may not perform any 

part of that survey without assignment instructions containing the specific assignment. Normally, approval of 

the assignment instructions is identical to approval of 

special instructions.

Field Notes and Plat

9-5. Title 43 U.S.C. 751 (Act of May 18, 1796; 1 Stat. 

464) required that detailed field notes and a plat be prepared from the surveyor’s field tablets. However, the 

manner in which such field record data and field notes 

are recorded and maintained is within the discretion of 

the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary’s delegate, the Director of the Bureau of Land Management.

The authority of the Director of the BLM includes the 

authority to decide whether to place field notes on plats 

or in separate books. The mode by which approved 

field notes are permanently prepared and the medium 

employed for their preservation and availability for public use are not prescribed by any statute. These details 

have been left to the discretion of the Director, subject 
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record that refers directly to the completed survey. This 

distinction in the three stages of the record is carried 

through the text: (1) Initial field record data gathering, 

(2) draft (preliminary) field returns, and (3) final (official) survey record.

9-9. In the case of surveys such as the limited dependent resurvey or retracement of a section line, the survey of a connecting line, the survey of an island, Alaska 

U.S. surveys, or other surveys that require only a brief 

field note record, the field notes may be placed directly 

upon the plat.

9-10. All appropriate notes of the method, order of the 

survey procedures, and line and corner evidence are 

entered in the field data. The data should show the dates 

on which each part of the field work was done. The field 

data record must supply the information needed for a 

complete preparation of the final record. For efficient 

review, it is essential that all field tablets and field data 

records be properly indexed.

Because of the great variety of survey types, the surveyor must plan carefully how the data in the field record 

is to be arranged. The assigned surveyor is responsible 

for the accuracy and sufficiency of this record.

The work of transcribing the field record data usually 

receives the personal attention of the assigned surveyor, 

but it is important that the arrangement of the field 

record data and the use of abbreviations be such as to 

be readily understood by others who are familiar with 

the technical processes. Due regard will be given to the 

Manual requirements and form, though it is intended 

that set forms of expression be used flexibly and modified when necessary to conform to the survey procedure. The work of the reviewing officers is directed to 

the fundamental requirements of the Manual and the 

written special instructions. Comments as to the form

of the transcribed field notes are based upon broad 

grounds, but it is necessary that the notes follow a standard form.

Random lines are shown in the field record data but are 

omitted from the transcribed field note record except 

where some special purpose is served by showing the 

detail of the method and order of the procedures. The 

specific random line, elements of triangulation figures, 

traverse, or offset lines are seldom noted in the field 

note record. It is usually sufficient to show only the 

true line data in the field notes when the field procedure results in ascertaining the course and length of the 

lines being established.

9-11. The township is considered as the unit in compiling the field notes. Normally the field notes of all classes 

of lines pertaining to a township when concurrently 

surveyed and not previously compiled are included in 

a single “set of field notes.” In the survey of a block of 

exterior lines only, all of the field notes may be placed 

in one set of field notes. If a block of townships is being 

surveyed concurrently, common boundaries are written 

in the notes of one township or the other, but not both. 

The sets of field notes are compiled in volumes for the 

permanent filing of the record as directed by the proper 

supervising officer.

9-12. The field notes, plat, and contract or group file 

are considered the primary record of any survey. Upon 

approval of the field notes, and acceptance and filing 

of the plat, the responsibility for the survey vests in the 

accepting authority. The survey is not official until it has 

been approved and accepted by the authorized official 

and officially filed in the proper Land Office. The lands 

are not considered surveyed or identified until the survey has been officially filed. It was held in Cox v. Hart, 

260 U.S. 427 (1922), that:

A survey of public lands does not ascertain 

boundaries; it creates them. Robinson v. Forrest, 

29 Cal. 317, 325; Sawyer v. Gray, 205 Fed. 160, 

163. Hence the running of lines in the field and 

the laying out and platting of townships, sections 

and legal subdivisions are not alone sufficient to 

constitute a survey. Until all conditions as to filing 

in the proper land office and all requirements as 

to approval have been complied with, the lands 

are to be regarded as unsurveyed and not subject 

to disposal as surveyed lands. United States v. 

Morrison, 240 U.S. 192, 210; United States v. 

Curtner, 38 Fed. 1, 10.

9-13. After the final record has been prepared, 

approved, accepted, and officially filed, and the period 

for a timely protest and appeal has expired, the field tablets and related field data are disposed. The contract and 

group files are retained permanently.

Field Notes Preparation and

Inking the Field Notes

9-14. Two copies of the field notes are prepared. The 

medium used for the original and duplicate original 

field notes is to be of high quality, archival paper with 

permanent black ink. Generally they should be printed 

on 20-pound, 25 percent cotton rag bound paper in the 

8.5- x 11-inch size. Field notes should be prepared with 
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two-sided content. A minimum of 1-inch margin must 

be maintained on the left side for binding. The print 

work should be sharp and clear, uniform in density of 

color, and with standardized lettering.

9-15. Another important consideration in the field 

notes print work is the size and density of information 

shown. Currently many public and other users of the 

records access them via microfilm, digital, scanning, 

and other imaging and reproduction technologies that 

may tend to lose small detail, and this should be considered in the process. Text fonts or symbols that are 

so small as to render them illegible after being photocopied, microfilmed, or scanned should not be used.

The arrangement of some of the more minute data on the 

specimen field notes illustrates the minimum to which 

the work may be condensed safely. Attention is directed 

to the space allowed between the lettering and the adjacent lines. Proportionately more space should be allowed 

on drawings in the field notes where a reduction of scale 

is to be made on reproduction. The same safeguards 

should be applied in spacing the adjoining letters.

Cover Page—Titles

9-16. Each set of field notes is preceded by a cover 

page included in a regulation cover, with appropriate 

title setting out general information as follows:

(1) The description of the lines recorded in 

that set;

(2) The principal meridian to which the survey 

refers;

(3) The State in which the survey is located;

(4) The name or names of the surveyors by 

whom the work was executed;

(5) The date of the special instructions, with 

survey number or serial group number, and date 

of approval;

(6) The date of the assignment instruction; 

and,

(7) The dates of the beginning and completion 

of the work included in that set.

Following are examples of titles:

FIELD NOTES

OF THE SURVEY OF THE

WEST AND NORTH BOUNDARIES

AND SUBDIVISIONAL AND

MEANDER LINES OF TOWNSHIP 41 NORTH, 

RANGE 13 WEST, OF THE 

SIXTH PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN,

IN THE STATE OF WYOMING,

EXECUTED BY

Wm. C. Jones, Cadastral Surveyor

(or)

John B. Smith and Fred A. Brown,

Cadastral Surveyors

(All)

Under special instructions dated June 30, 2009, which 

provided for the surveys included under Group 

Number 205, approved July 9, 2009; and assignment 

instructions dated July 15, 2009.

Survey commenced July 26, 2009.

Survey completed October 8, 2009.

9-17. The descriptive portion of the title is appropriately modified in special cases as in the following 

examples:

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

SURVEY OF A PORTION OF THE 

SUBDIVISIONAL LINES

COMPLETING (or CONTINUING) 

THE SUBDIVISION OF

TOWNSHIP 39 SOUTH, RANGE 18 EAST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

SURVEY OF FIDDLERS ISLAND IN VENICE BAY,

IN SECTION 1, TOWNSHIP 39 SOUTH, 

RANGE 18 EAST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE

EXTERIOR AND SUBDIVISIONAL LINES OF

TOWNSHIP 18 SOUTH, RANGE 59 WEST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE
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ELEVENTH STANDARD PARALLEL NORTH,

ON THE SOUTH BOUNDARY OF 

TOWNSHIP 45 NORTH, THROUGH 

RANGE 79 WEST, THE EAST BOUNDARY OF

TOWNSHIP 45 NORTH, RANGE 80 WEST,

AND SOUTH BOUNDARY OF

TOWNSHIP 46 NORTH, RANGE 79 WEST,

AND THE

INDEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE

EAST BOUNDARY AND SUBDIVISIONAL LINES 

OF TOWNSHIP 45 NORTH, RANGE 79 WEST,

AND TRACT SURVEYS OF PRIVATE CLAIMS

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE BOUNDARIES 

OF THE

ANASTASIA ISLAND LIGHTHOUSE AND 

MILITARY RESERVATIONS,

IN SECTIONS 21, 22, 27, AND 28,

TOWNSHIP 7 SOUTH, RANGE 30 EAST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF

PORTIONS OF THE NORTH BOUNDARY OF

U.S. SURVEY NO. 1456,

THE NORTH AND SOUTH CENTER LINE

OF THE SOUTHWEST ONE QUARTER 

OF SECTION 9, AND A PORTION OF THE 

SUBDIVISIONAL LINES

SITUATED AT THE ALASKA RAILROAD 

TERMINAL RESERVE,

IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF ANCHORAGE,

TOWNSHIP 13 NORTH, RANGE 3 WEST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF U.S. SURVEY NO. 9901

AT MILE 320, ALASKA HIGHWAY

AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CONTROL 

POINT NO. 9901 AT 

GEOGRAPHIC POSITION (NAD 83):

LATITUDE 53°22’17.63” N.

LONGITUDE 146°58’43.00” W.

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY AND EXTENSION 

SURVEY, SUBDIVIDING LAND BORDERING 

FERRY LAKE AND JAMES BAYOU,

IN SECTIONS 9, 10, 15, AND 16,

TOWNSHIP 20 NORTH, RANGE 16 WEST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE SECTION 

BOUNDARIES, THE SUBDIVISION OF THE 

SECTIONS, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF 

CORNERS OF INDIAN ALLOTMENTS,

IN SECTIONS 9, 10, AND 15,

TOWNSHIP 143 NORTH, RANGE 30 WEST

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE SECTION 

BOUNDARIES, THE SUBDIVISION OF THE 

SECTIONS, AND THE

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BOUNDARY, BLOCK 

AND LOT CORNERS,

AND STREET CENTER LINES OF THE

TOWNSITE OF LAC DU FLAMBEAU,

AND THE SPECIAL SURVEY OF

U.S. HIGHWAY NO. 93,

IN SECTIONS 5 AND 8,

TOWNSHIP 40 NORTH, RANGE 5 EAST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF A PORTION OF 

THE SOUTH BOUNDARY, A PORTION OF THE 

SECTIONAL GUIDE MERIDIAN, 

AND A PORTION OF THE 

SUBDIVISIONAL LINES 

AND THE

SURVEY OF TRACTS 37, 38, 39, AND 40,

AND THE SUBDIVISION OF SECTION 26,

ALL SITUATED IN THE ALASKA RAILROAD 

POWDER RESERVE,

TOWNSHIP 15 NORTH, RANGE 2 WEST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF THE 

SECTION BOUNDARIES 

AND THE

MINERAL SEGREGATION SURVEY OF A 

PARCEL INCLUDED WITHIN THE

WHITMORE QUARTZ AND THE MONDAY 
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QUARTZ MINING CLAIMS IN SECTION 22,

TOWNSHIP 7 NORTH, RANGE 12 EAST,

(or)

FIELD NOTES

OF A TRAVERSE OF THE WORKINGS

IN THE BADGER COAL MINE

AND THE DEPENDENT RESURVEY AND 

SUBDIVISION OF SECTION 15,

TOWNSHIP 36 NORTH, RANGE 75 WEST,

Index

9-18. Each set of field notes has a small-scale index 

diagram of the lines included. It is often necessary, however, to construct an additional special diagram to suit 

the work. For this a sheet of regulation field-note paper, 

or a sheet of the same size, is employed, and a scale 

adopted that is suited to the available space. It is usually 

preferable to orient the diagram with north to the top 

of the page, though sometimes the outline of the work 

is such that it is better to orient the diagram with north 

to the left-hand or binding edge. The diagram should 

show all of the lines surveyed with the page number on 

which the record of each begins or where the corner 

description can be found. Meanders and other irregular 

lines should be drawn and indexed. However, if an area 

becomes complicated or congested, these lines may be 

tabulated at the bottom of the page or on an additional 

sheet. The added index sheet is inserted in the notes on 

the inside of the front cover, to appear on the right-hand 

side, without page number. Field notes will not be written on the index sheet.

Page Headings and Subheadings

9-19. Each page of the field notes is given a heading. The heading is a short summary of the title of the 

field notes to be continued on that page. New headings 

are employed within the body of the field notes where 

changes are made to a new division of the survey; this 

will become the heading of the pages that follow. The 

heading should include the township, range, principal 

meridian, and State. Examples may be found in the 

specimen field notes in the appendix.

New headings inserted in the body of the field notes of 

a resurvey are accompanied by subheadings that relate 

the resurvey to the earlier work (specimen resurvey field 

notes, appendix II). Subheading examples are shown 

below:

Dependent Resurvey of the West Boundary of

T. 2 N., R. 18 W., Principal Meridian, Montana

(Restoring the 1882 survey by James M. Harvey)

__________________

(or)

Dependent Resurvey of the Eleventh Standard Parallel North,

South Boundary of T. 45 N., R. 79 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Wyoming

 (Reestablishment of the survey executed by John B. Smith, Deputy Surveyor, in 1872)

_________________ (or)

Remonumentation of Certain Corner Points,

T. 48 N., R. 3 E., Fifth Principal Meridian, Missouri

(Remonumenting a corner established by Laban H. Wheeler, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, in 1881)

__________________

(or)

Tract Surveys of Private Claims in

T. 45 N., R. 79 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Wyoming

(As originally located in accordance with the survey executed by

John B. Smith, Deputy Surveyor, in 1872)

___________________________
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(or)

Independent Resurvey of the Subdivisional Lines of

T. 45 N., R. 79 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Wyoming

(Superseding the 1872 survey by John B. Smith) _____________________________

(or)

Corrective Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the North Boundary,

T. 22 S., R. 1 W., Willamette Meridian, Oregon

(Restoring the survey by Nathanial Martin in 1873, and correcting the dependent resurvey

by Otto Draper, in 1933-35) _____________________________

(5) How the directions of lines were determined 

and that they refer to the true meridian. How the 

distances were determined.

(6) In the case of a dependent resurvey, a 

statement to the effect that “Preliminary to 

the resurvey the lines of the official original 

survey(s) and resurvey(s) were retraced and 

search was made for all corners, lines, other 

calls of the record, and, where available, 

collateral evidence of local surveys and corners. 

Identified corners were remonumented in their 

original positions; lost corners were restored 

and monumented at proportionate positions 

based on the official record. The retracement 

data were thoroughly verified and only the true 

line field notes are given herein.”

(7) Descriptions of items that are repetitive in 

the body of the field notes are listed to provide 

conciseness to the field note record. These items 

are defined by notations, unless otherwise noted 

in the body of the field notes.

(8) The geographic position of two 

monumented corners of the survey, including 

the southeast township corner if practicable, the 

datum, and how the positions were determined.

(9) The observed magnetic declination, if any.

9-22. Each set of field notes needs to be organized by 

order of importance of the surveyed lines. The general 

format or order of writing field notes is as follows:

(1) State Boundaries

Abbreviations

9-20. The following abbreviations in table 9-1, especially suited to field notes of surveys, are permitted in 

the final transcript record, and are used when repetitions 

in the form of the record and the expressions used are 

such as to make the abbreviations readily understood. 

These abbreviations are in addition to those shown 

in chapter II for analytical notation of observations, 

and those shown in chapter IV for marks upon monuments. Some of these abbreviations, as appropriate, are 

employed upon the township plat. All abbreviations 

should be given capital or lower-case letters the same 

as would be proper if the spelling were to be completed. 

Not all abbreviations used in the past by the GLO/BLM 

are listed. Previous editions of the Manual should be 

consulted for historical abbreviations.

The Detailed Field Note Record

9-21. The introductory statement includes:

(1) The surveys encompassed in that set of 

field notes.

(2) The history of pertinent official surveys. 

The history of pertinent local surveys to the 

survey may be included.

(3) The description of unusual survey 

situations and special methods used.

(4) A statement that the survey was executed 

in accordance with specifications set forth in 

the Manual of Surveying Instructions (edition) 

and the special instructions.
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(2) Senior Grant and Reservation Boundaries

(3) Principal Meridians

(4) Base Lines

(5) Standard Parallels

(6) Guide Meridians

(7) Township Boundaries

Table 9-1. Abbreviations.

A acres

alt. altitude

a.m. forenoon

Am. amended

app. noon apparent noon

app. t. apparent time

asc. ascend

BM bench mark

bet. between

bdy., bdrs. boundary, boundaries

BLM Bureau of Land Management

ch., chs. chain, chains

cor., cors. corner, corners

corr. correction

decl. declination

dep. departure

desc. descend

diam. diameter

dir. direct

dist. distance, or distant

E. east

e.e. eastern elongation

elev. elevation

ft. foot, feet

frac. fractional

GLO General Land Office

Gr. Greenwich

GM guide meridian

hor. horizontal

h. hour, hours

h.a. hour angle

HES homestead entry survey

in., ins. inch, inches

lat. latitude

lk., lks. link, links

l.m. noon local mean noon

l.m.t. local mean time

log. logarithmic function

long. longitude

l.c. lower culmination

m. minute, minutes, (time)

meas. measurement

mer. meridian

Mi. Cor. mile corner

mkd. marked

M.S. mineral survey

N. north

NE northeast

NW northwest

No. number

obs. observe

obsn. observation

orig. original

PLSS public land survey system

p.m. afternoon

pt. point

Prin. Mer. principal meridian

R., Rs. range, ranges

red. reduction

rev. reverse

s. second, seconds, (time)

sec., secs. section, sections

S. south

SE southeast

SW southwest

sq. square

Stan. Par. standard parallel

sta. station

subd. subdivisional

temp. temporary

t. time

T., Tp., Tps. township, townships

u.c. upper culmination

USLM United States Location Monument

USMM United States Mineral Monument

U.S.S. United States Survey

vert. vertical

W. west

w.e. western elongation

x separating dimension values
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(a) South Boundary

(b) East Boundary

(c) West Boundary

(d) North Boundary

(8) Subdivisional Lines

(9) (Sectional and Governing Lines prior 

to remaining Section Lines, Original and 

Completion Surveys only)

(10) Subdivision of Sections

(a) N-S Center Line

(b) E-W Center Line

(c) In cases of the subdivision of the 

quarter sections or smaller parcels, the 

same pattern will be used, starting with the 

NE1⁄4 and proceeding clockwise around the 

section. All lines of the quarter section will 

be written before proceeding to the next 

quarter section.

(11) Meander Lines

(12) Other Auxiliary Survey Lines

Usually corrective resurveys are written first, followed 

by dependent resurveys and new surveys. New surveys 

will include original survey, independent resurvey, subdivision of sections, and the survey of tracts or other 

nonrectangular parcels. Any line to be intersected by 

another line, or connected to by another line, should be 

written and appear first. Deviations from the order of 

writing field notes are allowable and encouraged to satisfy requestor requirements.

9-23. A full description of all monuments to be recovered is furnished with the special instructions. Such 

monuments shall be completely described in the new 

record. However, it is not required that the markings on 

the brass cap of a properly marked regulation monument 

be repeated. A year date is not added, unless needed for 

identification purposes. If the year date is added, that 

information will be placed in the field notes showing a 

complete corner diagram. The description of an identified corner should follow the order given in section 

5-46. Examples of descriptions are shown in the specimen field notes.

9-24. When it is necessary to refer to a corner monument described in another set of field notes of concurrent 

resurveys, a reference is given to the particular field notes 

in which the description of that monument will be found. 

For example: “the cor. of secs. 3, 4, 33, and 34, on the N. 

bdy. of the Tp., previously described in the field notes of 

the dependent resurvey of the S. bdy. of T. 24 S., R. 3 W., 

surveyed concurrently under this group.”

The complete description of a monument is entered 

once only in a set of field notes. In subsequent pages 

of notes the expression “heretofore described” may be 

employed when referring to a point already occupied in 

the new survey. For example: “the cor. of secs. 2, 3, 10, 

and 11, heretofore described” or “the standard cor. of 

secs. 33 and 34, heretofore described” or “the cor. of 

secs. 5, 6, 31, and 32, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., heretofore 

described.”

9-25. In the record of an independent resurvey the field 

notes of the tract survey of each valid claim are preceded 

by an abstract of entries. A brief statement then follows 

concerning the principal factors controlling the location of the particular tract. This must include whether or 

not the claimant was consulted or communicated with 

in identifying the boundaries of the claim. The statement must be clear as to whether the location of a claim, 

shown either as a tract segregation or as conforming to 

the lines of the independent resurvey, was controlled by 

collateral evidence, or by one or more identified corners 

of the original survey, nearby or remotely located, or 

by its relation to adjoining tracts. In case all of the tract 

segregations within a township can be covered by one 

general statement, the same should appear at the beginning of the field notes of the tract surveys. The field 

notes should be made to account for each tract shown 

upon the land status diagram.

9-26. Historical references to the records of earlier surveys that form a portion or portions of the plat outline 

should be incorporated in the introductory statement of 

the field notes. This includes surveys performed by the 

county surveyor and other local surveys found acceptable for the identification of tract boundaries, etc.

9-27. It is important to standardize the writing of the 

field notes or retracements and the subdivision of sections, and to simplify the record so far as possible. In 

the majority of cases this can be done by adherence to 

the following rules:

(1) Complete descriptions are given in those 

cases where the retracement is not followed 

by dependent resurvey procedure or the 

subdivision of a section.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

(2) No detailed description of the retracement is 

required in the field notes when the retracement 

is followed by a dependent resurvey. In that case 

the procedure is described in the introductory 

statement, and the corner monumentation and 

lines (corrected to true lines) are described in 

the field notes of the dependent resurvey. When 

the section lines are retraced as a preliminary to 

subdivision of a section, it is usually necessary to 

dependently resurvey them in order to establish 

sixteenth-section corners on the section lines. 

When applicable, a statement should be made 

that line trees were searched for but not found.

(3) The directions and lengths of the true 

lines; the descriptions with respect to the calls 

of the field notes of prior official survey(s) 

regarding natural objects, stream crossings, 

principal slopes, and other topographic calls; 

the descriptions of the physical, collateral, 

and record evidence or testimony concerning 

lost, recovered, or local corners and their 

accessories; and all new monumentation 

are given in the field notes. The need for 

completeness of descriptions of natural 

features called in prior surveys increases as 

the obliteration of evidence of the locus of 

the prior survey increases. For a line such as 

a highway curve, a minimum of three items of 

curve data is required; radius, arc distance, and 

long chord bearing and distance. The central 

angle may also be included.

(4) The descriptions of closing, intersection, 

and corners of minimum control of the exterior 

and subdivisional surveys placed and found 

on the standard parallels or township exteriors 

where the record calls for two sets of corners, 

and similarly within partially subdivided 

townships where there are offsets to be dealt 

with, should be given in the field notes of 

the lines of the exterior or subdivisional survey 

that is being retraced or dependently resurveyed.

(5) The descriptions of closing, intersection, 

and corners of minimum control of the exterior 

and subdivisional surveys placed but not found 

on the standard parallels or township exteriors 

where the record calls for two sets of corners, 

and similarly within partially subdivided 

townships where there are offsets to be dealt 

with, should be given in the field notes of 

intersecting or terminating lines of the exterior 

or subdivisional survey that is being retraced or 

dependently resurveyed.

(6) When a closing, intersecting, or corner 

of minimum control is found that marks a 

line that is not being concurrently resurveyed, 

and is determined not to be on the exterior or 

subdivision survey that is being retraced or 

dependently resurveyed, a connecting course 

and distance and a complete description of the 

corner should be given in the field notes of the 

retracement or resurvey of the line closed upon. 

The corner point will be remonumented or 

perpetuated in such a matter that will secure its 

position for potential future utilization but not 

in a manner that could mislead innocent parties.

(7) When a closing, intersecting, or corner of 

minimum control is found and determined not 

to be on the exterior or subdivision survey that 

is being retraced or dependently resurveyed the 

new monument for a closing, intersecting, or 

corner of minimum control in those cases where 

required, will always be placed at the true point of 

intersection, after retracement of the intersecting 

line, and so stated clearly. An off-line monument 

will be remonumented, if necessary, marked 

AM, buried in place, connected by course and 

distance, and fully described in the field notes of 

the intersection line.

(8) Intermediate quarter-section corners between closing, intersecting, and corners of 

minimum control may be fully described in 

the field notes of the line being retraced or 

dependently resurveyed, or in the field notes of 

the closing section immediately following the 

description of the closing or intersecting line 

that completes the survey of the section. In the 

latter instance, a cross reference will be entered 

in the field notes of the retracement or resurvey 

of the line closed upon.

(9) The descriptions of the section, quartersection, and sixteenth-section corners on the 

section boundary lines, as required for the 

subdivision of a section, will be given in the 

field notes of the section boundaries.

(10) Random or trial lines are treated in 

a prefacing statement concerning the type 

of work to be performed, but no field-note 

statement of the detail is necessary.
294

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

(11) The descriptions of the center quartersection corner and the sixteenth-section 

corners within the section will be given in the 

field notes of the subdivision-of-section lines.

(12) Corner description only format of field 

notes may be authorized by special instructions 

when a determination has been made that the 

running line format is not necessary.

9-28. The character of the land, soil, and forest cover 

upon the lines surveyed will be summarized at the conclusion of the field notes of each mile, when required 

by special instructions. The record of the mile will 

be closed by a line drawn across the page. A general 

description of the surveyed area as a whole, with regard 

to topography, soil, forest cover, merchantable timber, 

native grasses, water supply and drainage, swamp and 

overflowed lands, minerals, settlement, land use, and 

improvements, should be supplied at the conclusion of 

the subdivisional notes. This general description for 

dependent resurveys need not be as expansive as that for 

original surveys. In the creation of the general description for original surveys, consideration should be given 

to sections 1-17, and sections 3-208 through 3-214.

9-29. Signed statements relating to the positions of 

lines or corners are placed in the field notes following 

the general description. The record of the names of the 

assistants and the certificates of the surveyor and of 

approval will take the forms given in the specimen field 

notes (section 6-21).

Certificates

9-30. The executive duties appertaining to the approval, 

acceptance, and filing of official surveys of the Federal 

lands are conducted under the supervision of the BLM 

Director, subject to the direction and control of the 

Secretary of the Interior (43 U.S.C. 2; Rev. Stat. 453; 25 

U.S.C. 176; Rev. Stat. 2115; 16 U.S.C. 472; 33 Stat. 628; 

43 U.S.C. 1731 note; 106 Stat. 1378; 43 U.S.C. 1737(c); 

90 Stat. 2766). It is proper for the Director, acting under 

this authority, to specify how surveys shall be made and 

field notes constructed.

The certificate of survey must state that the survey 

was executed under the direction of the assigned surveyor and in conformity with the special instructions, 

this Manual, and as described in the field notes. The 

certificate of approval must state the official approval 

of the field notes by the authorized official. The form 

and arrangement of the certificates are shown on the 

specimen field notes and should be followed so far as 

practicable on all field notes.

The originals are signed by the authorized official. If a 

copy of the original is prepared by a reproduction process after signature, a properly signed certificate of transcript is required for that record.

Reproduction and Distribution of Field Notes

9-31. A copy of the original field notes, designated as 

the duplicate original field notes, is produced using a 

medium that is high quality and archival. The duplicate original field notes are also referred to as “The 

Secretary of the Interior’s Copy” or the “Secretary’s 

Copy.” Descriptive Notes are no longer needed.

Triplicate original field notes, if needed, should be produced on a medium of a quality suitable for the use 

intended; e.g., regular quality paper, triplicate original field notes in instances where they will be used for 

updating other documents and then discarded, or archival quality triplicate original field notes where they are 

to be transferred to a State, local, Indian tribe, or Alaska 

native government that will use them as a permanent 

record. Extra and courtesy copies of the field notes produced on regular quality paper are made for official use.

9-32. Field notes are records vital to the mission of 

the BLM and are of permanent value to the Federal 

Government. The original field notes are permanently filed in the proper BLM state survey office, the 

duplicate original field notes are retained in the BLM 

Washington Office (44 U.S.C. 3101 and 3301). The 

original returns of current surveys within those States 

where the public survey offices have been discontinued 

and within the non-public land States are retained by 

the BLM Washington Office and currently filed at the 

BLM Eastern States Office at Springfield, Virginia. The 

duplicate original field notes and plats of such surveys 

are furnished to the proper State government offices, as 

noted in sections 1-32 and 1-33.

9-33. Copies will be transmitted to the entity that 

requested the survey. Courtesy copies of the field notes, 

in electronic format, must also be furnished or made 

available to others, as appropriate.

9-34. Upon official filing of a survey showing retracement or resurvey of a State boundary, copies of the field 

notes and plat will be provided to the appropriate State 

officials for each State with a letter stating the purpose 

of the retracement or resurvey.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

Notations, Amendments, and Corrections

9-35. Placing notations on filed field notes to alter, 

correct, or amend the official record is rarely necessary. Normally, the only notations needed are those that 

suspend field notes or a portion of the field notes, lift a 

suspension, or cancel field notes or a portion of the field 

notes when a corrective resurvey is filed.

Errors, if extensive enough to materially affect the survey, will be rectified by a corrective resurvey. Errors 

of a minor nature may not require a field note notation, as they usually do not materially affect the survey. 

Erroneous bearings and/or distances may be found in 

filed returns that do not materially affect the ground 

survey. Such errors may be corrected with amended 

field notes. Corrections of clerical errors must be documented, filed in the survey contract or group file, and a 

copy furnished to the custodian of the Secretary’s Copy.

Notations will be authorized by memorandum from 

the approving official. An explanation of the notation 

will be documented by a memorandum to the survey 

contract or group file. A copy of the memorandum will 

be sent to the custodian of the Secretary’s copy so the 

same notation can be placed on the duplicate original. 

Coordinating notations, if necessary, will be made to 

the plat.

Any official returns that require corrections involving 

line retracement or moving official corner monuments 

will result in a corrective resurvey plat and/or set of field 

notes, which, when accepted or approved, and filed, will 

supersede the erroneous portion of the official record.

Specimen Field Notes

9-36. In the specimen field notes there are shown the 

several forms of description of the approved types of 

corner monuments. The types that are employed ordinarily are given prominence, but those that are used in 

exceptional circumstances are included in order to supply a form of description. The indicated departures from 

the usual type of monumentation are not to be construed 

as an authorization to disregard the standard practice.

Other specimen field notes as needed to show the miscellaneous forms of record relating to a variety of surveys found in the usual work are available in the survey offices. A liberal assortment of such field notes and 

their accompanying plats should be on hand for reference, since the specimen field notes cannot cover every 

circumstance.

Plats

The Importance of the Plat

9-37. The plat is the drawing that represents the lines 

surveyed, established, retraced, or resurveyed, showing the direction and length of each line; the relation to 

the adjoining official surveys; the boundaries, description, and area of each parcel of the land; and, as far as 

practicable, the topography, culture, and improvements 

within the limits of the survey. Occasionally the plat 

may constitute the entire record of the survey, with the 

field notes being on the plat and is herein referred to as 

“notes on plat.”

9-38. The authority and jurisdiction of the 

Commissioner of the General Land Office, now the 

Director of the BLM, over the making of surveys, and 

specifically to require approval of those surveys, was 

recognized by the Supreme Court in United States v. 

Morrison, 240 U.S. 192 (1916). The Court stated that:

[I]t was competent for the Commissioner, 

acting within his authority, to direct how 

surveys should be made and to require that 

they should be subject to his examination and 

approval before they were filed as officially 

complete in the local land office.

The described system of survey approval is intended 

to ensure uniformity among survey methodologies and 

provide quality control.

9-39. Ordinarily an original survey of public lands 

does not ascertain boundaries, it creates them. The 

running of lines in the field and the platting of townships, sections, and legal subdivisions alone are not 

sufficient to constitute a survey. Until all conditions as 

to approval, acceptance, and filing have been complied 

with, the public lands are to be regarded as unsurveyed.

9-40. The public lands are not considered surveyed or 

identified until approval of the survey and filing of the 

plat in the administering land office by direction of the 

BLM. United States v. Cowlishaw, 202 F. 317 (1913). 

No subdivisions are to be “disposed of” until so identified. United States v. Hurlburt, 72 F.2d 427 (1934).

9-41. Although a survey may have been physically 

made, if it is disapproved by the authorized administrative officer, the public lands that were the subject of the 

survey are still classed as unsurveyed. In the event of a 
296

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

resurvey, although the field work may have been completed, if it is disapproved by the authorized administrative officer, the lands that were the subject of the 

resurvey are not classified as resurveyed.

9-42. The returns of a survey are prepared, approved, 

accepted, and filed in the appropriate BLM office on 

behalf of the Director, Bureau of Land Management. 

The survey only becomes official when it is officially 

filed on behalf of the Director by the appropriate Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor. Any necessary suspension or cancellation of a plat or survey shall be made by the same 

approving authority.

9-43. The legal significance of plat and field notes is 

set out in Alaska United Gold Mining Co. v. CincinnatiAlaska Mining Co., 45 Pub. Lands Dec. 330 (1916):

It has been repeatedly held by both State and 

Federal courts that plats and field notes referred 

to in patents may be resorted to for the purpose 

of determining the limits of the area that passed 

under such patents. In the case of Cragin v. 

Powell, 128 U.S. 691, 696 (1888), the Supreme 

Court said:

It is a well settled principle that when 

lands are granted according to an 

official plat of the survey of such lands, 

the plat itself, with all its notes, lines, 

descriptions and landmarks, becomes 

as much a part of the grant or deed by 

which they are conveyed, and controls 

so far as limits are concerned, as if such 

descriptive features were written out 

upon the face of the deed or the grant 

itself.

These legal principles apply to subsequent deeds of 

transfer related to the official plat.

9-44. Whether so stated in the conveyance document 

or not, the land description is understood to reference 

the latest appropriate official plat, generally, as of the 

date the right to the estate or interest vested. Every land 

description shall be in conformity with the referenced 

plat, i.e., the boundary lines of the subdivision, unit, 

lot, parcel, or tract being described shall be specifically 

delineated on that plat.

9-45. In cases where the lines are not designated as 

noted above, it shall be necessary to have a supplemental plat prepared, accepted, and filed before the conveyance document can be issued. This will often be the 

case for subdivision of lots, special survey parcels, or 

rights of way, for example.

9-46. The subdivisions are based upon and are defined 

by the monuments and other evidences of the controlling 

official survey. As long as these evidences are in existence, the record of the survey is an official exhibit and, 

presumably, correctly represents the actual field conditions. If there are discrepancies, the record shall give way 

to the evidence of the corners in place. This principle is 

set out in Ogilvie v. Copeland, 145 Ill. 98 (1893):

The field-notes and plat are assumed to be 

correct, until the contrary is shown, and they 

are important evidence in ascertaining where 

monuments are located; but if the location of the 

monument is clearly shown by other evidence to 

be at a distance different than that given in the 

field-notes and plat, they must give way.

9-47. In the absence of evidence, the field notes and 

plat are the best means of identification of the survey 

and they will retain this purpose. In the event of a resurvey they provide the basis for the dependent method and 

the control for fixing the boundaries of alienated lands 

by the independent method. When the alienated lands 

and the remaining Federal interest lands have been 

resurveyed, the plat of the resurvey becomes in turn the 

exhibit of the true conditions on the ground.

Specimen Plats

9-48. The specimen plats are representations of a variety of plats produced over the last several years designed 

to indicate many typical features. An effort has been 

made to secure maximum clarity of the essential features of the survey with a standardization of the lettering that refers to section numbers, lot numbers, areas, 

and lengths and directions of lines, in suitable styles, all 

in conformity with relative importance. The style of lettering that has been selected is intended to combine the 

greatest possible simplicity of execution with minimum 

liability of loss of definition in reproduction.

The specimen plats show the basis for computing areas. 

The distances noted in parentheses are the regular and 

excess or deficiency in measurement portions of lines 

that constitute the boundaries of the quarter-quarter 

sections and other legal subdivisions.

9-49. Parenthetical distances are employed where the 

record is not supplied by the field notes; the lengths indicate what was used in the calculation of areas. The same 

lengths are adopted proportionately in establishing 
297

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

sixteenth-section corners on the section boundaries and 

for control in the subdivision of sections. The distances 

given are parenthetical until they are actually run and 

marked.

9-50. Strictly speaking a plat is a base drawing stripped 

of every detail not essential to the identification of the 

subdivisions shown. The base drawing is drafted in 

permanent black ink. It portrays the lines of sections, 

subdivision of sections, and lines of segregation such 

as mineral or other claim boundaries, or meander lines, 

together with all text referring to title, names, memorandum, certificates, section numbers, lot numbers, areas, 

and lengths and directions of lines, as well as essential 

cultural features, important improvements, works, or 

structures, and topographic features, where required. A 

minimum of three items of curve data is depicted upon 

the plat; radius, arc distance, and long chord bearing and 

distance. The central angle may also be shown. Some 

plats include topographic and other mapping features.

The arrangement of data on all base drawings is made 

as nearly uniform as possible and in harmony with the 

specimen drawings, subject to modification where irregular lottings or a change of scale is made.

9-51. Sections 3-74 and 3-77 explain the plan for relating alienated irregular or nonrectangular claims, parcels, or tracts to the rectangular system as a basis for 

their segregation. Conditions vary where the claims, 

parcels, or tracts are numerous, particularly where there 

is a network of unpatented mining claims or patented 

mineral surveys to be segregated. The important plat 

feature is the resulting lottings. It is generally unnecessary to show the courses and distances of the interior 

boundaries of the mining claims or mineral surveys or 

their connections unless they affect the lotting, a mere 

outline being sufficient. Frequently this permits their 

complete showing on the base drawing.

Occasionally it is feasible to letter the number and name 

of each claim on the base drawing. More often this is 

impracticable, and serial numbers for the purpose of 

indexing only should be assigned to all segregated locations throughout the township and carried to a marginal 

table followed by the survey number and name of each 

location. When this is done only the serial numbers are 

shown on the face of the drawing.

Where a number of mining claims or mineral surveys 

are segregated, large scale drawings on additional sheets 

may be required for each of the sections invaded. An 

outline of the mineral surveys is shown on the base plat 

for the sections involved, and a marginal reference is 

made on the base drawing calling attention to the sheets 

upon which the segregations in the various sections may 

be found. In many instances an enlarged diagram on 

the base plat will obviate the necessity for an additional 

sheet. Figure 9-1 is an example of a drawing that should 

be shown as an enlarged diagram on the base plat.

9-52. The use of color on plats is generally not needed, 

but if used care should be taken that it not interfere 

with the overall plat readability, nor be required in 

order to properly interpret the plat. This is necessary 

to accommodate public and other users of the records 

whose primary access is by means of black and white 

reproductions.

Plat Preparation

9-53. The medium used for the original plat is to be of 

high quality and archival. Generally 2-ply Strathmore 

Drawing Bristol Board having a plate surface (slick 

surface), or equivalent, is used. Mylar material with a 

minimum thickness of 4 mils may also be used as long 

MC SMC

MC

AP1

AP4

AP8

AP7

AP6

AP5

AP2

AP3

MC

Sec. 7

Sec. 18

LAKE CITY

TOWNSITE

80

80

160

1

35.77

1

24.01

3

11.60

6

11.60

2

35.84

4

35.90

5

35.97

2

36.03

3

19.17

N.89°57’W.

N.89°57’W.

S.0°05’E.

S.0°05’E.

7.53

N.0°05’W.

40.01

80.02

40.01

40.00 40.00 20.19

N.89°57’W. 78.00

17.94

77.94

(20.00)

(20.00)

20.00 14.20 (5.80)

18.00 20.00 14.20 (5.80)

S.0°04’E.

S.0°05’E. 29.50

77.87

NORTH 80.0

0

N.0.05’W. 80.00

NORTH 31.75

( 17.87) (20.00)

(20.00) (20.00) (20.00) (20.00)

(20.00)

40.00

S.0°05’E. 40.00

(20.00)

(20.00) (20.00)

(20.00) (9.50)

(20.00) ( 11.75)

40.00

Figure 9-1. Enlarged diagram showing boundaries of Lake City Townsite 

(specimen original survey plat, appendix I).
298

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

as it is of archival quality. The inking on mylar is to be 

run through a process to assure the lettering is stable. 

The same requirements apply to supplemental plats and 

protraction diagrams.

Township plats are generally drawn on the scale of 

1 inch equals 40 chains, on sheets 18 x 24 inches with 

a minimum 1 inch margin on all sides. Some flexibility 

in the standard sheet size is allowed in order to accommodate filing devices, and the size of the borderline 

rectangle may also be varied slightly when necessary. 

Generally the drawing is placed to the left of the center 

of the sheet, thus allowing space for the memorandum 

and other data on the right side of the plat.

Plats showing smaller subdivisions, parcels, etc. may 

be drawn at a variety of scales. The selection of scale 

should be chosen to maximize the overall size of the 

surveyed area and allow ease of readability of any detail. 

In general, even scales are desirable, such as 20, 10, or 5 

chains per inch, or 1000, 500, 400, or 200 feet per inch.

Each plat or sheet of multiple sheet plats, should include 

the title, subtitle, north arrow, a bar or graphic scale stating the unit of measurement used on the plat, and the 

certificate of acceptance. Enlarged diagrams drawn to 

scale should also have separate graphics scales. Where 

necessary to indicate detail, an enlarged diagram may 

occasionally be drawn in an exaggerated form and 

accompanied by a “Not to Scale” notation.

9-54. In the past, plats were drawn manually and 

drafted as a plane, without allowance for reduction from 

the spheroid. However, the use of automated plat drafting systems accommodates drafting of the base drawing 

from any of a number of coordinate systems. This is 

acceptable as long as the plat, north arrow, and border 

lines are correctly oriented with reference to the true 

meridian. Bearings are stated in terms of angular measure referred to the true meridian as defined by the axis 

of the earth’s rotation and are mean bearings. Distances 

are stated as if measured at the mean elevation, and areas 

returned are computed at mean elevation. Exceptions 

will be clearly labeled.

For original surveys, regular townships are laid out as a 

rectangular grid, with allowance for the excess or deficiency in measurement along the north tier and west 

range of sections.

In the case of irregular townships, invaded townships 

containing meanderable bodies of water, irregular or 

nonrectangular claims, parcels, or tracts, the drawing 

should be laid out from the field note data duly balanced.

It is usually sufficient to show only the true line data on 

the plat when the field procedure results in ascertaining 

the course and length of the lines being established.

9-55. Plats of entire townships show the complete condition of all exteriors, including closing and standard 

township and section corners, with connecting courses 

and distances (figure 9-2). The connecting courses and 

distances are omitted where the scope of the work is not 

sufficient to determine the relationship accurately.

A line common to two townships is drawn with equal 

completeness for both in cases where the two are surveyed concurrently and shown on separate plats. The 

relative position of and the data for nearby corners of 

one or two townships and township corners established 

at intersection are shown. Corners of maximum control 

are shown only as referring to the subdivisional survey 

on that plat. Separate diagrams of township exteriors 

are not required when the townships are subdivided.

9-56. The boundary of a State, surveyed reservation, 

or private land grant is lettered on the plat, and connecting bearings and distances are shown from line 

intersections to the mile posts. The tie to a geodetic 

reference monument from a monumented corner of 

the survey must show the datum, mean bearing, and 

ground distance, unless labeled otherwise.

9-57. Where only a portion of a township is being 

surveyed, the condition of the adjacent areas is shown 

clearly by words lettered thereon, such as “Unsurveyed,” 

“Rancho San Luis,” “Surveyed by John Smith, 1877,” 

“Resurveyed by Susan Acres, 1999,”and “Waste Lava 

Bed.”

9-58. On plats of fragmentary surveys, areas previously surveyed do not have the sections and lots drawn 

in unless needed to show the relation of the old and new 

work along the common boundary. When the configuration and identification of adjacent parcels is necessary they may be depicted with “ghost” or dotted line 

work and lettering.

9-59. The line of demarcation between areas previously counted in the total acreage surveyed or resurveyed and the new surveys is distinctly shown. A light 

diagonal shading with black ink on the side previously 

surveyed is recommended to distinguish such a line.

9-60. Each regular section in an original survey plat 

shows the center lines only and the area as 640 acres. 

In other sections where lottings are required, each subdivision must be distinctly shown. Where a section 
299

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

contains one or more lots, its aliquot parts show the 

usual areas as 40, 80, or 160 acres; the lots each show 

the assigned lot number and are computed to the nearest 0.01 acre. The total area of public/Federal land 

within each irregular section is shown as equal to the 

sum of the several parts, as identified by the plat, disregarding parts omitted. Parcels having a rounded acreage of less than 0.01 acre should be shown as having 

0.01 acre. Square footage of a parcel may be shown as 

an additional exhibit.

The complete technique of laying out the regular and 

other subdivisions of sections and the designations of 

the same by reference to aliquot parts and serial lot 

numbers is covered by sections 3-99 through 3-137.

9-61. On plats that show the completion of sections, 

particularly where parts have been shown as outlying 

areas protracted as surveyed (sections 3-83 through 

3-96), it is the practice, where irregular conditions are 

found on the ground and no entries have been made, to 

supersede the showing on the former plat. The special 

instructions should provide that such unentered, protracted subdivisions need not be protected, thus simplifying the execution and platting of the new surveys.

Computation of Areas

9-62. In the computation of areas on original surveyed 

townships the deficiency in area that results from the 

convergency of meridians is placed normally in the lots 

adjoining the west boundary of the township. Sections 7, 

18, 19, 30, and 31 each usually contains lots 1 to 4, inclusive, whose meridional dimensions are all an even 20.00 

chains; the dimensions of the latitudinal boundaries of 

these lots are computed proportionately from the excess 

or deficiency in measurement ascertained on the section 

lines. The area, in acres of each lot, is then found simply 

by adding the lengths, in chains, of its north and south 

boundaries. All parenthetical distances will be shown 

on the plat.

It is also acceptable to compute acreage, particularly on 

dependent resurvey plats, with automated methods as 

described in sections 9-69 and 9-70.

9-63. For example, taking section 30, shown on the 

specimen original survey plat, appendix I, the dimensions of the latitudinal boundaries and the areas are 

found as follows:

(1) (2) (3) (4)

N. 18.25 18.28 18.31 18.34 chs.

S. 18.28 18.31 18.34 18.37 chs. 

36.53 36.59 36.65 36.71 acres

The areas of lots 5, 6, and 7, section 6, are ascertained 

similarly, making due allowance, when calculating the 

length of the north boundary of lot 5, for any material 

variation from 20.00 chains in the meridional dimension of lot 4.

Figure 9-2. A plat showing two sets of corners on an irregular township 

boundary.

N.89°48’W. 86.02

N.0°25’W. 83.1

0

N.0°09’W. 41.4

6 N.0°37’W. 40.1

0 N.0°14’W. 41.3

4 N.0°28’W. 41.4

8

N .0°0 3 ’ W. N .0°0 3 ’ W. N .0°0 3 ’ W. 8 0. 0

0 8 0. 0

0 8 0. 0

0

80 .1

2

(26.02)

41.55

41.55

(20.00) (40.00)

(25.46) (20.00) 40.00

N.89°48’W. 85.46

(24.96) (20.00) 40.00

(24.50) (20.00) 40.00

West 84.96

West 84.50

1

51.90

2

51.62

3

51.34

4

51.06

1

50.88

2

50.79

3

50.55

4

50.13

1

49.80

2

49.58

3

49.34

4

49.12

80 160

80 160

80 160

80 160

80 160

80 160

Sec. 19

685. 92

Sec. 30

682. 35

Sec. 31

677. 84

Sec. 24

Sec. 25

T. 21 S., R. 11 E.

T. 21 S., R. 12 E.

Sec. 36

2.98 1.49 1.31 1.26 2.65 4.18

T. 22 S., R. 11 E. T. 22 S., R. 12 E.
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Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

9-64. An alternative method would be to determine the 

difference between the distances of the north and south 

boundaries of the section. This can then be divided by 

the total distance along the west boundary of the same 

section, times the length of each segment (quarter distance) of said boundary to give an amount to either be 

added to or subtracted from the distance on either the 

north or south boundaries of the sections to obtain the 

measurements to be used for the area computation.

9-65. The surplus or deficiency in area that results 

from the discrepancy in the meridional measurements 

between the exterior boundaries and the subdivisional 

lines is placed normally in the lots adjoining the north 

boundary of the township.

Sections 1 through 5 each usually contains lots 1 through 

4, whose dimensions on their latitudinal boundaries 

are all treated as an even 20.00 chains; the meridional 

dimensions of these lots and their areas are computed 

on the plan heretofore described for the lots adjoining 

the west boundary of the township.

9-66. The areas of lots 1, 2, and 3, section 6, are ascertained similarly, making due allowance when calculating the length of the west boundary of lot 3, for the 

departure across lot 4, where more or less than 20.00 

chains. The area of lot 4, section 6, in acres, equals the 

product of its mean dimensions in chains, divided by 10.

9-67. The following is an example of ascertaining the 

areas of the regular lots in section 6, shown on the specimen original survey plat, appendix I:

(1) (2) (3) (4)

E. 20.02 20.015 20.01 20.005 chs.

W. 20.015 20.01 20.005 20.000 chs. 

40.035 40.025 40.015 acres

40.03(+) 40.03(−) 40.01(+) acres

20.003 mean

(5) (6) (7)

N. 17.78 17.81 17.84 17.75 chs.

S. 17.81 17.84 17.87 17.78 chs. 

35.59 35.65 35.71 acres

17.765 mean

 2.0003 x 17.765 = 35.535 acres

35.53(+) acres

9-68. In irregular sections and in sections that are invaded 

by meanderable bodies of water, or by lines of segregation, 

the center lines of the section and the center lines of each 

quarter section in turn are given calculated values based 

upon the balanced data obtained from the field note record 

or the best available raw field data. Points of intersection 

of the center lines with the meander lines or other lines of 

segregation are then computed in order to complete the 

boundaries of each irregular lot. With the results of these 

computations at hand the area of each irregular lot may be 

most readily computed by the method of “double meridian 

distances” (D.M.D.).

9-69. The method used to perform automated computation should follow the D.M.D. method. This method 

is described in many textbooks and is preferred to 

avoid large errors that can arise from coordinate based 

methods.

In order to compute an area by D.M.D., the closing error 

of the figure is eliminated, or the traverse of its boundary 

is balanced, by the compass rule. This rule restated is 

that the correction to be applied to the of 

any course is to the total error in as the 

length of the course is to the perimeter of the figure. This 

adjustment is based upon the record data. It is not necessary to attempt to correct the figure closure for apparent 

misclosure due to convergency of the meridians.

The D.M.D. of the several courses are then computed by 

the following rules:

(1) The D.M.D. of the first course equals the 

departure, or the increment in easting or westing, 

of the course itself;

(2) The D.M.D. of the second course, and each 

of the succeeding courses in turn, is ascertained 

by taking the D.M.D. of the preceding course, 

plus the departure of the preceding course, plus 

the departure of the course itself; and,

(3) The D.M.D. of the last course is numerically 

equal to its departure, but with opposite sign, thus 

verifying the value of each preceding D.M.D.

For convenience in making the computations, 

the differences in to the 

 are treated as of positive sign, to the 

 as of negative sign.

The next step is to multiply the latitude of each course 

by the D.M.D. of the course; the positive products are 

arranged in a column for “north areas,” and the negative 

latitude

departure

latitude

departure

latitude

departure

{ }

{ }

{ }

{ }

{ }

north

east

south

west
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

products in a column for “south areas.” The sum of the 

negative products is subtracted from the sum of the positive products. The area, corresponding to the unit of 

measurement that is employed, is ascertained by taking 

one-half of the last result. Where the unit of measurement is the chain, the area in square chains is divided by 

10 to give the area in acres.

Examples of D.M.D. calculations are shown in tables 

9-2 through 9-5.

9-70. The use of computer software and automated 

drafting systems affords a fast method of calculating the 

area of irregular land and water forms. In all cases the 

data used in the area computation must be the same as 

that used and depicted as record on the plat and in the 

field notes. Care must be taken to assure that computation of area is not based upon unrounded or preliminary 

field data, grid data, etc. For example, an area of a figure 

is easily obtained directly from many automated mapping systems utilizing State plane, Universal Transverse 

Mercator (UTM) or other projected coordinate systems, 

yet if the base drawing is derived from rounded field 

data, the areas thus computed can vary considerably 

from the record.

Inking the Drawing

9-71. High quality permanent ink should always be 

employed. The lettering should be sharp and clear, uniform in density of color, and the lettering standardized 

as to gage and style (figure 9-3).

Another important consideration is the size and density 

of information shown. Currently many public and other 

users of the records access them via microfilm and other 

imaging, scanning, and reproduction technologies. No 

text fonts or symbols of a very small size should be used 

that would make photocopied, microfilmed, or scanned 

images of the item illegible.

The arrangement of some of the more minute data on 

the specimen plats illustrates the minimum to which the 

work may be condensed safely. Attention is directed to 

the space allowed between the lettering and the adjacent 

lines; this is never less than the space between the upper 

Latitudes Departures Totals

No. Course Distance North South East West D.M.D. N. areas S. areas Lat. N. Dep. E.

Tie N. 71° 30’ E 21.45 6.81 20.34 6.81 20.34

5 S. 86° 46’ E. 3.20 0.18 3.195 4.725 0.85 6.62 23.52

4 N. 33° 00’ E. 2.20 1.845 1.20 9.12 16.825 8.465 24.72

3 N. 48° 30’ W. 3.50 2.32 2.62 7.70 17.865 10.785 22.10

2 S. 61° 15’ W. 2.90 1.395 2.54 2.54 3.545 9.39 19.56

1 S. 16° 30’ E. 2.70 2.59 0.765 0.765 1.98 6.80 20.33

4.165 4.165 5.16 5.16 34.69 6.375

6.375

14.50 4.165 4.165 5.16 5.16 28.315 Double area.

D.M.D.

Begin total lats. and deps. at M.C. on 

W. bdy. sec. 19, for purposes of platting.

(1) 0.765 9.12 (4)

14.16 Square chains. 

 1.42 Acres +0.765 +1.20

+3.195 – 2.62

Numbering of courses as taken from field 

notes, order reversed to counterclockwise.

(5) 4.725 7.70 (3) Begin D.M.D. at angle point of meanders 

farthest west, end of course No. 2 running 

SW., or end of course No. 1 running NW.

+3.195 – 2.62

+1.20 – 2.54

(4) 9.12 2.54 (2)

Table 9-2. Calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Diamond Rock, in Lins Lake, in section 18 (see specimen original survey field notes and plat, appendix I).
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Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

Latitudes Departures

No. Course Distance North South East West D.M.D. N. areas S. areas

South 19.72 19.72

S. 89° 57’ E. 20.00 0.02 20.00 20.00 0.40

North 23.20 23.20 40.00 928.00

1 S. 85° 00’ W. 13.00 1.13 12.95 27.05 30.57

2 S. 72° 00’ W. 7.10 2.19 6.75 7.35 16.10

3 S. 64° 30’ W. 0.33 0.14 0.30 0.30 0.04

23.20 23.20 20.00 20.00 928.00 47.11

47.11

880.89

44.04 Lot 5

South 9.04 9.04

S. 89° 57’ E. 20.00 0.02 20.00 20.00 0.40

North 19.72 19.72 40.00 788.80

3 S. 64° 30’ W. 12.67 5.45 11.43 28.57 155.71

4 S. 40° 30’ W. 5.40 4.11 3.51 13.63 56.02

5 S. 77° 45’ W. 5.18 1.10 5.06 5.06 5.57

19.72 19.72 20.00 20.00 788.80 217.70

217.70

571.10

28.55 Lot 6

Table 9-3. Calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., right bank of Yellowstone River, in section 25 (see specimen original survey field notes and plat, appendix I).

Table 9-4. Calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., section 25, lots 5 and 6 (see specimen original survey field notes and plat, appendix I).

Latitudes Departures Totals

No. Course Distance North South East West D.M.D. N. areas S. areas Lat. N. Dep. E.

S. 0° 01’ E. 5.32 5.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

S. 89° 57’ E. 80.00 0.07 80.00 80.00 5.60 – 0.07 80.00

North 23.20 23.20 160.00 3,712.00 23.13 80.00

 --------------------------

1 S. 85° 00’ W. 13.00 1.13 12.95 147.05 166.17 22.00 67.05

2 S. 72° 00’ W. 7.10 2.19 6.75 127.35 278.90 19.81 60.30

3 S. 64° 30’ W. 13.00 5.60 11.73 108.87 609.67 14.21 48.57

4 S. 40° 30’ W. 5.40 4.11 3.51 93.63 384.82 10.10 45.06

5 S. 77° 45’ W. 7.00 1.49 6.84 83.28 124.09 8.61 38.22

6 N. 76° 00’ W. 7.40 1.79 7.18 69.26 123.97 10.40 31.04

7 S. 80° 00’ W. 12.00 2.08 11.82 50.26 104.54 8.32 19.22

8 S. 81° 07’ W. 19.45 3.00 19.22 19.22 57.66 5.32 0.00

24.99 24.99 80.00 80.00 3,835.97 1,731.45

1,731.45

84.35 24.99 24.99 80.00 80.00 2,104.52 Double area.

Begin traverse and D.M.D. at M.C. on W. bdy. of sec. 25. 1,052.26 Square chains.

Begin total lats. and deps. at point for S. 1/16 sec. cor. on W. bdy. of 

sec. 25, for purposes of platting.

 105.23 Acres, sum of lots 5 to 8, incl.

Numbering of courses as taken from field notes.
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

two points of the gage for the lettering; this is the rule 

where the drawing is to be reproduced at the same scale; 

proportionately more space should be allowed on special drawings where a reduction of scale is to be made 

on reproduction. The same safeguards should be applied 

in spacing the adjoining letters, and it will be noted that 

the spacing between letters bears a definite relation to 

the gage employed.

9-72. Corner symbols have been standardized (table 

9-6). If corner symbols are used, a legend on the plat is 

necessary:

Lettering

9-73. Generally all letters and figures are drafted in 

pure Gothic style. The use of automated drafting systems makes this relatively easy, but care should be taken 

to use a font or character set that is consistent with that 

shown on the specimen plats. Of particular concern are 

well formed and distinguishable numbers and symbols 

such as the degrees symbol. It is generally preferable 

to show data that is in tables with a mono-spaced font 

so that the data is aligned vertically. All other lettering 

should be of proportionally spaced type for the best and 

most efficient appearance. The specimen plats and other 

illustrations of the Manual should provide a guide to the 

appropriate uses of both slanted and vertical lettering.

Figure 9-3 shows the usual styles and sizes to be followed in preparing a plat on the scale of 1 inch equals 

40 chains; the number of the guide refers to thousandths 

of an inch. The guidelines contained in figure 9-3 apply 

to a full township plat, and will be varied appropriately 

for other scales. While some may consider the need to 

control line weights and letter sizes as an unnecessary 

No.

Latitudes Departures

Course Distance North South East West D.M.D. N. areas S. areas

S. 0° 01’ E. 8.48 8.48

S. 89° 57’ E. 20.00 0.02 20.00 20.00 0.40

North 9.04 9.04 40.00 361.60

5 S. 77° 45’ W. 1.82 0.39 1.78 38.22 14.91

6 S. 76° 00’ W. 7.40 1.79 7.18 29.26 52.37

7 S. 80° 00’ W. 11.21 1.94 11.04 11.04 21.42

10.83 10.83 20.00 20.00 413.97 36.73

36.73

377.24

18.86 Lot 7

S. 0° 01’ W. 5.32 5.32

S. 89° 57’ E. 20.00 0.02 20.00 20.00 0.40

N. 0° 01’ W. 8.48 8.48 40.00 339.20

7 S. 80° 00’ W. 0.79 0.14 0.78 39.22 5.49

8 S. 81° 07’ W. 19.45 3.00 19.22 19.22 57.66

8.48 8.48 20.00 20.00 339.20 63.55

63.55

275.65

13.78 Lot 8

Table 9-5. Calculations of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., section 25, lots 7 and 8 (see specimen original survey field notes and plat, appendix I).

Plat corner symbols.

∆ Control Station

 Original Corner

 Original Corner Remonumented

 Local Corner Accepted

 Local Corner Monumented

 Proportioned Point

 Proportioned Point Remonumented or New 

Corner Monumented

No symbol or tick mark - Point Not 

Monumented
304

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

Figure 9-3. Lettering styles used on a full township plat.

True Meridia

n

Description

Plat Heading 240 - 0.80mm

175 - 0.60mm

80 - 0.30mm

120 - 0.35mm

100 - 0.25mm

60 - 0.18mm

80 - 0.18mm

80 - 0.18mm

Subtitle

North Arrow

Section Number

Area (section)

Lot Numbers & Area

Bearing

Distance

Lettering Style

TOWNSHIP I NORTH

DEPENDENT RESURVEY

SUPPLEMENTAL PLAT

Sec. 16

160, 639.54

10 39.95

Guide - Pen Size

N.8 9°58 ’ W.

7 9. 9 5
305

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

10 0 20 40

Scale in Chains

60 80

Description

Witness Corner 60 - 0.18mm

80 - 0.25mm

100 - 0.30mm

100 - 0.30mm

80 - 0.25mm

80 - 0.25mm

80 - 0.25mm

80 - 0.25mm

60 - 0.18mm

60 - 0.25mm

140 - 0.50mm

120 - 0.35mm

80 - 0.25mm

80 - 0.25mm

Proper Names

Descriptive Names

Hydrographic Names

Mineral Survey

Lode or Placer Name

Scale

Extra Sheets

Jurisdictional

Lines

Control Station

Guide Meridian

Standard Parallel

Sectional Correction

Line

Geographic Position

Lettering Style Guide - Pen Size

LAKE CITY TOWNSITE

STATE BOUNDARY LINE

INDIAN RESERVATION BOUNDARY

MILITARY RESERVATION BOUNDARY

Ivy Island, Alkali Flat

M.S. No. 2053

ROUNDUP 1942

U. S. C. & G. S.

NORTH PEAK 1957

U. S. G. S.

Latitude

Longitude (NAD 83)

NUGGET

W. C .,N.0°05 ’ W. ,0. 5 0

YELLOW RIVER

SHEET 1 OF 3

FIRST GUIDE MERIDIAN EAST

SECOND STANDARD PARALLEL SOUTH

Clear Lake

Canal, Spring, Aqueduct, Clear Cr.

CORRECTION LINE

140 - 0.50mm

100 - 0.30mm

48° 17’ 46.753” N.

121° 35’ 15.581” W.
306

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

aesthetic exercise, in fact the use of varying sizes and 

styles of lettering is designed to allow easier interpretation of the plat. In this regard a general rule to follow is 

to graduate both the line weight and width and the lettering size based upon the hierarchy of the line, graduating to more fine line work and smaller lettering on the 

most minor subdivisions.

The judicious use of line weights or widths and different 

sizes of lettering is recommended as discussed above. 

The weight of line work has historically been determined by standard drafting pen widths. In the movement to automated systems, line widths may be produced by alternative methods and drafting pen sizes are 

currently available in metric sizes.

While different manufacturers have different equivalents, table 9-7 provides an example of conversion useful in the charts.

Table 9-7. Line weight conversions.

Pen Size Typical Metric Widths

0000 or 4x0 .18mm

000 or 3x0 .25mm

00 .30mm

0 .35mm

1 .50mm

2 .60mm

2.5 .70mm

3 .80mm

3.5 1.00mm

Care should be taken as to what items are to be indicated with slant lettering versus vertical lettering, and 

the specimen plats serve as a guide for this. In general 

dimensions, road and river names are in slanted lettering. Consistency is important in providing a readable 

and understandable product for public use.

At this stage of the drafting work attention should be 

given to the showing of the directions and lengths of 

all necessary connecting lines, in addition to the data 

that ordinarily appears on the section boundaries. The 

requirements are set out in sections 3-40, 3-77, 3-188 

and 3-189, 3-198, and 4-16. Additional sheets, drawn to 

a larger scale, are used to show the detail of complicated 

situations (figure 9-1 and section 9-51).

Topography

9-74. Generally only the most essential topographic 

data need be shown upon the plat. Some plats may not 

require the showing of any topography, others may 

require the showing of many different features, where 

the drawing in addition to being a plat may be a complete topographic map. The topographic map features 

are delineated by the standard symbols adopted by 

the U.S. Geological Survey.1 A summary of what is 

required is contained in section 3-222.

In the preparation of the drawing the first question to be 

considered, after the completion of the base and before 

adding the topography, is how the important map features are to be shown without obscuring the base data. 

In simple cases all work may be done readily in black 

ink on the base drawing. Good judgment should be exercised regarding what is essential, and how the essential 

things may be shown without unwarranted cost.

9-75. Any needed map features or groups of features 

are usually delineated upon the base drawing in black 

ink (table 9-8).

Table 9-8. Map features delineated as simple drawings, all black.

Low relief Black hachure.

Roads and highways Black lines, parallel.

Trail Black line, broken.

Culture Black pattern.

Alkali flats Black depression-contour and 

pattern.

Sand dunes Black pattern.

Water surface, large rivers 

and lakes

Black meander line, without water 

lines.

Minor drainage Black line, or broken line and dots.

Wide sandy bottomed 

draws

Black pattern.

Ponds Black pattern.

Marsh Black pattern.

Timber Marginal note.

9-76. The availability of well-prepared topographic 

maps of much of the Federal land area makes it less 

important to show upon the plat all of the detail relating 

to topography, culture, and improvements. However, it 

is still necessary to show the major items of topography and improvements in their correct relationship, 

especially close to corners of the survey and items of 

topography and improvements returned in the original 

survey.

1 Standard symbol sheet may be obtained from the Director, U.S. 

Geological Survey, Reston, VA 20192, www.usgs.gov.
307

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

The special instructions for each survey should outline 

any exceptional methods to be employed in the field in 

obtaining topographic data. The field sketch plat should 

represent the situation on the ground with an accuracy 

in details that reflects the practical relative importance.

Occasionally, in connection with dependent resurveys, 

for example, the development of map data may even 

precede other parts of the survey work. The map data 

may be valuable in making searches for and restorations of lost or obliterated corners and for locating 

roads, improvements, and cultivated tracts upon patented and entered lands. The map features of the plat 

are also important in certain classes of surveys within 

Indian and forest reservations, coal fields, mineral 

areas, waterpower sites, reservoir sites, irrigation projects, swamp and overflowed lands, and other regions of 

relatively large prospective value.

9-77. The names of natural features must be given 

according to accepted usage. Surveyors are not authorized to report names of their own selection, but in case 

of doubt may submit the question through official channels to the United States Board on Geographic Names.

Titles and Subtitles

9-78. Every plat is given a title similar to that on the 

specimen plats. This shows the township, range, meridian, and the State. Plats showing the original subdivision 

of only a portion of a township are usually given a similar title for the sake of simplicity. Supplemental plats, 

plats of fragmentary subdivisional surveys, and resurvey plats are given an appropriate subtitle to qualify the 

nature of the survey. The title and date of acceptance and 

filing usually suffice to identify the plat. The subtitle, if 

employed, explains the special purpose of the plat.

9-79. A subtitle is modeled after one of the following 

forms:

(1) Supplemental Plat

(2) Four Islands in Burntside Lake

(3) Extension Survey

(4) Dependent Resurvey

(5) Independent Resurvey

(6) Survey of Omitted Lands

(7) Survey of Accretion Lands

(8) Survey of Tracts 37 and 38

(9) Subdivision of Sections

(10) Survey of Hiatus

(11) Survey of the Moore Coal Mine

(12) Poplar Townsite

(13) Segregation Survey

(14) Protracted Township

(15) Corrective Dependent Resurvey

Only the main purpose of the plat is included in the subtitle. The detail is carried in the memorandum.

Memorandum

9-80. A memorandum is required on each plat to correlate and consolidate the record of the existing surveys so far as shown on that plat. This memorandum 

will have a wide variety of references. The simple form 

shown on the specimen plats are extended as required.

The memorandum will state that the corner descriptions 

and other relevant information is contained in the field 

notes. Where the plat represents the entire record of the 

survey, a statement to that effect will be placed on the 

plat.

9-81. A north arrow symbol is shown to indicate the 

line of the true meridian. The mean magnetic declination over the area surveyed, when determined, is shown 

at the base of the north arrow (section 3-223(15)).

The latitude and longitude are shown for any corner and 

lettered on the plat at that point. The level of precision 

shown should be indicative of the best available data 

(section 2-32).

Each plat of an original survey carries a note of the 

total area surveyed, derived by taking the sum of all 

sectional-total areas that are identified by that plat. If 

resurveys are involved the rule is stated in sections 

9-122 and 9-146.

The scale of the plat is shown by means of a bar scale.

Certifications

9-82. The executive duties appertaining to the 

approval, acceptance, and filing of official surveys of 
308

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

the Federal interest lands are conducted under the supervision of the Director, Bureau of Land Management, 

subject to the direction and control of the Secretary of 

the Interior (43 U.S.C. 2; Rev. Stat. 453; 25 U.S.C. 176; 

Rev. Stat. 2115; 16 U.S.C. 472; 33 Stat. 628; 43 U.S.C. 

1731 note; 106 Stat. 1378; 43 U.S.C. 1737(c); 90 Stat. 

2766). It is proper for the Director, acting under this 

authority, to specify how surveys shall be made and 

plats constructed.

The certificate shows official acceptance of the survey 

as represented on the plat. The form and arrangement of 

the certificate of acceptance are shown on the specimen 

plats and should be followed so far as practicable on all 

plats. The date of official filing will be on the face of 

the plat.

For notes on plat returns, the certificate will be modified 

to read:

The survey represented by this plat, having 

been correctly executed in accordance with the 

requirements of law and the regulations of this 

Bureau, is hereby accepted.

For the Director

Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Alaska

The original is signed by the authorized official. If a 

copy of the original is prepared by a reproduction process after signature, a properly signed certificate of transcript is required for that record.

Reproduction and Distribution of Plats

9-83. A copy of the original plat, designated as the 

duplicate original plat is produced using a medium that 

is high quality and archival, see section 9-53. The duplicate original plat is also referred to as “The Secretary of 

the Interior’s Copy” or the “Secretary’s Copy.”

A triplicate original plat, if needed, should be produced 

on a medium of a quality suitable for the use intended; 

e.g., regular quality paper, triplicate original plat in 

instances where they will be used for updating other 

documents and then discarded, or archival quality triplicate original plat where they are to be transferred to a 

State, local, Indian tribe, or Alaska native government 

that will use them as a permanent record. Extra and 

courtesy copies of the plats produced on regular quality 

paper are made for other uses.

9-84. Cadastral survey plats, including supplemental 

plats and protraction diagrams, are records vital to the 

mission of the BLM and are of permanent value to the 

Federal Government (44 U.S.C. 3101 and 3301). The 

original plats, supplemental plats, and protraction diagrams are officially filed in the proper BLM state survey office; the duplicate original plats and protraction 

diagrams are retained in the Washington Office. The 

original returns of current surveys within those States 

where the public survey offices have been discontinued 

and within the non-public land States are retained by 

the BLM Washington Office and currently filed at the 

BLM Eastern States Office at Springfield, Virginia. The 

duplicate original plats and field notes of such surveys 

are furnished to the proper State government office, as 

noted in sections 1-32 and 1-33.

9-85. Copies will be transmitted to the entity that 

requested the survey. Courtesy copies of the plat(s), in 

electronic format, must be furnished or made available 

to others, as appropriate.

9-86. Upon official filing of a plat showing a retracement, resurvey, or protraction diagram adjoining a State 

boundary, copies of the plat and field notes will be provided to the appropriate State officials with a letter stating the purpose of the retracement, resurvey, or protraction diagram.

Notations, Amendments, and Corrections

9-87. Placing notations on filed plats and protraction 

diagrams to alter, correct, or amend the official record 

is rarely necessary. Normally, the only notations needed 

are those that suspend a plat or a portion of a plat, lift a 

suspension, or cancel a plat or a portion of a plat when a 

corrective resurvey plat is filed.

Errors, if extensive enough to materially affect the survey, will be rectified by a corrective resurvey. Errors of a 

minor nature may not require a plat notation, as they usually do not materially affect the survey. Erroneous bearings and/or distances may be found in filed returns that 

do not materially affect the ground survey. Such errors 

may be corrected with an amended plat. Corrections of 

clerical errors will be documented and filed in the survey contract or group file, and a copy furnished to the 

custodian of the Secretary’s Copy.

Notations must be authorized by memorandum from 

the approving official. An explanation of the notation 

will be documented by a memorandum to the survey 

contract or group file. A copy of the memorandum will 
309

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

be sent to the custodian of the Secretary’s Copy so the 

same notation can be placed on the duplicate original. 

Coordinating notations, if necessary, will be made to 

the field notes.

Any official returns that require corrections involving line retracement or moving official corner monuments will result in a corrective resurvey plat and/or 

set of field notes, which, when accepted or approved, 

and filed, will supersede the erroneous portion of the 

official record.

Supplemental Plats

9-88. A supplemental plat is prepared entirely from 

office records and is designed to show a modified subdivision of one or more sections without change in the 

section boundaries and without other modification of 

the subsisting official record.

9-89. Supplemental plats are required where the subsisting plat fails to provide units suitable for administration or disposal, or where a modification of its 

showing is necessary. They are also required to show 

the segregation of alienated lands from Federal interest lands where the former are included in irregular or 

nonrectangular surveys of patented mineral or other 

private claims made subsequent to the plat of the subsisting survey or where the segregation of the claims 

was overlooked at the time of its approval.

9-90. When it is anticipated that lands will be subdivided into aliquot parts of less than 21⁄2-acres, a 

supplemental plat should be prepared and lot numbers 

assigned. Legal descriptions by aliquot part will not go 

beyond a four component description. In theory, aliquot 

parts can be divided ad infinitum. However the lengthy 

descriptions that result from this practice tend to invite 

error in the preparation of documents and in recordation. 

It also further complicates the maintenance and interpretation of the land records. For example, a 5-acre unit 

described as the S1⁄2NE1⁄4NW1⁄4SE1⁄4 is acceptable, as is 

a 21⁄2-acre unit described as the SE1⁄4NE1⁄4NE1⁄4SW1⁄4. 

Aliquot parts of 11⁄4-acre or less described with five 

components or more, e.g., the W1⁄2SE1⁄4NE1⁄4SW1⁄4SE1⁄4 

are unacceptable.

9-91. All supplemental plats will show a proper reference to the former plat, the purpose of and the authority for the preparation, and all essential data, without 

unnecessary duplication of that carried by the former 

plat. The scale of the supplemental plat may be enlarged 

to 1 inch equals 10 or 20 chains, as appropriate.

9-92. The new lots are numbered as required in sections 3-96 and 3-110, and proper areas returned. The 

areas of the lots are computed from the subsisting record, 

including the data derived by retracements where field 

work is required and other survey records acceptable to 

the approving official. The results of the computations 

will ordinarily require some proportionate adjustment to 

secure a sum of the several parts within each legal subdivision equal to the area returned on the former plat. No 

revision of the total area within the section is required. 

Unless the retracements show an excessive discrepancy 

in the record, as defined by sections 3-217 and 9-109, 

the areas derived by exact calculation will be employed. 

Generally there is no occasion for showing topography.

9-93. Where information reveals gross distortion in 

the section, or where a nonrectangular survey, such as 

a mineral survey executed subsequent to the survey 

of record, could create lots that do not exist in fact or 

not create lots that do exist in fact, or could cause the 

remainder of the section to be out of limits, a survey will 

be considered in lieu of a supplemental plat.

9-94. The modified lottings on supplemental plats 

resulting from special surveys are not confined to the 

subdivisions embraced within the pending entry or 

selection. It is desirable to lot all Federal interest land 

within the scope of the plat to avoid later piecemeal 

preparation of additional supplemental plats.

9-95. The plat should show an appropriate direct 

tie between a claim and a section corner or distances 

along claim and section lines to points of intersection. 

Complete courses and distances are shown for the claim 

lines that bound the Federal interest lands.

The lengths of lines are typically expressed in feet in the 

record of a mineral survey and in chains in the record 

of the rectangular net. Whenever the segregation of 

mineral claims is involved, the values on the face of the 

drawing are given in one unit only.

9-96. The authority for the preparation of supplemental plats issues only from the BLM Director. The 

specific purpose to be served and the details involved 

are included in the authorization signed by the Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor or request signed by the requesting 

official. In every instance the status of the surrounding 

subdivisions must be examined prior to authorization 

and care exercised that no changes are contemplated that 

will affect any adjoining alienated land. If field work 

or examinations of other records are necessary in order 

to prepare the plat, the regular procedure outlined for 
310

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

executing a dependent resurvey will be followed. The 

administrative determination of the need for a supplemental plat rests with the appropriate Chief Cadastral 

Surveyor, subject to the plat’s acceptance for the BLM 

Director, and filing in the official survey records.

9-97. Upon the determination by the approving official of the requirement for a supplemental plat, special 

instructions giving the detailed specifications will be 

set out, prepared, signed, and approved. Assignment 

instructions will be issued. A survey group file will be 

created and contain the entire record of the supplemental plat process.

9-98. County and other local surveys, including administrative surveys, may be used to develop supplemental 

plats. For local survey data to qualify for the Director’s 

acceptance, it will be subjected to a careful examination to insure that it conforms to Manual requirements. 

The use of local surveys for this purpose should be performed on a limited basis and only when there is a special need and established criteria are met.

Before a nonofficial record is used it is examined, followed by field checks if necessary. The examination 

will include, but not be limited to, the following:

(1) Gather and thoroughly review all pertinent 

records including land status (Federal and nonFederal), land descriptions, official surveys, and 

local surveys.

(2) Check all calculations. Areas that do not 

close within the rectangular limits, or within 

the closure limits specified by the special 

instructions, will be identified for review by the 

approving official to determine acceptability or 

identification of necessary field work.

(3) Determine the basis of bearing. If the 

bearings were not determined with reference to 

the true meridian as defined by the axis of the 

earth’s rotation, field work may be necessary to 

determine the appropriate bearing rotation.

(4) Determine if the survey has been tied 

directly into an official survey. If the tie is 

indirect or the official survey obliterated, field 

work may be necessary.

(5) Evaluate existent and obliterated corner 

determinations. Is the corner position evidence 

conclusive? Is the chain of survey complete? 

Are the corners monumented and uniquely 

identifiable? Are there conflicting positions for 

the corner? Identify questionable determinations 

for field evaluation.

(6) Evaluate the methods used for reestablishing 

lost corners, including proportioning accuracy 

and verification of record information. Apparent 

discrepancies may require a field check.

(7) Identify all lost corners to be searched for 

in the field.

(8) Evaluate local corners for conformity with 

Manual guidelines.

(9) Determine if the procedures used to 

subdivide sections or perform nonrectangular 

surveys are in accordance with the Manual.

(10) Determine if common boundaries 

may in fact overlap or not meet. This type of 

discrepancy is increased when irregular or 

nonrectangular boundaries are involved. Are 

lines of occupation in agreement with record 

lines? Are physical improvements located 

within record boundaries? May unrecorded 

rights exist?

9-99. The supplemental plat official record will consist 

of an official plat and the survey group file. Records used 

for the preparation of the supplemental plat are office 

records and copies are retained in the survey group 

file. The survey group file must contain corner description information, copies of local surveys, examination 

reports, the authorization or request, special instructions, 

assignment instructions, and other relevant materials.

The survey group number, the dates of the authorization 

or request, special instructions, and assignment instructions, along with the beginning and completion dates 

will be on the plat. See section 9-84 for reproduction 

and distribution of supplemental plats.

If data from a nonofficial survey is utilized, the following additional information will be on the plat:

(1) Rotation to true meridian, if applicable, 

based upon office examination or field 

verification.

(2) History of local surveys.

The certificate of acceptance follows the arrangement shown on the specimen supplemental plat in 
311

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

appendix IV and the memoranda include the pertinent 

data involved in the preparation of the plat, modified as 

may be appropriate.

Following are examples for supplemental plats.

9-100. Figure 9-4 illustrates:

A modified form of lotting to provide new 

descriptions, based entirely upon records on 

file in this office, and without additional field 

work.

Title: Township 8 North, Range 20 West, of the 

San Bernardino Meridian, California. Subtitle: 

Supplemental Plat.

Scale: Bar scale in chains (or units).

Memorandum:

This plat showing a subdivision of original 

lots 3 and 4, sec. 19, T. 8 N., R. 20 W., S.B.M., 

California, based upon the plat approved October 

8, 1880, is prepared to accommodate Federal 

Land Policy and Management Act sale CACA035503. Plat prepared by Larry H. Daniels, 

Cadastral Surveyor, beginning May 18, 2009, 

and completed June 1, 2009, pursuant to special 

instructions dated and approved May 14, 2009, 

and assignment instructions dated May 15, 2009, 

for Group No. 7344, California.

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on 

the specimen supplemental plat, appendix IV.

This plat, showing amended lottings, is based 

upon the official records and, having been 

correctly prepared in accordance with the 

requirements of the law and the regulations of 

this Bureau, is hereby accepted.

For the Director

Chief Cadastral Surveyor for California

9-101. Figure 9-5 illustrates:

A modified lotting made subsequent to a 

Forest Homestead Entry Survey and National 

Forest System Lands Small Tract surveys, 

based entirely upon the public land and forest 

survey records on file in the Bureau of Land 

Management, Montana State Office, Billings, 

Montana, and without additional field work.

Title: Township 5 South, Range 5 East, of the 

Black Hills Meridian, South Dakota. Subtitle: 

Supplemental Plat.

Scale: Bar scale in chains (or units).

Memorandum:

This plat of section 15, Township 5 South, 

Range 5 East, of the Black Hills Meridian, 

South Dakota, based upon the plat approved 

May 23, 1899, showing amended lottings 

created by the segregation of Forest Homestead 

Entry Survey No. 477, accepted June 30, 1917, 

and National Forest System Lands Small Tract 

surveys dated September 10, 2001, and January 23, 

2006, respectively, is prepared to accommodate 

additional National Forest System Lands Small 

Tract sales MTSD-124993 and 124994. Plat 

prepared by C. Albert Berlin, Cadastral Surveyor, 

beginning May 18, 2010, and completed 

June 1, 2010, pursuant to special instructions 

dated May 13, 2010, and approved May 14, 2010, 

and assignment instructions dated May 17, 2010, 

for Group No. 3211, South Dakota.

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on 

the specimen supplemental plat, appendix IV.

S.89°51’W.

( 19.97) (20.00)

(10.06) (10.00) (20.00)

(10.15) (10.00) (20.00)

40.00

40.00

79.97

S.89°55’W. 80.15

N.0°03’W. 80.0

0

NORTH 80.0

0

1

2

20 5

20.16

6

10.12

7

10.14

20

Sec. 19

Figure 9-4. Accommodation of a land sale by providing new descriptions; 

E1⁄2NW1⁄4SW1⁄4 and lot 7, section 19.
312

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

This plat, showing new lots, is based upon 

the official records and, having been correctly 

prepared in accordance with the requirements 

of the law and the regulations of this Bureau, is 

hereby accepted.

For the Director

Chief Cadastral Surveyor for South Dakota

9-102. Figure 9-6 illustrates:

Segregation of mineral claims, based entirely 

upon the public land and mineral survey records 

on file in this office, and with additional field 

work. The data shown in parentheses along the 

lot boundaries are derived by calculation.

Title: Township 9 North, Range 2 West, of the 

Gila and Salt River Meridian, Arizona. Subtitle: 

Supplemental Plat.

Scale: Bar scale in chains, and bar scale in feet.

Memorandum:

This plat showing amended lottings created by 

the segregation of Mineral Survey No. 4180 in 

section 32, T. 9 N., R. 2 W., Gila and Salt River 

Meridian, Arizona, is based upon the plat 

S.89°40’W.

HES 477

N.10°39’W. 4.32

N.87°52’W.

7.66

S.43°13’W.

6.66

S.64°57’E. 19.22

N.47°23’W. 33.50

2.40 17.39

8.12 11.89 17.6

5

80.02

N.0°02’W. 80.0

0

N.0°02’W.

S.89°39’W. 80.17

S.89°39’W. 80.09

80.0

0

S.0°02’E.

8.48

5

S.89°58’W. 1.212

8.48

5

10.303

20.000

3.197

3.263

N.0°02’W. 80.00

28.252

13 16

12

11

10 9

2

1

AP3 AP2

AP4 AP1

N.89°58’E. 1.212

S.42°37’W.

1.136

S.47°23’E.

10.303

AP3

AP2

AP4

AP1

N.42°37’E. 1.136

4

33.53

1

7.04

3

18.41

2

1.17

6

38.97

5

1.03

Sec. 15

Figure 9-5. Supplemental plat for accommodation of National Forest System Lands Small Tract sales.
313

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

approved May 14, 1920. Plat prepared by Bandy 

Roy, Cadastral Surveyor, beginning January 11, 

2010, and completed February 11, 2010, 

pursuant to special instructions dated 

December 28, 2009, and approved January 4, 

2010, and assignment instructions dated 

January 7, 2010, for Group No. 3070, Arizona.

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on 

the specimen supplemental plat, appendix IV.

This plat, showing amended lottings, is based 

upon the official and office records and, having 

been correctly prepared in accordance with the 

requirements of the law and the regulations of 

this Bureau, is hereby accepted.

For the Director

Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Arizona

Plats of Mineral Surveys

9-103. The following instructions relating especially 

to mineral plats should be observed. The returns of 

the survey when filed in the cadastral survey office are 

carefully examined and compared with the records to 

determine that all conflicts with prior approved surveys 80.0

0

(10.10)

S.81°19’E. S.81°18’E. 15.15

S.81°21’E. 14.03

S.81°16’E.

S.67°04’E. 9.10

S.67°04’

3.33

E.

S.60°42’E.

S.19°57’E. 12.28

S.59°52’E. 18.18 5.28

S.59°54’E.

L E X I N G T O N

M . S . 4 1 8 0

B U N K E R H I L L N o . 4

M . S . 4 1 8 0

B U N K E R H I L L N o . 3

M . S . 4 1 8 0

S U N N Y S I D E

M . S . 4 1 8 0

S U N S E T

M . S . 4 1 8 0

S U N R I S E

M . S . 4 1 8 0

B U N K E R H I L L N o . 2

M . S . 4 1 8 0

B U N K E R H I L L N o . 6

M . S . 4 1 8 0

B U N K E R H I L L

M . S . 4 1 8 0

B U N K E R H I L L N o . 5

M . S . 

4 1 8 0

16.60

4.47

S.53°18’E.

20.54

S.81°17’E. 20.54

N.25°54’E.

N.29°22’E.

4.10

S.29°22’W.

6.07

N.29°22’E. 23.93

S.60°38’E. 9.44

S.60°40’E. 5.77

S.60°38’E. 14.97

N.64°32’E. 11.00

S.25°54’W.

4.54

4.55

S.25°54’W.

12.46

2.88

(1.12) N.0°02’W.

80.0

0 N.0°03’W.

N.89°58’W. 80.06

WEST 80.00

(5.12) (2

4.55)

(5.62) (16.23)

8

3 9. 9 9

6

2 6 .1 6

7

1 3 . 6 4

1

3 8 . 76

2

7. 4 6

3

3 8 . 2 0

4

11. 2 6 5

1.66

Sec. 32

Figure 9-6. Supplemental plat with segregation of mineral claims.
314

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

are correctly shown, that all connecting lines given are 

in harmony with the record, that all material errors 

found in prior surveys are fully reported, and that the 

calculations of intersections and of conflicting areas 

are correct. The plat preparation and plat size is the 

same as for rectangular plats. The final plat is drawn 

on a scale of 200 feet to an inch when practicable. 

(See specimen mineral survey field notes and plat, 

appendix III.)

The scale should be large enough to illustrate clearly the 

improvements, conflicts, and physical features described 

in the field notes, together with all courses and distances 

of intersecting lines and connecting lines, where space 

permits. Any topographic features described in the field 

notes tending to confuse or obscure the plat may be 

omitted, but as the copy of the plat posted on the claim 

is a notice to the public of the ground applied for, all 

of the roads, streams, and other objects that may aid in 

locating the surveyed ground should be shown.

In case the entire survey cannot be shown on one sheet 

on a scale large enough to be clear, two or more sheets 

may be used and numbered consecutively, each sheet 

bearing the inscription “Survey No. _____, Sheet No. 

_____ of _____ Sheets.” Each sheet should carry the 

certificate of acceptance.

9-104. The mineral survey is approved in the cadastral 

survey office. When approved, the plat is reproduced and 

the returns of the survey are distributed in accordance 

with existing regulations. (See sections 9-32 and 9-84 for 

reproduction and distribution of mineral survey returns.)

Plats of Mineral Segregation Surveys

9-105. Plats of mineral segregation surveys are similar 

to supplemental plats that segregate patented mineral 

surveys but are based upon data obtained by a field survey rather than from examination and office records. All 

field data are shown and used in the computation of the 

amended lottings. See sections 9-32 and 9-84 for reproduction and distribution of mineral segregation survey 

returns. (See also sections 10-94 through 10-100.)

9-106. Such plats are also accepted by the Director, as 

indicated by the following examples.

Figure 9-7 illustrates:

Segregation of patented mineral claim, 

including a dependent resurvey of the section 

boundaries. Field work required to secure 

connecting line from the public land net to 

the mineral monument and other data for the 

accurate showing of the new lots.

Title: Township 20 South, Range 10 East, of the 

Gila and Salt River Meridian, Arizona. Subtitle: 

Mineral Segregation.

Scale: Bar scale in chains, and bar scale in feet.

Memorandum:

Dependent resurvey of section 24 and survey 

of connecting line to U.S.M.M. No. 6 for 

segregation of the Lillie Lode of Mineral 

Survey No. 562, executed by Roger F. Wilson, 

Cadastral Surveyor, December 20 and 21, 

2009, under Special Instructions dated August 

29, 2009, for Group No. 1133, Arizona, to 

accommodate State grant AZA-129835.

East boundary surveyed by Lewis Wolfley, 

Deputy Surveyor, in 1885, and subdivision by 

G. J. Roskruge, Deputy Surveyor, in 1886, as 

shown on the plat approved March 27, 1888.

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on 

the specimen mineral survey plat, appendix III.

This plat is strictly conformable to the approved 

field notes, and the survey, having been correctly 

executed in accordance with the requirements 

of law and the regulations of this Bureau, is 

hereby accepted.

For the Director

Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Arizona

9-107. Figure 9-8 illustrates:

Mineral segregation survey of an unsurveyed 

mineral claim, including a dependent resurvey 

of the section boundaries and the survey of 

connections to the mineral claim.

Title: Township 21 South, Range 70 West, of the 

________ Meridian, (State). Subtitle: Mineral 

Segregation.

Scale: Bar scale in chains, and bar scale in feet.

Memorandum:

Mineral segregation survey of an unsurveyed 

mineral claim with connecting lines 
315

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

and the incidental dependent resurvey of 

section 20, providing the basis for the 

segregation of the mineral claim, executed 

by John Smith, Cadastral Surveyor, 

October 7 to 12, 2009, inclusive, under 

Special Instructions dated September 14, 

2009, for Group No. ________, (State), to 

accommodate Exchange (state and serialized 

case number).

Boundaries of section 20 surveyed by Albert W. 

Brewster, Deputy Surveyor, in 1879, as shown 

on the plat approved October 23, 1879.

Certificate: Heading similar to that shown on 

the specimen mineral survey plat, appendix III.

This plat is strictly conformable to the approved 

field notes, and the survey, having been correctly 

executed in accordance with the requirements 

of law and the regulations of this Bureau, is 

hereby accepted.

For the Director

Chief Cadastral Surveyor for (State)

Plats of Fragmentary Surveys

9-108. The term “fragmentary survey” is applied to 

surveys made to identify parts of townships and sections that were not completed in the first instance. This 

class includes partially surveyed sections; outlying S. 0° 03’ W. 39.91 4.97

S. 89° 44’ W. 39.95 N.89°34’W. 41.23

S.89°14’W. 39.97 N.89°20’W. 41.11

N. 0° 42’ W. 39.9

8

S.83°50’E. 22.727

S.68°15’E. 12.42

S.82°15’E.16.98

U.S.M.M.

Sur. No. 562 LILLIE

N.83°50’W. 22.727

S.6°10’

W.

9.

091

N.6°10’

E.

9.091

N. 0° 30’ W. 39.9

8

S. 1° 15’ E. 39.9

5

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

35. 9 8

1

3 1 .1 4

3

3 6 . 76

4

35. 4 6

Sec. 24

C

C

Figure 9-7. Segregation of a patented mineral lode claim.
316

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

areas protracted as surveyed sections; omitted or unsurveyed islands, if title is in the United States; such areas 

as lands in place at date of original subdivision situated 

between a grossly erroneous or fictitious meander line 

and the actual bank of a stream or lake, where riparian rights do not attach as under the usual doctrine; and 

other lands of substantial extent that for various reasons 

were not included in the original surveys.

These types of surveys frequently require consideration 

of the question of title involved preliminary to the extension of the former surveys.

In all such fragmentary surveys the new lottings are in 

addition to but without changing the former subdivisions if alienated.

9-109. A notable exception to the principle that no 

changes should be made in the former lottings if alienated is found in those cases that involve retracements or 

dependent resurveys where erosion has occurred along 

the bank of a stream or lake or other body of water that 

substantially changes the configuration of the former 

lots, and where it may be desirable to show the quantity 

of land remaining and that destroyed. Similar problems N.0°25’E. 40.9

8

N.1°07’E. 40.6

4

S.85°52’W. 85.07

S.88°22’W. 43.66 S.83°54’W. 39.46

N.0°33’W.

 40.4

5

N.0°42’W.

 

40.47

N.23°03’E. 23.1

N.

0

23°1

8’

W. 19.24

S.

28°38’E. 20.03

LAST CHANCE OF 

TERRIBLE

MINE 

LODE

2

3 4

1

N.87° 24’E.

7.07

S.87°24’W.

9.06

4

4 1 . 4 9

5

4 3 . 4 2

9

4 4 . 24

2

4 2 . 5 3

3

3 0. 4 3

1

4 2 .56

7

4 2 . 2 9

10

4 4 . 5 3

6

4 3 . 2 5

8

45. 2 4

11

45.5 3

Sec. 20

Figure 9-8. A mineral segregation survey.
317

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

in platting are found in those cases of erroneous meandering where the record position of the original meander 

line is found to fall within the body of water. In these 

cases the former lot boundaries where situated within 

the water area are indicated in light broken lines, and the 

quantities of each subdivision affected are shown in two 

parts; part “a” denoting land area and part “b” denoting 

water area. These areas are computed proportionately 

according to the amount shown for the original subdivision, the sum of “a” and “b” being made equal to the 

original total (figure 9-9). A memorandum to this effect 

should appear upon the plat. This procedure is applicable in showing the effect of the flooding of Federal 

interest lands by artificial impoundment (section 8-31).

9-110. All technical data in reference to the retracement, 

reestablishment and extension of the section boundaries 

and connecting lines, and the complete topographical 

representation over the additional areas are shown upon 

the plats of fragmentary surveys. If the retracements and 

remonumentation assume the character of a dependent 

resurvey of the boundaries of one or more sections, that 

fact is indicated on the plat together with a proper showing of the important map data throughout the entire area 

surveyed and resurveyed. There is also shown an appropriate reference to the former approved plat or plats, and 

a citation of the authorization for the extension survey. 

The area statement includes separately the total areas 

surveyed and dependently resurveyed.

9-111. In some fragmentary surveys the main purpose 

of a retracement is (1) to ascertain the true location of 

previously established monuments, (2) to account for 

discrepancies in the directions and lengths of lines, 

Figure 9-9. Irregular subdivisions as affected by erosion and accretion after survey, without introducing questions of riparian rights. The subdivisions affected are shown in two parts: “a” denoting land area and “b” denoting water area. A proportional adjustment is made in the computation of the quantities, 

if necessary, to make the sum of “a” and “b” equal to the original total.

Meander Line

Meander

of 1850

N.89°00’E.

N.89°15’E.

N.1°00’W.

Accretio

n

79.9

6

70.00

W.C.M.C. S.89°00’W. 0.60 7.65

a

a

a

a

b

b b

b

4 0. 0 0 22.40 7.60

W.C.M.C. S.89°15’W. 13.69

Line

of 1922

E

R

O

S

I

O N

A T

L

A

N

T

I

C

O

C

E

A

N

2

23.43

3

39.06

1

8 7 6

9 10 11

4

20.31

5 18.81

23.01

9.79

15.61

Sec. 27

0.94
318

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

(3) to reflect correct plat representation, and (4) to serve 

as a proper basis for the calculation of exact areas 

within the legal subdivisions where the methods customarily followed in the construction of a supplemental plat are inadequate (section 9-88). Where such field 

work is required, the data derived by the retracement is 

used for all purposes as in a dependent resurvey. Thus, 

where there are segregations to be made, the areas of the 

new lottings and other legal subdivisions are derived by 

exact calculation.

9-112. In some nonrectangular surveys (sections 10-32 

through 10-39), not all of the directions and lengths of 

lines between monuments or between indicated corners 

of the subdivisions can be carried to the plat without 

an overburden at the scale, or it may be unnecessary to 

represent all such data. In these cases it may be noted 

on the plat that the data will be found in the field notes 

of the surveys.

In some cases where there are numerous and frequently 

very irregular lottings, it may be desirable to carry the 

complete data to the plat. The scale of the base drawing, and the required additional sheets is enlarged in 

these cases to accommodate the proper presentation 

of the data. Traverse lines may be shown by marginal 

tabulation.

Bearings and distances of meander lines should be 

shown in the field notes and may be depicted upon the 

plat.

9-113. The certificate of acceptance on plats of fragmentary surveys will take the usual form; the necessary 

memorandum should be modeled after the examples 

given for the special cases explained in chapter X.

Plats of Protraction Diagrams

9-114. Protraction diagrams have been developed in 

two forms. Prior to 1998, corner positions were defined 

by bearing and distance with reference to the exterior 

boundary of the protraction. Subsequently, the process 

was amended and corner positions are now defined 

by coordinates, often called an amended protraction 

diagram.

The protraction diagrams should be constructed at 

a scale of 1 inch equals 40 chains. There should be a 

separate sheet for each township and an index drawing for each unit. It is not necessary to indicate scale on 

the index drawing. The existing survey lines should be 

shown as heavy-weight solid lines. Reliable protracted 

lines should be shown as medium-weight long dashed 

lines. Protracted lines (designated bearing or random 

and true lines) should be shown as medium-weight short 

dashed lines. A legend on line weights should be put on 

each sheet. The six-digit Geographic Coordinate Data 

Base (GCDB) point identification scheme will be used 

to identify Plan of Survey Coordinates (POSC) section corners within the protraction and may be shown 

on the plat. Irregular POSC sections will be lotted in 

the same way sections are lotted in a survey, thereby 

defining how the excess or deficiency will be distributed 

(section 3-138).

The latitude and longitude may be shown in a table 

on the margin of the diagram which will reference the 

corners by their GCDB six-digit identifier (figure 9-10 

and appendix V). The coordinates should be carried to 

four decimal places of a second and will be reported 

for POSC section corners and those corners of areas 

to be protected (i.e. existing withdrawals in protracted 

blocks).

9-115. The authority for the preparation of protraction diagrams issues only from the BLM Director. The 

specific purpose to be served and the details involved 

are included in the authorization signed by the Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor or request signed by the requesting 

official. In every instance the status of the surrounding 

subdivisions must be examined prior to authorization 

and care exercised that no changes are contemplated that 

will affect any adjoining alienated land. If field work or 

examinations of other records are necessary in order to 

prepare the diagram, the regular procedure outlined for 

executing a dependent resurvey will be followed. The 

administrative determination of the need for a protraction diagram rests with the appropriate Chief Cadastral 

Surveyor, subject to the diagram’s acceptance for the 

BLM Director, and filing in the official survey records.

9-116. Upon the determination by the approving official of the requirement for a protraction diagram, special instructions giving the detailed specifications will 

be set out, prepared, signed, and approved. Assignment 

instructions will be issued. A survey group file will be 

created and contain the entire record of the protraction 

diagram process.

9-117. The protraction diagram official record will 

consist of a protraction diagram and the survey group 

file. Copies of the records used for the preparation of 

the protraction diagram are retained in the survey group 

file. The survey group file must contain corner description information, copies of local surveys, examination 
319

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

6 5 4 3 2 1

7 8 9 10 11 12

18 17 16 15 14 13

19 20 21 22 23 24

30 29 28 27 26 25

31 32 33 34 35 36

100600200600300600400600500600600600700600

100500200500300500400500500500600500700500

100400200400300400

400400500400

600400

700400

100300

200300300300400300500300600300

700300

100200200200300200

400200

500200

600200700200

100100200100300100400100500100600100700100

100700

200700300700400700500700600700700700

Sec. 31

140200

140100

100140 200140

100200 200200

100100 200100

140120 200120

140140 160140

160100

160120

Figure 9-10. Primary corner identifier for GCDB.
320

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

reports, the authorization or request, special instructions, assignment instructions, and other relevant 

materials.

The survey group number, the dates of the authorization 

or request, special instructions, and assignment instructions, along with the beginning and completion dates 

will be placed on the diagram. The reproduction and 

distribution of protraction diagrams is described in section 9-84.

9-118. The certificate of acceptance follows the 

arrangement shown on the specimen plats, and the 

memoranda include the pertinent data involved in the 

preparation of the diagram.

Resurvey Plats

9-119. A somewhat different type of plat is required 

for representing resurveys as defined in chapters V, VI, 

and VII. The identity of lands in which valid rights have 

been acquired based upon a prior subdivision must be 

preserved. The subdivision of the remaining Federal 

interest lands may or may not be modified, according to 

the type of resurvey.

Requirements on Plats of

Dependent Resurveys

9-120. In addition to the usual data, the plat should 

carry a marginal memorandum that qualifies the character of the dependent resurvey, also a reference to the 

previous plat (or plats) to which it is related.

For example, in case of a whole township completely 

dependently resurveyed, the following general statement is applicable:

This plat represents a dependent resurvey of the 

original township boundary and subdivisional 

lines designed to restore the corners in their 

true original locations according to the best 

available evidence.

Except as indicated hereon, the lottings and 

areas are as shown on the plat (or plats) approved 

_______________________ (date or dates) 

and officially filed _____________________ 

(date or dates).

If the original subdivisions were executed in two or 

more parts, or if the township has not been completely 

dependently resurveyed, the memorandum is modified.

The reference to modified lottings or revised areas is 

omitted when there are no exceptions.

A necessary additional citation takes the following 

form:

Survey executed by _______________________ 

beginning _______________, and completed 

______________________, pursuant to Special 

Instructions for Group No. ________, (State), 

dated ____________________.

9-121. For notes on plat only returns, the desired 

historical references to (1) the field notes and plats of 

the earlier surveys, (2) lines more recently resurveyed 

that form a portion or portions of the plat outline, and 

(3) lines run and marked by county and other local surveyors found acceptable for the identification of tract 

boundaries, etc. will be elaborated upon as needed to 

clarify every feature of the resurvey incorporated in the 

marginal notation part of the plat.

9-122. On plats of dependent resurveys, the actual 

quantity of the areas of the resurveyed Federal interest 

subdivisions will be shown. The number of acres will be 

the same as the total shown on the original plat, except 

as modified lottings have been made or revised acreages for legal subdivisions have been shown in tabulated form on the plat. The total should reflect the actual 

amount of the increase or decrease.

9-123. In some cases, the question of a revision or 

modification rests upon the element of quantity or upon 

that of distortion or both.

For practical purposes, a variation of approximately 

2.00 acres to the quarter-quarter section has been found 

advisable before making a revision in area. A new lot 

number and area are assigned to each Federal interest subdivision that is assigned a modified description. 

No total area within the section is shown. Alienated 

subdivisions cannot be assigned a modified description but a designation for administrative purposes only 

can be made (section 10-4). Lot numbers within a section must not be duplicated. Once an aliquot part has 

been modified to a lot, it should not be returned to an 

aliquot part.

9-124. An exception is sometimes made to the 2-acre 

minimum where it can be shown that more exact acreage is needed for proper management. The more exact 

acreage of a unit can be shown within the legal subdivision or in a tabulated index. When the former is used, a 
321

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

new lot number is assigned. When an aliquot part legal 

subdivision is assigned a lot number it loses its aliquot 

characteristics and can only be subdivided by survey or 

supplemental plat.

When a more exact acreage of a unit is shown in a tabulated index, a new lot number is not assigned and the 

aliquot part legal subdivision retains aliquot characteristics. The plat will carry a marginal memorandum that 

the description listed in the tabulated index is intended 

to refer to precisely the same land as that which was previously identified by its original survey or description. 

Acreages will be tabulated to the 40 acre level or lower, 

depending on the need.

A tabulated index may not be advisable when a unit 

is grossly distorted in shape. In this case, when more 

exact acreage of a unit is required, lot numbers should 

be assigned.

The total number of Federal interest legal acres covered by a dependent resurvey, listed by section, will be 

shown as marginal data on the plat (specimen resurvey 

plat, appendix II).

9-125. When the legal subdivision of acquired land 

is identified by means of a different legal subdivision 

designation the plat will clearly indicate that the modified legal subdivision designation is intended to refer to 

precisely the same land as that which was previously 

identified by its original survey or description.

The following should be regarded as a general 

suggestion:

Lot 1, section 10, is intended to designate precisely 

the same land as that established as the NW1⁄4 

NW1⁄4, section 10, shown upon the plat approved 

__________________________ (date) and 

filed ________________________ (date).

Trust and restricted fee legal subdivisions should not be 

modified without consultation with affected parties.

Requirements on Plats of

Independent Resurveys

9-126. All claims should be accounted for on the plat 

of an independent resurvey as (1) segregated tracts, 

(2) conformed to the lines of the resurvey under their 

original description, or (3) under a modified description 

with outline indicated by heavy black lines. An exception to this rule is made where all the claims within 

a township have been conformed to the lines of the 

dependent resurvey (section 5-65(5)) under their original description, in which event a statement should be 

made on the margin of the plat that:

All claims originally described as in this 

township are intended to conform to the lines 

of the dependent resurvey under their original 

description.

9-127. The additional memorandum that is placed 

on the plat of the independent resurvey is designed to 

clarify its very special and unusual character. It should 

especially show that a former record plat of approximately the same area has been superseded or cancelled 

by official action as the basis for the identification, 

administration, or disposal of the vacant or unappropriated Federal lands. Moreover, in protecting those 

rights as to location that may have been acquired based 

upon the superseded or cancelled plat, the locations of 

the alienated land are identified in accordance with the 

plat protractions and marks of that survey. The independent resurvey plat is identified as hereafter being 

the basis for the identification and description of the 

alienated land.

The following should be regarded as a general 

suggestion:

This plat represents a resurvey which is 

independent of and that supersedes, so far 

as the Federal interest lands are concerned 

(hereon indicated by new subdivisional lines, 

lottings, and areas), all such similar units that 

are shown upon the plat (or plats) approved 

_______________________ (date or dates) and 

filed ___________________ (date or dates).

All tract segregations shown hereon represent 

the position and form of claims under the 

original description as referred to the original 

survey, located on the ground according to the 

best available evidence of their true position and 

legal boundaries.

Where the boundaries of certain sections of the former 

survey have been restored as the best identification and 

form for protecting the alienated lands, and possibly 

including other sections of entirely Federal interest land 

with boundaries that have not been changed, the memorandum and historical citations take the forms that are 

outlined in section 9-130.

9-128. When a tract or a conformed claim described 

by a modified description is shown on an independent 
322

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

resurvey plat, an amended description or correction of 

conveyance document should be issued. The land status records must be updated to show the identical geographic relationship of the former description under 

the original survey with the modified description under 

the resurvey. The public should be given constructive 

notice, and county officials where the lands are located 

should be given actual notice of the issuance of a modified description.

9-129. The memorandum in section 9-127 is modified 

if one or more of the claims shown on the land status 

diagram are conformed to the lines of the independent 

resurvey and described by different legal subdivision 

(section 5-65(5)), as follows:

All tract segregations shown hereon represent 

the position and form of said claims under 

the original description as referred to the 

original survey, located as such on the ground 

according to the best available evidence of their 

true position and legal boundaries. All other 

claims shown to conform to the lines of the 

independent resurvey, whether by the original 

or new legal subdivisions, represent the position 

and form of said claims under the original 

description as referred to the original survey, 

located as such on the ground according to the 

best available evidence of their true position 

and legal boundaries.

9-130. If the whole township has been independently 

resurveyed, and where the plat shows no sections with 

boundaries as a whole that have been restored by dependent methods, a memorandum to qualify the nature 

of the independent resurvey and the reference to the 

prior plat (or plats) may take the form that is given in 

section 9-127.

Where the boundaries of some of the sections have 

been restored by dependent resurvey methods and the 

remainder of the township has been subdivided on a 

new plan that is independent of the prior survey, the 

memoranda will be extended to make these facts clear, 

as for example:

This plat represents a resurvey that combines 

restored boundaries of certain sections with 

an entirely new subdivision of the remaining 

portions of the township as follows:

The boundaries and corners of 

sections _____________________, 

_________________, ____________, etc., have 

been restored to their true original locations 

according to the best available evidence, and 

(excepting as new or modified Federal interest 

subdivisions are shown in these sections) 

the lottings and areas in said sections are as 

originally shown on the plat (or plats) approved 

________________ (date or dates) and filed 

________________ (date or dates).

The remainder of the township has been 

subdivided by the running of new lines and the 

marking of new corners, thereby superseding 

the former record lines and corners with 

reference to the Federal interest lands remaining 

undisposed of. The tracts identified hereon 

represent alienated parts of sections shown on 

the plat (or plats) approved _________________ 

(date or dates) and filed ________________ 

(date or dates).

The memoranda referred to in sections 9-126, 9-127, 

and 9-129 are supplied as appropriate.

A necessary additional citation takes the following 

form:

Survey executed by _______________________, 

beginning _________________, and completed 

__________, pursuant to Special Instructions 

for Group No. ________, (State), dated 

____________________.

9-131. Important items of topography and valuable 

permanent improvements are shown along the lines of 

the tract survey. It is impossible, at the usual scale, to 

show objects of little relative importance.

9-132. The requirements for showing the positions of 

alienated lands on the plats of independent resurveys 

are given in the memorandum forms, which appear in 

sections 9-126, 9-127, and 9-129. The following sections 

show how the identification is accomplished in the cases 

of both tract segregations and conformed claims.

9-133. Tract segregations are laid out on the plats of 

resurveys as any private land claim are shown upon 

an original plat. In order to show the detail of complicated situations one or more additional sheets are frequently necessary. If a claim is found to be conformable as defined in section 5-65(5), the claim boundaries may be shown by giving greater weight to such 

parts of the regular subdivision-of-section lines of the 
323

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

independent resurvey plat. The outline of each tract 

segregation is shown on the first or principal sheet 

on the plan usually employed to show other types of 

private land claims.

9-134. On any of the several sheets, as appropriate, an 

index is supplied to tabulate the description of each tract 

in terms of the original plat. The index form shown in 

table 9-9 is acceptable.

9-135. In some cases there is a demand for the description of a tract in terms of its component parts as determined by the original survey. In these exceptional cases, 

and only as appropriate, the several parts may be indicated by letters A, B, C, etc. (figure 9-13), with the index 

modified as shown in table 9-10.

9-136. The above method is well adapted to the identification and subdivision of isolated tracts of Federal 

interest lands where said lands have been surveyed as 

tracts. In these cases the arrangement of the data carried 

by the index is the same, and the status of the Federal 

tract is shown as vacant.

9-137. If there are one or more conformed claims to be 

identified by amended description or correction of conveyance document in terms of the independent resurvey, 

without segregation by tracts, another form of index is 

required, as shown in table 9-11.

9-138. The several forms of index may be combined 

into one tabulation and titled Index to tabulate segregated tracts and appropriate subdivisions. The bracket 

for “component parts” may be filled in only as needed. 

Tract segregations are required where modified descriptions embrace subdivisions that are smaller than the 

regular 40-acre unit.

9-139. The special requirements for lotting irregular 

parts of sections invaded by tract segregations are set 

No.

Tract Original Survey Component Parts

Entry and Status Tp. Rg. Sec. Subdvn. Sub-Tract Area

42 Buffalo 0833 58 75 20 NE1⁄4SE1⁄4 B 40.00

H.E. 58 75 21 Lot 4 A 32.00

Thomas R. Williams 58 75 21 NW1⁄4SW1⁄4 C 40.00

Pending 58 75 21 SW1⁄4SW1⁄4 D 40.00

46 Buffalo 08642 58 75 24 Lot 3 A 28.12

H.E. 58 75 24 NW1⁄4SW1⁄4 B 40.00

Emmet Cain 58 75 24 NE1⁄4SW1⁄4 C 40.00

Pending 58 75 24 SE1⁄4SW1⁄4 D 40.00

Table 9-10. Index to tabulate component parts of segregated tracts under their original legal subdivision descriptions.

Table 9-9. Index to tabulate segregated tracts under their original legal subdivision descriptions.

No.

Tract Original Survey

Entry and Status Tp. Rg. Sec. Subdvn.

39 Buffalo 2979 58 75 29 NW1⁄4NW1⁄4

H.E. 58 75 29 S1⁄2NW1⁄4

W.J. Williams 58 75 29 NW1⁄4SW1⁄4

Patented

41 Buffalo 1567 58 75 20 SE1⁄4SW1⁄4

D. L. E. 58 75 20 W1⁄2SE1⁄4

W.J. Williams 58 75 29 NE1⁄4NW1⁄4

Pending

77 Designated School Section 58 75 36 All

95 Sundance 03186 58 74 30 Lot 1

D. L. E. 58 74 30 Lot 2

C.R. Massey

Final certificate

101 Vacant 58 75 24 Lot 4

102 Vacant 58 75 23 NE1⁄4SE1⁄4
324

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

out in sections 5-70 through 5-72, and are illustrated by 

figures 9-11, 9-12, and 9-13.

9-140. Occasionally there is need for denoting the 

several parts of a tract in terms of quarter-quarter sections and lots of the independent resurvey (figure 9-13). 

This may be accomplished by protraction, showing lot 

numbers and areas as determined by the independent 

resurvey. The lottings within the tract should be made 

to complete the adjoining irregular quarter-quarter sections of the independent resurvey. This type of lotting 

requires no change in the index.

9-141. Where a tract is subdivided (figure 9-13), and 

(1) if it is essential to perpetuate the units of the original 

survey, then the lines of the original quarter-quarter sections are shown; but (2) in those cases of relinquishment 

or cancellation and it is probable that any new entry will 

be coupled with adjoining lottings by the independent 

resurvey, then a lotting within the segregated tract as 

determined by the section boundaries of the independent resurvey should be adopted. In the great majority 

of cases the patent eventually issues in accordance with 

the original entry or selection, and the necessity for the 

subdivision of segregated tracts is exceptional. If it is 

necessary to subdivide a tract on the resurvey plat, the 

method should be based upon the type of disposal and 

the purpose to be served. Where such necessity is not 

clearly apparent, no subdivision should be made, but 

a supplemental plat may be prepared at a later date to 

meet specific requirements.

9-142. If there are overlapping claims as defined in section 5-65(6), the conflict is indicated on the plat of the 

resurvey. No new lot numbers should be assigned nor 

quantities shown within the segregated tracts that are 

involved in the conflict (figure 9-12). The showing of the 

component parts must follow the construction of a supplemental plat. In these cases, the plat will carry a reference to a subsequent supplemental plat to be prepared 

Independent Resurvey Conformed Claim Original Survey

Tp. Rg. Sec. Subdvn. Entry and Status Tp. Rg. Sec. Subdvn.

45 79 12 SW1⁄4SE1⁄4 Buffalo 984 45 79 12 NE1⁄4SE1⁄4

45 79 12 SE1⁄4SW1⁄4 T. & S. 45 79 12 NW1⁄4SE1⁄4

45 79 12 SW1⁄4SW1⁄4 Fred A. Jones 45 79 12 NE1⁄4SW1⁄4

Pending

45 79 13 NW1⁄4NE1⁄4 Buffalo 45 79 12 SE1⁄4SE1⁄4

S. S. List 6

Approved

Table 9-11. Index to tabulate conformed claims under modified legal subdivision descriptions.

N.89°59’W. 63.93

N.89°59’W.

80.08

N.0°03’W. 80.0

0

N.0°04’W. 71.8

0

(20.00)

(3.93)

16.07

8.20

(11.80) (20.00)

(20.00)

40.00 6.50

4.10

4.16

1-18.55

3

34.38

5 31.68

9

31.66 7

21.37

1

26.82

6-21.32

1-12.98

8-8.34

6.48

13.52

13.50

15.80 4.18 15.82

6.50

4-13.00

2-8.32

6.50

E A S T

W E S T

EAST 20.00

WEST 24.16

EAST

40.00

WEST 20.00

S.89°57’W. 79.96

WEST 20.00

NORTH

20.0

0

W E S T

E A S T

20.00

20.00

20.00

20.0

0

20.0

0 20.0

0

SOUTH

NORTH 40.0

0

SOUTH

NORTH 40.0

0

SOUTH 40.0

0

SOUTH 80.0

0

N.0°03’W. 80.0

0

N.0°04’W. 80.00

SOUTH

NOR T H

(40.00)

9 10 3

12

13 14 5 6

7 8

2

2 1

4 3

4

11

TRACT 68

80

80 160

160 160

40

40

40

TRACT 69

348.62

Sec. 17

626.82

Sec. 8

TRACT 47

Figure 9-11. Normal tract segregations, with lotting of the adjoining 

Federal interest land. The tract segregations are laid out on the plat as 

any private land claim would be shown on an original plat.
325

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

Eleventh Standard Parallel North

40.46 40.52

40.00

40.06

15.54 24.52 20.03

40.00

80.08

39.94 40.20

24.92 15.02

20.00

40.11

20.00

19.36

15.86

40.65

79.93

75.81

37.23 22.59 17.85

S.88°07’W.

S.88°31’W.

N.88°07’E.

N.87°51’E.

S.0°54’E. 59.8

7

N.0°52’W. 39.1

4

N.0°52’W. N. 0°31’W.

79.3

5

N.0°01’W. 80.0

N.

0

0°31’W. N.0°23’W.

N.0°02’W.

S.0°04’E.

N.0°31’W.

67.36 11.9

6

40.7

9

36.58

20.0

0

23.1

0 35.68

20.0

5

20.0

5

40.11

58.7

8 SOUT

H

19.6

0

80.0

0

NORTH

79.35

NORTH

37.0

39

2

.11 S.0°07’E.

N.0°01’W.

N.0°02’W.

S.0°34’E. 60.4

0

83.1

3

36.9

5

83.4

0

N.89°16’W.

N.89°16’W.

N.88°31’ E.

S.89°55’W.

S.89°16’E.

S.89°52’W. 80.18

13.86

N.89°07’E.

N.89°07’E. 40.10

S.89°16’E.

S.89°16’E.

S.89°16’E.

20.00

S.89°07’W.

N.89°12’E.

N.89°07’E.

21.19 16.79 2.48

3.29

4.12

4.14

2 . 0 9

2.19

0.21

SOUTH 37.0

3

C ONFLICT

C

O N F L I C T

CONFLIC T

2

3

2

Tract 41 Tract 38

Tract 39

Tract 44

Tract 43

Tract 56

Tract 58

A

1

1

2

2

5

4

1

2 1

2

2

3

3

3

27.65

4

27.69

7

27.74 40

5 - 8.48

6 - 7.63

1

10.24

3

3

7 8

5

4

4

4

3

3

7 6

5

1

6

6

6

2

4.21

2.81

3.09

Sec. 34 Sec. 35

Sec. 3

Sec. 10

152. 52

Figure 9-12. Tract segregations in conflict, but not an adequate basis for amendment of descriptions. If there are overlapping claims, the conflict is indicated on the plat of the resurvey (figure 9-13).
326

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

Eleventh Standard Parallel North

40.46 40.52

40.00

40.06

15.54 24.52 20.03

40.00

80. 08

39.94 40.20

15.02 24.92

20.00

40.11

15.86

40.65

79.93

75.81

22.59 17.85

S.88°07’W.

S.88°31’W.

N.88°07’E. S.0°54’E. 59.8

7

(19.32) (17.63)

(18.77) (18.18)

N.0°52’W.

N.0°01’W.

N.0°31’W.

N.0°02’W.

(19.08)

SOUT

H

20.0

0

23.10 35.68

20.0

5

(20.40) (20.39)

19.6

0

80.0

0

NORT

H

39.11

37. 02

S.0°07’E.

N.0°01’W.

N.0°02’W.

N.0°52’W.

S.0°34’E. 60.4

0

83.13

83.4

0

N.89°16’W.

N.89°16’W.

N.88°31’ E.

S.89°55’W.

S.89°16’E.

S.89°52’W. 80.18

13.86

N.89° 07’E.

S.89°16’E.

N.0°31’E.

0.41

S.89°16’E.

S.89°07’W.

S.89°12’W.

N.89°07’E.

21.19 16.79 2.48

4.12

2.09

0.21

36.9

5

2

3

2

Tract 41

Tract 38

Tract 39

Tract 44

Tract 43

Tract 56

Tract 58

D

C C

F

E

B A

H

H

H

D

C

G

G F E

G

2

1

2 5

4

2 1

2

2

3

3

3

6

39.76

8

27.51

12

38.12 11

32.90

7

30.97

5

28.81

4

7

5

6

1

9

25.37

9

28.32

2.94

9

102.12

8

10 - 4.47

3

8 - 8.42

3

7 8

5

4

4

4

3

7 6

5

1

6

6

6

4.21

2.81

Sec. 34 Sec. 35

Sec. 3

 230. 36 

Sec. 10

 33. 79

Figure 9-13. Supplemental plat issued subsequent to the adjudication of the rights involved within a conflict (figure 9-12), with revised form of conflict-free 

lotting (table 9-12).
327

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats

after the adjudication of the rights involved within the 

conflict, with a revised form of conflict-free lotting.

A memorandum is added to the index as follows: See 

field notes for area of any part of a tract in conflict with 

another tract. The uninvolved Federal interest land outside of the segregated tracts is lotted regularly except 

that the description of any subdivision of the original 

survey embraced in a tract or conformed claim under 

modified description is not repeated on the resurvey plat; 

instead it is assigned an appropriate lot number.

9-143. No memorandum or other declaration should be 

shown upon a plat of a resurvey that can be construed 

as an adjudication of a settlement right, entry, or State 

selection or right under any grant as to status nor as 

an adjudication of a conflict, excepting as appropriate 

action on the case may have been taken prior to the date 

of the filing of the survey plat.

9-144. The usual technical data in reference to the 

direction and lengths of lines are arranged on the several sheets as may be appropriate. The fractional distances along the section lines, the record intersections 

of the lines of the independent resurvey with the lines 

of claims, and the connections to the angle points of the 

tract surveys are shown in such a manner as to indicate 

the values used in computing areas of the Federal interest land subdivisions. The complete topographical representation is carried by the first or principal sheet. The 

section numbers are carried on all of the sheets. The first 

or principal sheet carries a memorandum of the total 

number of sheets in the series. The sheets are numbered 

consecutively in the upper right corner, thus: “Sheet 1 of 

7 Sheets,” “Sheet 3 of 5 Sheets,” etc.

9-145. On plats of independent resurveys, the lot numbers and areas within the sections that are invaded by 

nonconformable tract segregations are usually shown 

on the additional sheets, where such sheets are required. 

Otherwise, the lot numbers and areas are shown on the 

first or principal sheet.

9-146. The total area shown within each independently 

resurveyed section indicates the sum of the several parts 

that are hereafter to be identified by exclusive reference 

to the resurvey plat. In the total area statement to be supplied on the plat of an independent resurvey, the acreage 

is shown in three parts: (1) Total area of segregations; 

(2) Total area exclusive of segregations; and (3) Total 

area resurveyed. If a tract overlaps a township boundary, only the part within the township is counted in this 

total. If there are conflicts, the area in conflict is counted 

once only.

9-147. The first or principal sheet of the plat carries an 

appropriate memorandum of the authority upon which 

the resurvey was made. All of the sheets show the usual 

form of certification of acceptance.

9-148. A supplemental plat must be prepared after the 

adjudication of the rights involved within a conflict when 

required to facilitate an amendment of entry or patent 

or correction of conveyance document. On the supplemental plat, component parts that are free of conflict are 

protracted and designated as shown on figure 9-13. Lot 

numbers are assigned to the modified component parts 

of each adjudicated tract, serially within the sections of 

the resurvey, and areas shown, to afford descriptions 

that are conflict free. In these cases, the supplemental 

plat should have a revised index to the segregated tracts 

shown and a reference to the preceding plat. In the index 

all subdivisions in terms of the original survey are listed, 

but no sub-tracts are assigned to any subdivision that is 

reduced by the elimination of previous conflicts. The 

appropriate section numbers, lot numbers, and areas of 

the reduced tract subdivisions that are conflict free are 

listed in the columns of independent resurvey descriptions and areas of component parts. A footnote will follow the index referring to each new lot indicating the lot 

is a portion of the original subdivision free of conflict.

9-149. The usual rules of field procedure are observed 

in the protraction of the tract subdivisions. Where adequate control is shown in the record, the original sections 

are subdivided regularly. However, if tracts have been 

segregated by the independent resurvey with limited 

control, the points for intermediate sixteenth-section, 

quarter-section, and section corners on the original tract 

boundaries are determined by proportionate intervals 

between the established angle points, and the interior 

lines are drawn to connect corresponding points on the 

opposite sides of the tract boundaries, fixing the corners 

of each component part by intersections. The computed 

areas are based upon the data derived in the resurvey.

9-150. Table 9-12 is a revised index conforming to 

figure 9-13.

9-151. Not all independent resurvey plats can be treated 

similarly. Methods suited to situations not involved in a 

particular case should be set aside to avoid the introduction of unnecessary complications. The normal independent resurvey may be brought within a fairly definite, 

standardized drafting practice, but each unusual case 

needs a special analysis as to how the detail may be most 

suitably platted.
328

Chapter IX - Special Instructions, Field Notes, and Plats Manual of Surveying Instructions

Table 9-12. 

No.

Tract Original Survey Component Parts† Independent Resurvey

Entry and Status Tp. Rg. Sec. Subdvn.

SubTract Area Tp. Rg. Sec. Subdvn.

38 Buffalo 010118 44 80 1 Lot 4 A 35.16

H.E. 44 80 2 Lot 1 B 35.86

Ralph R. Baldwin 44 80 2 Lot 2 C 36.06

Pending 44 80 2 SW1⁄4NE1⁄4 D 40.00

44 80 2 SE1⁄4NE1⁄4 E 40.00

44 80 1 SW1⁄4NW1⁄4 F 40.00

44 80 2 Lot 3 28.81 44 80 3 Lot 5 *

44 80 2 SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 30.97 44 80 3 Lot 7 *

41 Buffalo 09311 44 80 3 Lot 1 A 36.66

H.E. 44 80 3 Lot 2 B 36.85

Henry J. Brunning 44 80 3 Lot 3 C 37.00

44 80 3 SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 D 40.00

Pending 44 80 3 SW1⁄4NE1⁄4 E 40.00

44 80 3 NW1⁄4SE1⁄4 F 40.00

44 80 3 NE1⁄4SW1⁄4 G 40.00

44 80 3 SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 39.76 44 80 3 Lot 6 *

43 Buffalo 011734 44 80 3 SW1⁄4SW1⁄4 A 40.00

H.E. 44 80 10 NW1⁄4NW1⁄4 B 40.00

Perry Barnes 44 80 10 SE1⁄4NW1⁄4 C 40.00

Pending 44 80 10 SW1⁄4NW1⁄4 D 40.00

{28.32 44 80 3 Lot 9 *

44 80 3 SE1⁄4SW1⁄4 { 2.94 44 80 4 Lot 9 *

{ 4.47 44 80 3 Lot 10 *

{ 0.41 44 80 4 Lot 10 *

44 80 10 NE1⁄4NW1⁄4

{ 2.12 44 80 9 Lot 8 *

{25.37 44 80 10 Lot 9 *

44 80 10 NW1⁄4NE1⁄4 8.42 44 80 10 Lot 8 *

44 80 3 SW1⁄4SE1⁄4 *0.00 

44 Buffalo 07532 44 80 11 NW1⁄4NE1⁄4 A 40.00

H.E. 44 80 11 NE1⁄4NW1⁄4 B 40.00

Antoine Faure 44 80 11 NW1⁄4NW1⁄4 C 40.00

Pending 44 80 10 NE1⁄4NE1⁄4 D 40.00

44 80 2 NW1⁄4SW1⁄4 27.51 44 80 3 Lot 8 *

44 80 3 SE1⁄4SE1⁄4 32.90 44 80 3 Lot 11 *

44 80 2 SW1⁄4SW1⁄4 38.12 44 80 3 Lot 12 *

44 80 3 NE1⁄4SE1⁄4 *0.00

† See section 9-135.

* Portion of original subdivision that is free of conflict.
329

Chapter X

Special Surveys and

Mineral Surveys

Special Surveys

10-1. Special surveys are surveys that involve unusual 

applications of or departures from the rectangular system. They often carry out the provisions of a special 

legislative act. A particular category of special surveys 

focuses on various types of water boundaries. In some 

cases, the special instructions merely expand the methods outlined in chapter III. In the more complicated special surveys, the methods must be carefully detailed.

The following discussion illustrates what is to be 

emphasized in the special instructions for each type of 

special survey.

Tracts, Lots, and Parcels

10-2. Special surveys may involve areas of land that are 

not aliquot parts of sections but are designated as tracts, 

lots, or parcels. In common usage, the term “tract” is 

applied to an expanse of land of no particular size, often 

irregular in form. In modern Federal land surveys, the 

term is used specifically to mean an expanse of land that 

lies in more than one section or that cannot be identified 

in whole as a part of a particular section. It is properly 

described by tract number and township. Tracts within 

a township are numbered beginning with 37 or the next 

highest unused numerical designation to avoid confusion with section numbers. Tracts that have been segregated in the course of an independent resurvey are 

treated as described under that subject.

10-3. A “lot” is an irregular expanse of land with a 

Federal interest lying entirely within a surveyed section. 

Small expanses of land, when not aliquot parts of sections, are designated as lots wherever they can be identified as parts of a section. The description is by lot, section, and township.

10-4. A “parcel” is a special designation used for identification of an expanse of land. Parcels may include land 

with no Federal interest and should be so designated 

except in independent resurveys, or if the proper name 

is “Tract _____.” To distinguish among several parcels, 

they may be called “Parcel A,” “Parcel B,” and so on. The 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) does not modify 

land descriptions of alienated lands. The designation of 

alienated land as a parcel is for administrative purposes 

only and as a reference to the existing land description of 

the parcel. It does not change the chain of title.

Subdivision of Sections—Special Cases

10-5. The need for subdivision of sections and any 

unusual methods required are brought out in the special 

instructions. Examples are Indian allotment surveys, 

subdivisions within reclamation projects, the determination of boundaries between intermingled Federal 

interest and patented lands within a section, and various fragmentary surveys needed to mark the boundaries 

of the remaining Federal interest lands. In complicated 

cases, particularly fractional sections, the subdivision 

of sections may be advisable to avoid the possibility of 

an incorrect local survey or in lieu of remonumentation of disputed section or quarter-section corner positions affecting Federal interest lands (see sections 3-99 

through 3-137).

10-6. Nearly always the subdivision-of-section lines 

are run and marked in accordance with the showing 

of the official plat. An uncommon exception is when a 

disposal has been made of an expanse of land whose 

description clearly differs from the lottings or aliquot 

parts represented on the plat.

10-7. The customary lottings are often not shown on 

plats of very old surveys. A determination of what the 

disposals were intended to convey can then be made only 

by reference to the record of the disposals themselves. 

The record will more frequently show a disposal by aliquot parts, except within fractional sections, but often 

without the usual complement of quarter-section corners regularly established. An inquiry into the assigned 

areas in the record of the disposals should clarify the 

intended disposals.
330

Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Furthermore, in some of the old surveys quarter-section 

corners were not established on all true lines of the survey. Instead, the record shows that “half-mile” points 

were marked on the random line and not corrected to the 

true line midpoints. All such unusual problems should 

be brought out in the special instructions, as the diversity of the questions arising and the limited applicability of the answers precludes extended Manual treatment 

(see section 7-36).

10-8. Where special methods are unavoidable, they 

should be made to conform as nearly as may be practicable with the rules for the subdivision of sections discussed in sections 3-99, 3-100, and 3-112 through 3-137. 

The special instructions should specify the procedure 

when the areas do not conform to the rectangular system of surveys.

10-9. If a section is subdivided, the center quartersection corner is established and monumented. If a 

quarter section is subdivided, all sixteenth-section corners are established and monumented. When requested 

or where impracticable, the established controlling sixteenth-section corners that are not located on the boundary of Federal interest land may not be monumented. 

Corners of lower order are established and monumented where necessary to mark the actual boundaries 

of Federal interest land within the minor subdivisions 

involved. Only the required boundaries need be surveyed within the sixteenth section, but, if this method 

is used, such lines must be connected to and balanced 

between corners on the sixteenth-section lines.

10-10. Figure 10-1 illustrates the type of plat showing 

the subdivision of sections. This includes a dependent 

resurvey of the section lines and the Indian reservation 

boundary, followed by the subdivision of sections as 

needed for administrative purposes.

Indian Allotment Surveys

10-11. Indian reservation surveys should not be confused with Indian allotment surveys. Reservations and 

allotments are not the same. A reservation is a territorially and jurisdictionally distinct entity created by treaty, 

Federal purchase, Executive order or act of Congress. 

An allotment is a single expanse of land created from 

reservation land or off-reservation land and usually 

titled to an individual Indian.

10-12. Under the general and special allotment acts 

it has sometimes been the practice to make awards 

in units of less than the usual quarter-quarter section. 

The appropriate act to be employed and the configuration and extent of the subdivision should be provided in 

the special instructions. The Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) is expected to advise upon the allotment process, 

including surveys conducted by the United States Indian 

Service (USIS).

10-13. When a proposed allotment or an existing 

allotment with a Federal interest is described by metesand–bounds or by another nonrectangular description, 

or in some way definitely not correlated with a section line and/or statutory subdivision-of-section line, 

the allotment is assigned a lot number within each of 

the one or more sections involved. The lot numbers are 

independent of the serial allotment numbers. When an 

allotment is not conformable to aliquot parts and is 

located within two adjacent sections it may be assigned 

a tract number.

10-14. When executing a dependent resurvey of allotted lands that are described according to an official plat, 

the surveyor shall protect the plat; in other words, subdivide the section consistent with the method previously 

used. This is simplified when the survey field notes and 

plats are filed in the official survey records. See section 

10-21 for further instructions if the allotment surveys 

were not filed in the official records.

Subdivision of Section—Statutory Method

10-15. Generally, the awarded allotments conform to 

aliquot parts of a section where the boundary lines are 

located by connecting opposite corresponding corners 

placed as nearly as possible equidistant from two corners that stand on the same line. When this is evidenced 

by the record, the allotment boundaries have been run in 

accordance with the rules for the “statutory method” of 

subdivision of sections and quarter sections prescribed 

by 43 U.S.C. 752 and 753.

All regular subdivision corners, when located by the 

statutory method of section subdivision, are marked 

in the usual manner. When requested, the letter A (for 

allotment) is added and the serial allotment number, in 

each of the several quadrants, as appropriate. Allotment 

numbers are employed serially with the various Indian 

tribes or families, assigned by the BIA, when making 

an award of tribal lands. The plat may include a tabulated index outlining lot numbers, aliquot part descriptions, and serial allotment numbers. Status diagrams 

that show the Indian allotment awards should always be 

furnished with the special instructions.
331

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

1

2

7

4 3

5

6

8

N.89°04’W. 40.16

N.89°04’W.

N.89°09’W.

19.90 19.90

9.99 9.99 19.97

19.90 19.90

19.95

N.89°06’W.

N.88°46’W. 80.26

N.88°58’W. N.88°58’W. 20.00 20.00

40.00 39.95

79.60

N.89°07’W.

81.32

N.1°07’E. 40.4

0 N.1°38’W.

N.0°04’E.

N.0°46’W.

N.1°20’E.

N.0°14’E. 81.08

15.04 20.2

7

20.1

9

20.1

7

20.1

4

20.0

5

80.6

0

20.2

7

20.1

9

40.3

10

8

.0

7 10.0

7

10.0

3 10.0

3

N.0°59’E.

N. 0°39’E.

N.0°01’E.

N.0°34’E.

N.0°25’E.

N.80°02’W. 81.58

20.42

20.44

40. 72

40.2

5

34. 54

40.0

0

20.0

0

39.9

6

19.9

7

19.9

9 19.9

9

19.9

9

20.0

0 20.0

0

40.11

20.0

0 (20.00)

(20.16) (11.33) 8.83

5.71

2.60

25.5

0

(17.40)

80.0

0

40.38

80.36

N.0°15’W. 40.30 N.0°52’E. 39.8

8

N.89°00’W. 40.16

20.46 40.40

40.40

20.46

20.19 20.21

L E E C H L A K E I N D I A N R E S E R VAT I O N

20.40

20.11 20.11 10.01 10.01 20.02

20.40

N.88°17’W. 40.80

Sec. 8

Sec. 17

Figure 10-1. Subdivision of sections, including a dependent resurvey of the section lines and the subdivision of the sections as needed.
332

Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

Subdivision of Section—Three-Mile Method

10-16. Surveyors working with Indian lands, on- or offreservation, or lands that were Indian lands at the time 

of the survey or allotment must be aware of the “threemile method” of section subdivision. Sometimes these 

sections are located in areas that are not near current 

Indian lands. Surveyors should always review the land’s 

survey and title history to identify Indian lands to determine those instances when the three-mile method might 

have been used. The three-mile method was used by the 

General Land Office (GLO) and the USIS, now the BIA, 

in subdividing sections. The record of those surveys 

indicates the methods used. This method is different 

from the statutory method of section subdivision. Both 

can create aliquot part descriptions, but each is identified by a different set of specified corner and boundary 

line location characteristics. The three-mile method creates specified corner and boundary line location characteristics that are determined from the survey evidence. 

Reading the title document only will not determine the 

method by which the section was subdivided into aliquot 

part descriptions. Problems arise when an aliquot part 

description based upon the three-mile method of section 

subdivision is attempted to be located according to the 

statutory method of section subdivision.

10-17. The “three-mile method” actually encompasses 

a variety of systems of section subdivision used to expedite the allotment of Indian reservations. There is no 

single three-mile method. The evidence, field conditions, 

and historical documents of the section subdivision must 

be carefully examined to determine which method was 

used. In some cases the section subdivision method can 

be found in special instructions for the survey, or in the 

Annual Instructions or Annual Reports issued by the 

Commissioners of Indian Affairs and GLO.

10-18. In its simplest and most common form, threemile method sections were subdivided by establishing 

the north and south one-sixteenth section corners on 

the east and west boundaries of the section at midpoint 

between the quarter corners and section corners. The 

one-sixteenth section corners were sometimes called 

“1⁄8” corners because by connecting them the section could 

be protracted into eight units, for 80-acre allotments.

The section would then be subdivided by running random and true lines from the south one-sixteenth section 

corner on one section line to the south one-sixteenth 

section corner on the opposite section line, then from 

the quarter corner on one section line to the quarter 

corner on the opposite section line, and from the north 

one-sixteenth section corner on one section line to the 

north one-sixteenth section corner on the opposite section line. The section interior corners, including the “center quarter,” were established on the lines at equidistant 

positions east and west.

One-sixteenth section corners and, if required, onesixty-fourth section corners (sometimes called “1/32” 

corners because by connecting them with lines running north and south, the section would be divided into 

32 units of 20-acre allotments) on the north and south 

boundaries of the section were established in a similar 

manner, i.e., at equidistant positions between the quarter 

and section corners. This method of section exterior corner placement was consistent with the statutory method.

10-19. The 80-acre and 40-acre allotments were often 

not assigned lot numbers on the survey plat, but returned 

as aliquot parts. The 20-acre allotments were generally returned as lots and numbered 1 to 32. For sections 

against the north and west boundaries of the township 

the excess or deficiency in distance would be placed in 

the last segment abutting the north or west boundary.

10-20. Variations of this basic system were used in different surveying districts. Unless the section is a perfect 

square, with all quarter section corners exactly at midpoint and on line between section corners, the aliquot 

part subdivisions by the three-mile method will be in a 

position different from the aliquot part subdivisions by 

the statutory method.

Because no single method was employed, each section 

must be dealt with on an individual basis. Within some 

sections, portions of lines were surveyed, north-south 

lines were surveyed, or centerlines of sections were surveyed by the statutory method and then the quarter sections subdivided by the three-mile method.

The surveyor must always study the survey plat and field 

notes thoroughly to determine how the allotments were 

surveyed. When dependently resurveying an allotment, 

patented by either an Indian trust or fee patent, where 

the official survey used the three-mile method, the surveyor must perform a dependent resurvey according to 

the official survey record. Recovered original corners 

shall stand as the corners of the patented lands and shall 

control the boundaries within the section regardless of 

how well the position fits the original plat position or the 

statutory method of subdividing a section.

If any of the original corners are lost, they must be 

restored using the appropriate method of proportionate measurement. Generally this is single proportionate 
333

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

measurement. Corner restoration and further section 

subdivision must be conducted so as to “protect the plat.”

Indian Allotments and 

United States Indian Service Surveys

10-21. Allotment surveys were also made subsequent 

to the original survey by the GLO and by the USIS. 

The USIS surveys were executed under an assumed 

survey authority read into the various Indian allotment 

acts, the general management responsibilities of the 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs, or as a duty assigned 

by the Secretary of the Interior in the exercise of his 

obligations under a special act.

10-22. Generally USIS surveys preceded the awarded 

allotments and conformed to the statutory method of 

subdivision of sections and quarter sections prescribed 

by 43 U.S.C. 752 and 753. Plats or field notes are not 

known to exist for some of the USIS surveys monumented on the ground. It was the practice of the USIS 

officials to walk the allottee to each corner to ensure that 

the allottee understood where the allotment was located.

How the subdivision of a section was surveyed cannot 

be determined from reading the conveyance document 

only. Often a section was subdivided by USIS using a 

three-mile method in the field subsequent to the GLO 

survey. The USIS surveys were (1) not approved as official surveys of the United States, and (2) not filed with 

the official Federal survey records. The GLO issued 

Indian trust and Indian fee patents describing the land 

by aliquot part subdivisions based upon the GLO official survey plat showing protracted aliquot part subdivisions by the statutory method. The result is a latent 

ambiguity between subdivision-of-section monuments 

and the conveyance document.

The USIS allotment surveys and monuments are generally accepted as marking the corners of the patent for 

which they were established when there is substantial 

evidence that was the Government’s intent. This intent 

is evidenced in several ways, including but not limited to 

(1) the allottee was shown the monuments by an Indian 

Service official, (2) conformance to the USIS survey 

record, (3) conformance to the USIS/BIA Allotment 

Book, (4) conformance to Annual Instructions or 

Annual Reports issued by Departmental officials, or 

(5) years of undisputed use and occupancy to USIS 

located positions.

10-23. In cases where the USIS allotment survey was 

subsequent to the GLO survey of the township and not 

filed in the official records of the United States, the corners are not “original” corners of the GLO survey. The 

USIS surveys are thus akin to an administrative survey 

by the Government for its own purposes. When conducting a current dependent resurvey of the GLO survey 

(usually the section exterior), some general principles 

are applicable:

(1) The USIS allotment survey and monumented 

corners may be the best available evidence of the 

position of the GLO survey;

(2) The presumption is that care and good faith 

were exercised by the USIS surveyor with regard 

to the evidence of the original survey in existence 

at the time; the burden of proof to the contrary 

will be borne by the party claiming differently;

(3) It may be held generally that the allottee has 

located his or her lands by the good faith location 

rule if such care was used in determining his 

or her boundaries as might be expected by the 

exercise of ordinary intelligence under existing 

conditions;

(4) When an USIS reestablishment of a lost 

corner or establishment of a minor subdivisional 

corner has been made by proper methods without 

gross error, it will ordinarily be acceptable; and

(5) The USIS allotment survey may be 

evidence of the intended patent boundary lines 

and corners.

10-24. When conducting a current section subdivision 

with evidence of a USIS allotment survey, the following applies: If it is determined that the Government’s 

intent was to patent or convey the land either by aliquot 

part subdivisions or lots based upon a USIS three-mile 

or statutory method survey, then the USIS monumented 

corners (in the interior of the section) are accepted as 

aliquot part or lot corners as the case may be. The corners are evidence of the lines and corners of the patent 

and may be the best available evidence of the position 

of corners or locations of lines of the GLO section exterior survey.

10-25. In cases where land descriptions in patents or 

other documents of conveyance are based upon administrative surveys that are in conflict with official surveys, 

the land descriptions and the official survey records must 

be reconciled. In these instances, the Secretary may 

correct patents or documents of conveyance relating 
334

Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

to Federal interest lands where necessary in order to 

eliminate errors and/or ambiguities. The surveyor will 

consult with the appropriate Lands staff when such a 

situation is identified.

Subdivision of Section—Others

10-26. On occasion, Congress has provided specific 

direction to heads of agencies other than GLO to conduct 

surveys, including the United States Geological Survey 

(USGS) and the Reclamation Service (RS) of USGS, 

later the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR). Generally these 

surveys preceded the awarded patents and conformed 

to the statutory method of subdivision of sections and 

quarter sections prescribed by 43 U.S.C. 752 and 753. 

With the filing of these agencies’ surveys in the GLO/

BLM official survey record, subsequent entries and 

land actions were based upon these official surveys and 

monuments.

In some cases, a USGS or other Federal agency survey 

will be found to have been conducted subsequent to the 

GLO survey of the township. If the entries are based upon 

the GLO survey, the USGS or other surveys are akin to 

an administrative survey by the Federal Government for 

its own purposes and shall not impair bona fide rights 

or claims of any claimant, entryman, or owner of lands. 

In some cases the USGS survey will be found to have 

provided the basis for entry (the original survey) because 

it was officially filed and thereby was the “latest official 

plat” at the time of entry. Today’s dependent resurveyor 

must know which survey record is the “original survey” 

for each entry. Rarely were lands patented based upon a 

Federal survey or any other survey not filed in the GLO/

BLM official survey records.

10-27. When conducting a current dependent resurvey of a township with a GLO survey and a subsequent 

Federal agency official (re)survey, some general principles are applicable:

(1) The subsequent Federal agency record and 

corners may be the best available evidence of the 

position of the GLO survey;

(2) The presumption is the agency surveyor 

exercised care and good faith with regard to the 

evidence of the original survey in existence at 

the time of the (re)survey; the burden of proof to 

the contrary will be borne by the party claiming 

differently;

(3) It may be held generally that the claimant, 

entryman, or owner has located his or her lands 

by the good faith location rule if such care was 

used in determining his or her boundaries as 

might be expected by the exercise of ordinary 

intelligence under existing conditions;

(4) If an agency’s reestablishment of a lost 

corner or establishment of a minor subdivisional 

corner has been made by proper methods without 

gross error, it is ordinarily acceptable; and

(5) If an entry is based upon the GLO survey 

and there is conclusive evidence that no attempts 

were made by the Federal agency surveyor to 

relate his or her survey in some manner to the 

original GLO survey, then the Federal agency 

survey is not evidence of the entry boundary 

lines and corners.

10-28. In some townships Federal agency surveyors did not apply dependent resurvey principles even 

though bona fide rights as to location had vested 

under an earlier survey. These surveys were approved, 

accepted, filed, and used as the basis for patents by the 

GLO. Gaps and overlaps between patent boundaries, 

not showing on any official record, may exist. Special 

instructions or, after a field investigation, supplemental 

special instructions are used to provide the necessary 

details for each township.

Reclamation Project and Farm Unit 

Section Subdivision Surveys

10-29. The Reclamation Act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat. 

388; 43 U.S.C. 372 et seq.), provides for lands feasible 

of irrigation and reclamation to be utilized by the RS, 

now the BOR, for the construction and maintenance 

of irrigation works. The land was to be platted as farm 

units and receive water for irrigation from such irrigation works.

Section 4 of the Reclamation Act limited the acreage that could be entered. These areas became “farm 

units.” A farm unit is the limit of area representing 

the acreage that, in the opinion of the Secretary, may 

be reasonably required for the support of a family. By 

1903 the RS engineers were preparing maps, now commonly referred to as farm unit plats. The farm units are 

announced on the farm unit plats. The plats were transmitted to the GLO land offices to put potential entrymen on notice of the form and limit of area per entry. 

These farm units were then conveyed from Federal 

ownership. Land descriptions in the conveyances were 

based upon the farm unit plats.
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Early on, all entries of irrigable lands had to be made 

according to ordinary legal subdivisions, down to the 

smallest legal subdivision, 40 acres. By the Reclamation 

Act, the Secretary had no power to subdivide or change 

the ordinary subdivisions fixed by law. By the Act of 

June 27, 1906 (34 Stat. 519; 43 U.S.C. 434) farm units 

could be fixed at a lesser area than 40 acres. Eventually 

they could be as small as 5 acres, but as a rule they 

were fixed by legal subdivisions from 40 to 160 acres 

each.

The 1906 Act also provided that when it was necessary 

for the purpose of accurate description or economic irrigation to further subdivide lands to be irrigated or to 

segregate lands to be reserved or appropriated for reclamation purposes, the Secretary was authorized to cause 

section subdivision surveys to be made by the officers of 

the RS. Such subdivision surveys were to be noted upon 

the GLO, and subsequently, the BLM records. Such 

subdivisions were to be rectangular in form, except in 

cases where irregular subdivisions may be necessary 

in order to provide for practicable and economical irrigation. These farm unit plats, amendment of farm unit 

plats, orders amending farm unit plats, and all other 

surveys of the limits of Federal interest in land were to 

be examined and accepted by the BLM as conformable 

to the surveying regulations and practice applicable in 

such cases. No authority was vested in the officers of 

the RS for the execution of original surveys upon lands 

embraced with reclamation projects.

After receiving authorization from the Secretary, RS 

officials in the Washington Headquarters Office, and 

officials in each project, began to issue survey instructions for these section subdivision surveys. The surveyors were instructed to make surveys in accordance 

with the GLO Manual of Surveying Instructions, and 

Circular on Restoration of Lost or Obliterated Corners 

and Subdivision of Sections. Soon, differences in field 

and platting procedures between the RS/BOR and the 

GLO began to appear.

10-30. It is the dependent resurveyor’s task to determine whether bona fide rights as to location would 

be impaired if a careful and faithful retracement and 

dependent resurvey of the farm unit survey is not conducted. During a dependent resurvey involving reclamation farm units or irregular areas, a study of nationwide and project specific RS/BOR memorandums and 

instructions for the date and location must be made to 

assure proper resurvey techniques were applied. The 

field notes and plat and related records of the reclamation survey must be studied.

While a copy of the field notes and plat were to be filed 

in the Surveyors General or Cadastral Survey offices, 

some are missing from the official records. A search 

of the BOR and the State Irrigation District records 

for the originals or copies will be conducted. By RS/

BOR instructions, some field notes of restoration of 

lost or obliterated corners were not forwarded to the 

Washington Offices of the RS/BOR or GLO.

Rights-of-way have been reserved for highways and 

access roads to farm units along section lines and other 

lines shown on the farm unit plats. Other rights-of-way 

may have been reserved by or issued by the Government 

over and across the farm units and irregular areas. Many 

resurveys and section subdivision surveys were made 

during the construction of reservoirs, irrigation works, 

and the areas bordering thereon, where an irregular 

boundary passes through several sections and closes on 

section or subdivision-of-section lines. Some rights to 

use land or an estate in land administered by the BOR 

have been granted by the BOR Regional Directors.

Patents or other administrative actions, based upon RS/

BOR minor subdivision surveys, were and are to be 

described with reference to the plat thereof as approved 

by the GLO/BLM. In sections where no such minor 

subdivision has been made, the patent or other administrative action shall bear the description of the legal 

subdivision of the current official plat. The officially 

filed farm unit plat supersedes the original survey plat 

and the farm unit becomes the smallest legal subdivision subject to disposition. Until the description can 

be identified upon an official plat, the expanse of land 

is officially unsurveyed and is not subject to patent or 

administrative action.

10-31. By law, delegation of authority, and departmental policy, all actions taken that serve to change the 

official public land survey system (PLSS) records are 

to be conducted under BLM instructions and approval. 

The proper and timely identification of the boundaries 

of reclamation lands is paramount to instituting good 

land management practices. The BLM is responsible for 

the timely administration, coordination, and execution 

of the PLSS, including development and maintenance of 

a system for the assimilation, storage, and dissemination 

of survey data for use by reclamation interests.

Nonrectangular and Other

Metes-and-Bounds Surveys

10-32. Situations requiring deviation from the general 

rules for rectangular surveys are limited in nature and 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

generally authorized and governed by a specific congressional act. In addition, public land laws authorize 

the Secretary of the Interior to conduct a program for 

the marking and describing of land at his or her discretion and under such rules as he or she may prescribe. 

In circumstances when departure from the regular rectangular survey is necessary for coordination with other 

programs related to disposition, acquisition, and management of land within the Federal land tenure program, 

a special and detailed survey may be required. After the 

affected land is identified, special steps must be taken 

to maintain records that relate the nonconforming unit 

of land to the regular rectangular survey of lands under 

which the ownership, use, or restrictions of other lands 

is identified.

Notwithstanding the careful maintenance of special 

records, the different systems of land identification 

appreciably increase the likelihood of boundary disputes and conflicting claims under Federal programs. 

These burdens appear to amply justify the general rule 

of Federal boundary survey authority lying with the 

GLO/BLM.

10-33. Nonrectangular surveys, sometimes referred 

to as metes-and-bounds surveys, are required to define 

the boundaries of irregular areas of land that are not 

conformable to legal subdivisions. This type of survey 

may involve lode mineral claims, early placer claims 

and millsites, small-holding claims, donation land 

claims, private-land grants, townsites, forest-homestead 

entry claims, reclamation farm units, congressionally or 

administratively designated areas such as national parks 

and monuments, Indian reservations, tracts, lighthouse 

reservations, exchanged or acquired lands, U.S. Surveys 

in Alaska, or the like.

Congress has enacted numerous laws pertaining to the 

disposal, management, and acquisition of the Federal 

lands that sometimes require nonrectangular surveys. 

Many of these acts have been repealed. However, special legislation and Executive orders enacted in recent 

times have set aside certain Federal lands as special 

areas for specific uses or with use restrictions, such as 

Wilderness Areas, Wild and Scenic River corridors, 

Natural Areas, and Conservation easements. Though 

survey of these boundaries may not affect land title, the 

surveyor will exercise due diligence to ensure that they 

are properly located on the ground. Be aware that the 

limit of the public’s rights to the use and enjoyment of 

the land is determined by the boundary location, and the 

determination of that location may become a matter of 

future litigation.

10-34. The specific requirements prescribed elsewhere 

in the Manual also govern nonrectangular surveys. 

These include such subjects as:

(1) limits of closure;

(2) ties to preliminary location or listing 

surveys;

(3) location based upon official maps and 

documents;

(4) marking corners and corner accessories;

(5) meandering streams and other bodies of 

water;

(6) connecting a corner of a tract if located 

upon unsurveyed land to the rectangular system 

of surveys;

(7) determining geographic coordinates of 

monuments;

(8) locating improvements and noting 

important topographic items;

(9) determining the direction of each line with 

reference to the true meridian; and

(10) closing against withdrawn areas.

10-35. Generally, no special surveying problems are 

presented in nonrectangular surveys. However, in cases 

of specific legislation, the Congressional intent of the 

boundary location is derived from an official map or 

other document of public record. Often these documents 

were prepared by persons with little or no experience 

with land descriptions or land surveying. Regardless of 

this fact, the document of record shall govern the location of the boundary to be established, unless a clerical 

or typographical error can be proven. In addition, the 

local official responsible to manage these special areas 

can be of great assistance in interpreting intent as it 

relates to natural features.

10-36. The survey procedure is similar for each type 

of claim, grant, exchange, acquisition, easement, area, 

or reservation having irregular boundaries. A monument is required at each angle point of the boundary. 

The angle points are given serial numbers beginning 

with No. 1 at the initial point. For special areas that 

require extensive numbers of angle points, it may be 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

advantageous to limit the sequential serialization to the 

individual section where the points fall (e.g. AP No. 1, 

No. 2, No. 3, section 13, Eagle Creek Wilderness; AP 

No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, section 14, Eagle Creek Wilderness; 

etc.). This scheme should provide additional locative 

information for each monument, and avoid numeric 

duplication or omission. Monuments on the boundary 

should not be more than 45 chains apart, or at lesser 

intervals providing practical location notice for the 

land management agency and the public. To this end, 

witness points are established on the tops of ridges, at 

streams, trails, roads, or other accessible and prominent places. In the survey of boundaries of large grants, 

areas, or reservations, mile corners are established in 

addition to the angle points and witness points. If practical, the numbering of the angle points will begin with 

No. 1 at the northeast corner and proceed around the 

area, running westerly from the initial corner. The plan 

of monumentation should be designated in the special 

instructions for the survey.

10-37. Nonrectangular surveys located upon surveyed 

land are connected to at least one regular corner of the 

subdivisional survey. If the location is within an unsurveyed township, the special instructions should call for 

the running of a connecting line to an established corner if within 6 miles. The geographic position of the 

established corner or initial point, will be determined 

and within a positional tolerance defined in the special 

instructions.

10-38. In cases where Federal interest lands are to be 

segregated and defined by an irregular boundary, and 

the area to be surveyed lies entirely within a surveyed 

section, it should be designated as a lot of that section 

and be numbered accordingly. Areas within a township 

that encompass land in multiple sections can be lotted 

within each involved section, such that a land description can be assembled with lot designations, by section, 

to embrace the entirety of the subject land. Abutting 

irregular non-Federal lands that require a special designation for identification should be designated as a parcel 

of that section and be lettered accordingly (sections 10-2 

through 10-4).

10-39. Nonriparian boundaries of irregular areas are 

sometimes partly or entirely located along a natural 

boundary such as a watershed, offset from a road centerline, or along an elevation contour. Boundaries of 

this sort are normally winding, and it should be understood that they may be technically defined by the location of the natural feature and not by the straight lines 

between angle points. In other cases, the boundary is 

defined by the monumentation at every angle point 

and by the straight (mean bearing) line between angle 

points. The legal location of the boundary is derived 

from the authorizing documents and subsequent technical adjustments.

Townsite Surveys

10-40. Numerous general and special acts make provision for the executive withdrawal of public lands for 

townsite purposes. A townsite survey, in public-land 

surveying practice, is a survey made within one or more 

regular units of the township subdivision by which the 

land is divided into blocks, lots, streets, alleys, rights-ofway, and reservations as a basis for the disposal of title 

in village or town lots.

Ordinarily special instructions are prepared for a preliminary reconnaissance of the townsite and for the 

dependent resurvey and subdivision of sections that 

may be necessary. The field examination should ascertain the layout, give proper regard for existing locations 

where rights have already been acquired, and provide 

for rights-of-way, public grounds, and other important 

conditions that should receive consideration. These are 

followed by supplemental special instructions based on 

the findings of the examination and providing for the 

townsite survey proper.

Planning the Survey

10-41. The Federal lands have been laid off into town 

blocks, lots, streets, alleys, rights-of-way, and reservations since early in the 19th century. Federal townsites 

have been authorized under a large umbrella of legislation, including acts specific to a single townsite, public 

domain townsites, townsites on shores of harbors or 

prospective centers of population, Alaska trustee townsites, mineral lands townsites, Indian townsites, reclamation townsites, Alaska Railroad townsites, Alaska 

Native trustee townsites, and National Forest townsites. 

In 1971, authorization to survey previously conveyed 

lands within Alaska native villages in the form of 

townsite surveys was established by the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and are referred to as 

“14(c) surveys” (sections 10-55 through 10-57).

The statutes, regulations, circulars, instructions, and 

case files governing each townsite must be reviewed 

prior to survey. In addition, the special instructions, field 

notes and plats of the original townsite survey and any 

subsequent resurveys must be studied prior to dependent resurvey. Some townsites were originally surveyed 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

under statutory authority by authorized officials other 

than the GLO or BLM, with the plat being submitted to 

the latter for review and approval. In these cases, careful research into local records and conditions may be 

required.

Dependent resurveys of federally authorized townsites 

are akin to dependent resurveys of privately created lot 

and block surveys and descriptions. They both involve 

questions and issues of (1) simultaneously or sequentially created titles, (2) simultaneous or sequential 

surveys, (3) land status, (4) interior or exterior boundary line of the townsite, (5) dedications, (6) vacations, 

(7) court of competent jurisdiction, (8) chain of title, 

(9) chain of surveys, and (10) best available evidence, 

for example.

It follows that Federal townsite statutory and regulatory 

regimes, with few exceptions, have adopted common 

dependent resurvey principles applicable to private lot 

and block surveying. The exceptions are specifically 

addressed in the statute authorizing the townsite, or 

in Departmental circulars, regulations, or instructions 

issued to implement the authorizing statute.

Townsite resurveys vary little from the rules governing 

dependent resurveys of the rectangular surveys. The 

standards for corner identification and evaluation of 

evidence are the same, as are the rules for treatment of 

blunders, excess or deficiency, and proration, unless the 

contrary is clearly apparent. For simultaneous subdivisions, interior monuments that represent the actual lines 

run by the original surveyor are presumed to control, 

irrespective of whether the courses, distances, and street 

improvements agree with the plat. In the absence of evidence of a corner or line location, distances and angles 

on the plat are presumed to govern location. Streets 

and other rights-of-way represent more than individuals rights and the former create blocks. Generally any 

excess or deficiency is contained within the block. A 

possible exception is when a street or right-of-way location is lost and a uniform measurement index can be 

established.

Local markers and monuments that can be proved to be 

neither correct nor incorrect, but are locally accepted 

as being correct and have the reputation of being good 

faith perpetuations of the intended corner positions may 

be accepted per the doctrine of repose. A local marker 

or monument that can positively be proved as an incorrect perpetuation of the original position, although 

accepted by many, cannot be accepted as the original 

corner position.

10-42. Townsite surveys fall into two general classes, 

those with few or no prior improvements and those 

where villages or towns already exist at the time of 

survey. A townsite may be planned in connection with 

some Federal project or in support of a reconveyance 

system where the survey must fit special requirements 

already set up, or to identify existing improvements and 

occupation. Whatever class the townsite falls in, a study 

of approved townsite plats with similar elements is helpful in planning. A visit to some of these developed areas 

may be worthwhile to gain understanding of proper survey planning. For occupied towns and villages, preliminary planning requires collaboration with community 

officials.

10-43. Consideration of every facet of townsite planning is beyond the scope of this Manual. There may 

be need for consultation with specialists in architectural and industrial planning, landscaping, and various 

branches of city engineering such as water supply, sewerage, street, highway, railroad, and airport locations. 

Provision is needed for public school grounds, other 

public buildings, and park areas. For native villages in 

Alaska there may be need for consultation with specialists in ANCSA and reconveyance issues. All these 

things are interdependent, and, wherever possible, local 

planning bodies should be asked to present plans that 

meet with zoning requirements. The planner should also 

refer to some of the many books on the subject of town 

and village planning.

Surveying the Townsite

10-44. The rules that follow set out the minimum specifications for the survey procedure, the monumentation, 

and the elements of plat construction by which the blocks, 

lottings, and rights-of-way may be identified. The detail 

of the plan should be set out in the special instructions.

The character of the area, including the topography, its 

location, and whether it is a new townsite or an addition 

to an old one, to a large extent determines the detail 

of the street, block, and utility right-of-way system. A 

topographic survey is of value in ascertaining the layout best suited; the special instructions should call for 

the appropriate contour interval. Wherever practicable, 

especially where there are existing improvements, photogrammetry, and remote sensing should be employed 

in the preliminary examination with paneled boundary 

monuments incorporated in the aerial control.

10-45. In the typical townsite the block dimensions are 

usually between 300 and 400 feet. The principal streets 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

are usually made 80 feet in width, though frequently as 

much as 100 feet where greater width is called for. The 

less important intersecting streets, though narrower, are 

seldom given a width of less than 60 feet.

The normal frontage of the lots is 50 feet. Unless conditions require a special plan, the whole system is laid out 

on cardinal. The blocks are given serial numbers, usually beginning with the northeast block and proceeding 

with the numbers alternately to the west and to the east. 

The lots are given serial numbers within the block.

10-46. The foot unit is employed in townsite surveys, 

and lengths of lines are reduced to the horizontal. The 

field traverse of the townsites will ordinarily be made 

to close within an error not to exceed 1/5000, and never 

to exceed 1/2000. The determined lengths of lines and 

their bearings are balanced to secure a perfect closure (subject to the apparent misclosure described in 

sections 2-21 and 2-22) for the data that are to be carried to the plat. These data should leave no discrepancy 

whatever in any calculated position, whether working 

from one monument to another, or between any two 

points.

10-47. If the proposed townsite is in an area already 

surveyed, great care must be exercised to identify the 

original section lines and to subdivide the section or 

sections in the proper legal manner to ascertain the 

assigned townsite boundaries. Permanent monuments 

are placed at each angle of the townsite boundary. These 

may be the regulation post or a magnetically detectable 

tablet seated in a concrete post, 3 feet long and at least 

8 inches square in cross section. Markings consist of 

the usual subdivisional identification marks, the capitalletter initials of the townsite name, and the letters “TS” 

in the appropriate quadrant.

10-48. The boundary streets are laid out first, then 

the other streets, blocks, lots, rights-of-way, and reservations. Permanent control monuments are established 

and connecting line measurements made as necessary 

to afford a precise relocation of any point. All data, 

including true bearings, connecting lines, and dimensions of streets, blocks, lots, rights-of-way, and reservations are carried to the townsite plat. Their sufficiency 

may be tested by the ease with which the position of any 

given point can be ascertained and the area of any lot 

can be calculated. If there are curved lines, the curve 

elements are shown on the plat. A minimum of three 

items of curve data is required: radius, arc distance, and 

long chord bearing and distance. The central angle may 

also be included.

10-49. Where permanent monuments are placed at the 

intersections of the street center lines, connections are 

made to the block corners to assure a ready restoration 

of any block corner that might be obliterated. The regulation post or a magnetically detectable tablet seated in a 

concrete post, 24 inches long and at least 6 inches square 

in cross section, may be used. These should be magnetic 

subsurface monuments, placed as much as a foot below 

the probable grade line of the street and marked only 

for the point of intersection. A marker is placed at each 

intersection.

10-50. Where the street or right-of-way center-line 

intersection is not marked, the adjacent block or lot corners are monumented. Durable markers such as regulation posts are set at the block corners and the front corners of the lots. These points are always monumented. 

The lot corners are set only on the block lines. The monuments at block corners are marked with the appropriate 

numbering. A permanent monument is placed at each 

angle point within the block boundary, when irregular, 

and at each point of curvature and point of tangency if 

the line of the block has been placed on a curve.

10-51. Lengths of lines and all angles or bearings are 

determined in the field for all irregular blocks and lots. 

In such cases both the side lines and back lines are 

always measured in the field. The dimensions are carried to the plat wherever needed, as when the lines cannot be readily located by the method of intersections. 

The geographic position of at least one monumented 

corner of a townsite will be determined.

Use of Photogrammetry

10-52. Photogrammetry is especially useful in showing the irregular layout of an existing town or village. 

With the extent of the improvements known, the streets, 

blocks, lots, rights-of-way, and reservations can be 

laid out on a trial basis on the photographs in order to 

determine the best plan. If the coordinates of lot corners, street and right-of-way center lines, monuments, 

and other points of significance are to be determined 

photogrammetrically, the work should be done with a 

first order plotting instrument, by analytical methods or 

equivalent. A sufficient number of positions are marked 

in advance of photography to reduce the field measurement work to a minimum.

Field Notes and Plats

10-53. The field notes of the townsite survey describe 

the dependent resurvey of the old section lines, the 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

restoration of any needed corners, the subdivision of 

sections, and the controlling monuments. All important connecting lines and measurements between the 

boundary monuments and the corners of the block lines, 

or to the permanent monuments marking the street and 

other right-of-way lines adjacent to the boundaries, are 

included. The plan followed in the townsite survey is 

explained and a general statement made as to the monumentation. Beyond this, the further detail of all directions and lengths of lines is carried to the plat but omitted in the field note record. If any improvements are 

unavoidably left in conflict with the townsite layout, the 

information is brought out in the field notes but can be 

omitted from the plat. The survey record may be a plat 

only, with the field notes written on the plat.

10-54. Townsite plats are usually published at a scale 

of 200 feet to an inch, but they are frequently drawn 

at a somewhat larger scale, subject to reduction when 

published. A marginal diagram is usually supplied in 

order to show the relation of the townsite boundaries 

to the section lines, with lengths of lines here given in 

the chain unit. Tenths and hundredths of links are used 

where appropriate for making reduction to the lengths 

of lines shown on the main drawing.

On the main drawings, all lengths of lines are shown 

in the foot unit, with tenths where needed. All directions and lengths of lines, and connecting lines to 

monuments are given on the plat with a view to the 

location of any point by calculation from the points 

of permanent control. This facilitates ready calculation from the plat of the area of any individual lot or 

expanse of land.

The main drawing shows the block and lot numbers, 

areas of lots and other expanses of land to the nearest square foot, and the designation of streets and other 

rights-of-way by letters, numbers, or names. In drafting 

the data for the regular blocks, some of the figures that 

would be applied in each lot of the block may be omitted if it is left clear within the block that the lottings are 

regular for dimension and area.

All permanent monuments and positional relationships are shown on the main drawing. The widths of 

the streets and other rights-of-way should be plainly 

shown but not repeated needlessly. Where all of the lots 

in a block are of the same dimensions, it is sufficient 

to show the measurements only along the block lines. 

A memorandum is supplied to note the general plan 

of monumentation, with an outline description of the 

monuments.

If there are reservations for public-school grounds, or 

of grounds for other public buildings or parks, the provision should be stated in the special instructions. The 

designated blocks are shown upon the plat, numbered 

regularly and titled, but not subdivided.

Reference should be made to chapter IX for the usual 

requirements regarding the title and the certificates that 

are to appear on the townsite plat.

Alaska Native Village Corporation 

Conveyance of Lands Surveys

10-55. Surveys authorized by 43 U.S.C. 1613(c), often 

called ANCSA 14(c) surveys, occur when the Secretary 

finds the selection by a Village Corporation for a Native 

village qualified, and the Secretary issues to the Village 

Corporation title to the surface estate. The Village 

Corporation, in turn, conveys parcels to qualified claimants. When all the claims are identified by the Village 

Corporation, they are posted on the ground and shown 

on a map. This map constitutes the origin of a plan of 

survey. The BLM then surveys, monuments, and plats 

the selected lands and the village conveyed lands for 

legal description purposes. The intent of the survey is 

to have the selected lands and village conveyed parcels 

surveyed in the same configuration, relative position, 

and size as shown on the map submitted by the Village 

Corporation, as conditions allow.

The technical survey process has much in common with 

the general class of townsite surveys where the town or 

village is occupied. A study of the authorizing statutes 

and regulations governing townsites highlights similarities and specific differences in administration and survey requirements from ANCSA 14(c) surveys.

The special instructions will state whether the posting 

on the ground, often called staking, the title descriptions, or acreage goals will control the corner positions 

of the survey. The special instructions will identify 

which lines are adjustment lines to meet the intent of 

the plan of survey.

10-56. A major conflict that is found at any phase of 

the plan of survey development or during the field survey is due cause to return to the Village Corporation 

with a request for additional clarification. The conflict 

is identified in a written statement, which, if appropriate, will recommend a way(s) to resolve the conflict. The 

assigned surveyor may be given the authority to make 

minor adjustments to the posting on the ground during 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

the course of the field work to accommodate one or 

more of the following situations:

(1) to fit the designated width and produce 

uniform parallel sided rights-of-way;

(2) to ensure that the boundaries do not trespass 

on claims or improvements originally intended 

for another claimant;

(3) to ensure there are no conflicts with official 

surveys, or any local surveys marking bona fide 

rights as to location;

(4) to avoid creating unmanageable gaps or 

strips of land;

(5) to maintain the original intent of the village 

conveyance agreements;

(6) to adjust for designated area; or

(7) to ensure that the 43 U.S.C. 1613(c) claim(s) 

remain on lands conveyed to the Village 

Corporation.

The surveyor must document and submit changes made 

during the course of the field survey to the supervising 

official. Any major change requires review and approval 

by the Village Corporation.

10-57. All parcels will be tied to each other and at least 

one monumented corner of the village will be tied to the 

nearest monumented interior or exterior corner of the 

township that the village is in. The geographic position 

of at least one monumented corner of the village will be 

determined. The Secretary’s copy of the plat, and field 

notes, if any, will be submitted to the BLM Washington 

Office for filing.

Surveys and National Forest System Lands

National Forest Homestead Entry and 

Allotment Surveys

10-58. National Forest Homestead Entry Surveys, 

under the Act of June 11, 1906, as amended (34 Stat. 

233), and National Forest Indian Allotment Surveys, 

under the Act of June 25, 1910 (36 Stat. 855, 863; 25 

U.S.C. 337), are examples of Congress devising legislation to meet a perceived immediate need. In this case 

large bodies of surveyed and unsurveyed Federal interest 

lands, better suited for grazing or agricultural uses than 

for forest uses, were being included within the National 

Forest System. To obviate this defect, Congress supplied 

a new legal mechanism whereby the lands suitable for 

grazing or agricultural entry be definitely segregated 

from all lands that are properly required for forest uses.

In unsurveyed areas, these segregation surveys were 

generally nonrectangular, without regard to the lines of 

the public surveys, usually made by employees of the 

Forest Service under special instructions issued by the 

GLO. The surveys were often many-sided figures with 

the intent to encompass the grazing and/or agricultural 

land. Sometimes the homestead entry or allotment claim 

were surveyed into more than one tract, with one tract 

reserved in fee by the United States for road purposes.

There were often preliminary or listing surveys prior to 

the final or patent survey. The survey field notes and plat 

were examined by the GLO. The field notes and plats 

were approved and filed by the GLO prior to the issuance of patent by the land office. The National Forest 

Homestead Entry Survey Act was repealed on October 

23, 1962 (76 Stat. 1157).

These departures from the rectangular system are historical examples within the PLSS that necessitated 

cooperative development and administration between, 

in this case, the Interior and Agricultural Departments. 

Separate and joint circulars, use books, instructions, 

administrative manuals, and regulations were issued. It 

is incumbent upon the surveyors who are to dependently 

resurvey these types of surveys to acquaint themselves 

with these general instructions as well as with the special instructions, field notes, and plats for the specific 

survey being retraced.

General Forest Exchange Surveys

10-59. Exchange surveys, under the Act of March 

20, 1922 (42 Stat. 465; 16 U.S.C. 485) as amended, are 

conducted under the Federal survey authority or by an 

administrative survey conducted under State authority. These surveys are in support of National Forest 

System landownership adjustments. Certain requirements authorized by the Act, together with the consideration of special conditions not fully covered by this 

Manual, are outlined in the cooperative procedures 

between the Forest Service and the BLM. Special consideration should be given to maintaining the integrity 

of the Federal land tenure records system for the orderly 

administration of Federal lands generally.

10-60. The procedure outlined in this Manual for the 

preparation of field notes and plats for fragmentary and 

nonrectangular surveys will be followed, including the 
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regular certificates of approval, acceptance, and filing. 

The purpose of an exchange survey is to mark the boundaries of a particular area on the ground and to furnish a 

plat and a set of field notes representing the survey as the 

basis for conveyance, acquisition, or other administrative 

action.

Under the provisions of the law, the BLM is responsible for the correctness of exchange surveys and the 

field surveying may be executed by employees of the 

Forest Service or by local surveyors under the BLM or 

Forest Service direction and control. All lands subject to 

an exchange will be properly described on the basis of 

either a survey executed in accordance with the PLSS 

laws and standards of the United States or, if those laws 

and standards cannot be applied, the lands must be properly described and clearly locatable by other means as 

may be prescribed or allowed by law.

Before title can pass land shall be identified by survey. 

Because the land surrendered or selected may be (1) 

less than a legal subdivision, (2) the applicant or the 

Government does not own the entire legal subdivision, 

(3) a portion of a legal subdivision offered the Government 

is not valuable for National Forest purposes, or (4) the 

United States desires to retain ownership of a portion or 

portions of a legal subdivision selected by the applicant 

because that lot or lots are chiefly valuable for National 

Forest purposes, the special instructions for such surveys 

issued must be complete and refer to the particular sections in the Manual pertaining to technical standards and 

the details involved with nonrectangular surveys (sections 10-32 through 10-39). The regular technical procedure prescribed for executing such surveys should be followed. The lands offered for exchange and not covered 

by public land surveys will be identified by nonrectangular surveys. Such surveys and the plats and field notes, 

upon request by the National Forest System Authorized 

Officer, are reviewed and, if found in accordance with 

the PLSS laws, conformal to this Manual and the standards of the United States, the surveys are approved by 

the BLM.

In connection with the acceptance of title to the offered 

land, the necessity for the execution of an exchange 

survey to identify on-the-ground by official survey the 

location of excepted strips of land is not required, unless 

requested by the Authorized Officer.

National Forest System Lands Small Tract Surveys

10-61. National Forest System Lands small tract surveys authorized by the Act of January 12, 1983 (96 

Stat. 2535; 16 U.S.C. 521c-521i), is another example of 

Congress devising legislation to meet a perceived immediate need. In this case, plots of land within the National 

Forest System were identified with ownership disputes 

associated with mineral survey fractions, encroachment 

problems, or management problems associated with 

unused road rights-of-way. To resolve these encroachment and management problems, Congress supplied a 

new legal mechanism whereby these plots are definitely 

segregated and Federal interest land is sold, exchanged, 

or interchanged.

10-62. The National Forest System Lands affected are 

as follows:

(1) Plots of 40 acres or less interspersed with 

or adjacent to lands that have been transferred 

out of Federal ownership under the mining laws 

and that are determined, because of location or 

size, not to be subject to efficient administration 

are referred to by regulation as “mineral survey 

fractions”;

(2) Plots of 10 acres or less encroached upon 

by improvements occupied or used under claim 

or color of title by persons to whom (a) no 

advance notice was given that the improvement 

encroached or would encroach upon such 

plots and (b) in good faith relied upon an 

erroneous survey, title search, or other land 

description indicating that there was not such 

encroachment; or

(3) Road rights-of-way, reserved or acquired, 

substantially surrounded by lands that are not 

owned by the United States and that are no 

longer needed by the United States.

10-63. Many of the affected plots are fractional parts of 

legal subdivisions or narrow strips of land. All Federal 

and non-Federal interest lands subject to this authority 

to adjust land ownership will be properly described on 

the basis of either a survey executed in accordance with 

the PLSS laws and standards of the United States or, if 

those laws and standards cannot be applied, the lands 

must be properly described and clearly locatable by 

other means as may be expressly prescribed or allowed 

by law.

When a survey is necessary, these segregation surveys 

are conducted under the Federal survey authority or by 

an administrative survey conducted under State authority. For the administrative surveys, when transmitted by 
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the National Forest System Authorized Officer to the 

BLM for their records, the State Office Chief Cadastral 

Surveyor will examine them and, when found to conform to the system of surveys adopted by the United 

States, will construct, approve, accept, and officially file 

a plat of survey. When such an administrative survey is 

found not to be in accordance with the system of United 

States surveys, the Cadastral Chief returns the survey, 

with an explanation of changes necessary to bring it into 

conformity, or upon request, executes the segregation 

survey.

The special instructions will show the areas of land to 

be segregated, or acquired, if applicable. This, by regulation, is the minimum necessary to resolve the encroachment or land management problem(s). The Authorized 

Officer is expected to provide the extent of the segregation. It may often be the case that relotting the remaining Federal interest lands and lotting the newly acquired 

Federal interest lands is necessary.

10-64. This system is another recent example within 

the PLSS that necessitates cooperative development 

and administration between two Departments. Separate 

and joint memorandums of agreement, administrative 

manuals and handbooks, instructions, and regulations 

are issued. It is incumbent upon the surveyors who 

are to perform these types of surveys or resurveys to 

acquaint themselves with these general instructions as 

well as with the management objectives, case file, special instructions, field notes, and plats for the specific 

survey project.

National Forest Townsite Surveys and 

Education Land Grant Surveys

10-65. By the National Forest Townsite Act of July 

31, 1958 (72 Stat. 438; 7 U.S.C. 1012a; 16 U.S.C. 478a; 

amended by sec. 213 of the Act of October 21, 1976; 

90 Stat. 2760) and the Education Land Grant Act of 

December 28, 2000 (114 Stat. 3070; 16 U.S.C. 479a) 

when a survey is necessary, these segregation surveys 

are conducted under the Federal survey authority or by 

an administrative survey conducted under State authority. For administrative surveys, when transmitted by the 

appropriate Authorized Officer to the BLM for their 

records, the State Office Chief Cadastral Surveyor will 

examine them and when found to conform to the system 

of surveys adopted by the United States will construct, 

approve, accept and officially file a plat of survey. In 

case such administrative survey is found not to be in 

accordance with the system of United States surveys, the 

Cadastral Chief returns the survey, with an explanation 

of changes necessary to bring it into conformity, or upon 

application, executes the segregation survey.

Public Lands Small Tract Surveys

10-66. The Act of June 1, 1938, (52 Stat. 609), as 

amended by the Acts of July 14, 1945 (59 Stat. 467) 

and June 8, 1954 (68 Stat. 239; 43 U.S.C. 682a-e), was 

repealed by the Act of October 21, 1976 (90 Stat. 2743, 

2789). As amended, the Act provided for the sale or lease 

of small tracts not exceeding 5 acres of land that, upon a 

land classification field examination, were identified in a 

classification order as not suitable for agricultural use or 

for grazing, but suitable for a home, cabin, camp, health, 

convalescent, recreational, business, or community site, 

subject to terms.

The survey made to delineate the small tracts differed 

from townsite surveys in that the small tract survey 

normally followed a pattern of progressional subdivision down to the desired lot sizes without block designations or the segregation of streets and alleys. The 

small tracts were typically described by the rectangular 

system, being aliquot parts of a section, while many others were nonrectangular by description and described 

as lots. They were created in contiguous groups and by 

isolated tracts, with some contiguous tracts being simultaneous conveyances and some sequential conveyances, 

the sequential conveyances with potential junior-senior 

issues. Regulations provide for reserving rights-of-way 

for street and road purposes and for public utilities in 

the patents or leases.

Conducting a proper dependent resurvey of a small tract 

survey requires a basic understanding of how they were 

surveyed originally. The special instructions and the 

assigned surveyor should make reference to and study 

the small tract regulations, agency studies, and field 

examination prior to classification, the classification 

order, and the serial case file affecting each small tract. 

Following is a summary of general instructions for conducting small tract surveys and dependent resurveys.

Rectangular Small Tracts

10-67. By regulation, small tracts are in compact form, 

in units of 5 acres or aliquot parts thereof. The official 

township plat provides the basis for the description 

of small tracts and no further surveys are necessary. 

However, as an aid in identifying small tracts on the 

ground, the areas classified for administration as small 

tracts should be subdivided by survey in order that at 

least one corner of each such small tract is marked on 
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the ground. The condition of the original survey and 

the ease of identifying the individual small tracts on the 

ground are governing factors in deciding whether additional survey work is required.

Supplemental Plats

10-68. To obtain land descriptions in cases where a 

field survey is not required, the rectangular small tracts 

should be identified by lot numbers. An official supplemental plat must be prepared for that purpose by protraction from existing records. Such identification is 

effective as of the date of official filing of the plat in the 

land office. Where a small tract is situated in a previously designated lot, a supplemental plat is required to 

afford a suitable description. If the subdivision of the lot 

results in narrow strips or other areas containing less 

than 21⁄2 acres not suitable for sale or lease as separate 

units, such excess areas may be included in the adjoining 5 acre small tracts.

Irregular Small Tracts

10-69. When the rectangular form is not the most 

desirable plan for development of an area, small tracts 

irregular in form, not in excess of 5 acres each, may 

be leased or sold. An official survey is required of an 

irregular small tract for purpose of identification and 

description in the lease or patent. If the action is initiated upon an offer to lease or purchase, the applicant 

is required to make an advance payment, equal to the 

estimated cost of executing the survey, before the work 

begins. Any excess payments are credited prior to the 

issuance of the lease or patent.

Where surveys of irregular small tracts are planned for 

administrative purposes, the cost of the survey is considered as an expense under normal appropriations and, 

if the small tracts are sold, the selling price shall not 

be less than the cost of survey of the particular small 

tract. Where a group of contiguous or closely associated 

small tracts are surveyed at one time, the cost of survey 

is prorated among the several small tracts on an acreage 

basis. Each irregular small tract is designated as a lot on 

the official plat.

Small Tracts on Unsurveyed Land

10-70. Unsurveyed Federal lands are not subject to 

lease or sale under the small tract acts. However, the 

applicant may file a request for the survey of the lands. 

The description on the application must be sufficiently 

complete to identify the location, boundary, and area of 

the land. Upon completion of the survey and after the 

plat is officially filed, the surveyed area is subject to the 

provisions of the act and an offer to lease or purchase 

may be filed.

Field Survey

10-71. The first requirement of the survey is the establishment or reestablishment of the section boundaries. 

The ensuing subdivision into small tracts should not be 

made without a study of the terrain. Under favorable 

circumstances the section may be subdivided into legal 

subdivisions and thereafter into lesser aliquot parts. 

However, it is sometimes necessary to depart from normal subdivision lines in order to make the tract layout 

compatible with drainage features, existent roads, and 

improvements on adjoining lands.

10-72. Aerial photographs and topographic maps are 

helpful in devising a suitable plan of subdivision. A 

preliminary survey and development of a topographic 

map may be necessary. The small tracts might then take 

an irregular form so as to fit the topography. While the 

individual plots are called “small tracts,” they are designated on the official plat as lots when not describable as 

aliquot parts of the section. If the survey is in the vicinity of urban or suburban development, the plan should 

be discussed with local officials as to suitability.

10-73. Small-tract surveys should always be executed 

within a closure limit of 1:2560 in either latitude or 

departure. If stricter limits are desirable in an urban 

or suburban area, provision will be made in the special 

instructions.

10-74. All corners of each lot should be monumented. 

Regulation monuments are used on section boundaries 

and on subdivisional lines down to 1/64 section lines. 

Further monumentation may be with approved materials called for in the special instructions. On an irregular 

lotting scheme regulation monuments should be used at 

approximate intervals of 10 chains, preferably at intervisible points. Where all corners of an individual lot 

can be established on the lines of larger subdivisions, 

the minor subdivisional lines need not be surveyed. All 

monuments set will be uniquely marked to represent the 

corner position.

10-75. The final field notes contain the regular record 

of the survey or resurvey of the section lines and subdivisional lines to the extent of all actual field surveys. 

The plat shows all data relating to established lines and 

measurements. Lot lines and measurements developed 
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by protraction should be appropriately dashed and 

shown parenthetically. Bearings should be shown to 

15” of angular value and distances to tenths of links. 

Each “small tract” is assigned an appropriate lot number, and the area is shown to hundredths of an acre.

10-76. Topographic detail on the plat should be kept 

to a necessary minimum and subordinated to the base 

data. Anticipated new rights-of-way for road and public 

utility purposes, to be reserved in the lease or conveyance of the lots, need not be shown. It may be desirable 

to show the scheme of corner monumentation on the 

plat by appropriate symbols.

Mineral Leasing Act Surveys

Not a Mineral Survey

10-77. The survey of land described by a Federal lease 

authorized by the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 (30 

U.S.C. 181 et seq.) or other statutes authorizing mineral 

leasing, is not a mineral survey. The surveyor needs to 

recognize that these lease boundaries are Federal interest boundaries and, when adjoining lands beneath navigable waters or lands beneath meandered nonnavigable 

waters, may have riparian characteristics different from 

those encountered under Federal law for fee ownership 

boundaries.

No Riparian Rights

10-78. From the general tenor of the Mineral Leasing 

Act, it is evident that Congress intended that all operations under prospecting permits or leases should be conducted upon a per-acre basis. It is evident that it was not 

within the intention of Congress that any person whose 

application called for a specific tract of land, including a certain number of acres, should receive rights on 

any larger tract containing a greater number of acres. 

Congress has, in effect, established a procedure for the 

exploration and/or development of Federal lands containing leasable minerals, which, of necessity, excludes 

the applicability of the common law concept granting 

to riparian owners rights to the waterline or, in a stream 

bed, to the center thereof, unless the lease or permit 

expressly includes such lands (P&M Petroleum Mgmt., 

140 IBLA 228 (1997); David A. Provinse, 35 IBLA 

221 (1978); Sam K. Viersen, Jr., A-30063, 72 Interior 

Dec. 251 (1965)).

For Mineral Leasing Act purposes, whether the 

lease description of lands landward of lands beneath 

navigable waters or lands beneath meandered nonnavigable waters will include the upland between the 

meander line and the water line, or the accretions, or 

the submerged lands, must be decided in each case. 

Lease descriptions must make it abundantly clear that 

the description intends to cover all of the land within a 

metes-and-bounds description with fixed and limiting 

boundaries, and not limited by the legal subdivisions 

with ambulatory boundaries.

Meander Lines are Boundary Lines

10-79. The general rule that meander lines are not 

boundary lines may not be applicable to lease boundaries authorized by the Mineral Leasing Act. As a general 

rule, a lease authorized by the Mineral Leasing Act, 

described by legal subdivisions of lands shown on the 

official plat as riparian, extends to the meander line and 

not to the waterline. The Federal common law rules of 

accretion, erosion, reliction, and submergence may not 

apply to lease boundaries bordering lands beneath navigable waters and lands beneath meandered nonnavigable waters. The riparian Federal common law rules are 

pertinent only when they affect a boundary between 

areas owned by the United States and third parties. 

When a surveyed lot of riparian public land is leased 

under the Mineral Leasing Act according to the plat 

of survey, the area covered by the original lot remains 

in the lease, even though part of the lot is thereafter 

covered by water, so long as the United States retains 

title to the river bed (James L. Harden, 15 IBLA 187 

(1974)).

The boundary of a Federal mineral lease authorized by the Mineral Leasing Act landward of lands 

beneath navigable waters may be the meander line 

indicated on the official plat of survey, and not the 

waterline (David A. Provinse, 35 IBLA 221 (1978)). 

This same exception to the general rule is applicable 

for a Federal lease under the Mineral Leasing Act 

for lands adjoining lands beneath meandered nonnavigable waters. In construing the extent of the area 

conveyed by a lease issued under the Mineral Leasing 

Act, principles of Federal law shall be applied (Sam K. 

Viersen, A-30063, 72 Interior Dec. 251 (1965)).

For Mineral Leasing Act purposes, and in the context of 

a lease landward of lands beneath meandered nonnavigable waters, the meander line is simply a line between 

two tracts of land owned by the United States, and it 

has been held that no lands beyond it pass with a lease 

of the tract it borders (Sam K. Viersen, Jr., A-30063, 72 

Interior Dec. 251 (1965)).
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Unsurveyed Lands

10-80. When the area to be selected for a lease is 

unsurveyed lands, the lease shall be surveyed under the 

direction and control of the BLM, in conformity with 

the law and regulations governing surveys of the public 

lands and at the expense of the applicant for the lease 

(25 U.S.C. 398e; 30 U.S.C. 223, 241, 262, 272, and 282).

For Mineral Leasing Act purposes, the lands between 

the meander line and the water line of an upland lease 

described by a meander line adjoining lands beneath 

navigable waters are unsurveyed lands, as are the lands 

waterward of the meander line of nonnavigable waters. 

The survey of these lands for purposes of a mineral 

lease may include several contiguous leases owned in 

common but, in conformity with statutory requirements, 

the survey record will distinguish the several leases and 

exhibit the boundaries of each.

Survey

10-81. The survey shall be made in conformity with 

the description of the lease. The position of the official 

survey upon the ground is fixed by connecting it through 

course and distance to the nearest corner of the public 

land survey. In a survey embracing two or more leases, 

each lease will be connected. When the corner tied to 

is not the nearest record corner, the returns will state 

that after diligent search no evidence of nearer corner(s) 

could be found.

10-82. As a matter of convenience in the preparation 

of subsequent descriptions, it is preferable that the corner of each lease from which the connection is made be 

established as corner No. 1.

From corner No. 1, the successive boundaries of each 

lease are run in regular manner, numbering the remaining corners in consecutive order. When a boundary line 

of a lease, including a line connecting opposing meander corners, intersects a section line, give courses and 

distances from the point of intersection to the corners 

of the public land surveys at each end of the segment of 

the line so intersected. When a boundary line of a lease 

intersects a boundary line of an oil or gas field, give the 

course and distances from the point of intersection to 

the corners of the oil or gas field at each end of the segment of the field boundary so intersected. When the corner tied to is not the nearest record corner, the returns 

will state that after diligent search no evidence of closer 

corner(s) could be found, or when no record corner in 

one direction is found, the returns will state that after 

diligent search no evidence of corner position(s) could 

be found.

10-83. Mineral leases shall conform to the subdivisions when the area to be selected for a lease is unsurveyed, and a protraction diagram has been approved.

In unsurveyed townships, the latest protraction diagram 

may be used to describe the boundaries. The local surveyor should coordinate with the cadastral survey section of the appropriate BLM state office, particularly 

where boundaries are uncertain or unsurveyed. In addition, for mine surveys, at least one vertical monument of 

the National Spatial Reference System, or equivalent, is 

tied to, or the geodetic elevation will be directly determined, (Helmert orthometric heights) and referenced to 

the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 

88), or equivalent.

10-84. The survey will describe the location of 

the surface disturbances, surface and underground 

improvements, and underground workings; their proximity to the nearest lease, ownership, or special use area 

boundaries in geographical coordinates referenced to 

the National Spatial Reference System (NSRS), North 

American Datum 1983 (NAD 83), or equivalent; and 

their location in feet and direction from the nearest two 

adjacent section, lease, ownership, or special use area 

boundaries. The authorized officer has the option of 

approving the use of the Geographic Coordinate Data 

Base (GCDB) to describe the boundaries, surface disturbances, improvements, or workings when the GCDB 

coordinates reliability ensures that operations will be 

within the intended boundaries.

10-85. The field notes shall fully and specifically 

describe every corner. Corners are generally completely 

described with the first survey line, tie line, or connecting line. Monumentation at any given corner needs to be 

completely described only once in the field notes.

Corner monuments will consist of the types described in 

chapter IV. If it is necessary to vary from these instructions, the returns should contain an explanation. If the 

point for the corner is inaccessible or unsuitable, a witness 

corner is established. Witness corners are established at 

a place where the permanency of the monument will not 

be endangered by water movements, mining activities or 

other causes. The reason for the establishment of a witness corner should be stated in the field notes.

The position of each corner must be recorded by course 

and distance to bearing trees, rocks, and other permanent 
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objects, as prescribed in chapter IV, and when no objects 

are available the field notes should so state. A magnetic 

memorial, were practicable, will be deposited at the corner and described in the field notes. The field notes and 

plats will conform to chapter IX.

Mine Surveys

10-86. These surveys are conducted for three primary 

purposes:

(1) Production verification, authorized by the 

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 and related acts, 

administrated by the BLM (see regulations at 43 

CFR 3482.3 and Subpart 3592).

(2) Safety, authorized by the Federal Mine 

Health and Safety Acts of 1969 and 1977, as 

amended, administrated by the Department of 

Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration 

(see regulations at 30 CFR Parts 75 and 77, 

Subparts M).

(3) Reclamation, authorized by the Surface 

Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, 

as amended, administrated by the Office of 

Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 

(see regulations at 30 CFR Parts 779, 780, 783, 

784, 816, and 817).

10-87. For mine survey purposes, “mine” means an 

underground or surface excavation or series of excavations and the surface or underground support facilities 

that contribute directly or indirectly to mining, production, preparation, and handling of materials that are severed from the leased lands. Mine surveys are the survey 

and platting of surface or underground disturbances, 

operations, improvements, reclamations, and boundaries. Mine surveys produce surface maps, underground 

maps, or both.

Mine surveys are essential to the planning and safe 

operation of the mine. They provide data and graphic 

presentation of information essential to mine rescue. 

The information is essential to the safe operation of 

adjacent mines and mines approaching the worked out 

areas of active or abandoned mines.

10-88. Federal mineral leases are typically described 

by the rectangular system of survey. As with any threedimensional data initially collected for different purposes, a common frame of reference is critical so the 

data collected at different times by different surveyors 

can be readily superimposed.

This class of survey is important in connection with the 

leasing of mineral lands and compliance with the stipulations of the mineral lease(s) conducted on Federal and 

acquired lands of the United States and on Indian lands. 

The field work usually consists of a dependent resurvey and partial subdivision of the section or sections 

involved, a traverse of the main entries of the mine, with 

ties to the portals and improvements, and the marking 

of the section and subdivision-of-section lines within 

the mine, which divide non-Federal and Federal interest 

ownership.

10-89. A plat showing the subdivisions of the section 

or sections is prepared with additional diagram(s) added 

to show the surface disturbances, and the underground 

and surface workings and improvements of the mine or 

mines. The diagram(s) should generally be drawn to the 

same scale as that used on the plat of the mine operations, which is usually 1 inch to 50 or 100 feet, thus permitting a direct comparison. The traverses of the underground workings should be shown by broken lines and 

the section and surveyed subdivision-of-section boundaries indicated by solid lines.

Mine survey plats must bear, in addition to specific 

information required by authorized officers, the name 

and address of the mine, lessee and operator, the lease 

and mine identification number, the boundary lines of 

the lease and mine and the name and certificate of the 

surveyor. The plats must show a scale of the plat, the 

direction of each line determined with reference to the 

true meridian as defined by the axis of the earth’s rotation, the horizontal and vertical datum used, the location 

and description of at least two permanent intervisible 

horizontal base line points coordinated with the underground and surface measurements, and the location and 

description of at least two permanent vertical bench 

marks used in connection with establishing or referencing mine elevation surveys. For new surveys tied to an 

existing mine survey with a different horizontal or vertical reference than above, the surveyor will show the 

necessary conversions on the new plat or field notes.

10-90. Surveys of new workings, improvements, or 

surface disturbances will be made when directed by the 

authorized officer. The new surveys will be extended 

to show all changes of a permanent character that have 

taken place during the period between successive surveys. All excavations in each separate bed shall be 

shown in such a manner that the amount of material that 

has been severed from the lease can be accurately calculated by comparison of surveys for successive reporting 

periods.
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10-91. Before any mine or section of a mine located 

on or under Federal interest lands is abandoned, closed, 

or becomes inaccessible, a survey of such mine or section must be made to show conditions at the date of the 

closure and filed in the official survey record system. 

Mine surveys must identify those areas of the mine 

that are inaccessible or cannot be entered safely, and on 

which no information is available.

10-92. Mine surveys are to inform and provide the 

distance to any boundary of the mine or lease from any 

surface or underground working, improvement, surface disturbance, or reclamation. Specific requirements 

for special purpose mine surveys are provided by the 

authorized officer. Surveyors are reminded to inform 

themselves what mine survey data is confidential and 

subject to restricted access.

10-93. Surveyors shall comply with all applicable 

Federal, State, or mine specific safety requirements 

whenever their work requires entry into surface or 

underground mines. Entry into an underground mine is 

only allowed if work is planned and executed in compliance with established BLM safety policy, which regulates how BLM employees may enter an underground 

mine.

Mineral Segregation Surveys

10-94. A mineral segregation survey is a survey made 

to define the limits of nonmineral Federal interest land 

adjoining one or more mining claims and to supply 

data for lotting the nonmineral land against the claims. 

Although a necessary part of the survey is to ascertain 

the boundaries and position of the mining claims, it is 

not a mineral survey and confers no permanent rights 

upon the mining claimant. If the subsisting records furnish the information necessary for a proposed segregation of mining claims from the nonmineral Federal 

interest lands, no mineral segregation survey is required. 

Prior to the 1947 edition of the Manual, a plat for these 

surveys was subtitled “Supplemental Plat” (see sections 

9-105 through 9-107).

10-95. Mineral segregation surveys fall into two 

classes:

(1) Where the record of official mineral surveys 

is faulty or fails to locate the mining claims 

accurately with respect to the rectangular net. 

Proper segregation usually requires the resurvey 

of section boundaries with connections to the 

mineral surveys.

(2) Where unsurveyed mining claims require 

segregation from land embraced in a pending 

administrative action. The field work consists of 

surveys of the mining claims, with connections 

to corners of the rectangular net, and the 

resurvey of section boundaries.

10-96. Where regular conditions are found, the mineral segregation survey consists only in running not less 

than two connecting lines from identified corners of the 

rectangular survey to a corner or corners of the mineral 

location survey, followed by a survey of the outboundaries of the mining claim or group of claims.

Monuments are placed at the angle points or at intersections of mineral location boundaries, between controlling mineral location corners, along the boundary of the 

mining claim or outboundaries of a group of claims as 

needed to mark the limits of the nonmineral land. The 

angle points of the claim are numbered in accordance 

with the practice in mineral surveys and the intersection points may be marked as witness points. Each 

monument is marked with the initials of the name of 

the claim or claims and the angle point number. If the 

monument at the corner of the mineral location survey 

is in proper position, constructed of durable material, 

and suitably marked, the monument may be adopted 

without any alterations, and its description entered in 

the field notes.

10-97. In townships where there appears to be an 

extensive obliteration of monuments or where the 

condition of the lines does not conform to the original plat and field notes, the survey will consist of such 

retracements and restoration of the corners of the section lines as may be necessary to define the nonmineral 

land or pending transaction. If the distortion of the section lines is so great as to warrant the subdivision of 

one or more sections, the work authorized should be 

described in the special instructions or supplemental 

special instructions.

10-98. The retracement of the lines of the mineral 

location survey should be made with the same degree 

of accuracy as a mineral survey. The laws and regulations that govern locating mining claims or sites include 

provisions for how locations should be described and 

marked. Therefore, when a surveyor conducts a mineral segregation survey, it is essential that the surveyor 

observe the requirements regarding the legal length and 

width of the mining claims, including parallelism of 

end lines. That is, the surveyor should ensure the claim 

is confined to the legal length along the mineral lode, 
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the side lines are placed within the legal width, and the 

end lines of each claim are parallel. The mining claim, 

as returned in a mineral segregation survey, should 

conform to the regulatory specifications for mining 

claims boundaries. If the mining claim, as returned by 

the mineral segregation survey, is not identical to (or 

embraced within) the boundaries of the location survey, the surveyor should give the bearing, distance, and 

description from each established corner of the mineral 

segregation survey to the corresponding corner of the 

location survey.

10-99. The rectification of any boundary of unsurveyed mining claims or millsites to meet legal requirements is a complex mixture of mining law, legal principles, policy, and mineral survey judgment. The surveyor 

cannot change a mineral location boundary outward or 

in a way that interferes with an intervening right. The 

Federal authority surveyor conducting the mineral segregation survey under special instructions, typically in 

concert with the BLM mineral examiner and the Office 

of the Solicitor, will mark the boundary of the Federal 

interest lands adjoining the mining claims. The surveyor will examine the history of surveys and titles of 

all affected claims, alienated lands, and Federal lands 

to make necessary but lawful adjustments to minimize 

unmanageable slivers of Federal interest lands.

Because the mineral segregation survey is not a mineral survey, the surveyor does not need to be concerned 

with potential boundary changes because of changed 

conditions since the mining claim was located, such as 

contiguous prior location claims subsequently becoming abandoned or forfeited.

The types of boundary rectification the surveyor is 

mostly concerned with are parallelism and casting off 

excess area. The discussion of what is substantial parallelism is in section 10-193. The surveyor is controlled 

by the record of the location certificate and the markings on the ground. The latter is controlling where there 

is a variation between the descriptive calls of the record 

and the monuments (30 U.S.C. 34). For a lode mining 

claim, if the difference between the location description and the location survey monuments is slight, and 

casting off excess area is not applicable, the corner with 

the shortest move distance to obtain parallelism will be 

moved along the side line and inward.

10-100. In cases of casting off excess area, the intent 

should be to cure defects in the location claim and to 

put the locator, where no other rights have intervened, 

in the same position that he or she would have occupied 

if no such defect had occurred. Some methods that have 

been adopted include:

(1) Where the area to which a location claim 

can be determined by measurements following 

the calls for distances from the discovery 

contained in the location notice, the surveyor 

may measure out the location and then locate 

and cast off the excess.

(2) The location notice specifies the linear 

distance claimed from the discovery point.

(3) When the location notice does not specify 

the linear distance claimed from the discovery 

point, the locator can only claim 750 feet along 

the vein on each side of the discovery notice.

(4) Where the locator mistakes the course of 

the vein and locates across instead of along it, 

an excess of lateral side line surface results 

and should be cast off. The surface rights 

would be defined by lines drawn 300 feet on 

each side of the center of the vein as it actually 

ran. However, a material deviation of the vein 

from the center line is of no consequence to the 

Government in a patent proceeding, as long as 

the claim was located in good faith for mining 

purposes, and the side lines may exceed 300 

feet from the center line on one side in such 

cases.

(5) Where a placer claim or millsite is 

located on unsurveyed land, is in a square or 

rectangular form, and is oversized, the excess 

area has to be cast-off; the intent will be to 

change each boundary inward, by an equal 

amount, to obtain regularity and legal area. 

The locator is entitled to possession of the mining claim 

as located until he or she readjusts the lines voluntarily 

or is called upon to do so by the BLM. The locator 

should be asked to select the portion he or she intends 

to hold and be afforded a reasonable time to comply. In 

any case the surveyor will coordinate boundary rectification with the BLM mineral examiner.

In the cases of significant differences between the 

location certificate and the mineral or location survey 

monuments, significant corner movement for parallelism, significant excess area, or other complexities, the 

authorized officer of the BLM will be contacted for 

further instructions.
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Mineral Surveys

10-101. These sections set out the field and office procedure to be followed in the execution of mineral surveys, and the filing of the returns. These surveys are 

made to mark the legal boundaries of mining claims or 

mill or tunnel sites on the Federal interest lands. In the 

cases where the boundaries of the mineral surveys are 

determined by legal subdivisions, survey procedures for 

the location of such legal subdivisions are identical to 

those set forth in the proceeding chapters of this Manual.

10-102. The early discoveries of free gold were made 

far in advance of settlement, mainly in the stream beds 

of the western territories that included the Black Hills, 

the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific Slope. Mineral 

deposits in these regions were appropriated and their 

values extracted under varied local camp or mining district rules with the tacit approval but without any regulations by the Federal Government.

The functions of a mining district were to provide rules 

governing the size of claims, manner of location and 

discovery requirements, recording of location notice, 

descriptions, and surveys, work required to hold a claim, 

and period of absence constituting abandonment.

The miners were not without precedents in establishing 

their rules. In Europe, Germanic or Prussian laws similarly provided for the discovery and location of mineral 

deposits.

Finally, with the spread and development of the mining industry, Congress adopted legislation not only recognizing the possessory right of citizens of the United 

States to minerals on public lands but also providing for 

their disposition. Present procedures are derived from 

this legislation, which was based in large part on the 

regulations of the old mining districts.

Today, mining districts exist in name only. As county 

governments were set up (recording districts in Alaska), 

the mining districts turned their records over to the 

county recorders and left the making and enforcement 

of local mining laws to State or county governments.

10-103. Originally, almost all minerals were disposed 

of through the mining claim location system under the 

Mining Laws of 1866, 1870, and 1872. Over the years, 

Congress removed certain minerals from the purview of 

these Mining Laws. Today, there are three basic ways of 

appropriating minerals on Federal interest lands through 

location, lease, and sale. The minerals subject to each 

of these methods of disposition have been defined by 

Federal laws, regulations, policies, and legal decisions, 

with which the surveyor must gain familiarity.

10-104. Mining claims may only be located on Federal 

lands that are open to the operation of the Mining Law 

of 1872. When Federal lands are open to the operation 

of the Mining Law, the Mining Law allows citizens to 

enter the lands, explore for and discover certain valuable mineral deposits, and purchase the lands containing those deposits. The most significant Federal laws 

governing mineral lands pertinent to surveying are:

• Lode Law of 1866, as amended (Act of July 26, 

1866; 14 Stat. 251), 30 U.S.C. 35, 36, 38, 43, 44 note, 

45 note, 46, 47, 51, 52, and 43 U.S.C. 661, covering 

locatable minerals;

• Placer Law of 1870, as amended (Act of July 9, 1870; 

16 Stat. 217), 30 U.S.C. 35, 36, 38, 47, 52, and 43 

U.S.C. 661, 766, covering locatable placer claims;

• General Mining Law of 1872, as amended (Act of 

May 10, 1872; 17 Stat. 91), 30 U.S.C. 22-24, 26-30, 

33-35, 37, 39-42, 47, covering locatable minerals;

• Act of May 17, 1884 (23 Stat. 24), 

as amended by 31 Stat. 321 (June 6, 1900), 48 Stat. 

663 (May 4, 1934), 52 Stat. 588 (May 31, 1938), and 

61 Stat. 916 (August 8, 1947), found in 30 U.S.C. 

49a, 49b, 49c, 49d, extending the Mining Law to 

Alaska;

• Act of April 28, 1904 (33 Stat. 545), 30 U.S.C. 34, 

requiring that, if inconsistent, the monumented 

location will control over the description location;

• Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, as amended (Act 

of February 25, 1920; 41 Stat. 437), 30 U.S.C. 22, 

48, 49, 171, 181–193, 194 note, 201–203, 204 note, 

205–214, 221 note, 223–229a, 241, 251, 261-263, 

withdrawing oil, gas, and other minerals from mining claim location, and disposing of them through 

leases;

• Materials Act of 1947, as amended (Act of July 31, 

1947; 61 Stat. 681), July 23, 1955 (69 Stat. 367), 30 

U.S.C. 601, covering saleable minerals;

• Surface Resources Act of 1955 (Act of July 23, 

1955; 69 Stat. 367), 30 U.S.C. 601, 603, 611-615, 

withdrawing common variety mineral materials 

from mining claim location;
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• Millsite Act of March 18, 1960 (74 Stat. 7), 30 

U.S.C. 42, authorizing millsites for placer mining 

claims;

• Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 

1976, as amended (Act of October 21, 1976; 90 

Stat. 2743), 43 U.S.C. 1732, 1744, amending the 

Mining Law to impose assessment work filing 

requirements, an environmental regulation standard, and mandatory requirements that all mining 

claims, or mill or tunnel sites located on or after 

October 21, 1976, be recorded within 90 days of 

their location, and that all mining claims, or mill 

or tunnel sites located prior to October 21, 1976, 

be recorded by October 22, 1979, with the proper 

BLM State Office and maintained according to 

this law;

• Hardrock Mining Claim Maintenance Fee Act of 

1993, as amended (Act of August 10, 1993; 107 

Stat. 312, 405), 30 U.S.C. 28f to 28l, establishing an 

annual per-claim maintenance fee and a one-time 

location fee for all unpatented mining claims, millsites, and tunnel sites.

10-105. The Federal mining laws are supplemented by 

State laws. There are State statutes that govern locating, recording, discovery, and surveying mining claims. 

Each mineral surveyor should obtain a copy of the State 

mining laws upon receiving an order for survey in a 

given State. Mining claimants must comply with State 

law requirements if those requirements do not conflict 

with the United States mining laws (South Dakota v. 

Madill, 53 Interior Dec. 195 (1930)). Surveyors may 

obtain information about State laws and pertinent local 

regulations from State officials.

10-106. The holder of a valid mining claim or millsite 

is not required to seek patent; a valid unpatented mining claim or millsite remains a fully recognized property right. Under the Mining Law, a mining claimant 

with a valid mining claim or millsite may seek and, 

upon satisfaction of the requirements in 30 U.S.C. 29 

and all other pertinent laws, obtain a patent, which is a 

conveyance of full legal title to the claimant. The mineral survey is part of the patent application process. 

Since 1994, Congress has prohibited the filing of new 

mineral patent applications.

10-107. Mineral patent application surveys, commonly called mineral surveys, are under the direction of the Chief Cadastral Surveyor having jurisdiction within the State in which the mining claim lies. 

Special instructions, often called orders, are prepared 

and issued to the U.S. Mineral Surveyor. Mineral surveys are official surveys. The work that mineral surveyors do is the work of the Federal Government, and 

the surveys that they make are its surveys (Waskey v. 

Hammer, 223 U.S. 85, 92 (1912)).

When necessary for the orderly administration of the 

Federal interest land, the BLM conducts a mineral 

segregation survey (section 10-94). However, such a 

mineral segregation survey is entirely distinct from a 

mineral survey, and no permanent rights confer upon 

the mining claimant as a result of the mineral segregation survey.

Distinguishing Features of the Mineral Survey

10-108. Mineral surveys are required for lode claims 

and when a placer claim or millsite cannot be conformed to the public land survey or when the land itself 

is unsurveyed.

Under 30 U.S.C. 35 (Rev. Stat. 2331) “all placer-mining 

claims located after the 10th day of May 1872, shall conform as near as practicable with the United States system of public-land surveys, and the rectangular subdivision of such surveys, and no such location shall include 

more than twenty acres for each individual claimant.” 

An “association” placer mining claim may be located 

by an association of two or more locators, with up to 20 

acres each. In other words, two locators may locate a 

single mining claim up to 40 acres, three locators up to 

60 acres, and so on. The statutory limit for an association placer mining claim is 160 acres, which requires a 

minimum association of eight locators. A company or 

other business entity is considered a single locator.

Surveys of placer claims are conformed to the legal 

subdivisions of the public land survey, unless they are 

located on unsurveyed land or the configuration of the 

mineral deposit makes conformation impracticable. 

Consequently, the mineral survey procedures apply 

especially to lode claims, although those procedures 

are also followed in appropriate circumstances when 

surveying placer claims (sections 10-139 and 10-140).

Millsites that embrace nonmineral land not contiguous to the vein or lode and that are occupied for milling purposes or used incidental to mining operations 

may be located, surveyed, and patented in a manner 

similar to lode claims. The Act of March 18, 1960 (74 

Stat. 7), 30 U.S.C. 42, provides for the location of millsites in conjunction with placer claims, and for their 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

description to be in the same manner as the placer mining claim. State law may require monumentation, even 

when described by legal subdivisions.

10-109. A U.S. mineral surveyor is appointed under 

the authority of 30 U.S.C. 39, and as such, is included 

within the term “officers, clerks, and employees” of the 

BLM as that term is used in 43 U.S.C. 11 and construed 

in Waskey v. Hammer, 223 U.S. 85 (1912). Mineral surveyors are also considered to be special government 

employees (43 CFR 20. 401(c)(l)(ii)).

The appointment of mineral surveyors, and the renewal, 

suspension, or revocation of their appointments, is the 

responsibility of the BLM Chief Cadastral Surveyor. 

Rules for these administrative procedures and also the 

procedures for locating, maintaining, and obtaining 

patent to mining claims and millsites are contained in 

the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 43, Chapter II, 

Subchapter C.

10-110. The special instructions or mineral survey 

order for a mineral survey issues from the BLM office 

administering the Federal interest lands where the mining claim or millsite is located. Estimating the cost of the 

office work associated with the mineral survey, approving the mineral survey, and refunding any unused funds 

on deposit is the responsibility of the respective State 

Office Chief Cadastral Surveyor.

The selection of a particular mineral surveyor from the 

list of mineral surveyors provided by BLM, payment for 

his or her services, and the cost of the office work associated with the mineral survey is the responsibility of 

the claimant.

Surveyor—Claimant Interrelationships

10-111. The mineral surveyor or cadastral surveyor 

responsible for processing mineral surveys, and the 

cadastral surveyor when processing mineral segregation 

surveys, must be thoroughly familiar with both Federal 

and State laws relating to the appropriation of minerals 

on Federal lands.

If the location of the mining claim does not meet the 

requirements set forth by law, the mineral surveyor 

should advise the mining claimant that corrective steps 

are necessary, including that it may be necessary for the 

claimant to an amend the location. If the location certificate is too vague, an amended certificate is in order. If 

corrective measures concerning mining claim location 

and boundaries are not completed, the surveyor should 

then ask the State Office Chief Cadastral Surveyor for 

further instructions on how to proceed.

As the mineral surveyor is required to prepare the 

certificate of the value of the improvements (section 

10-168), if the development work includes improvements that may not count as patent expenditures or if 

common improvements may not meet the tests set forth 

in the regulations, policies, and instructions, the mineral surveyor should bring this to the attention of the 

mining claimant.

The matter of what constitutes a valid discovery or sufficient mineralization to satisfy the legal requirements 

for patent is complex and is a matter for the mineral 

examiner and adjudicators to determine.

Requirements of Field Work

Location Survey

10-112. The mineral surveyor and the cadastral surveyor need to be familiar with certain activities that 

have preceded their involvement with a particular mining claim or site, and upon which their work is dependent, including, but not limited to, the location survey. 

To be valid, mining claims or sites must satisfy four 

basic elements, which are (1) discovery of a valuable 

mineral deposit, (2) proper location, (3) timely recordation, and (4) ongoing maintenance of the mining claim 

or millsite.

10-113. In a group of claims, a discovery of a valuable 

mineral deposit must be present on each mining claim. 

If a vein or deposit extends across several claims and 

the mining claimant has exposed the valuable mineral 

in the vein or deposit within the limits of each mining 

claim, then one of the requirements for a discovery is 

demonstrated for each mining claim.

With respect to a block of contiguous mining claims, 

located on the same mineral deposit, a valuable mineral 

deposit exists where the quality and quantity of mineralization on each claim is sufficient to justify a reasonable person in the expenditure of his or her labor and 

means with a reasonable prospect of success in developing a paying mine. In the case of a group of claims, it 

is not necessary to show that the deposit on each claim 

is likely to support a profitable operation were it to be 

worked by itself. Rather, it may be demonstrated that, 

were all of the claims to be worked together, sharing the 

costs of operation, they are likely to support a profitable 

operation.
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10-114. The Mining Law, 30 U.S.C. 28 (Rev. Stat. 

2324), expressly provides that: “The location must be 

distinctly marked on the ground so that its boundaries can be readily traced. All records of mining claims 

made after May 10, 1872, shall contain the name or 

names of the locators, the date of the location, and such 

a description of the claim or claims located by reference 

to some natural object or permanent monument as will 

identify the claim.” Each location notice or location certificate must include the name or number, or both, of the 

mining claim or site.

The object of the law in requiring the mining claim 

location to be marked on the ground is to fix its position 

and provide notice to other prospectors that the land has 

been appropriated. It also prevents floating or swinging of the claim, unless amended. Marking the mining claim in this manner, that is performing a location 

survey, enables those who, in good faith, are looking 

for unoccupied ground in the vicinity of previous mining claim locations to ascertain exactly what has been 

appropriated and make their mining claim location on 

the remainder.

Some States have enacted laws defining the character 

of monuments or marks to be placed on the ground by 

the locator. In the absence of such State legislation or 

local regulation, what constitutes a sufficient marking is 

determined according to the circumstances in any particular case. The general rule is that the requirement is 

fulfilled when a person accustomed to tracing the lines 

of mining claims can, after reading the description of 

the claim in the posted location notice, by a reasonable 

and bona fide effort to do so, find all of the monuments 

or marks, and thereby can retrace all of the lines. It is 

necessary to mark the locus in a way that the boundary 

may be readily traced (United States v. Webb, 132 IBLA 

152 (1995)).

10-115. Surveyors must comply strictly with the provisions of law regarding location, recording, and maintenance because of the importance of a mineral survey in 

the patenting process. If the surveyor is able to ascertain 

that the mining claimant has not complied with location, 

recording, or maintenance requirements, the surveyor 

must decline to make the mineral survey and report 

the facts to the respective State Office Chief Cadastral 

Surveyor for further instruction (Philip Dephanger, 1 

Pub. Lands Dec. 581 (1882)).

The location survey is typically done by or under the 

supervision of the mining claimant. Even when the 

location survey happens to have been performed by the 

mineral surveyor, such survey cannot be substituted for 

the actual mineral survey.

The difficulties surrounding the location and location 

survey frequently render it impossible to accurately 

mark the location boundary. The locator is generally 

permitted to rectify and readjust the location boundaries, if it can be done without impairing the intervening 

rights of others. The rectification of such boundaries 

is often handled by a second location survey, and the 

recording of an amended location notice, prior to applying for an order for mineral survey.

10-116. In lode mining claim adverse proceedings, it 

has been found that a locator should not be permitted to 

hold an excess of ground, and subsequent locators may 

be governed by the statement in the notice and not by 

monuments and marks that include and excess of surface ground within their boundary.

For placer mining claims and millsites containing excess 

area, the rule is that the locator must not be deprived of 

the right to select the part of the mining claim or millsite that is to be cast off. This right of selection is to be 

exercised within a reasonable time after the locator has 

been notified that the location as marked on the ground 

is excessive.

In the case of placer mining claims and millsites located 

by legal subdivisions, and containing excess area by 

more than the rule of approximation (section 10-197), 

the excess would have to be cast off by survey. If, however, the excess is negligible, the locations would be 

permitted.

10-117. There is a distinction between amending 

an original location claim by moving boundaries and 

rectifying errors, and the inclusion of new ground or 

the relocation of abandoned ground. The amendment, 

if properly made and no other rights have intervened, 

takes effect back to the date of the original location 

claims, whereas the relocation becomes operative only 

from the date of the new location claim or relocation.

Mineral Patent Application Survey

10-118. The mineral survey is performed after recordation of the location notice or amended location notice as 

required by State law. It must be completed and officially 

filed before filing the patent application. The survey 

includes the usual technical procedure of permanently 

monumenting and witnessing the location on the ground, 

identifying all conflicts with prior mineral surveys, fee 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

lands with or without Federal mineral interests, lands 

withdrawn from mineral entry, and prior locations that 

the mining claimant wishes to exclude. Also included 

is the examination required for preparing affidavits of 

the value of expenditures for development purposes and 

any other reports to be made by the mineral surveyor. 

The survey itself does not confer legal title; legal title is 

conveyed by the final certificate and patent.

10-119. The duties of the mineral surveyor begin with 

special instructions or an order for survey and cease with 

the expiration of the period of publication of the mineral 

patent survey. After receipt of the special instructions 

or survey order, the mineral surveyor should obtain, 

among other items, copies of:

(1) the relevant legal descriptions of the mining 

claim and of the surrounding mining claims 

documented in the location and amended location 

certificate(s), contest file(s), quiet title action 

judgment roll(s), or mining claim recordation 

file(s), adverse proceedings judgment roll(s), or 

patent file(s), final certificates, and patents;

(2) relevant survey information of the mining 

claim and of the surrounding land, including 

official public land and mineral land surveys, 

canceled mineral surveys, mining claim 

location maps or diagrams, plats or maps 

included in contests, quiet title actions or 

adverse proceedings, and local surveys;

(3) Federal and non-Federal land ownership 

and mineral status records;

(4) Federal survey records such as National 

Forest Homestead Entry Surveys, General 

Forest Exchange Surveys and Small Tract 

Surveys on National Forest System Lands, 

Small Holding Claims, Small Tracts, Townsites, 

U.S. Surveys, Rights-of-Way and withdrawals, 

special use areas, etc.;

(5) the reports as to the condition of corners 

and survey discrepancies contained within 

other corner descriptions and supplemental data 

of approved mineral surveys; and

(6) connecting sheets, if available, that show 

in outline all approved mineral surveys, 

which should be examined for conflicts with 

prior mineral surveys. The BLM record of 

unsurveyed locations should also be searched.

10-120. The mineral survey must be an actual survey 

on the ground, made by the mineral surveyor in person 

after the receipt of the order. It must be made without 

reference to or reliance upon any knowledge previously 

acquired by having made the location survey or otherwise. The record must show the actual facts existing at 

the time of the survey. This precludes a calculation of 

the connections to corners of the public land survey and 

to mineral or location monuments, or of any other lines 

of the survey, through prior surveys, unless it is satisfactorily shown in the report that he or she has retraced 

such lines and found them to be correct as approved and 

filed (Veta Grande Lode, 6 Pub. Lands Dec. 718 (1888); 

Lincoln Placer, 7 Pub. Lands Dec. 81 (1888); Walter 

Bartol, 19 IBLA 82 (1975)).

The survey may include several contiguous locations 

owned in common, but such survey must, in conformity with statutory requirements, distinguish the several locations and exhibit the boundaries of each (S.F. 

Mackie, 5 Pub. Lands Dec. 199 (1886); Golden Sun 

Mining Co., 6 Pub. Lands Dec. 808 (1888); Argillite 

Ornamental Stone Co., 29 Pub. Lands Dec. 585 (1900)).

10-121. The patenting provisions of the Mining Law, 

30 U.S.C. 29 (Rev. Stat. 2325), expressly provide that 

the mineral survey shall show the boundaries of the 

claim or claims, which, pursuant to 30 U.S.C. 28, the 

claimant should have distinctly marked by monuments 

on the ground with reference to natural objects or permanent monuments as will identify the claim(s).

Lengths of lines are returned as their true horizontal 

equivalents in the foot unit (U.S. Survey Foot). The 

degree of accuracy required in making mineral surveys 

calls for careful use of all direct or indirect measuring 

devices. These measuring devices should be compared 

to a known base line prior to commencing the survey.

Mineral surveys must be made with an instrument by 

which the meridian may be determined independently 

of the magnetic needle, and the directions of lines must 

be referred to the true meridian. The true course of at 

least one line of each survey is to be ascertained at the 

time of the survey through the use of satellite based 

geodetic positioning system, by observation of the sun, 

Polaris, an equatorial star, or equivalent, with proper 

verification of the time and latitude.

The direction of each line is reported in bearings. 

Bearings are stated in terms of angular measure referred 

to the true meridian. The basis for reporting directions 

is called mean bearing referenced to the true meridian 
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Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

at the point of record (sections 2-3 and 2-5). The methods employed and the results are recorded in the field 

notes of the survey. The mean magnetic declination of 

the survey, when observed, is to be recorded in the field 

notes. Specimen field notes of a mineral survey will be 

found in appendix III.

10-122. For lines of any east-west extent, the true 

meridians passing through each end point of the line 

are not parallel, and thus, the basis of bearing is not 

orthogonal with reference to a plane surface (section 

2-11). Therefore, reference meridians are not parallel but 

converge towards the pole, and parallel lines, in mineral 

surveys, are two lines a constant distance apart, such as 

the end lines of a lode claim. Thus, parallel lines that 

are not true east and west will have different bearings 

(section 10-193).

10-123. The survey must be made in strict conformity 

with, or be embraced within, the lines of the location 

survey upon which the order is based. If the lands to be 

surveyed and the location survey are identical, the field 

notes will clearly state that fact and the description of the 

corners of the location survey entered in the field notes. 

If not identical, a bearing, distance, and description of 

the corners of the location survey are to be given in the 

field notes from each established corner of the survey 

to the corresponding corner of the location. The lines 

of the location as found upon the ground should be laid 

down upon the preliminary plat only in such manner as 

to contrast and show their relation to the lines of survey 

(Philip Dephanger, 1 Pub. Lands Dec. 581 (1882)).

10-124. The mineral survey is given a single number. 

A location claim under the mining laws can legally be 

made only of a tract or piece of land embraced within 

one set of boundary lines. Two or more tracts merely 

cornering with each other cannot legally be embraced in 

a single location claim (Tomera Placer Claim, 33 Pub. 

Lands Dec. 560 (1905); Hidden Treasure Mine, 35 Pub. 

Lands Dec. 485 (1907)). An owner of several unpatented 

mining claims who has received patent for certain contiguous mining claims in the group may apply for patent to the remainder in one application, even though the 

unpatented claims are not contiguous to each other, if 

each is contiguous to the body of land embraced in the 

patented claims (Wagner Assets Realization Corp., 53 

Interior Dec. 614 (1932)).

10-125. In accordance with the principle that courses 

and distances must give way when in conflict with fixed 

objects and monuments, the mineral surveyor may 

not change the corners of the location survey for the 

purpose of making them conform to the description in 

the record. If the difference from the location certificate 

is slight, it may be explained in the field notes.

10-126. If after having obtained an order for survey the 

surveyor finds that the record of location does not practically describe the location as marked upon the ground, 

the applicant should file a certified copy of an amended 

location certificate, correctly describing the claim, and 

obtain an amended order for survey. In fact, any change 

in the original order including the addition or dropping 

of locations or designation of a different surveyor calls 

for an amended survey order.

10-127. If the mining claim or site to be surveyed was 

located prior to May 10, 1872 (see 30 U.S.C. 22-24, 

26-30, 33-35, 37, 39-42, 47; Rev. Stat. 2319-2328, 2331), 

the mineral surveyor is governed by the special instructions accompanying the order for survey.

10-128. No lode claim located subsequent to May 

10, 1872, shall exceed the statutory limit of 300 feet 

in width on each side of the center of the vein, or 

1,500 feet in length. All surveys must close within 0.25 

feet in 1,000 feet, and the error must not be such as 

to make the mining claim exceed the statutory limit. 

Stricter limits of closure will be specified in the survey order where higher precision is indicated by the 

values involved. No placer claim may exceed 20 acres 

for each locator up to the statutory limit of 160 acres 

in an association placer claim, and millsites may not 

exceed 5 acres. The per-claim limit of 20 acres for each 

placer claim locator and the 5-acre limit for each millsite will be governed by the rule of approximation (section 10-197).

10-129. Corner No. 1 of each claim and site will be 

tied to a section or quarter section corner or a corner of 

record. If a corner of the PLSS cannot be recovered or 

if the township is unsurveyed, corner No. 1 of each mining claim or site will be tied to a permanent monument. 

The geographic position of the mineral survey will be 

determined by a tie to a geodetic monument or determined directly.

Lode Lines and End Lines

10-130. In the absence of proof to the contrary, the discovery point is held to be the center of the vein on the 

surface. In the case of a mineral deposit that is not in 

vein or lode form, the discovery point is presumed to lie 

at the center of the lode mining claim. The course and 

length of the lode line or presumed course of the vein 
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will be marked upon the plat and specifically described 

in the field notes. The record of the intersections of the 

end lines with the lode line are given in the field notes 

from the lowest numbered corner on each end line running toward the next higher numbered corner. Where 

conditions permit, the distances are shown on the plat.

10-131. In a mineral survey, slight variation from the 

lines as originally located is acceptable. The surveyor 

may draw in the end lines to make them parallel and 

is permitted to cast off the area in excess of the statutory limit. The requirement of the statute as to end line 

parallelism is satisfied with a reasonable compliance. 

Substantial parallelism is acceptable.

It was held in Belligerent and Other Lode Mining 

Claims, 35 Pub. Lands Dec. 22 (1906), (syllabus), that:

There is no warrant in the mining laws for 

extending, arbitrarily and without any basis of 

fact therefor, the vein or lode line of a location 

in an irregular and zigzag manner for the 

purpose of controlling the length or situation 

of the exterior lines of the location to suit the 

convenience, real or imagined, of the locator.

The end lines of a lode location must be straight 

and parallel to each other, and when at right 

angles with the side lines may not exceed six 

hundred feet in length.

The mining laws contemplate that the end lines 

of a lode claim shall have substantial existence 

in fact, and in length shall reasonably comport 

with the width of the claim as located.

10-132. Except in jurisdictions where State law 

requires differently, in the case of blanket veins that 

are essentially horizontal or mineral deposits where the 

valuable mineral is in disseminated form, a presumed 

lode line or center line need not be shown, and the discovery working may be anywhere on the mining claim. 

In such cases, the tie to the discovery point should be 

given from the nearest corner of the survey and included 

in the description of that corner, or a right angle tie may 

be given from a point on the nearest end line. For such 

claims the centerline is considered to be equidistant 

between the sidelines.

For horizontal or disseminated mineral deposits, if a 

subsurface point where a hole drilled on an angle intersects the ore body is designated as the discovery point, 

such point will be tied to the surface hole by bearing and 

distance, and the tie to the surface hole should be given 

from the nearest corner of the survey. The description 

of the hole will include the vertical angle and the slope 

distance. The description of the drill hole will include 

the direction drilled, the dip angle as measured from the 

horizontal, and the downhole slope distance as drilled.

Method and Order of Procedure

10-133. The position of the official survey upon the 

ground is fixed by connecting it by course and distance 

either to the nearest corner of the public land survey, or 

to a mineral monument (section 10-152). In either case 

the connecting line may not exceed a length of 2 miles. 

If both a corner of the public land survey and a mineral 

monument are within the limiting distance, the connection should be made to the public land survey corner. 

Each location claim of a survey embracing two or more 

location claims must be so connected.

When a mining claim is situated within the limits of 

a township the survey of which is in good standing, 

but where no corner of the survey can be found within 

2 miles of the claim, after diligent search, connection 

may be made with a mineral monument, which must be 

connected with an established public land survey corner. The full particulars must be described in the field 

notes.

As a matter of convenience in the preparation of subsequent metes-and-bounds descriptions, it is preferable 

that the corner of each location from which the connection is made be established as corner No. 1.

The three preceding paragraphs are intended to permit 

the surveyor to obtain connections in a practicable manner based upon existing field conditions. Any unusual 

conditions that may be encountered in obtaining connections should be explained in the field notes. When 

the corner tied to is not the nearest record corner, the 

field notes will state that it is the nearest corner that 

could be found after diligent search.

10-134. From corner No. 1 the successive boundaries 

of each location are run in regular manner, numbering 

the remaining corners in consecutive order. When a 

boundary line of a mining claim or millsite intersects a 

section line, give courses and distances from the point 

of intersection to the corners of the public land survey 

at each end of the segment of section line so intersected. 

When the corners tied to do not include the nearest 

record corner, or when a record corner in one direction 

is not found, the field notes will state that, after diligent 
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search, no evidence of nearer corner position(s) could 

be found.

10-135. A lode or placer claim, and a millsite embraced 

in one survey are distinguished by the letters A and B, 

respectively, following the number of the survey. The 

corners of the millsite are numbered independently of 

those of the lode or placer. A corner of the millsite, preferably corner No. 1, is connected with the nearest corner 

of the public land survey or mineral monument, and a 

corner of the millsite is connected with a corner of the 

lode or placer claim.

10-136. When a placer claim includes one or more 

lodes, or when several contiguous placer or lode locations are included as one claim in one survey, the corners of each location are given a separate consecutive 

numerical designation, beginning with corner No. 1 in 

each case. The placer claim should be described in the 

field notes before describing the lodes.

When a placer claim includes one or more lodes, and the 

lode is claimed by the placer claimant, the lode claims 

will be surveyed in the same manner as if they were 

elsewhere situated, although the plats of the placer and 

lode surveys may be combined and constitute but one 

plat.

10-137. In all cases, whether the lode is claimed or 

excluded, the lode(s) and invaded legal subdivisions 

must be surveyed and marked upon the plat. The field 

notes and plat are to indicate the area of the lode and the 

area of the placer separately.

10-138. In the case of a subsequently located lode 

claim within an existing placer claim, the extent of surface ground may be the minimum, i.e., 25 feet on each 

side of the vein unless the lode is less than 25 feet from 

the nearest boundary of the placer. The 25-foot rule 

applies whether the placer is owned by the applicant or 

a third party.

10-139. Nonrectangular placers are permissible where 

use of a description by legal subdivisions would result 

in conflicts with other mining claims. In such cases, the 

placer claim must be surveyed around existing claims, 

so that no conflict is created.

10-140. Placer claims that do not conform to the legal 

subdivisions of the public land survey require a mineral 

survey. When such claims are on unsurveyed land, they 

should be conformed as nearly as practicable to the protraction diagram.

10-141. For nonrectangular placer mining claims and 

millsites, in applying the 10-acre rule for placers or the 

21⁄2-acre rule for millsites, each claim or site must be 

subdivided along the axis in which it was laid out on 

the ground. The 10-acre rule for placer claims or the 

21⁄2-acre rule for millsites is properly applied by subdividing a claim or site into lots as nearly square as 

possible (United States v. Lara (On Reconsideration), 

80 IBLA 215 (1984), aff’d,. Lara v. Secretary of the 

Interior, 820 F.2d 1535 (9th Cir. 1987)).

If the placer claims consist of a bench or gulch placer, 

they must be contained within the required number of 

40-acre legal subdivisions, according to the rules given 

in Snow Flake Fraction Placer, 37 Pub. Lands Dec. 250 

(1908); 43 C.F.R. 3832.12(c)(3).

10-142. If a mineral examination determines that certain portions of a nonrectangular placer claim or millsite do not qualify for a patent, then the following procedures must be applied to subdivide the placer claim or 

millsite per United States v. Lara (On Reconsideration), 

80 IBLA 215 (1984), aff’d, Lara v. Secretary of the 

Interior, 820 F.2d 1535 (9th Cir. 1987):

Where the placer claim is in a rectangular form, 

and a portion of it is found to be nonmineral 

in character, then the claim must be subdivided 

to exclude the nonmineral land. The mineral 

examiner will establish a baseline and, along 

the long axis of the claim, mark off 10-acre 

parcels perpendicular to the long axis. The 

surveyor will then subdivide the claim pursuant 

to the mineral examiner’s map and report.

Where the millsite is in a rectangular form, and 

a portion of it is not being used or occupied for 

mining or mineral purposes, then the millsite 

must be subdivided to exclude the unused 

or unoccupied land. The mineral examiner 

will establish a baseline and, along the long 

axis of the millsite, mark off 21⁄2-acre parcels 

perpendicular to the long axis. The surveyor 

will then subdivide the millsite pursuant to the 

mineral examiner’s map and report.

If the placer claim or millsite is in square form, 

the surveyor will then subdivide the placer claim 

or millsite pursuant to the mineral examiner’s 

map and report.

10-143. The field notes of a placer claim must contain 

a descriptive report describing:
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

(1) the quality and composition of the soil;

(2) the character, extent, and position of all 

surface and underground workings for mining 

purposes;

(3) the proximity of centers of trade or 

residence;

(4) the proximity of well known systems of 

lode deposits or of individual lodes;

(5) the use or adaptability of the claim for 

placer mining, including the availability 

of water in sufficient quantity for practical 

operations. Streams should be fully described 

as to their course, amount of water carried, 

and the vertical drop in elevation of the stream 

within the claim;

(6) works or expenditures made by the claimant 

or his or her grantors for the development of the 

claim;

(7) the true position of all known mines, salt 

licks, salt springs, and millsites. When none is 

known to exist on the claim, that fact will be so 

stated;

(8) the natural features of the claim; and

(9) the kind and amount of timber and other 

vegetation thereon, and adaptability to mining 

or other uses.

In the case of placer claims taken by legal subdivisions, 

no such descriptive report by a mineral surveyor is 

required.

Conflicts

10-144. When an exterior line of a claim intersects 

the surveyed line of another claim, the field notes must 

show (1) the distance to the point of intersection and 

(2) the course and distances from the point of intersection along the intersected line of the conflicting claim 

to the corners at the endpoints of the intersected line. 

When the same line of a conflict is intersected by two 

lines of the survey being executed, the tie is given to the 

opposite corner of the conflicting survey at each point 

of intersection.

It is necessary to search diligently for each corner controlling a line in conflict. If the necessary corners cannot be found, the boundaries shall be reestablished.

10-145. When the lines of two locations of the survey 

intersect, the point of intersection is given on the line 

being described, including the course and distances 

along the intersected line to the nearest corners.

10-146. Conflicts with unsurveyed locations may 

not be reported unless it is the wish of the claimant to 

exclude them from the area claimed.

If there are prior locations, it may be well to report conflicts in order to avoid an adverse suit. Conflicts with 

unsurveyed locations, owned by the claimant and not 

a part of the survey, need not be shown nor excluded 

unless the area of conflict contains the discovery of the 

unsurveyed location. In cases where two claims of the 

survey are in conflict, the area of conflict may not contain both discovery points.

10-147. Surveyed claims owned by the applicant that 

are in conflict with or contiguous to the survey being 

executed must be reported in the field notes.

10-148. If surface fee lands are in conflict as to 

boundary, whether or not the mineral estate was 

reserved to the United States, a subdivision of the 

section(s) should be done. Special surveys such as townsites, Forest Homestead Entry Surveys and, in Alaska, 

U.S. Surveys and Coal Surveys are treated as prior mineral surveys.

10-149. A connecting line should be run from a corner 

of the survey to a corner of each conflicting survey and 

to a corner of each conflicting unsurveyed location to 

be excluded, unless a connection can be identified by 

virtue of intersect ties developed during the survey.

10-150. Connection is also made to any survey, the 

record position of which is within 100 feet of the lines 

of the survey being executed; also to any other neighboring survey, the position of which is not definitely 

fixed by the record. Such connections should be made 

and conflicts shown according to the boundaries of the 

neighboring or conflicting claims as each is marked, 

defined, and actually established upon the ground.

10-151. The field notes must fully and specifically state 

how and by what visible evidence the several conflicting 

surveys were identified on the ground, as well as those 

that appear to conflict, according to their returned tie or 

boundary lines, and report all material errors or discrepancies found in such surveys. In the survey of a group of 

contiguous claims where any corner is common to two 

or more claims of the group, bearings should be mentioned but once, and such corner should be described 
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as a common corner in the claim first mentioned in the 

field notes.

Mineral Monuments

10-152. In previous practice, if a survey was situated 

in a district where there were no public land survey 

corners and no mineral or location monuments within 

2 miles, a mineral or location monument was established. The site, when practicable, was to be some prominent point, visible from every direction, where the permanency of the monument would not be endangered by 

snow, rock, or land movements or other natural causes. 

The geographic position of the monument, determined 

as accurately as the known data and the instruments 

used would permit, was recorded in the field notes.

However, in subsequent surveys the current geographic 

position of the mineral monument will be determined 

within a positional tolerance defined by the office issuing the special instructions or mineral order.

There was a period of time when such monuments were 

called “Location Monuments” and were designated 

“USLM.”

10-153. In the event a mineral monument is to be established the mineral monument should consist of a regulation post similar to the type used for rectangular surveys, set three-fourths of its length in the ground, with a 

magnetic memorial beneath, and with a conical mound 

of stone 4 feet high and having a 6-foot base alongside. 

The letters “USMM” followed by the number of the survey are marked on the brass cap. The exact reference 

point is indicated on the top of the monument by a cross. 

Any necessary departure from the prescribed material 

and size of monument is to be explained in the returns.

10-154. From the monument the precise course and 

distance is to be taken to two or more bearing trees or 

rocks, and to any well-known and permanent objects in 

the vicinity, such as buildings, shafts, mouths of adits, 

prominent rocks, or the confluence of streams. Bearing 

trees are scribed “XBT” and the bearing rocks chiseled 

“XBO” together with the number of the mineral monument. A detailed description of the mineral monument, 

including its geographic position, approximate distance, 

and direction to the nearest town, is to be furnished in 

the record of the survey.

Corner Monuments

10-155. Corner monuments will consist of the types 

described in chapter IV. If it is necessary to vary 

from these instructions, the returns should contain an 

explanation.

The field notes shall fully and specifically describe 

every corner monument. These are generally completely 

described on the first survey line, tie line, or connecting line. The monument at any given corner needs to be 

completely described only once in the field notes.

All corners must be monumented in a permanent and 

workmanlike manner, constructed as prescribed in sections 4-11 through 4-15. The distinguishing initial letter 

or letters, corner numbers, and survey numbers will be 

stamped on the cap of the monument. The precise corner point is permanently indicated on the monument. 

When a rock in place is used, its dimensions above 

ground should be stated, and a brass tablet set at the corner point. If a brass tablet at the corner point is impracticable, a cross should be chiseled at the corner point 

and a reference monument set. Corners common to two 

or more locations are marked with the initial letter and 

corner number of each location.

10-156. In case the point for the corner is inaccessible 

or unsuitable, a witness corner is established, which will 

bear the letters “WC” in addition to the regular markings. When practicable the witness corner should be 

located as near as possible to the true corner point, with 

which it must be connected by course and distance. The 

reason for the establishment of a witness corner should 

be stated in the field notes (sections 4-16 and 6-27).

10-157. The position of each corner will be recorded 

by course and distance to bearing trees, rocks, and other 

permanent objects, as prescribed in chapter IV, and 

when no objects are available the field notes should so 

state. A magnetic memorial, if practicable, should be 

deposited at the corner and described in the field notes.

10-158. In contrast to the method of measuring the distance to bearing trees of the public land survey corners 

(to the center of the tree at its root crown), the distance 

is taken to the point indicated by a scribed X located 

immediately above the scribe marks BT. If the distance 

is taken to a point other than the X then the field notes 

will state the point to which the distance is measured.

Topography

10-159. The topographic features of mining claims 

and millsites should be noted carefully. Distances on the 

lines are shown to intersections with significant streams, 

gulches, ditches, ravines, roads, trails, etc., with their 
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widths, courses, and other data required for mapping. 

If the claim or site lies within a townsite, all important 

municipal improvements, and the street and block system within the claim or site should also be located for 

mapping purposes.

Field Notes and Preliminary Plat

10-160. Field notes and other reports must be upon 

the proper forms and/or in the proper format, which are 

furnished with the order for survey or upon application. 

No interlineations or erasures are permissible, and no 

abbreviations or symbols may be used excepting those 

shown in section 9-20 and as employed in the specimen 

mineral survey field notes in appendix III.

10-161. The mineral surveyor prepares and files a preliminary plat, drawn on a scale of 200 feet to an inch, if 

practicable, in conformity with specimen plat no. 4, the 

lines of the claim surveyed being shown heavier in contrast with conflicting claims. The geographic position of 

a corner of the survey will also be furnished (see section 

9-103). It should clearly state that it is a “PRELIMINARY 

PLAT SUBJECT TO CORRECTION.”

10-162. In order that the results of the survey may be 

reported in a uniform manner, the field notes and preliminary plat are to be prepared in strict conformity with 

the specimen field notes and plat. These are designed to 

furnish all needed information concerning the manner 

of describing the boundaries, corners, lode lines, connections, intersections, conflicts, and improvements, 

and of stating the geographic position, magnetic declination, area, location, and other data connected with the 

survey of mineral claims, and to prescribe certain forms 

of certificates for the surveyor, and for listing his or her 

assistants.

10-163. Throughout the description of the survey, after 

each reference to the lines or corners of a claim or site 

location, give the name thereof, and if unsurveyed, state 

the fact. If reference is made to a claim or site location 

included in a prior official survey, the survey number is 

given, followed by the name of the claim or site.

10-164. The total area of each mining claim or millsite in a group embraced by its exterior boundaries, and 

also the area in conflict with each intersecting survey 

or claim, will be stated. When mining claims or millsites of the survey conflict with each other, such conflicts should be stated only in connection with the mining claim or millsite from which the conflicting area is 

excluded.

10-165. The field notes and plat of survey should not 

show exclusions, or attempt to specify the net area of 

the claim. These are matters for the applicant to state 

in connection with an application for patent, and the 

notices posted and published. The field notes should 

merely show the total and net areas of conflict, so that 

any exclusion desired may be made readily.

10-166. The field notes will state specifically whether 

the claim is upon surveyed or unsurveyed Federal 

lands, giving in the former case the quarter-quartersection, township, range, meridian, and state in which 

it is located, and in the latter the township and range as 

nearly as can be determined by the protraction diagram 

or, if not protracted, the information at hand. When 

upon surveyed lands, the section boundaries should be 

indicated by full lines and protracted legal subdivision 

boundaries by broken lines.

10-167. The title page should contain the mailing 

address of the claimant or authorized agent.

Improvements

10-168. In 30 U.S.C. 29 (Rev. Stat. 2325), it is directed 

that at least $500 shall be expended upon a mining 

claim as a prerequisite to obtaining a patent.

In preparing the certificate of the value of the improvements, the form shown in the specimen mineral survey 

field notes in appendix III is followed.

Only actual expenditures and mining improvements 

made by the patent applicant or the applicant’s grantors, 

and having a direct relation to the development of the 

claim, are to be included in the estimate. The expenditures required may be made on the surface or in running 

a tunnel, drifts, crosscuts, or drill holes for the development of the claim. Improvements of any other character, 

such as buildings, machinery, or roadways are excluded 

from the estimate unless it is clearly shown that they are 

associated with actual excavations, such as cuts, tunnels, 

and shafts, and are essential to the practical development and to actually facilitate the extraction of mineral. 

Mills for ore treatment, or roadways, tramways, or trails 

built for transporting the extracted ore from the mine, 

are not to be included in the estimate.

10-169. All mining and other improvements on the 

claim are located by course and distance from corners 

of the survey, or from points on the indicated lode line, 

specifying with particularity the dimensions and character of each. The improvements upon each location 
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should be numbered consecutively, the point of discovery always being No. 1. Improvements such as cabins, 

ore bins, roads, bridges, etc., that do not develop the 

claim and improvements made by a former locator who 

has abandoned the claim are not to be included in the 

estimate but should be described by separate statement 

in the field notes and shown on the plat.

The field notes should show in detail the value of all 

improvements included in the estimate of expenditures. 

When a tunnel or other improvement has been made 

for the development of other claims in connection with 

the one for which survey is made, the name, ownership, 

and survey number, if any, of each claim to be credited, 

and the value of the interest credited to each should be 

stated.

10-170. When a lode or placer claim, and millsite are 

included in the same survey, an expenditure of $500 at 

the time of application for patent is required upon the 

lode or placer claim only.

10-171. When a survey embraces several mining claims 

held in common, constituting one contiguous block of 

mining claims, whether lode or placer, an expenditure of 

$500 at the time of application for patent for each mining claim embraced in the group is required.

10-172. The Secretary’s decision in James Carretto 

and Other Lode Claims, 35 Pub. Lands Dec. 361 (1907) 

(syllabus), has been summarized as follows:

Where several contiguous mining claims are 

held in common and expenditures are made 

upon an improvement intended to aid in the 

common development of all of the claims 

so held, and which is of such character as to 

redound to the benefit of all, such improvement 

is properly called a common improvement.

Each of a group of contiguous mining claims 

held in common and developed by a common 

improvement has an equal, undivided interest in 

such improvement, which is to be determined by 

a calculation based upon the number of claims 

in the group and the value of the common 

improvement.

There is no authority in law for an unequal 

assignment of credits out of the cost of an 

improvement made for the common benefit of a 

number of mining claims, or the apportionment 

of a physical segment of an improvement of 

that character to any particular claim or claims 

of the number, such an arbitrary adjustment of 

credits, as the exigencies of the case may seem 

to require, being utterly at variance with the 

essential idea inherent in the term a common 

improvement.

In any patent proceedings where a part of 

a group of mining claims is applied for and 

reliance is had upon a common improvement, 

the land department should be fully advised 

as to the total number of claims embraced in 

the group, as to their ownership, and as to their 

relative situations, properly delineated upon an 

authenticated map or diagram. Such information 

should always be furnished in connection with 

the first proceeding involving an application 

of credit from the common improvement, and 

should be referred to and properly supplemented 

in each subsequent patent application in which 

a like credit is sought to be applied.

10-173. The Deputy Solicior’s decision in United 

States v. Smith, 66 Interior Dec. 169 (1959) (syllabus), 

has been summarized as follows:

While it is permissible to allocate among a group 

of contiguous claims the value of improvements 

placed on one of the claims in the group, this 

can only be done where there is a showing 

that the labor performed or the improvements 

made on that claim were intended to aid in the 

development of all the claims and that the labor 

and improvements are of such a character as to 

redound to the benefit of all.

10-174. The IBLA’s decision in Brattain Contractors, 

Inc., 37 IBLA 233 (1978) (syllabus), for common off-site 

improvements, has been summarized as follows:

Where in a patent application for a group of 

claims, prorate credit for the value of a 

common, off-site improvement is to be 

attributed to each claim, it must be shown 

that the improvement was subsequent to 

the location of each claim so credited, and that 

the improvement is essential to the practical 

development and actually facilitates the 

extraction of ore from each claim.

The explanatory statement in such cases should be 

given in the field notes or affidavit at the conclusion 

of the description of the improvements included in 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

the estimate of expenditure, and should be as full and 

explicit as the facts in the case warrant, dealing only 

with improvements, conditions, and circumstances as 

they actually existed at the time of survey or subsequent 

field examination.

10-175. If the value of the improvements upon a mining claim is less than $500 at the time of survey, authority is given to file thereafter supplemental proof showing $500 expenditure made prior to the expiration of 

the period of publication for patent. The information on 

which to base this proof must be derived by the mineral 

surveyor, who makes the actual survey, from a careful 

examination upon the premises.

10-176. Only improvements made by the patent applicant or the applicant’s grantors subsequent to the location of the claim are counted under the statutes toward 

patent expenditure. The BLM Cadastral Survey Office 

certifies to this fact according to the record, and, as the 

certificate is based on the report of the mineral surveyor, 

the latter should exercise special care to see that only 

such improvements are reported.

10-177. The expenditure for the mineral survey may 

not be accredited as labor or improvement as a prerequisite to patent, nor as annual assessment work upon the 

claim (Cost of Official Survey of a Mining Claim Not 

Acceptable as Annual Assessment Work, 52 Pub. Lands 

Dec. 561 (1929)).

Millsite

10-178. A millsite may be dependent, encompassing 

nonmineral land not contiguous to a vein or lode, if 

used or occupied by the owner of the vein or lode for 

mining or milling purposes as of the date of the BLM 

mineral examination or withdrawal, whichever is earlier. The millsite may be independent, encompassing “a 

quartz mill or reduction works” (30 U.S.C. 42(a)), if not 

dependent on a particular mining claim and the owner 

not necessarily the owner or claimant of a claim. A millsite claim may also encompass nonmineral land used or 

occupied by the owner of a placer deposit for mining or 

milling purposes (30 U.S.C. 42(b)).

10-179. The maximum size of each individual millsite 

is 5 acres, governed by the rule of approximation (section 10-197). Only that amount of millsite acreage that 

is reasonably necessary to be used or occupied for efficient and reasonably compact mining or milling operations is locatable (43 CFR 2832.32). Each 21⁄2-acre portion of a millsite must be used or occupied in order for 

that portion of the millsite to be valid (43 CFR 3832.33 

(a)(2)).

All improvements and projected improvements should 

be shown. If the ground is to be used for a tailings or 

evaporation pond, the dam should be shown with its 

ultimate height and the high water line of the pond 

delineated by the survey.

Amended Orders

10-180. An amended (supplemental) order is based on 

an amended application from the claimant. It is usually 

occasioned by the filing of amended location certificates. The amended application is processed exactly the 

same as the original application.

If amended location certificates are filed for record, it 

will be necessary to make an amended application for 

survey based on the amended certificates, and receive 

an amended order for survey.

An amended order is also called for if there is an addition or deletion of claims from the survey.

A change in mineral surveyor will call for an amended 

order, and the order to the original mineral surveyor 

must be cancelled.

If the claimant sells the claims, an amended order will 

be required to show the new claimant.

An amended order may be used to authorize the survey 

of additional expenditures if the survey was approved 

without the necessary expenditures made.

An amended location notice prior to applying for an 

order for patent survey can be used when it is found necessary to change location claim boundaries.

Amended Surveys

10-181. Amended surveys are ordered in the same 

manner as original mineral surveys. The conditions 

and circumstances peculiar to each separate case 

and the object sought by the required amendment 

are set forth in the special instructions, order, or 

amended order, and alone govern all special matters 

relative to the manner of making such surveys and 

the form and subject matter to be embraced in the 

field notes.

10-182. An amended survey must be made in strict 

conformity with, or be embraced within, the lines of the 
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original survey. If a portion of the amended and original 

surveys is identical, that fact must be distinctly stated in 

the field notes. If not identical, the bearing and distance 

are given from each established corner of the amended 

survey to the corresponding corner of the original survey. The lines of the original survey, as found upon the 

ground, are laid down upon the preliminary plat in such 

manner as to contrast and show their relation to the lines 

of the amended survey.

10-183. The field notes of the amended survey are prepared on the same size and same forms as are required 

for the field notes of the original survey, and the abbreviation “Am.” will be used after the survey number 

wherever it occurs.

10-184. A new mineral survey is required if the claim 

boundaries are changed by amendment after the original 

survey is approved. A new survey is also required where 

the claim has been abandoned and relocated by another.

Cancellation of Mineral Surveys

10-185. A mineral survey may be cancelled only 

after the claim has been relinquished by the claimant, declared forfeited, or determined null and void. 

It can be cancelled only by the BLM Chief Cadastral 

Surveyor authorized to approve mineral surveys within 

the administrative jurisdiction.

When it becomes necessary to cancel a mineral survey, 

the plat is clearly marked “Canceled” but is not removed 

from the official records. No notations are made on the 

field notes. The survey corner monuments normally are 

not removed. Monuments should be removed only for 

clearly advantageous reasons and only in connection 

with an official survey where the positions of the old 

monuments are tied in before destruction.

If the mineral survey is canceled, it is still available for 

other uses. If the mineral survey and corner monuments 

could be used for future disposal or administrative purposes, they are incorporated in an official survey or supplemental plat. This is done by assigning lot numbers to 

the area within the canceled mineral survey. Where the 

survey is retained, the field notes of the canceled survey 

may become the basis for the new lot designation and 

support the new plat.

Tunnel Sites

10-186. A tunnel site is a subsurface right-of-way under 

Federal land open to mineral entry. It is used for access 

to lode mining claims or to explore for blind or undiscovered veins, lodes, or ledges not currently claimed or 

known to exist on the surface. A tunnel site is a possessory right only and cannot be patented (30 U.S.C. 27; 

Rev. Stat. 2323; Act of May 10, 1872, ch. 152, sec. 4; 17 

Stat. 92).

Tunnel sites are a possessory right to any blind veins, 

ledges, or lodes cut by the line of the tunnel, not previously known to exist, for a distance of 3,000 feet from 

the face of such tunnel. The term “face” is held to mean 

the first working face formed in the tunnel. It is the 

point at which the tunnel enters cover. The face is the 

point from which the 3,000 feet are to be measured. The 

line of the tunnel, within the meaning of 30 U.S.C. 27, is 

theoretically a cylinder that is 3,000 feet long and with 

a radius of 1,500 feet from the tunnel axis.

To take advantage of the benefits of this provision of 

law, the proprietors of a tunnel site shall give proper 

notice of their tunnel location by erecting a substantial 

post, board, or monument at the face or point of commencement. In order to provide notice to others whether 

or not they are within the boundary lines of the tunnel 

site, the proprietors must also establish the boundary 

lines of the tunnel sites. It is customary to monument 

and mark the line of the tunnel at such interval so that 

each succeeding monument or mark is visible from the 

last, beginning at the face or point of commencement 

of the tunnel and continuing a maximum of 3,000 feet 

to the end. From the end points, the four corners of the 

tunnel site should also be monumented, up to 1,500 feet 

each side.

10-187. Upon discovery, a mining claimant may use a 

tunnel site to acquire the mineral rights by locating a 

lode mining claim. The location date of the lode claim 

relates back to the location date of the tunnel site.

The right to a tunnel site location is lost by failure to 

develop the tunnel for a period in excess of 6 months 

or the failure to otherwise diligently prosecute (United 

States v. Swanson, 98 Interior Dec. 185 (1991)).

10-188. Where an exterior line of a claim intersects 

the boundary of a tunnel site, give the course and distances from the point of intersection to the corners of 

the site at each end of the segment of the boundary 

so intersected. If the corner tied to is not the nearest 

record corner or a record corner in a direction is not 

found, a statement will be made that a diligent search 

had been made but no evidence of the corner position 

was recovered.
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Extralateral Rights

10-189. The doctrine of extralateral rights allows a 

lode mining claimant to follow a vein beyond the vertical planes drawn through the side lines of the claim 

(30 U.S.C. 26). As such, the owner of a mining claim 

may develop “all veins, lodes and ledges throughout 

their entire depth, the top or apex of which lies” within 

the boundary lines extended downward vertically, even 

though the veins, lodes, or ledges extend outside the 

boundaries of the claim (Del Monte Mining and Milling 

Co. v. Last Chance Mining and Milling Co., 171 U.S. 

55 (1898)).

10-190. A mining claim location entitles the claimant to occupy the surface for mining purposes and to 

possess the underlying valuable mineral deposit, be it 

vein, lode, ledge, or disseminated in nature. The surface location is made to locate the rights beneath the 

surface. The end lines place the limits of the locator’s 

appropriation of any vein or veins along their course or 

strike, which illustrates the importance of the end lines 

parallelism concept when compared to the purposes of 

the side lines. The side lines measure the surface extent 

of the claim on each side of the middle of the vein at 

the surface (Del Monte Mining and Milling Co. v. Last 

Chance Mining and Milling Co., 171 U.S. 55 (1898)).

In practice, during the location process, the best survey 

methods are frequently not used because of a desire to 

save both time and money. Indeed, it has been and was 

to be expected that such location surveys and markings 

would be made by the miners themselves, inexperienced 

in the matter of surveying. The result has been innumerable difficulties. For the mineral surveyor, the question is not what equity is, but what is the law, policy, 

and good survey judgment. The U.S. Supreme Court 

explained in Iron Silver Mining Co. v. Elgin Mining & 

Smelting Co., 118 U.S. 196, 207 (1886), that:

If the first locator will not or cannot make the 

explorations necessary to ascertain the true 

course of the vein, and draws his end lines 

ignorantly, he must bear the consequences. He 

can only assert a lateral right to so much of 

the vein as lies between vertical planes drawn 

through those end lines.

10-191. Every vein having a top or apex lying inside the 

surface boundary lines of a lode mining claim extended 

downward belongs to the locator and may be pursued to 

any depth beyond the vertical side lines, even though in 

doing so, the locator may enter beneath the surface of 

another mining claim, or Federal or non-Federal lands 

where the mineral estate was open to mineral location 

at the time of the location date. Conditions upon which 

extralateral rights may be acquired by locators of mining claims have been prescribed by Congress in 30 

U.S.C. 26. Mining claimants shall satisfy those conditions when locating and developing their claims, or else 

be limited to minerals beneath the surface of their territories (Del Monte Mining & Milling Co. v Last Chance 

Mining & Milling Co., 171 U.S. 55 (1898)).

The existence of an apex within a given lode mining claim is not essential to the validity of the lode 

mining claim, but only to the mining claimant’s ability 

to assert an extralateral right derived from that mining 

claim.

Extralateral rights do not include the right of the lode 

claimant to trespass upon the surface of adjacent lands 

claimed or owned by others. However, location lines of a 

lode mining claim are used only to describe, define, and 

limit property rights in the claim. The location lines may 

be laid within, upon, or across the surface of patented or 

unpatented mining claims for the purpose of claiming 

the free and unappropriated ground within such lines 

and the veins apexing in such. The location lines serve 

in defining and securing extralateral underground rights 

upon all such veins, where such lines, (1) are established 

openly and peaceably and (2) do not embrace any larger 

area of surface, claimed and unclaimed, than the law 

permits (The Hidee Gold Mining Co., 30 Pub. Lands 

Dec. 420 (1901)).

10-192. The primary consequence of a locator’s failure 

to locate his or her claim boundaries according to the 

actual course of the lode, whether by lack of care or lack 

of data, is that the claimant may be limited in his or her 

extralateral rights.

The actual course of a vein may materially deviate from 

the center line of a lode claim without adversely affecting the validity of the claim. The relationship between 

the actual course of the lode and the position of the mining claim’s lateral boundaries and center line does not 

affect the validity of the claim. Originally marked claim 

boundaries need not be adjusted to comport with the 

actual course of the vein, so long as the claim has been 

located in good faith for mining purposes. No portion of 

a lode mining claim shall be considered excessive where 

the statutory dimensions of 1,500 feet by 600 feet and, 

300 feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the 

surface, are not exceeded.

The statute intends to prescribe the limit of the extent 

along the course of the lode that locators may claim, 
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and does not prescribe that they shall locate so that the 

greatest dimension of their claim shall coincide with the 

course of the lode. It is provided that the extreme extent 

along the lode shall not exceed 1,500 feet. It may be less 

and if the claimants, in making their locations, should 

mistake the direction of the lode upon which they locate, 

and thus make the extreme dimensions of the claim in 

a direction other than that of the lode, that fact does not 

invalidate their claims. It only operates to diminish the 

extent of the lode within the boundaries of the claim. 

The only result of so locating is that locators get less, 

in extent of the lode, than they would have otherwise. 

And that if the side lines, instead of the end lines, cross 

the course of the lode, in order to define the locators’ 

rights to pursue the lode on its dip, the side lines will be 

treated as end lines (Apex & Extralateral Rights Issues 

Raised by the Stillwater Mineral Patent, M-36955, 93 

Interior Dec. 369 (1986)).

10-193. Since the Act of May 10, 1872, parallelism in 

the end lines is essential to the existence of any extralateral rights. End lines mean such lines as are crossed by 

the lode on its course. Side lines may become end lines, 

sometimes called side-end lines.

The principle of the parallelism doctrine is that parallel 

means substantially parallel, not a mathematical precision, not exact (Grant v. Pilgrim, 95 F.2d. 562 (9th Cir. 

1938)). A reasonable compliance with the law is all that 

is required. In a case where the end lines converge in 

the direction of the dip, the locator is entitled to the 

extralateral right between the converging planes. In a 

case where the end lines diverge in the direction of the 

dip, the locator is without extralateral rights. Where the 

location claim as originally marked upon the ground 

has nonparallel end lines, it may be rectified at any time, 

if such rectification does not interfere with intervening 

rights.

Legal Subdivisions

10-194. Where placer claims or millsites are upon 

surveyed lands and conform to legal subdivisions, and 

properly executed and monumented, the official surveys 

are as permanent and fixed as is practicable. It is not 

required that the claim or site corners and boundaries 

be further marked on the ground. However, the object of 

the law is to inform other miners as to what portion of 

the ground is already occupied, which may not be satisfied in those surveyed areas where:

(1) complicated conditions involve a double set 

of corners, both of which may be regarded as 

authentic;

(2) there are no existing corners in one or more 

directions for an excessive distance;

(3) existing marks are improperly related to an 

extraordinary degree; or

(4) all evidences of the original survey that 

have been adopted by the claimant as a basis 

for his or her location have been lost before the 

subsequent claim is made.

10-195. The mere reference to the legal subdivision, in 

these latter areas, while providing a valid land description, in fact may not inform other miners as to what portion of the ground is within the claim, and the claim 

may, in fact, float or swing until the legal subdivision 

lines are definitely located on the ground by a survey 

or resurvey. Also, State law may require marking of 

the legal subdivision boundaries and monumentation of 

claim or site corners.

10-196. For location of placer claims or millsites that 

conform to the legal subdivisions, or for the segregation 

of mineral land from agricultural land by legal subdivisions, per 43 U.S.C. 766 (Rev. Stat. 2406; Act of July 9, 

1870, ch. 235, secs. 12, 16; 16 Stat. 217), the subdividing 

may be done by county or other local surveyors at the 

expense of the claimants and under the direction and 

control of the Chief Cadastral Surveyor (30 U.S.C. 35; 

Rev. Stat. 2329; Act of July 9, 1870, ch. 235, sec. 12; 16 

Stat. 217, and Rev. Stat. 2331; Act of May 10, 1872, ch. 

152, sec. 10; 17 Stat. 94).

10-197. Where lots or irregular surveys of the PLSS 

are encountered, the rule of approximation may be 

applied to excess acreage. The rule is that the amount 

of excess may not exceed the amount of loss, if the 

smallest lot or legal subdivision of 10 acres for placers, 

or lot or legal subdivision of 5 acres for millsites, were 

eliminated. On the basis of 10-acre tracts for placers 

the allowable excess would be 4.99 acres, and on the 

basis of 5-acre tracts for millsites the allowable excess 

would be 2.49 acres (Ventura Coast Oil Co., 42 Pub. 

Lands Dec. 453 (1913)).

10-198. When a mining claim or millsite cannot 

be described by legal subdivision, either because 

the land is unsurveyed or the claim or site does not 

conform to a legal subdivision, the BLM must reject 

a patent application when the applicant fails to survey 

the claim or site and submit the mineral survey along 

with his or her application (Jack K. Carter, 142 IBLA 

1 (1997)).
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When a mining claim or millsite cannot be described by 

legal subdivision, a nonrectangular description that fixes 

the position of the claim or site corners with respect to 

an official survey monument is required.

10-199. When a placer claim or millsite is on unsurveyed lands and cannot be described by legal subdivision, the claim or site should be described by the protraction diagram, if one is of record. If located by legal 

subdivision based upon a protraction diagram and the 

land is subsequently surveyed, an amended location certificate will be filed to properly fix the position of the 

claim or site on the ground.

Protraction diagrams are not official surveys. Therefore, 

the requirement that a placer mining claim or millsite 

patent application be accompanied by a mineral survey 

of the unsurveyed land is not waived when the unsurveyed land is covered by a protraction diagram (Dennis 

J. Kitts, 84 IBLA 338 (1985)).

10-200. Lots, whether those (1) on the north and west 

boundaries of a township, (2) created by segregation 

and patenting of lode mining claims, (3) created by 

meandered bodies of water, or (4) created by other special surveys, are a legal subdivision of official surveys. 

The subdivision of such lots into smaller legal subdivisions requires an official survey. A location certificate 

description “W1⁄2 of lot 1” does not conform and cannot 

be made to conform to the rectangular or legal subdivisions of the PLSS, and an official survey of the land 

located and claimed is necessary (Holmes Placer, 29 

Pub. Lands Dec. 368 (1899)).

In many of the cases just described, a supplemental plat 

is prepared to show the modified legal subdivisions.

Riparian Rights—Mining Claims and Millsites

10-201. The United States acquired the title to the 

lands beneath navigable waters equally with the title to 

upland but held the lands beneath navigable waters only 

in trust for the future States that might be created out 

of that territory (see chapters III and VIII for discussions on navigable waters). This principle is not applicable, however, to lands beneath navigable waters that 

Congress clearly intended to include within a reservation or affirmatively intended to defeat with respect to 

future State title to such land (Ownership of Submerged 

Lands in Northern Alaska in Light of Utah Division of 

State Lands v. United States, M-36911 (Supp. I), 100 

Interior Dec. 103 (April 20, 1992)).

Therefore, title to the lands beneath navigable waters 

passed to the State upon statehood, including the mineral estate, subject to certain recognized exceptions. 

The lands beneath navigable waters are subject to the 

laws of the State in which they are situated and are not 

locatable under the United States mining laws (Charles 

B. Reynolds, Jr., et al., 56 Interior Dec. 60 (1937)). 

However, in some States, title to lands beneath navigable waters has been relinquished to riparian owners to varying degrees, some completely. The United 

States and a State may sometimes have a dispute over 

whether certain waters are navigable waters. In those 

circumstances, a determination of whether those waters 

qualify as navigable waters may be necessary before a 

State can assert ownership over the lands beneath those 

waters.

By the acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860, some States were 

granted swamp and overflowed lands. The United States 

did not retain the mineral estate to these lands.

10-202. When mining claims or millsites not described 

by legal subdivisions contain language in the location 

notice or claim map that clearly indicates that a line of 

the claim or site adjoins or overlaps lands beneath navigable waters, the ordinary high water mark for inland 

waters or the line of mean high tide for tidal waters 

becomes the boundary of the side line of the claim and 

of the millsite. The end line of the claim, for extralateral 

purposes, can be located out in the water body.

In such instances, it is proper to run a meander line as 

a boundary, and where this is done the field notes of 

the mineral survey or mineral segregation survey will 

state that it is a meander line of the ordinary high water 

mark or the line of mean high tide, and that the corners of such line are meander corners or angle points on 

the meander line. The situation is well stated in Alaska 

United Gold Mining Co. v. Cincinnati-Alaska Mining 

Co., 45 Pub. Lands Dec. 330, 343 (1916):

The Department is clearly of the opinion that 

the rule as to meander lines is, both in principle 

and reason, as applicable to mining claims as 

to other classes of claims, and that where in the 

course of an official patent survey of a mining 

claim abutting upon a navigable body of water 

a meander line, which follows as nearly as 

practicable the shore line of such water, has 

been run, such shore line and not the meander 

line must be taken as a boundary of the claim 

when patented according to the plat and field 

notes of the survey of such claim.
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If one entire end of a claim is delineated by a meander 

line, the end line is protracted parallel to the inland end 

line at the farthest waterward point of the meander line 

for the purpose of determining extralateral rights.

10-203. In States where title to lands beneath navigable waters has been relinquished to riparian owners 

and the mining claim or millsite contains language in 

the location notice or claim map that clearly indicates 

that a line of the claim or site adjoins or overlaps lands 

beneath navigable waters, the surveyor will consult with 

the BLM mineral adjudicator prior to the completion of 

the mineral survey.

10-204. Where one of the boundaries of a claim or 

site, not described by legal subdivisions, is a navigable 

body of water, all insubstantial land formed by accretion due to natural or artificial causes since the date of 

patent survey passes to the patentee, as do accretions 

formed after patent. The Department having no jurisdiction, such lands become the property of the riparian 

proprietor.

10-205. Federal lands open to the operation of the 

Mining Law of 1872 and lying beneath nonnavigable 

waters are subject to location under the United States 

mining laws. Meandered lands beneath nonnavigable 

waters are subject to location when the abutting upland is 

unappropriated, or patented with a mineral reservation.

When a mining claim or millsite, not described by legal 

subdivisions, adjoins, or is within meandered lands 

beneath nonnavigable waters, by current practice the 

field notes of the mineral survey or mineral segregation survey will state whether the boundary is, or is not, 

a meander line of the ordinary high water mark, and 

whether the corners of such line are meander corners 

and angle points on the meander line governed by the 

doctrine of accretion. If not clearly stated in the location 

notice or on a claim map, the presumption is that the 

boundary of the claim or site is a fixed boundary with 

no riparian rights.

10-206. For mining claims or millsites described by 

legal subdivisions, the doctrine of accretion governs the 

movement of boundaries of meandered lands adjoining nonnavigable waters. Movement of the boundaries 

of legal subdivisions resulting from accretion, erosion, 

reliction, or avulsion, after survey and prior to location of the claim or site, and thereafter, all govern the 

claim or site boundary of the riparian proprietor. This is 

subject to the standard exceptions where there is fraud, 

gross error shown in the survey, or an intention to limit 

a grant, conveyance, claim, or site to the actual meander 

lines as disclosed in the facts or circumstances.

10-207. For mining claims or millsites described by 

legal subdivisions of meandered lands adjoining nonnavigable waters, the medial line of the body of water, 

that is, a line located midway between the opposite ordinary high water marks, is the boundary of the claim or 

site. In such instances, it is proper to run such a boundary as a claim or site boundary line, and the field notes 

of the mineral survey or mineral segregation survey will 

state that it is a survey of the medial line of the body of 

water, that it is ambulatory, and that the corners of such 

line are claim or site corners (see sections 8-21 through 

8-31).

The principles described in sections 8-187 through 

8-189 also apply to mineral lands surveys.

Resurveys—Mineral Lands

The Nature of Dependent Resurveys of 

Mineral Surveys

10-208. Dependent resurveys of mineral lands involve 

many of the same considerations and principles as 

dependent resurveys of rectangular public lands. In 

addition, the surveyor must know the processes governing mineral lands location, notice, survey, entry, and patent that vary from other public land laws, and how each 

could affect the position of the rights on and beneath the 

surface of the earth. There are three overlapping objects 

of such dependent resurveys: First is the adequate protection and marking of existing rights acquired under 

the original survey in the matter of position beneath the 

surface of the earth. Second is the adequate protection 

and marking of existing rights acquired under the original survey in the matter of position on the surface of the 

earth. Third is the proper marking of the boundaries of 

the remaining Federal interest lands.

10-209. A principle governing the physical location of 

boundary lines extending downward beneath the surface 

is that the end lines of lode claims are to be substantially 

parallel based upon the degree of precision accepted at 

the time of the original survey.

10-210. As to position on the surface of the earth, contiguous mining claims, not described by legal subdivisions, are either simultaneous or sequential grants with 

simultaneous or sequential surveys. This characteristic differs from rectangular grants and surveys, which 

are predominately simultaneous in character. This 
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distinction is fundamental to the work of the dependent 

resurveyor of mineral lands and mining claims.

10-211. Retracement principles of public land surveys 

are also applicable to mineral land surveys. The recognition of questions caused by significant discrepancies between survey or patent records, from the actual, 

found, on-the-ground-conditions, led to Congressional 

action. For mineral lands, acknowledgement and remedy appears at 30 U.S.C. 34 (Act of April 28, 1904; 33 

Stat. 545), which states that monuments are to be the 

highest authority to which inconsistent descriptions 

shall give way, thereby making even more explicit this 

existing statutory and common law retracement principle. The statute reads as follows:

The description of vein or lode claims upon 

surveyed lands shall designate the location of 

the claims with reference to the lines of the 

public survey, but need not conform therewith; 

but where patents have been or shall be issued 

for claims upon unsurveyed lands, the Director 

of the Bureau of Land Management in extending 

the public survey, shall adjust the same to the 

boundaries of said patented claims so as in no 

case to interfere with or change the true location 

of such claims as they are officially established 

upon the ground. Where patents have issued 

for mineral lands, those lands only shall be 

segregated and shall be deemed to be patented 

which are bounded by the lines actually 

marked, defined, and established upon the 

ground by the monuments of the official survey 

upon which the patent grant is based, and the 

Director of the Bureau of Land Management in 

executing subsequent patent surveys, whether 

upon surveyed or unsurveyed lands, shall be 

governed accordingly. The said monuments 

shall at all times constitute the highest authority 

as to what land is patented, and in case of 

any conflict between the said monuments of 

such patented claims and the descriptions of 

said claims in the patents issued therefor the 

monuments on the ground shall govern, and 

erroneous or inconsistent descriptions or calls 

in the patent descriptions shall give way thereto.

The practical effect of this statute is that when the locus 

of a mining claim becomes uncertain, the surveyor shall 

locate the land embraced in the survey and bounded 

by the lines actually marked, defined, and established 

on the ground by monuments substantially within the 

requirements under the law and official regulations and 

corresponding to the description thereof in the patent 

(Sinnott v. Jewett, 33 Pub. Lands Dec. 91 (1904)).

10-212. The standards of evidence governing existent, 

obliterated, and lost corners outlined in chapters V, VI, 

and VII are applicable to resurveys of mineral survey.

Lost Corners

10-213. There is no hard and fast rule for reestablishing lost corners of lode mining claims. The method 

should be selected that will give the best results, bearing 

in mind that end lines of lode claims should remain substantially parallel, if parallel by record. When the original surveys were made faithfully, the application of the 

principles of parallelism, record distances, record angular relationships, and record relationships between the 

claim and the workings on it, in combination with the 

presumption that the original intent was to be conformable with the statutes governing dimensions and area, 

should substantially meet the objectives stated above.

In restoring lost corners of irregular claims, such as 

nonrectangular placers or millsites, the secondary methods of broken boundary adjustments (sections 7-53 and 

7-54) should be considered. These may also be applied 

to lode claims if application of the methods described 

in the previous section does not give adequate results.

In restoring lost corners of a block of claims, originally 

surveyed at the same time, the primary methods of proportionate measurement should be considered. The field 

notes and order should be consulted to determine if the 

basis for record directions deviates from the general 

plan (section 10-121).

As with all lost or obliterated corners, the position of a 

corner of a mineral survey must be determined from the 

best available evidence and in such a configuration that 

will place the lines as nearly as possible in their original 

positions.

10-214. Caution should be exercised in the use of any 

ties to or from adjoining surveys when the descriptions 

for the conflicting claim corners, PLSS corners, or mineral monuments are not mentioned in the field notes 

memorandum and may in fact have only been calculated 

and not surveyed on the ground. Such calculated ties, as 

a rule, should not be used.

Physical Location and Title Conflict

10-215. In cases where physical locations or titles of 

claims or sites are in conflict, the surveyor should be 
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familiar with critical actions in order to gather facts relevant for the deciding officer(s)’s determination of the 

physical limits of rights.

As a general rule, “first in time, first in right” will determine the priority of conflicting mining claims or sites. 

Determining the extent of rights to a mining claim or 

site typically depends on evidence gathered from prior 

sequential grants and surveys.

10-216. The date of a specific act, whether by the 

claimant, Government, or a third party, will often 

determine, or provide evidence of, the priority of 

physical location and ownership rights on or beneath 

the surface of the earth. Generally, (1) the date of the 

official filing of the mineral survey is the controlling 

event for survey and survey corners and boundary purposes, i.e., physical location or position, and (2) the date 

of the mineral patent is the controlling event for title 

purposes.

To determine if there is a physical location or title conflict, the following actions and dates must be known:

(1) Location Date – The location date is the 

date the claimant has attested that the corners 

and exterior lines of the claim were marked 

on the ground and the location notice was 

posted on the ground. The amended location 

date is the date the claimant has attested that 

the amended location notice was posted on the 

ground. To maintain the priority of either such 

date, the claimant shall subsequently comply 

with all appropriate Federal and State laws and 

regulations. The claimant shall record (file) 

the location certificate and amended location 

certificate (if the location is amended) with the 

BLM and the county within the allotted time. 

The location notice (and amended location 

notice, when necessary) shall include the 

name of the location (claim), type of location 

(claim), the location date, the name and address 

of the locator (claimant), and location (claim) 

description including legal subdivision within 

the quarter section. The location date and 

amended location date may determine:

(a) the date of the possessory right,

(b) the spatial relationship of the 

boundaries of the location (claim) and 

other lands held by the United States, 

and

(c) the relative junior-senior title rights 

as to third party claimants.

(2) Mineral Survey Filing Date – The mineral 

survey filing date is the date the mineral survey 

plat and any adjustments, amended surveys, 

or supplemental plats thereto, approved upon 

signature by the BLM State Office Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor are officially filed. A bona 

fide right as to physical location (position) relates 

back to the filing date of the mineral survey.

(3) Final Certificate Date – By Departmental 

procedure applicable from 1866 to 1958, the 

Department issued a single “mineral entry final 

certificate” to patent applications before they 

received the patent to show that the applicant 

had complied with all of the “paperwork” 

requirements for obtaining a patent under the 

Mining Law. A patent application is subject to 

protest and appeal until the date of the patent. 

When the patent was ultimately issued, the 

date of the property interest related back to the 

location date. The position or physical location 

associated with this interest is fixed as of the 

filing date of the mineral survey of the mining 

claim. This is done in an effort to ensure any 

bona fide rights or claims of any claimant, 

entryman, or owner of lands are protected 

pursuant to 43 U.S.C. 772. The final certification 

date is also known as the mineral entry date.

If the Department verified that the applicant 

had a valid discovery of a valuable mineral 

deposit (or, in the case of a millsite, verified 

that the land was nonmineral in character and 

was being used and occupied in support of a 

previously or concurrently patented mining 

claim), and otherwise satisfied the requirements 

for patenting under the Mining Law, the 

Department issued a patent, which contained 

any applicable reservations, exceptions, and 

restrictions.

(4) First and Second Half Final Certificates – 

Under Departmental procedures in effect from 

1958 until Congress imposed a moratorium 

in 1994 prohibiting the Department from 

processing new and nongrandfathered patent 

applications, the final certificate was issued in 

two parts. When the first half was signed, the 

signature date was called the date of mineral 

entry. From a resource management standpoint, 
370

Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

this meant that surveyors were to protect any 

physical position associated with this “mineral 

entry,” per 43 U.S.C. 772, in the event the claim 

ever went to patent.

The second half of the mineral entry final 

certificate was completed after the mineral 

examination, and listed only those claims or 

sites for which the Department had verified 

discovery of a mining claim or proper use and 

occupancy of a millsite. The second half of 

the mineral entry final certificate is generally 

signed at the same time as the patent, and it is 

the patent that transfers legal title to the claim to 

the applicant. The date of the property interest 

relates back to the signature date of the first half 

certificate and the physical position associated 

with the mining claims and millsites that are 

included in the patent is fixed as of the filing 

date of the mineral survey of the mining claim 

and millsites. This is done in an effort to ensure 

any bona fide rights or claims of any claimant, 

entryman, or owner of lands are protected 

pursuant to 43 U.S.C. 772.

(5) Post-Moratorium Patenting Procedures 

– In 1997, the Solicitor issued a legal opinion 

recommending that BLM discontinue using the 

two-part final certificate system and return to 

the previous procedure of issuing only one final 

certificate (see Entitlement to a Mineral Patent 

Under the Mining Law of 1872, M-36990 

(November 12, 1997)). However, although 

grandfathered patent applications are still 

being processed, because of the Congressional 

moratorium on new patent processing, BLM 

has not revised its policies as to issuance of 

final certificates.

(6) Patent Date – The patent date is the date 

of the signature on the patent, i.e., the date 

when full and final legal title from the Federal 

Government is transferred to the applicant. The 

patentee’s property right as to title relates back 

to the location date, but the physical position 

associated with that right relates back to the 

filing date of the mineral survey. This is done 

in an effort to ensure any bona fide rights or 

claims of any claimant, entryman, or owner of 

lands are protected pursuant to 43 U.S.C. 772. 

The patent issuance is final, except in cases of 

fraud or mistake, which are subject to a statute 

of limitations.

These various dates and positions may be affected by 

a contest, quiet title action, adverse proceeding, mineral survey, amended mineral survey, supplemental 

plat, confirmation of a discovery of a valuable mineral 

deposit, protest, appeal, fraud, or mistake. The dates 

may also be affected by a new location, relocation, new 

mineral survey, or other causes.

10-217. The mining laws of the United States involve 

two classes of rights or titles: (1) mining claims, which, 

if valid, include a right of possession, and (2) patents, 

which convey title from the Federal Government to the 

extent permitted by the relevant authorizing legislation.

10-218. A patent from the United States vests in the 

grantee of the Government an indefeasible title to the 

mineral deposits (and, in most cases, the surface estate 

as well), whereas a mining claim may be defeated at 

any time by the failure of the claimant to, for example, 

properly maintain the mining claim or site, or perform 

the labor or make the annual improvements required 

by statute (see Benson Mining & Smelting Co. v. Alta 

Mining & Smelting Co., 145 U.S. 428 (1892); Am. Hill 

Quartz Mine, Copp’s U.S. Mineral Lands, p. 254), or 

to prove discovery of a valuable, i.e., profitable, mineral 

deposit.

10-219. Legal title transfers from the Government 

immediately upon issuance of the patent.

10-220. The property right in a valid mining claim or 

site may continue for an indefinite term of years and can 

only be terminated by a failure of the claimant to comply with the terms of the statute or a successful assertion of claim to the land by another. There is nothing 

in the law, however, that requires the holder of a valid 

mining claim to patent or purchase the land from the 

Government. As long as the claimant complies with the 

applicable laws, his or her right to use and benefit from 

the land, for all practical purposes, is as good as though 

the land were secured by patent.

10-221. The previous discussion addresses rights 

to both the surface estate and the subsurface estate, 

including the extralateral estate. It can be inferred that 

similar rationale applies to the bona fide rights, for all 

classes and rights, as to position on the earth’s surface 

and beneath the earth’s surface. As to position, once the 

statutory requirements have been met, the claimants 

“shall have the exclusive right of possession and enjoyment of all the surface included within the lines of their 

location claims although the United States retains title 

to the land” (California Coastal Commission v. Granite 
371

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

Rock Co., 480 U.S. 572, 575 (1987), emphasis added). 

The surveyor must be able to recognize when bona fide 

rights as to position of the surface estate are not identical with the bona fide rights as to position of the subsurface estate.

10-222. Therefore, in very general terms and by today’s 

rules and regulations, the point at which the position 

on and beneath the earth’s surface of a mining claim 

becomes fixed by survey, for each class of title, may be 

described as follows:

(1) Possessory Right – When a mining claimant 

locates a mining claim but the claim is not yet 

perfected, the physical position of the claim is, 

to a degree, floating on the location date. This 

is so because: (1) the position of the mineral 

patent survey corners may be positioned inward 

of the location survey corners in order to meet 

statutory size limitation requirements; (2) one 

or more 10-acre aliquot parts of a placer claim 

may be determined to be nonmineral, or (3) 

a 21⁄2-acre aliquot part of a millsite may be 

determined mineral in character or not.

(2) Perfected Unpatented Mining Claim – 

When a mining claimant locates a mining 

claim and then perfects the claim, the position 

or physical location becomes fixed on the 

filing date of the mineral survey, amended 

mineral survey, or supplemental plat, subject to 

adverse proceedings and mineral examination 

validation. One survey plat may cover a portion 

of the patent description, and another plat with 

a different filing date may cover the remainder 

of the patent description.

(3) Patented Mining Claim – The position or 

physical location of a patented mining claim 

becomes fixed on the filing date of the mineral 

survey, and/or on the filing date of any amended 

mineral survey or supplemental plat. One survey 

plat may cover a portion of a patent description, 

and another plat with a different filing date may 

cover the remainder of the patent description. 

Upon issuance of the patent, the physical 

position of the claim boundaries becomes the 

full legal boundaries between the land held by 

the new legal owner of the patented land and 

the United States. The physical position of such 

boundaries is subject to preexisting boundary 

conflicts with previously alienated lands on one 

or more sides.

10-223. Before the date that title vests, as evidenced 

by the patent, the claimant’s right as to position on 

the surface of the earth between the applicant and the 

United States is still to be determined. This is apparent, 

for example, if during the patent application survey, the 

mineral surveyor determines the location to be in excess 

of the statutory maximum area. This is also apparent 

where a portion of a placer claim is determined by adjudication to be nonmineral in character. In cases like 

these, the claim or site boundaries are adjusted without 

impairing bona fide rights as to position on the surface 

of the earth.

“Gaps and Overlaps” Not of Record

10-224. Patented and unpatented claims and sites were 

often surveyed as contiguous to each other by sequential surveys. When the record is clear that monuments 

were set to mark corners common to two claims, the 

presumption is that the claim line as marked is common 

to the two claims. Experienced surveyors know in the 

case of offset claim corners along a boundary between 

contiguous claims that, after monumentation, technical gaps or overlaps will exist. These are not legal or 

title conflicts. It is known that every measurement contains some error, and it is impossible to put a monument 

exactly on the straight line between two other monuments; slight variations in direction or distance are 

unavoidable and acceptable.

During the retracement, the extent of the falling of the 

intermediate monument from the straight line between 

the two other monuments is measured. An analysis of 

conditions will be conducted and a determination made 

as to whether the line is common to the claims or the 

error is so gross as to impair a legal right as to position 

so that the claims were never contiguous.

10-225. When the relationship between the monuments is substantially as approved, and there is no evidence of fraud, mistake, or gross error, the line running 

though the intermediate monument, as measured, will 

be returned as common to the claims.

When determining whether the conditions found during 

the retracement are substantially as approved, the surveyor shall be guided by law, rules, official policy, effect 

on extralateral rights, and survey principles thereof.

10-226. When duly authorized, the surveyor is acting under the authority of the Secretary of the Interior. 

Congress has empowered the Secretary, or such officer 

as he or she may designate, to perform all executive 
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Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys Manual of Surveying Instructions

duties appertaining to the survey of Federal lands, 

including mineral, lands.

It is also for the Secretary, acting through the Chief 

Cadastral Surveyor, to determine the boundary location of lands within Federal province. The surveyor is 

required to give effect to the conditions existing when 

the monument was established. The general surveying 

principle is applied: if the monumented position was 

valid at the time set, the surveyor is not at liberty to 

disapprove it by reason of a subsequent change in conditions. Furthermore, the extent of recognition given 

by neighboring claimants to a monument used for the 

control of the position of claims and patents very often 

carries with it the necessity for a consideration of its 

influence in the matter of the acceptability of such positions under the good faith location rule (section 6-35).

The intermediate monument in its original position, but 

not at its record position, was approved even though 

based on false assumptions. Unless set aside by direct 

proceedings, such a decision of approval, even with the 

technical error, will bind the Government except when 

fraud, mistake, or gross error can be proven. Questions 

respecting position are to be determined by the conditions existing at the time when all requirements necessary to approve the survey had been complied with, and 

no subsequent change in such conditions can affect this 

physical location.

Reviewing courts will hold unlawful and set aside 

agency action, findings, and conclusions found to be 

arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law or in excess of statutory authority. However, a reviewing court may not substitute its judgment for that of the agency. An agency’s 

interpretation of its own regulations and of the statutes 

it administers is entitled to deference.

10-227. Once accepted, an official survey and the 

monumented positions thereof can affect title to private 

land, at least to the extent of giving rise to an apparent boundary conflict and establishing a cloud on title. 

The United States retains the power to make corrective adjustments for prior erroneous survey monument 

positions, and the BLM has the burden of proving that 

a monument position of an official survey is erroneous. Changing the position of duly authorized lines or 

monuments years after approval may result in calling 

into question title to narrow strips of land (de minimis). 

The courts have emphasized they are very reluctant 

to overturn long-established and accepted boundaries, as is Congress, as demonstrated by the limitation 

of Government’s authority to conduct resurveys once 

the physical position of a mining claim is fixed on the 

basis of an official survey (see 43 U.S.C. 772) (State of 

Oregon v. Bureau of Land Management, 876 F. 2d 1419 

(1989)).

Where questions arise which affect title to 

land it is of great importance to the public that 

when they are once decided they should no 

longer be considered doubtful. Such decisions 

become rules of property, and many titles 

may be injuriously affected by their change. 

Legislatures may alter or change their laws, 

without injury, as they affect the future only, 

but where courts vacillate and overrule their 

own decisions on the construction of statutes 

affecting title to real property, their decisions 

are retrospective and may affect titles purchased 

on the faith of their stability (Minnesota Mining 

Co. v. National Mining Co., 70 U.S. 332 (1865)).

10-228. An official resurvey cannot impair any bona 

fide rights or claims of any claimant, entryman, or 

owner of lands affected by such resurvey (43 U.S.C. 

772). In cases where gaps or overlaps are not in the 

official record, the subsequent identification of long 

narrow strips and isolated small plots of land by rigorous application of modern technology during a mineral dependent resurvey or retracement will ordinarily 

not be accepted as defining survey and title lines. The 

issue of good faith based upon stability and substantially as approved has been raised by the courts and the 

land department. The single line running through an 

intermediate monument will ordinarily be supported by 

returning, on the official resurvey plat and field notes, 

a single monument and a single line. This reflects the 

actual conditions and will be adopted unless there is an 

overwhelmingly compelling public policy or due process reason not to do so.

10-229. For claims described and surveyed as contiguous, the intent of the Federal Government is neither to 

retain unmanageable slivers of land nor to convey land 

described in a senior grant or conveyance.

By policy no longer in effect, monuments were set 

on existing lines without benefit of retracement. The 

reported intersection point was tied to only one corner 

of the existing line. In these cases where the monument 

is found to be not at the record position, the monument 

should determine the direction of the line but not its 

legal terminus. The true position is at the point determined by extending or terminating the line to intersect 
373

Manual of Surveying Instructions Chapter X - Special Surveys and Mineral Surveys

with the fixed line (see section 7-45 for survey and 

monumentation procedures).

Where field notes report clearly that the monuments 

were set at intersection points and an obviously careful 

retracement of a line had been made, the monuments 

become the best available evidence of the position of 

both lines. In such a case, all monuments will exercise 

control for both measurement and alinement of the lines.

On rare occasions the second surveyor patently established a completely separate line, creating a hiatus or 

overlap. In this case, each set of corners would then 

control only its respective line. Where complications 

develop, the surveyor will report to the supervising 

office the identity and correlation of corners and other 

evidence.

Special Cases

10-230. Experience, thoroughness, and good judgment are indispensable for the successful retracement 

and recovery of any survey when it reaches a stage of 

extensive obliteration, there is manifest distortion, or 

there are years of unofficial boundary determinations 

resulting in confused and conflicting lines and corners. 

It is an axiom among experienced cadastral and mineral 

surveyors that the true location of the original lines and 

corners can be restored, if the original survey was made 

faithfully, and was supported by a reasonably good 

field-note record. That is the condition for which the 

basic principles have been outlined, and for which the 

rules have been laid down. The rules cannot be elaborated to reconstruct a grossly erroneous survey or a survey having fictitious field notes. The methods applicable 

to dependent resurveys of mineral surveys and mineral 

segregation surveys are designed to rectify the conditions that are at variance with the representations of the 

official field notes and plat.

10-231. The records of official resurveys cover many 

special cases. The records in the BLM Cadastral 

Survey offices include special cases from all mineralland States. These plats, field notes, reports of office 

and field examinations and investigations, office 

opinions, supplements to this Manual (section 1-12), 

Departmental decisions, opinions from the Interior 

Solicitor or Attorney General of the United States, 

court opinions and decrees, and administrative land 

law decisions are drawn upon when needed to assist 

the surveyor in the study of situations that are new to 

his or her own experience. In administrative appeals of 

official surveys and trials of boundary suits, the board 

or court will generally consider many additional questions besides the purely technical. The surveyor will 

likely find that the proper exercise of discretion lies 

in the realm where technical and nontechnical matters overlap. When the surveyor encounters unusual 

situations, or finds it difficult to apply the normal rules 

for good faith location and substantially as approved 

or for the restoration of lost corners, the surveyor will 

report the facts to the proper administrative office. If it 

is determined that additional retracements are necessary, these may be provided for by supplemental special instructions or order.

375

Appendix I

Specimen Field Notes

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY

OF A PORTION OF RANCHO SAN BLAS,

MINERAL SURVEYS NO. 3202, 3205, AND 3206,

AND A PORTION OF THE EAST BOUNDARY,

AND

SURVEY OF THE

SUBDIVISIONAL AND MEANDER LINES,

SUBDIVISION OF SECTIONS 7, 18, AND 33

AND LAKE CITY TOWNSITE

OF

TOWNSHIP 15 NORTH, RANGE 20 EAST,

OF THE PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN

IN THE STATE OF MONTANA

_________________

EXECUTED BY

Robert Acres, Cadastral Surveyor

Under special instructions dated April 1, 2009,

which provided for the surveys included under Group Number 1234,

approved April 10, 2009, and assignment instructions dated May 20, 2009.

Survey commenced: June 1, 2009

Survey completed: June 30, 2009

ORIGINAL SURVEY
376

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

INDEX DIAGRAM

TOWNSHIP 15 NORTH, RANGE 20 EAST, PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN, MONTANA

6 5 4 3 2 1

7 8 9 10 11 12

18 17 16 15 14 13

19 20 21 22 23 24

30 29 28 27 26 25

31 32 33 34 35 36

YELLO

WSTONE

RIVER

Resurvey of a portion of Rancho San Blas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 378

Resurvey of Mineral Surveys No. 3202, 3205, and 3206 . . . . page 378

Meanders of Lins Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 398

Meanders of Diamond Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 399

Meanders of Ivy Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 400

Meanders of Yellowstone River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 400

Meanders of Clear Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 401

Subdivision of Section 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 401

Subdivision of Section 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 404

Subdivision of Section 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 404

Survey of Lake City Townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 405

395

396

393 393 390 381

383

392

392 392

394 394 392

392

397 397 392

397 397 392

392

392

392

392

392 392

392

384

384

388

387

385 384

378

384

392382

392 392 392 392

392392389379

392 392

397392

397 397392 392

392 392 392 392 392

392 394 394

RANCHO

 SAN BLAS LINS LAKE

LAKE

CITY

TOWNSITE

CLEAR LAKE

DIAMOND 

ROCK IVY

ISLAND

UNNAMED

ISLAND

M.S. 3202

M.S. 3206

M.S. 3205
377

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

The following field notes are those of the dependent resurvey of a portion of Rancho 

San Blas, Mineral Surveys No. 3202, 3205, and 3206, and a portion of the east 

boundary, and the survey of the subdivisional and meander lines, subdivision of 

sections 7, 18 and 33, and Lake City Townsite of Township 15 North, Range 20 East, 

Principal Meridian, Montana.

The history of surveys pertaining to this survey is as follows:

Rancho San Blas was surveyed by S. W. Groom, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, in 1857, as 

shown on the official plat of survey approved February 9, 1862.

Mineral Survey No. 3202 Gold Dust lode, Mineral Survey No. 3205 Nugget lode, and 

Mineral Survey No. 3206 Primrose lode, were surveyed by Roy P. Brandy, Mineral 

Surveyor, in 1889, as shown on the official plat of surveys accepted July 4, 1889.

The south and east boundaries were surveyed by George H. Robinson, U.S. Deputy 

Surveyor, in 1902, as shown in the official field notes approved January 20, 1903.

The north and west boundaries were surveyed by Thomas Acres, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, 

in 1907, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted February 1, 1908.

The preliminary exterior of the Lake City townsite was surveyed by Waverly J. Kayner, 

Yellowstone County Surveyor, in 1947, as shown in Townsite Entry Helena 039976.

The resurvey of a portion of the Rancho San Blas private land grant, of Mineral 

Surveys Nos. 3202, 3205, and 3206, and a portion of the east boundary were made 

prior to the subdivision of the township.

The meandering of all islands was not authorized in the special instructions. Title 

determination and survey of the remaining islands will be accomplished under future 

special instructions. Lins Lake, Yellowstone River, and Clear Lake were segregated for 

lotting purposes only.

An examination on the ground and consultation with the surveyor who was employed 

by the applicants for the subdivision of the Lake City townsite reveals that a 

preliminary survey was initiated at the 1⁄4 section corner of sections 7 and 12, on the 

west boundary of the township. A line was then run easterly with the intention of 

conformance of the north boundary of the townsite to the east and west center line 

of section 7, when officially established. A calculated position for the center west 

1/16 section corner on that line was adopted as the preliminary northwest corner of 

the townsite, and the preliminary northeast corner was placed at a point where a line 

running south would include all contemplated improvements. The preliminary east and 

west boundaries were run south to Lins Lake. This preliminary plan was adhered to.

The location of the rights-of-way of the Montana and Manitoba Railroad, U.S. 

Highway No. 87, State Highway No. 25, and Big Sky Telephone lines with reference 

to the subdivisional survey is ascertained by notation of the intersections on the section 

boundaries, and by aid of the maps filed with the application for rights-of-way across 

Township 15 North, Range 20 East, Principal Meridian, Montana
378

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

public land. Land occupied by the railroad, highways, and telephone lines was not 

segregated.

The survey was executed in accordance with specifications set forth in the Manual 

of Surveying Instructions (2009) and the Special Instructions for Group No. 1234, 

Montana, dated April 1, 2009.

The direction and length of lines were determined by Global Positioning System (GPS) 

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) observations using Brand Name Model No. 357XZ, 

and augmented by means of lines projected by fore and backsights and distances 

measured with a Brand Name TXY778 Total Station. The instruments were calibrated 

by comparison with the National Geodetic Survey Calibration Base Line located at 

the Worden State Park, and were found to be within accepted tolerances. The direction 

of each line is with reference to the true meridian. All bearings are mean bearings. 

The distances are reported as horizontal measurement at a mean ground elevation of 

3,500 feet above sea level, in U.S. Survey Foot. All lines not forming a closure were 

measured twice to preclude blunder.

Preliminary to the survey search was made for all corners, lines, other calls of the 

official record, and where available, collateral evidence of local surveys and corners. 

Identified corners were remonumented in their original positions. The lines of this 

survey were posted and blazed where indicated by the phrase “posting and blazing true 

line.”

A magnetic memorial was deposited beneath the base of each monument where 

indicated. This memorial consists of a magnet, 1 in. long, 7⁄8 in. diam., housed in a 

cellulose acetate tube, 25⁄8 ins. long, 1 in. diam., with 1 in. sq. polyethylene end caps, 

one black and one white.

The geographic positions, in NAD 83 (CORS96), epoch 2002.00, for the corners below 

were determined by GPS observations to a Network Accuracy of less than 0.10 meters, 

95 percent confidence circle, as defined in Standards and Guidelines for Cadastral 

Surveys Using Global Positioning System Methods, May 9, 2001, Version 1.0.

The southeast corner of the township is as follows:

Latitude 45°45’02.458” N. Longitude 107°54’13.367” W.

The northwest corner of the township is as follows:

Latitude 45°50’15.065” N. Longitude 108°01’38.273” W.

The mean magnetic declination is 18°10’ E.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The field notes of the resurvey of a portion of Rancho San 

Blas, Mineral Surveys No. 3202, 3205, and 3206, and a portion of the east boundary 

are omitted. The full complement of corner accessories at some corners is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Township 15 North, Range 20 East, Principal Meridian, Montana
379

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

From the cor. of secs. 1, 2, 35, and 36, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with 

a sandstone, 8 x 6 x 5 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. with 1 notch on E. and 

5 notches on W. edge, from which the original bearing trees

A sawed cottonwood stump, 14 ins. diam., bears N. 10° E., 25 lks. dist., 

with the marks T15N visible on opened blaze.

A cottonwood, 10 ins. diam., bears S. 55° E., 10 lks. dist., with healed blaze.

A green ash, 13 ins. diam., bears S. 25° W., 33 lks. dist., with fragmentary scribe 

marks visible on open and partly rotted blaze.

A cottonwood, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 25° W., 50 lks. dist., with healed blaze.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, and in a 

mound of stone, 2 ft. diam., to top, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 35 S 36

S 2 S 1

T 14 N

2009

from which

A lodgepole pine, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 4° E., 41 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S36 BT.

Raise a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Buried the sandstone alongside and deposit a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

N. 0°01' W., bet. secs. 35 and 36.

Over level bottom land.

20.00 Enter scattering timber; edge bears N and S.

29.30 SE cor. of field; leave scattering timber.

31.50 NE cor. of cabin, 15 x 12 ft., bears West, 6.15 chs. dist.; long side bears N. 10° E. 

and S. 10° W.

39.50 Center line strip of State Highway No. 25, asphalt surface, 35 lks. wide, bears North 

along sec. line, and East.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
380

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 35 and 36.

Set a stainless steel post, 12 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam, with top 2 ft. below surface of 

highway, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

1/4

S 35 S 36

2009

from which

An iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 24 ins. in the ground and over a 

magnet, for a reference monument, bears East, 46 lks. dist., with brass 

cap mkd. T15N R20E 1/4 S36 RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

An iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 24 ins. in the ground and over a

magnet, for a reference monument, bears West, 46 lks. dist., with brass 

cap mkd. T15N R20E 1/4 S35 RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

51.50 Leave center line strip of highway, bears N. 70° W. and South.

57.50 Enter heavy timber and dense undergrowth, edge bears N. 54° E and S. 54° W.

72.00 Leave undergrowth; continue through heavy timber.

80.00 Point for the cor. of secs. 25, 26, 35 and 36.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 26 S 25

S 35 S 36

2009

from which

A green ash, 13 ins. diam., bears N. 22° E., 26 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S25 BT.

A green ash, 23 ins. diam., bears S. 711⁄4° E., 37 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S36 BT.

A green ash, 17 ins. diam., bears S. 64° W., 41 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S35 BT.

A cottonwood, 13 ins. diam., bears N. 211⁄4° W., 36 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S26 BT.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
381

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 25, 30, 31, and 36, on the E. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a 

sandstone, 8 x 5 x 5 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. with 1 notch on S and 5 notches 

on N edge, from which the original bearing tree

A green ash, 20 ins. diam., bears S. 15° E., 32 lks. dist., with healed blaze.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, and in a 

mound of stone, 2 ft. diam., to top, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N

R 20 E R 21 E

S 25 S 30

S 36 S 31

2009

from which

A lodgepole pine, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 4° E., 41 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R21E S30 BT.

Buried the sandstone alongside and deposit a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 25 and 36, posting and blazing true line.

Over level bottom land, through scattering timber.

16.20 Cherry Creek, 12 lks. wide, course NW.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 25 and 36.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 25

 1/4

S 36

2009

from which

A green ash, 7 ins. diam., bears S. 651⁄4° W., 189 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S36 BT.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
382

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

A green ash, 8 ins. diam., bears N. 643⁄4° W., 124 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S25 BT.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

80.00 The cor. of secs. 25, 26, 35 and 36.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 0°01’ W., bet. secs. 25 and 26.

Over level bottom land, through heavy timber.

25.32 Ordinary high water mark on the right bank of Yellowstone River, bears N. 81° E. and 

S. 81° W., course N. 80° E.; banks 2 to 12 ft. high; water is high at present stage and 

from 1 to 8 ft. deep; point for the meander cor. of secs. 25 and 26.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

MC

S 26 S 25

T 15 N R 20 E

2009

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 181⁄4° E., 16 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S25 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

A green ash, 11 ins. diam., bears S. 741⁄2° W., 25 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S26 MC BT.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

49.46 Ordinary high water mark on the left bank of Yellowstone River; bears S. 80° E. and 

S. 80° W., point for the meander cor. of secs. 25 and 26.

Drove a metal fence post, 8 ft. long, 6 ft. in the ground; impractical for regulation post 

as cor. point falls on bank liable to destruction.

from which

A green ash, 10 ins. diam., bears N. 341⁄4° E., 228 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S25 MC BT.

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears N. 65° W., 50 lks. dist., 

with brass cap mkd. T15N R20E S26 MC RM 2009 and an arrow 

pointing to the cor.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
383

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

Raise a mound of stone, 5 ft. base, 3 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., N. of cor.

Enter scattering timber, edge bears N. 81° E. and S. 81° W., posting and blazing line.

52.60 Top of bluff, 20 ft. high, bears E and W; leave timber.

63.80 Telephone line, bears E and W.

80.00 Point for the cor. of secs. 23, 24, 25, and 26.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 23 S 24

S 26 S 25

2009

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 19, 24, 25, and 30, on the E. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a 

sandstone, 12 x 9 x 5 ins. above ground, loosely set at the E. side of a small mound of 

stone, poorly mkd. with 4 notches on N. and 2 notches on S. edge.

At the corner point

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N

R 20 E R 21 E

S 24 S 19

S 25 S 30

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 7 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Bury the mkd. stone alongside and deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 24 and 25.

Over level land.

38.00 NE cor. of State Highway maintenance station building, bears South, 8.03 chs. dist.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 24 and 25.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.
384

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

T 15 N R 20 E

S 24

 1/4

S 25

2009

Set a pressure treated wood post, 7 ft. long, 8 x 6 ins. cross section, 3 ft. in the ground, 

at W. side of and deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

70.00 Center line strip of U.S. Highway No. 87, asphalt surface, 40 lks. wide, 

bears S. 73° E. and N. 73° W.

80.00 The cor. of secs. 23, 24, 25, and 26.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The field notes continue in the regular order and in the same 

form; the record of 3 miles omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 7, 12, 13, and 18, on the E. bdy. of the Tp., previously described.

N. 89° 57’ W., bet. secs. 12 and 13.

Over nearly level land.

31.51 Intersect the NE bdy. of the Rancho San Blas grant.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

 RSB S12

 LG S13

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., E. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the 5th Mi. Cor. of the grant bdy. bears S. 32°59’ E., 7.11 chs. dist., 

previously described.

From this same point the 41⁄2 Mi. Cor. of the grant bdy. bears N. 32°59’ W., 32.89 chs. 

dist., previously described.

Thence on a blank line across the grant.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 12 and 13; no permanent monument established.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
385

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

67.05 Intersect the SW bdy. of the grant.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

 S12 RSB

 S13 LG

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 7 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the 3 Mi. Cor. of the grant bdy. bears S. 19°30’ E., 28.14 chs. dist., 

previously described.

From this same point the 31⁄2 Mi. Cor. of the grant bdy. bears N. 19°30’ W., 11.86 chs. 

dist., previously described

The cor. is located on the top of a ridge bearing S. 15° E. and N. 15° W.; thence over 

rough, rocky ground.

76.00 Begin descent over broken SW slope.

80.00 The cor. of secs. 11, 12, 13, and 14.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 0°01’ W., bet. secs. 11 and 12.

Asc. over broken SW slope.

11.00 Top of ascent, bears S. 50° E. and N. 50° W.; thence over nearly level land.

36.58 Intersect the SW bdy. of the Rancho San Blas grant.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

 RSB

 LG

 S 12

2009

from which

A juniper, 20 ins. diam., bears S. 341⁄4° W., 484 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S11 BT.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

S 11
386

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Raise a mound of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., S. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the 31⁄2 Mi. Cor. of the grant bdy. bears S. 19°30’ E., 26.96 chs. dist., 

previously described.

From this same point the Cor. No. 7 of the grant bdy. bears N. 19°30’ W., 7.33 chs. 

dist., previously described.

Thence on a blank line across the grant.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 11 and 12; no permanent monument established.

44.23 Intersect the NW bdy. of the grant.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 15 ins. in the ground to bedrock, encircled 

by a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 11 S 12

RSB LG

2009

Deposit a granite stone, 10 x 7 x 6 ins., mkd. X, alongside the iron post, as a memorial.

From this point the 4 Mi. Cor. of the grant bdy. bears N. 73°00’ E., 3.15 chs. dist., 

previously described.

From this same point the Cor. No. 7 of the grant bdy. bears S. 73°00’ W., 2.56 chs. dist., 

previously described.

Thence over rolling ground.

60.80 Creek, 6 lks. wide, course SE.

80.00 Point for the cor. of secs. 1, 2, 11, and 12.

Falls on a rock slide, no permanent monument established.

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground and over a

magnet, for a witness corner, bears N. 0°02’ W., 100 lks. dist with brass cap 

mkd. WC T15N R20E S1 S2 S11 S12 2009 and an arrow point to the cor.

from the witness corner

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
387

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

A live oak, 16 ins. diam., bears N. 24° E., 141 lks. dist., mkd. X at breast height 

and BT at base.

An aspen, 15 ins. diam., bears S. 42° W., 32 lks. dist., mkd. X at breast height and 

BT at base, in bark.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 1, 6, 7, and 12, on the E. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a burr 

oak, 12 ins. diam., with healed blazes on NE, SE, SW, and NW sides, and with a mound 

of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 10 lks. dist., W. of cor.

from which new bearing objects

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 83° W., 50 lks. dist., with 

brass cap mkd. T15N R20E S12 RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears N. 7° W., 50 lks. dist., with 

brass cap mkd. T15N R20E S1 RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 1 and 12 posting and blazing line.

Over rolling land.

 3.50 Enter grove of heavy timber, edge bears N and S. 20° W.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 1 and 12.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 1

 1/4

S 12

2009

from which

A burr oak, 9 ins. diam., bears N. 191⁄2° W., 22 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S1 BT.

A burr oak, 11 ins. diam., bears S. 653⁄4° W., 129 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S12 BT.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

41.10 Ravine, course S. 20° W.
388

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

49.60 Ravine, course S. 30° W.

69.00 Leave timber, edge bears NE and SE.

80.00 The cor. of secs. 1, 2, 11, and 12.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 0° 01’ W., bet. secs. 1 and 2.

Desc. slightly over rolling land.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 1 and 2.

Falls at an inaccessible point on a cliff, no permanent monument established.

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground and over 

a magnet, for a witness corner, bears South, 50 lks. dist with brass cap mkd. 

WC T15N R20E 1/4 S1 S2 2009 and an arrow point to the cor.

from the witness corner.

A live oak, 19 ins. diam., bears N. 21° E., 53 lks. dist., mkd. X at breast height 

and BT at base.

A burr oak, 12 ins. diam., bears S. 46° W., 33 lks. dist., mkd. X at breast height 

and BT at base.

Raise a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., W. of the witness cor.

49.30 Arroyo, course N. 70° E.

80.00 Intersect N. bdy. of the Tp. at the cor. of secs. 1, 2, 35, and 36, monumented with a 

limestone, 16 x 6 x 5 ins. above ground, loosely set, mkd. with 1 notch on E. and 

5 notches on W. edge, with a small mound of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 3 lks. dist., 

W. of cor.

At the cor. point

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 10 ins. in the ground to bedrock, encircled 

by a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

T 16 N R 20 E

S 35 S 36

S 2 S 1

T 15 N

 2009

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
389

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

Bury the marked stone alongside and deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 2, 3, 34, and 35, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a 

sandstone, 14 x 8 x 8 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. with 2 notches on the E. and 

4 notches on the W. edge, with a mound of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., 

W. of cor.

At the corner point

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 27 ins. in the ground, and in a mound of 

stone, 2 ft. diam. to top, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 34 S 35

S 3 S 2

T 14 N

2009

from which

A lodgepole pine, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 14° E., 74 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S35 BT.

A lodgepole pine, 8 ins. diam., bears S. 81° E., 14 lks. dist., 

mkd. T14N R20E S2 BT.

A lodgepole pine, 10 ins. diam., bears S. 44° W., 43 lks. dist., 

mkd. T14N R20E S3 BT.

A spruce, 34 ins. diam., bears N. 31° W., 16 lks. dist., mkd. T15N R20E S34 BT.

Rebuilt the mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 3 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Bury the mkd. stone alongside and deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

N. 0°02’ W., bet. secs. 34 and 35.

Over level bottom land.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 34 and 35.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam, 23 in. in the ground, with brass cap 

mkd.
390

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

T 15 N R 20 E

1/4

S 34 S 35

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 3 ft. high, 7 lks. dist., W of cor.

42.00 Leave bottom land, edge bears N. 70° E. and S. 70° W.; asc. sandy ridge.

46.00 Top of windblown sandy ridge, bears N. 70° E. and S. 70° W.

50.00 Foot of sandy ridge; thence over nearly level land.

80.00 Point for the cor. of secs. 26, 27, 34, and 35.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., in a concrete form, 8 ins. upper diam., 14 

ins. lower diam., 30 ins. long, 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 27 S 26

S 34 S 35

2009

Bury a magnet at N. side of concrete monument.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 25, 26, 35 and 36.

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 26 and 35.

Over level bottom land, through heavy timber.

13.73 Ordinary high water mark on the right bank of Yellowstone River, bears S. 20° E. and 

N. 20° W., course N. 20° W.; banks 2 to 10 ft. high; water is high at present stage and 

from 1 to 8 ft. deep; point for the meander cor. of secs. 26 and 35.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N

S 26

MC

 S 35

 R 20 E

2009

from which

A green ash, 9 ins. diam., bears N. 491⁄4° E., 26 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S26 MC BT.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
391

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 381⁄2° E., 21 lks. dist., with 

brass cap mkd. T15N R20E S35 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

31.91 Ordinary high water mark on the left bank of Yellowstone River; bears S. 20° E. and 

N. 20° W., point for the meander cor. of secs. 26 and 35.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

 T 15 N

 S 26

MC

 S 35

 R 20 E

2009

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 77° W., 52 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S35 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

A cottonwood, 33 ins. diam., bears N. 68° W., 20 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S26 MC BT.

Raise a mound of stone, 5 ft. base, 3 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

Asc. gradually through scattering timber.

37.50 Leave timber.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 26 and 35.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 26

 1/4

S 35

2009

from which

A green ash, 14 ins. diam., bears N. 283⁄4° E., 328 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S26 BT.
392

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

A green ash, 9 ins. diam., bears S. 78° E., 278 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S35 BT.

Deposit a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

70.50 Center line strip of State Highway No. 25, asphalt surface, 35 lks. wide, 

bears S. 68° E. and N. 68° W.

80.00 The cor. of secs. 26, 27, 34, and 35.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The field notes continue in the regular order and in the same form; 

the record of 31 miles is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 31, and 32, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a 

limestone, 15 x 8 x 6 ins., lying on the surface at E. side of a small mound of stone, 

poorly marked with 5 notches on one edge and 1 notch on the opposite edge.

At the corner point

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 31 S 32

S 6 S 5

T 14 N

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 7 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Bury the mkd. stone alongside and deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

N. 0°05’ W., bet. secs. 31 and 32.

Over level land.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 31 and 32.

Set a brass tablet, 31⁄4 ins. diam., 31⁄2-in. stem, in a cylindrical concrete form, 36 ins. 

long, 6 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with top mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

1/4

S 31 S 32

2009

Bury 6 fragments of blue crockery at the base of the concrete monument.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
393

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

80.00 Point for the cor. of secs. 29, 30, 31, and 32.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 30 S 29

S 31 S 32

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 10 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 28, 29, 32, and 33.

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 29 and 32.

Over level land.

14.50 Base of slope, edge bears N. 30° E. and S. 30° W.

16.50 Top of slope.

28.50 Spring, bears South, 2.50 chs. dist., course SE.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 32.

Set a brass tablet, 31⁄4 ins. diam., 31⁄2-in. stem, in a cylindrical concrete form, 30 ins. 

long, 6 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with top mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 29

 1/4

S 32

2009

Bury a cast-iron stove lid, 8 ins. diam., 1⁄2 in. thick, at the base of the concrete 

monument.

80.00 The cor. of secs. 29, 30, 31, and 32.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 30 and 31.

Over level land.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 30 and 31.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
394

CHAINS

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N R 20 E

S 30

 1/4

S 31

2009

from which

A blue spruce, 18 ins. diam., bears N. 12° E., 28 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S30 BT.

An alder, 14 ins. diam., bears S. 67° E., 48 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S 31 BT, in bark.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

78.37 Intersect the W. bdy. of the Tp., at the cor. of secs. 25, 30, 31, and 36, identified by 

traces of four pits, one in each sec., NE, SE, SW, and NW, with a part of the original 

corner stake bearing fragmentary scribe marks lying in the SE pit.

At the corner point

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

T 15 N

R 19 E R 20 E

S 25 S 30

S 36 S 31

2009

Deposit a sandstone, 6 x 6 x 6 ins., mkd. X at the base of the iron post, as a memorial, 

and bury the old stake alongside.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The field notes continue in the regular order and in the same form; 

the record of 3 miles is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 0°05’ W., bet. secs. 19 and 20.

Desc. over rocky N slope.

 2.00 Base of slope, bears N. 80° E. and S. 80° W.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 19 and 20.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
395

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

T 15 N R 20 E

1/4

S 19 S 20

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

44.50 Ordinary high water mark on the south bank of Lins Lake, bears East and N. 74° W.; 

point for the meander cor. of secs. 19 and 20.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

MC

S 19 S 20

T 15 N R 20 E

2009

from which

A box elder, 8 ins. diam., bears S. 771⁄2° E., 221 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S20 MC BT.

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears West, 327 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S19 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 16, 17, 20, and 21.

N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 17 and 20.

Desc. gradually over gently rolling land.

20.50 Road, ungraded dirt, 15 lks. wide, bears N and S.

28.70 Ditch, bears N. 30° E. and S. 30° W., course S. 30° W.; enter cultivated field, 

edge bears same as ditch.

36.50 Leave field; enter heavy timber, edge bears N. 30° E. and S. 30° W.

40.00 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 17 and 20.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
396

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

T 15 N R 20 E

S 17

 1/4

S 20

2009

from which

A green ash, 13 ins. diam., bears S. 701⁄2° W., 28 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S20 BT.

A box elder, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 221⁄4° W., 119 lks. dist., mkd. 1/4 S17 BT.

43.20 Ordinary high water mark on the east bank of Lins Lake, bears N. 19° E. and 

S. 393⁄4° W.; point for the meander cor. of secs. 17 and 20, occupied by a green ash, 

8 ins. diam., mkd.

S17 on N,

T15N R20E on E,

S20 on S, and

MC on W side;

from which

A green ash, 10 ins. diam., bears N. 403⁄4° E., 20 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S17 MC BT.

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 621⁄4° E., 114 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S20 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

______________________________________________________________________

In order to establish the line bet. secs. 18 and 19, which crosses Ivy Island in Lins Lake, 

the meander cor. on the SE bank of the island was determined from the cor. of secs. 19, 

20, 29, and 30, at N. 0°05’ W., 80 chs. dist., thence N. 89°57’ W. to intersect with the 

ordinary high water mark,

Point for the meander cor. of secs. 18 and 19, on the SE bank of Ivy Island at the 

ordinary high water mark; the bank bears N. 471⁄4° E. and S. 471⁄4° W.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

 T 15 N

 S 18

MC

 S 19

 R 20 E

2009

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
397

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

from which

A green ash, 8 ins. diam., bears S. 783⁄4° W., 127 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S19 MC BT.

A burr oak, 9 ins. diam., bears N. 161⁄4° W., 29 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S18 MC BT.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the meander cor. of 19 and 20 on the south bank of Lins Lake bears 

S. 5°20’30” E., 35.66 chs. dist.

Thence N. 89°57’ W., bet. secs. 18 and 19.

Over level land, across Ivy Island.

 4.11 Ordinary high water mark on the SW bank of the island, bears S. 53° E.; and 

N. 51⁄2° W., point for the meander cor. of secs. 18 and 19.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

 T 15 N

S 18

MC

 S 19

R 20 E

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 6 ft. base, 3 ft. high, 10 lks. dist., E of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The line bet. secs. 8 and 17 is established next by running 

from the cor. of secs. 8, 9, 16 and 17, N. 89° 57’ W., 80.00 chs. dist., with the 1⁄4 sec. 

cor. at 40.00 chs.

The line bet. secs. 17 and 18 is then established by running from the cor. of secs. 

7, 8, 17, and 18, S. 0° 05’ E., 20.19 chs. dist., to the ordinary high water mark on the 

north bank of Lins Lake.

The resultant line across Lins Lake is N.0°05’W. 95.31 chs. dist.

The line bet. secs. 7 and 18 is established by the random and true line method 

with angle points on the E. and W. bdrs. of the Lake City Townsite. The field notes call 

for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. at 40.00 chs. dist. from the east.
398

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

The remaining 4 miles of the regular subdivisional lines are established in the 

normal manner, and at the 1⁄4 sec. cor. on the line bet. secs. 5 and 8 the bearing and dist. 

to the U.S. Mineral Monument in the SW1⁄4 of the SE1⁄4 of sec. 5 is determined and 

recorded.

______________________________________________________________________

Meanders of Lins Lake

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

______________________________________________________________________

From the meander cor. of secs. 19 and 24, on the W. bdy. of the Tp. and the south bank 

of Lins Lake, monumented with a limestone, 14 x 8 x 8 ins. above ground, firmly set, 

mkd. MC on N and with 3 grooves on S face, with a mound of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. 

high, 10 lks. dist., S. of cor.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

MC

S 24 S 19

R 19 E R 20 E

T 15 N

2009

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 1° E., 50 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S19 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Buried the mkd. stone alongside the cor. and deposit a magnet beneath the stainless 

steel post.

Thence with the meanders of Lins Lake in sec. 19.

Along the ordinary high water mark and the bottom edge of a well-defined bank, 

2 to 4 ft. high, on the upper side of a gravelly beach.

S. 56°00’ E., 7.20 chs.

S. 46°30’ E., 3.40 chs.

S. 44°00’ E., 2.40 chs.

S. 43°15’ E., 5.70 chs. On this course the bank increases in height from 

3 to 15 ft.; the beach becomes narrow and rocky.

S. 45°15’ E., 4.40 chs.

S. 44°45’ E., 5.80 chs.

Subdivision of T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
399

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Meanders of Lins Lake

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

S. 45°30’ E., 2.00 chs.

S. 49°30’ E., 4.00 chs. On this course the bank becomes a nearly vertical cliff, 

35 ft. above ordinary high water mark.

S. 54°15’ E., 5.00 chs.

S. 67°45’ E., 2.00 chs.

S. 78°06’ E., 6.72 chs. On this course leave cliff; bank gradually becomes 

lower to a height of about 4 ft.

N. 85°22’ E., 1.88 chs.

N. 77°45’ E., 11.00 chs.

S. 77°45’ E., 7.20 chs.

S. 73°47’ E., 21.20 chs. The meander cor. of secs. 19 and 20 on the south bank, 

previously described.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The meanders continue around the north bank of the lake 

through secs. 20, 17, and 18 in the same form; the record is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Meanders of Lins Lake – Diamond Rock

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

____________________________________________________________________

The meanders of a small island called Diamond Rock, in Lins Lake, in sec. 18, was 

begun at the meander cor. of secs. 19 and 24, on the W. bdy. of the Tp. and the south 

bank of the lake, previously described.

N. 71°30’ E., on a connecting line.

Over water.

21.45 SW bank of Diamond Rock at ordinary high water mark; point for auxiliary meander 

cor. in sec. 18.

Set a brass tablet, 31⁄4 ins. diam., 31⁄2-in. stem, in drill hole in solid rock, with top mkd.

AMC

T 15 N R 20 E

S 18

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 10 lks. dist., NE of cor.

From this point the meander cor. of secs. 13 and 18, on the W. bdy. of the Tp. and on 

the north bank of the lake, bears N. 25°02’ W., 48.06 chs. dist. The meander cor. is 

mkd. by a juniper, 14 ins. diam., with healed blazed on N and S sides.

Thence with the meanders of the island.
400

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Along the top of a low but well-defined bank, on the upper side of a gravelly beach.

N. 16°30’ W., 2.70 chs.

N. 61°15’ E., 2.90 chs.

S. 48°30’ E., 3.50 chs.

S. 33°00’ W., 2.20 chs.

N. 86°46’ W., 3.20 chs. The auxiliary meander cor. and place of beginning.

______________________________________________________________________

Meanders of Lins Lake – Ivy Island

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The record of the meanders of Ivy Island is omitted. The detail of 

the improvements on the island is carried to the general description at the close of the 

field notes.

______________________________________________________________________

Meanders of Yellowstone River

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

____________________________________________________________________

From the meander cor. of secs. 25 and 30, on the E. bdy. of the Tp. and the right bank 

of the Yellowstone River, monumented with a sandstone, 16 x 9 x 7 ins. above ground, 

firmly set, mkd. MC on N and with 2 grooves on S face, with a mound of stone, 2 ft. 

base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., S. of cor.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

MC

S 25 S 30

R 20 E R 21 E

T 15 N

2009

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears S. 1⁄4° W., 50 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E S25 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Buried the mkd. stone alongside the cor. and deposit a magnet beneath the stainless 

steel post.

Meanders of Lins Lake – Diamond Rock

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
401

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Meanders of Yellowstone River

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

Thence upstream with the meanders of the right bank of the river, in sec. 25; over 

bottom land, along a well-defined cutbank, 2 to 12 ft. high, through heavy timber.

S. 85°00’ W., 13.00 chs.

S. 72°00’ W., 7.10 chs.

S. 64°30’ W., 13.00 chs.

S. 40°30’ W., 5.40 chs. At end of course, mouth of Cherry Creek, 14 lks. wide.

S. 77°45’ W., 7.00 chs.

N. 76°00’ W., 7.40 chs.

S. 80°00’ W., 12.00 chs. At end of course, the downstream end of an 

unsurveyed island bears N.10°W., 10 chs. dist.

S. 81°07’ W., 19.45 chs. At 17 chs. dist. on this course, the upstream end of 

the same unsurveyed island bears N.10°W., 

10 chs. dist.

At end of course, the meander cor. of secs. 25 

and 26, previously described.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The meanders of the right bank are continued upstream in 

secs. 26 and 35, to the S. bdy. of the Tp. The field notes then show the meanders of the 

left bank running downstream in secs. 35, 26, and 25, in the same form. The record is 

omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Meanders of Clear Lake

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The record of the meanders of Clear Lake is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Subdivision of Section 7,

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

______________________________________________________________________

From the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18.

N. 0°05’ W., on the N. and S. center line of sec. 7.

40.01 Point for the center 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 7, at intersection with the E. and W. center line, 

identical with Angle Point No. 2, Lake City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., in a concrete form, 8 ins. upper diam., 

14 ins. lower diam., 30 ins. long, 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.
402

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

T 15 N R 20 E

C1/4 S 7

AP 2 LCTS

2009

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

80.02 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 6 and 7.

______________________________________________________________________

From the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 8.

N. 89°57’ W., on the E. and W. center line of sec. 7.

 2.00 Center line strip of U.S. Highway No. 87, asphalt surface, 40 lks. wide, bears S. 30° E. 

and N. 30° W.

25.80 Point for Angle Point No. 3, Lake City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., in a concrete form, 8 ins. upper diam., 

14 ins. lower diam., 30 ins. long, 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

S 7

C C

AP 3

LCTS

2009

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the preliminary NE cor. monument bears North, 7 lks. dist., a 

limestone, 21 x 14 x 9 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. NE COR LC on SW side. 

The stone is now removed and buried alongside the iron post as a memorial.

Continue on the E. and W. center line, along the N. bdy. of the townsite, posting and 

blazing true line.

40.00 The center 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 7, identical with Angle Point No. 2, Lake City Townsite, 

hereinafter surveyed.

60.00 Point for the center west 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 7, identical with Angle Point No. 1, 

Lake City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., in a concrete form, 8 ins. upper diam., 14 

ins. lower diam., 30 ins. long, 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

Subdivision of Section 7,

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
403

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of Section 7,

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

W 1/16

 C C

AP 1

LCTS

 S 7

2009

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the preliminary NW cor. monument bears N. 81°45’ E., 14 lks. dist., an 

oak post, 4 ins. sq., 4 ft. long, mkd. NW COR LC on SE side. The post is now removed 

and reset, inverted, alongside the iron post.

Continue on the E. and W. center line of sec. 7.

77.94 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 12, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a 

limestone, 12 x 10 x 8 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. 1⁄4 on W face, with a mound 

of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 10 lks. dist., W. of cor.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 15 N

R 19 E R 20 E

1/4

S 12 S 7

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, 5 lks. dist., W. of cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

______________________________________________________________________

From the W. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18, identical with Angle Point No. 8, Lake 

City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed.

N. 0°05’ W., on the N. and S. center line of the SW1⁄4 of sec. 7, identical with the W. 

bdy. of the townsite, posting and blazing true line.

40.00 The center west 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 7, identical with Angle Point No. 1, 

Lake City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed.

______________________________________________________________________
404

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

From the W. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18, identical with Angle Point No. 8, Lake 

City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed.

S. 0°05’ E., parallel with the E. boundary of the section, on the N. and S. center line 

of the NW1⁄4 of sec. 18, identical with the W. bdy. of Lake City Townsite, hereinafter 

surveyed, posting and blazing true line.

27.50 Center of tracks of the Montana and Manitoba Railroad, bears N. 60° E. and S. 70° W.

29.50 Ordinary high water mark on the north bank of Lins Lake, bears N. 70° E. and 

S. 70° W, identical with Angle Point No. 7, Lake City Townsite, hereinafter surveyed, 

and point for the special meander cor.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., in a concrete form, 8 ins. upper diam., 

14 ins. lower diam., 30 ins. long, 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

S 18

W

LCTS

AP 7

 

W

SMC

2009

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears N. 1⁄4° W., 75 lks. dist., 

mkd. S18 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Deposit magnets beneath the posts.

From this point the preliminary SW cor. monument bears East, 4 lks. dist., a limestone, 

16 x 8 x 6 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. SW COR LC on NE side. The stone is 

now removed and buried alongside the iron post as a memorial.

______________________________________________________________________

Subdivision of Section 33,

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

______________________________________________________________________

From the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 4 and 33, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., monumented with a 

granite outcrop, 10 x 6 x 5 ft above ground, mkd. XBO near upper right edge.

Subdivision of Section 18,

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
405

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

Subdivision of Section 33,

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

from which a new bearing object

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears N. 1° E., 50 lks. dist., 

mkd. T15N R20E 1/4 S33 RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

N. 0°03’ W., on the N. and S. center line of sec. 33.

Over level land.

20.45 Ordinary high water mark on the south bank of Clear Lake bears N. 70° E. and 

S. 60° W.; across lake.

56.00 Ordinary high water mark on the north bank of Clear Lake, bears S. 53° E. and 

S. 52° W.; point for the special meander cor.

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

C

S 33

C

SMC

2009

Raise a mound of stone, 2 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, 10 lks. dist., N of cor.

Over level ground.

76.50 Creek, 8 lks. wide, course S. 80° E.

80.00 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 28 and 33.

______________________________________________________________________

.

Survey of Lake City Townsite

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana

______________________________________________________________________

From Angle Point No. 1, Lake City Townsite, identical with the center west 1/16 sec. 

cor. of sec. 7, previously described.

S. 89°57’ E., on the N. boundary of the Townsite, identical with the E. and W. center 

line of sec. 7.

20.00 Angle Point No. 2, Lake City Townsite, identical with the center 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 7, 

previously described.

34.20 Angle Point No. 3, Lake City Townsite, previously described.
406

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

_________________

S. 0°05’ E., on the E. bdy. of the townsite, posting and blazing true line.

40.00 Angle Point No. 4, Lake City Townsite, at intersection with the line bet. secs. 7 and 18, 

previously described.

__________________

Thence in sec. 18.

S. 0°05’ E., on the E. bdy. of the townsite, posting and blazing true line.

5.10 Center of tracks of the Montana and Manitoba Railroad, bears N. 70° E. and S. 70° W.

7.53 Ordinary high water mark on the north bank of Lins Lake; point for meander cor. in 

sec. 18, identical with Angle Point No. 5, Lake City Townsite. 

Set an iron post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins., diam., in a concrete form, 8 ins. upper diam., 

14 ins. lower diam., 30 ins. long, 24 ins. in the ground, with brass cap mkd.

S 18

LCTS

AP 5

MC

2009

from which

A stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground and 

over a magnet, for a reference monument, bears N. 1⁄4° E., 75 lks. dist., 

mkd. S18 MC RM 2009 and an arrow pointing to the cor.

Deposit a magnet beneath the iron post.

From this point the preliminary SE cor. monument bears West, 6 lks. dist., a limestone, 

18 x 9 x 6 ins. above ground, firmly set, mkd. SE COR LC on NW side. The stone is 

now removed and buried alongside the iron post as a memorial.

______________________________________________________________________

EDITOR NOTE.— The field notes show the meanders of Lins Lake to Angle 

Point No. 7, Lake City Townsite, identical with the special meander cor. on the N. and 

S. center line of the NW1⁄4 of sec. 18. The record is omitted

______________________________________________________________________

N. 0°05’ W., on the W. bdy. of the townsite, identical with the N. and S. center line of 

the NW1⁄4 of sec. 18.

Intervening items of topography are omitted.

Survey of Lake City Townsite

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
407

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

29.50 Angle Point No. 8, Lake City Townsite, identical with the W. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 7 

and 18, previously described.

_________________

N. 0°05’ W., on the W. bdy. of the townsite, identical with the N. and S. center line of 

the SW1⁄4 of sec. 7.

40.00 Angle Point No. 1, identical with the center W. 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 7, 

and place of beginning.

______________________________________________________________________

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

A considerable variety of land and soil are found in T. 15 N., R. 20 E., of the 

Principal Meridian, Montana. The general elevation of the township ranges from 

about 3,500 to 3,800 feet above sea level. The summit of the Little Snowy Mountains, 

which extend into sections 2 and 3, is about 1,200 feet higher. Most of the northern and 

northeastern portion of the township is rough and rocky, the central part gently rolling, 

and the southern part nearly level, is about 1,200 feet lower. The soil of the bottom land 

along the Yellowstone River is alluvial silt and loam; much of the soil in the center part 

of the township is a black loam, but the southwestern part is very sandy. There is one 

small alkali flat which is located along the line between Sections 23 and 24. There is a 

heavy stand of cottonwood and green ash along the right bank of the river in section 25, 

a heavy grove of burr oak along the line between Sections 1 and 12, and a good growth 

of yellow pine, burr oak, and fir timber over most of the mountainous region.

The Yellowstone River crosses the southeastern portion of the township; it is 

a meanderable stream under surveying rules, but there is no navigation on the river, 

owing principally to the swift current and occasional rapids. A ferry is operated in 

section 35. There is some navigation on Lins Lake, which is a deep and permanent 

body of water; only the upper end of the lake extends into this township. Clear Lake 

is a permanent body of water, meanderable under the Manual regulations. There is 

an extensive marsh in Sections 16, 21, and 22, which evidently was the bed of a 

former shallow lake. The marsh and several springs situated along the line between 

Sections 9 and 16 drain into Lins Lake. Three good springs in Sections 28 and 32, 

all of considerable flow, are tributary to Clear Lake.

The most important developments at the present time are the gold-bearing quartz 

mineral claims in Sections 4 and 5, and the Montana and Manitoba Railroad, which 

crosses the northwestern part of the township. A limestone quarry in the NW1⁄4 of the 

SW1⁄4 of Section 9 may be expanded considerably if there should be a demand for 

building stone in this vicinity. The proposed Lake City townsite is well chosen and 

offers many advantages. The applicants for the townsite subdivision are making a bona 

fide effort to encourage an interest in the area.

There are three settlers in Sections 17 and 20 who have small fields in cultivation, 

under irrigation; three other settlers, one each in Sections 19, 25, and 35, have made 

Survey of Lake City Townsite

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
408

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Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

their first improvements, and one of them has about 40 acres in cultivation. At present 

the predominating interest is in stock grazing on the excellent growth of native grasses 

over most of the township. The township has an excellent water supply. There are 

several cottages on Ivy Island, in Lins Lake, which are occupied during the summer 

months.

Because of site conditions or a lack of available accessories, superior monuments 

were constructed at several corner points in the township by setting iron posts or brass 

tablets in concrete cylinders or cones.

The average of a considerable number of readings over all parts of the township 

gives a value of 18°10’ E. for the mean magnetic declination. There is a range of 20’ in 

local attraction.

T. 15 N., R. 20 E., Principal Meridian, Montana
409

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

FIELD ASSISTANTS

NAMES CAPACITY

 Eli R. Marker Surveying Technician

 Rebecca N. Link Surveying Technician

 William T. Tally Survey Aid

 
410

Appendix I - Specimen Field Notes - Original Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

CERTIFICATE OF SURVEY

(I) (We), Robert Acres, Cadastral Surveyor, HEREBY CERTIFY upon honor that, in pursuance of special 

instructions bearing the date of the 1st day of April, 2009, (I) (We) have dependently resurveyed a portion 

of Rancho San Blas, Mineral Surveys No. 3202, 3205, and 3206, and a portion of the east boundary, 

and surveyed the subdivisional and meander lines, subdivided sections 7, 18, and 33, and surveyed Lake 

City Townsite of Township 15 North, Range 20 East, of the Principal Meridian, in the State of Montana, 

which are represented in the foregoing field notes as having been executed by (me) (us) and under (my) 

(our) direction; and that said survey has been made in strict conformity with the Manual of Surveying 

Instructions, the special instructions, and in the specific manner described in the foregoing field notes.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Cadastral Surveyor

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Cadastral Surveyor

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

Billings, Montana

The foregoing field notes of the dependent resurvey of a portion of Rancho San Blas, Mineral Surveys No. 

3202, 3205, and 3206, and a portion of the east boundary, and survey of the subdivisional and meander 

lines, subdivision of sections 7, 18, and 33, and Lake City Townsite of Township 15 North, Range 20 

East, Principal Meridian, Montana, executed by Robert Acres, Cadastral Surveyor, having been critically 

examined and found correct, are hereby approved.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Montana

CERTIFICATE OF TRANSCRIPT

I HEREBY CERTIFY that the foregoing transcript of the field notes of the above described survey, in 

Township 15 North, Range 20 East, Principal Meridian, Montana, is a true copy of the original field notes.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Montana

July 31, 2009 Robert Acres

September 15, 2009 James A. Minnier
411

Appendix II

Specimen Field Notes

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

DEPENDENT RESURVEY OF PORTIONS OF THE

SOUTH AND WEST BOUNDARIES OF THE TOWNSHIP,

THE SUBDIVISIONAL LINES,

THE ADJUSTED 1896 RECORD MEANDERS OF GAMLIN LAKE IN SECTION 30, AND

THE 1910 MEANDERS OF THE LEFT BANK OF THE SNAKE RIVER IN SECTION 31,

AND THE

SUBDIVISION OF SECTIONS 30 AND 31,

THE SURVEY OF AN UNNAMED ISLAND WITHIN GAMLIN LAKE IN SECTION 30,

THE SURVEY OF THE MEANDERS OF THE RIGHT BANK OF THE

SNAKE RIVER IN SECTION 31,

THE PUBLIC LAND BOUNDARY IN THE E1/2 OF SECTION 30,

THE RIGHT-OF-WAY LINES OF CAMP BAY ROAD IN THE SW1/4 OF SECTION 30,

LOT 12 IN THE NW1/4 OF SECTION 30,

AND PARCEL A IN SECTION 31,

TOWNSHIP 5 SOUTH, RANGE 7 EAST,

OF THE BOISE MERIDIAN,

IN THE STATE OF IDAHO

____________________

EXECUTED BY

Victoria M. Caldwell, Cadastral Surveyor

Under special instructions dated and approved May 1, 2009, and supplemental special instructions dated and 

approved July 20, 2009, which provided for the surveys included under Group Number 2222, Idaho, and 

assignment instructions dated May 1, 2009.

Survey commenced: May 5, 2009

Survey completed: September 4, 2009

DEPENDENT RESURVEY
412

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

INDEX DIAGRAM

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., B.M., IDAHO

Dep. Res. of the Adjusted 

1896 Record Meanders 

of “Gamble” Lake in 

Section 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . 431-432

Dep. Res. of the 1910 Meanders 

of the Left Bank of the Snake 

River in Section 31 . . . . . 432-433

Subdivision of Section 30 . . 433-439

Subdivision of Section 31 . . 439-440

Survey of the 2009 Meanders 

of an Unnamed Island 

within Gamlin Lake in 

Section 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . 440-441

Survey of the 2009 Meanders 

of the Right Bank of 

the Snake River in 

Section 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . 441-442

Survey of the Public Land 

Boundary in the E1/2 

of Section 30 . . . . . . . . . . 442-443

Survey of the ROW Lines of 

Camp Bay Road in the 

SW1/4 of Section 30 . . . . 444-445

Survey of Lot 12 in the 

NW1/4 of Section 30 . . . . 445-447

Survey of Parcel A in 

Section 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . 447-448

sec. 31 only

429

425

420

417

420

415

422
413

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

The following field notes are those of the dependent resurvey of portions of the south 

and west boundaries of the township, the subdivisional lines, the adjusted 1896 record 

meanders of Gamlin Lake in section 30, and the 1910 meanders of the left bank of the 

Snake River in section 31, and the subdivision of sections 30 and 31, the survey of an 

unnamed island within Gamlin Lake in section 30, the survey of the meanders of the 

right bank of the Snake River in section 31; the public land boundary in the E1/2 of 

section 30, the right-of-way lines of Camp Bay Road in the SW1/4 of section 30, lot 

12 in the NW1/4 of section 30, and Parcel A in section 31, Township 5 South, Range 7 

East, Boise Meridian, Idaho.

The history of official surveys pertaining to this survey is as follows:

Theophilus W. Randall, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, surveyed the south boundary in 

1870, as shown in the official field notes approved October 20, 1870.

Theophilus W. Randall, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, surveyed the west boundary (east 

boundary of Township 5 South, Range 6 East) in 1870, as shown on the official plat of 

survey approved November 28, 1870.

Oscar Sonnenkalb, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, surveyed a portion of the subdivisional 

lines, and the meanders of Gamlin Lake in 1896, as shown on the official plat of survey 

accepted September 23, 1897.

Frank D. Maxwell, U.S. Surveyor, resurveyed the south boundary, the west 

boundary (east boundary of Township 5 South, Range 6 East), and surveyed a portion 

of the subdivisional lines and meanders of the Snake River in 1910, as shown on the 

official plat of survey accepted July 29, 1911.

Dell Cazier, Cadastral Surveyor, resurveyed the west boundary (east boundary 

of Township 5 South, Range 6 East) in 1967, under Group No. 427, as shown on the 

official plat of survey accepted November 15, 1972.

William Y. Kimmel, Cadastral Surveyor, resurveyed a portion of the west 

boundary (east boundary of Township 5 South, Range 6 East) in 1992, under Group 

No. 835, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted January 20, 1993.

Portions of two islands in the Snake River were identified within section 31 in the 

course of this survey. Their approximate locations are shown on the official plat. No 

determination of the status of the two islands located on the line between sections 31 

and 32 is made at this time. Willow brush, scattered box elder, and Russian olive trees 

are present on the two islands.

The resurvey was executed in accordance with specifications set forth in the Manual 

of Surveying Instructions (2009) the Special Instructions, and supplemental Special 

Instructions for Group No. 2222, Idaho, dated May 1, 2009, and July 20, 2009.

The direction of lines were determined by hour-angle observations of the sun, and 

carried forward by means of fore and backsights, and angles to the right, or by Global 

Township 5 South, Range 7 East, Boise Meridian, Idaho
414

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Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Positioning System (GPS) Real-Time Kinematic (RTK). The distances were measured 

on the slope with a Brand Model GTO-68 total-station instrument, or by GPS RTK 

positioning methods, utilizing Brand Model 4000ESS and Model 4700 dual frequency 

GPS receivers, conducted in accordance with the Bureau of Land Management 

“Standard and Guidelines For Cadastral Surveys using Global Positioning System 

Methods,” dated May 9, 2001. The direction of each line is with reference to the true 

meridian. All bearings are mean bearings. The distances are reported as horizontal 

measurement at a mean ground elevation of 2,700 feet above sea level. All lines not 

forming a closure were measured twice to preclude blunder.

Preliminary to the resurvey the lines of the official original survey(s) and resurvey(s) 

were retraced and search was made for all corners, lines, other calls of the record, 

and where available, collateral evidence of local surveys and corners. Identified 

corners were remonumented in their original positions; lost corners were restored and 

monumented at proportionate positions based on the official record. The retracement 

data were thoroughly verified and only the true line field notes are given herein. The 

lines of this survey were posted and blazed in accordance with U.S. Forest Service 

specifications where indicated by the phrase “posting and blazing true line.”

A magnetic memorial was deposited beneath the base of each monument, so indicated. 

This memorial consists of a magnet, 1 in. long, 7⁄8 in. diam., housed in a cellulose 

acetate tube, 25⁄8 ins. long, 1 in. diam., with 1 in. sq. polyethylene end caps, one black 

and one white.

The geographic coordinates, in NAD 83 (CORS 96) (2002) of the following BLM 

Cadastral Project Control Stations, as determined in the 1992 resurvey, are:

EC1

Latitude: 42°56'18.685" N. Longitude: 115°40'02.266" W.

EC2

Latitude: 42°55'59.309" N. Longitude: 115°41'17.518" W.

The geographic coordinates, in NAD 83 (CORS 96) (2002) of the following corners, 

as determined from ties to BLM Cadastral Project Control Stations “EC1” and “EC2”, 

are:

The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 6 and 31, on the S. bdy. of the Tp.

Latitude: 42°56'18.989" N. Longitude: 115°40'03.073" W.

The cor. of Tps. 5 and 6 S., Rs. 6 and 7 E.

Latitude: 42°56'19.089" N. Longitude: 115°40'36.908" W.

The magnetic declination was not observed.

Township 5 South, Range 7 East, Boise Meridian, Idaho
415

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

Restoring the 1870 survey executed by Theophilus W. Randall

and the 1910 resurvey executed by Frank M. Maxwell

 _________________________________

Beginning at the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 31, and 32, monumented with a basalt stone, 11 x 10 

x 4 ins., (Record, 14 x 12 x 6 ins.) broken but firmly set, upright, 8 ins. in the ground, 

with 5 grooves on the E. and 1 groove on the W. edges.

At the corner point

Set an aluminum post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 27 ins. in the ground, in a mound of 

stone, 1 ft. diam., with aluminum cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 31 S 32

S 6 S 5

T 6 S

2009

from which a new bearing object

A power pole, 12 ins. diam., bears S. 4°46' E., 41.8 lks. dist., power lines bear 

E. and S.

Deposit the mkd. stone and set a steel fence post alongside, and buried a magnet 

beneath the aluminum post.

N. 89°56' W., bet. secs. 6 and 31, posting and blazing true line.

20.06 Point for the E. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 6 and 31.

Set an aluminum post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., flush with the surface of the ground, 

in an embedded mound of stone, 1 ft. diam., with aluminum cap mkd.

 S 31

 E 1/16 

 S 6 

 2009

Set a steel fence post alongside and buried a magnet beneath the aluminum post.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the South Boundary,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
416

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Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Corner is located on a sandy W. slope.

30.30 From this point, a cor. of fences, bears North, 0.26 chs. dist., fences bear N. 80° E. and 

S. 89° W.

39.90 Irrigation pipeline, 28 ins. diam., bears N. and S.

40.12 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 6 and 31, identical with angle point No. 5, Parcel A, section 31, 

hereinafter surveyed, monumented with a basalt stone, 26 x 12 x 5 ins., (Record, 24 x 

12 x 5 ins.) lying flat, 3 ins. in the ground, mkd. 1⁄4 on the N. face.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 29 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 31

1⁄4 

S 6

T 6 S

2009

Deposit the mkd. stone alongside and buried a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

Corner is located in a barbed wire fence, bears N. 89° E. and W.

From this cor., BLM Cadastral Project Control Station "EC1," bears S. 62°48'50" E., 

1.022 chs. dist., monumented with an aluminum post, 21⁄2 ins. diam., firmly set, flush 

with the surface of the ground, and in a collar of stone, with aluminum cap mkd. as 

described in the official field notes of the 1992 resurvey.

________________________________

N. 89°46' W., beginning new measurement, identical with line 5-4 of Parcel A, section 

31, hereinafter surveyed, along and near a barbed wire fence.

 0.675 South end of the center line of an existing road across Parcel A, section 31, 30 ft. wide, 

bears N. 0°10' W., identical with angle point No. 3 of an easement in section 6, T. 6 

S., R. 7 E., 30 ft. wide, bears S. 0°13' E., said easement is described in the concurrent 

resurvey in T. 6 S., R. 7 E., under this same Group. Point is located in the center of 

graveled road, 20 ft. wide, bears S. 0°13' E. and N. 0°10' W.; no permanent monument 

established.

 0.87 Intersect a corner of barbed wire fences bearing E., S., and W., changing to irregularly 

W.

15.70 From this point, the end of a barbed wire fence, extends irregularly E., bears North, 

1.10 chs. dist.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the South Boundary,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
417

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

17.25 Ascend rimrock, bears generally N. and S.; thence over nearly level land on top of 

Flatiron Butte.

22.03 Point for angle point No. 4, Parcel A, hereinafter surveyed; no permanent monument 

established.

25.85 Top of rimrock, bears NE and SW; descend.

27.15 From this point, the end of a barbed wire fence, extends W., bears South, 0.11 chs. dist.

38.14 The cor. of Tps. 5 and 6 S., Rs. 6 and 7 E., monumented with a brass disk, 31⁄2 ins. 

diam., firmly set in concrete, 6 x 6 ins, flush with the surface of the ground, mkd. as 

described in the official field notes of the 1910 resurvey.

Corner is located on top of a boulder, 5 x 4 ft., projecting 41⁄2 ft. above ground, with 

a brown PVC post, 4 ins. diam., signed IDAHO POWER PROJECT BOUNDARY, 

located N., 4 ft. dist. of corner.

From this corner, BLM Cadastral Project Control Station “EC2,” bears S. 56°27'38" 

W., 54.923 chs. dist., monumented with an iron post, 21⁄2 ins. diam., firmly set, 

projecting 1 in. above ground, with brass cap mkd. as described in the official field 

notes of the 1992 resurvey.

______________________________________________________________________

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the West Boundary,

(East Boundary of T. 5 S., R. 6 E.),

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Restoring the 1870 survey executed by Theophilus W. Randall, the 1910 resurvey 

executed by Frank M. Maxwell, the 1967 resurvey executed by Dell Cazier, and the 

1992 resurvey executed by William Y. Kimmel.

_____________________________

From the cor. of Tps. 5 and 6 S., Rs. 6 and 7 E., heretofore described.

N. 0°07' E., bet. secs. 31 and. 36,.

Desc. gradual N. slope, through pasture land, and westerly of a barbed wire fence.

7.920 The point established as the witness cor. to the 1870 and 1910 meander cor. of secs. 31 

and 36, on the left bank of Snake River, by William A. Smith, PLS No. 554, in 1965, 

as shown on Owyhee County Record of Survey Instrument No. 36876, monumented 

with an iron bar, 1 in. diam., firmly set, 6 ins. below the surface of the ground, and is 

accepted as a careful and faithful determination of the position of the range line.

At the corner point

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the South Boundary,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
418

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Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

WC

MC

S 36 S 31

T 5 S

R 6 E R 7 E

2009

Deposit the iron bar and set a steel fence post alongside, and buried a magnet beneath 

the stainless steel post.

From the witness cor. meander cor., a corner of barbed wire fences, bearing South and 

N. 50° W., bears S. 20° E., 35 lks. dist.

________________________________

N. 0°06’ W., beginning new measurement.

 0.91 Point for the 1870 and 1910 meander cor. of secs. 31 and 36, on the left bank of Snake 

River, at proportionate dist., at the present left bank, bears NE and SW; there is no 

remaining evidence of the original corner; falls on river bank where it is impracticable 

to establish a permanent monument; over river, course SW.

18.755 Point for the 1870 and 1910 meander cor. of secs. 31 and 36, on the right bank of 

Snake River, at proportionate dist. by the irregular boundary adjustment method, 

based on the official record of the 1910 resurvey; falls in river; there is no remaining 

evidence of the original corner; no permanent monument established.

________________________________

N. 0°06' E., beginning new measurement.

 0.37 Right bank of Snake River, course S. 60° W.; point for the meander cor. of sec. 31 only.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S

R 6 E R 7 E

 S 31

MC

2009

Set a steel fence post alongside and buried a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the West Boundary,

(East Boundary of T. 5 S., R. 6 E.),

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
419

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

 1.49 From this point, an iron pipe, 2 ins. diam., firmly set, projecting 13 ins. above ground, 

in a scattered mound of stone, bears East, 0.120 chs. dist., with brass cap mkd. IPCO 

50 9L W 36|31 1951 with a brown PVC post, 4 ins. diam., signed IDAHO POWER 

PROJECT BOUNDARY, set alongside. Through contact with personnel of Idaho 

Power Company, it was determined that this monument was established using improper 

procedures, was not properly placed on the range line, and is not utilized in this 

resurvey.

12.87 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 36 only, T. 5 S., R. 6 E., monumented with an iron post, 21⁄2 ins. 

diam., firmly set, projecting 7 ins. above a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 11⁄2 ft. high, with 

brass cap mkd. as described in the official record of the 1967 resurvey, except with 

the marks R7E present, with a brown PVC post, 4 ins. diam., signed IDAHO POWER 

PROJECT BOUNDARY, set alongside.

From this corner, an iron bar, of no known record, 11⁄2 ins. diam., firmly set, projecting 

20 ins. above ground, bears North, 4 lks. dist.

________________________________

N. 0°14' W., beginning new measurement.

 0.49 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 31 only, monumented with an iron post, 21⁄2 ins. diam., firmly 

set, projecting 12 ins. above ground, in a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 1 ft. high, with 

brass cap mkd. as described in the official record of the 1967 resurvey, except with the 

marks R6E present.

From this corner, a railroad tie fence post for a corner of barbed wire fences extending 

N. and S. 50° E., bears N. 91⁄2° E., 0.65 chs. dist.

39.67 The cor. of secs. 25 and 36, T. 5 S., R. 6 E., monumented with an iron post, 21⁄2 ins. 

diam., firmly set and leaning, projecting 6 ins. above ground, in a collar of stone, with 

brass cap mkd. as described in the official record of the 1967 resurvey.

At the corner point

Reset the iron post, 30 ins. long, flush with the surface of the ground, in an embedded 

mound of stone, 21⁄2 ft. diam., from which new bearing objects

A power line brace pole, 8 ins. diam., bears N. 871⁄2° E., 34.5 lks. dist.

A power pole, 13 ins. diam., bears S. 33° W., 25 lks. dist.

Buried a magnet beneath the iron post.

Corner is located in a field road, 15 lks. wide, bears N. and S., and W., 5 lks. dist. of a 

barbed wire fence, bears same.

______________________________________________________________________

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the West Boundary,

(East Boundary of T. 5 S., R. 6 E.),

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
420

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Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

N. 0°57' W., bet. secs. 25 and 31.

0.735 The closing cor. of secs. 30 and 31, monumented with an iron post, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 

firmly set, projecting 5 ins. above ground, in a collar of stone, with brass cap mkd. as 

described in the official field notes of the 1910 resurvey.

Corner is located E., 6 lks. dist. of the middle of a field road, 15 lks. wide, bears N. and 

S., and W., 3 lks. dist. of a fence, bears N. and S.

From this corner, the amended closing cor. of secs. 30 and 31, bears S. 89°51’ E., 0.15 

chs. dist., hereinafter described.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 0°05’ W., bet. secs. 25 and 30.

Asc. over SW slope, through light timber and moderate brush.

EDITOR NOTE. ― Remainder of the west boundary of the township is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Restoring the 1910 survey executed by Frank D. Maxwell

_____________________________

From the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 31, and 32, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., heretofore described.

N. 0°02’ W., bet. secs. 31 and 32.

Asc. over SE slope through rocky open land.

19.97 Point for the S. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 31 and 32.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, in an 

embedded mound of stone, 21⁄2 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

S 1/16

S 31 S 32

2009

Set a steel fence post alongside and buried a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

21.30 Top of rimrock, bears irregularly N. 60° E. and S. 60° W.; descend.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the West Boundary,

(East Boundary of T. 5 S., R. 6 E.),

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
421

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

33.88 An iron post, established by the Idaho Power Company, in 1951, as shown on drawings 

20R-9475 and 20-D-16552, 2 ins. diam., loosely set and leaning, projecting 28 ins. 

above ground, in a scattered mound of stone, with brass cap, 2 ins. diam., mkd. IPCO 

31|32 NM 64 59 1951, with a brown PVC post, 4 ins. diam., signed IDAHO POWER, 

alongside, and is accepted as a careful and faithful determination of the section line.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 30 ins. long, 10 ins. in the ground to bedrock, 

in a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

WP

S 31 S 32

2009

Set a steel fence post alongside deposited a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

________________________________

N. 0°02’ E., beginning new measurement.

 2.30 Present left bank of Snake River, vertical, 10 ft. high, bears NE and SW; across a 

secondary channel of Snake River.

 2.46 Point for the meander cor. of secs. 31 and 32, on left bank of Snake River, at 

proportionate dist., falls in a secondary channel of the river; there is no remaining 

evidence of the original corner; no permanent monument established.

 4.60 The SE bank of an island, bears NE and SW. No determination of the status of this 

island has been made at this time.

 6.06 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 31 and 32, at proportionate dist.; located within the 

Snake River in the 1910 survey and not previously monumented. Point falls on an 

island in the Snake River. No permanent monument established.

 8.90 North bank of same island, bears NE turning SE and SW. Thence across a secondary 

channel of Snake River, 50 lks. wide.

 9.40 South bank of an island, bears SE and SW. No determination of the status of this 

island has been made at this time.

11.40 North bank of same island, bears NW and SE. Thence across the main channel of the 

Snake River, course SW.

21.78 The meander cor. of secs. 31 and 32, on right bank of Snake River, monumented with 

a basalt stone, 18 x 15 x 5 ins. (Record, 14 x 12 x 6 ins.), firmly set, 13 ins. in the 

ground, mkd. MC on the S. face and with 5 grooves on the E. edge, with a mound of 

stone, 3 ft. base, 1 ft. high, to N.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
422

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Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 25 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 31 S 32

MC

2009

Deposit the mkd. stone alongside and buried a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

Enlarge the mound of stone to 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, N. of corner.

From this corner, an iron post, established by Acme Water Irrigation Company, in 

1933, as a reference monument for irrigation works, 2 ins. diam., firmly set, projecting 

15 ins. above ground, bears N. 1°13' E., 0.346 chs. dist., with brass plug mkd. AWIC 

RM NM75 1933, as shown on Owyhee County Watermaster drawing 20R-9475. 

Through contact with personnel of Current Water Irrigation District and Owyhee 

County Surveyor it was determined that this monument had never intended to be 

placed on the section line, and is not utilized in this resurvey.

________________________________

N. 0°06' E., beginning new measurement.

24.21 The cor. of secs. 29, 30, 31, and 32, monumented with a basalt stone, 20 x 9 x 5 ins. 

(Record, 18 x 10 x5), firmly set, 15 ins. in the ground, with 1 groove on the S. face and 

5 grooves on the E. edge, with evidence of a mound of earth, 5 ft. diam., 5 ins. high, to 

the W.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30 S 29

S 31 S 32

2009

Deposit the mkd. stone and set a steel fence post alongside, and buried a magnet 

beneath the stainless steel post.

______________________________________________________________________

N. 89°50' W., bet. secs. 30 and 31, posting and blazing true line.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
423

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth, generally on S. side of 

old, poorly maintained barbed-wire fence.

20.01 The E. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 30 and 31, established by Lance G. Miller, PLS No. 

6107, in 1994, but not depicted as having been monumented, as shown on Owyhee 

County Record of Survey Instrument No. 452400; monumented with a steel rebar, 5/8 

in. diam., firmly set, projecting 3 ins. above ground, with yellow plastic cap, 11⁄4 ins. 

diam., mkd. MILLER 6107, and is accepted as a careful and faithful establishment of 

the corner, from which new bearing trees

A ponderosa pine, 20 ins. diam., bears N. 46° W., 641⁄2 lks. dist., 

mkd. E 1/16 S30 BT.

A ponderosa pine, 10 ins. diam., bears N. 3° W., 17 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

Set a steel fence post E., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located in moderate timber and undergrowth, in old, poorly maintained and 

down barbed-wire fence, bears irregularly E. and W.

________________________________

N. 89°39' W., beginning new measurement.

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth, generally on N. side of 

old, poorly maintained barbed wire fence.

20.06 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 30 and 31, monumented with a basalt stone, 20 x 9 x 7 ins. 

(Record, 18 x 8 x 6), loosely set, 1 in. in the ground, mkd. 1⁄4 on the N. face.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 25 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30

 1⁄4

S 31

2009

Deposit the mkd. stone and set a steel fence post alongside, and buried a magnet 

beneath the stainless steel post.

Corner is located on a gentle SW slope.

________________________________

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
424

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

N. 89°51' W., beginning new measurement.

Continue over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth, on N. side of 

old, poorly maintained barbed-wire fence.

19.915 Point for W 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 30 and 31.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 25 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

S 30

 W 1/16

S 31

2009

from which

A pine, 9 ins. diam., bears N. 18° E., 37 lks. dist., mkd. W1/16 S30 BT.

A white oak, 14 ins. diam., bears S. 37° E., 741⁄2 lks. dist., 

mkd. W1/16 S31 BT.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post W., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, on N. side of down barbed-wire fence, bears E. and W.

24.01 Point for angle point No. 1, on the northeasterly right-of-way line of Camp Bay Road, 

hereinafter surveyed, determined at intersection, 25 ft. dist. from, and at right angle to, 

the present road center line.

Set a brass tablet, 31⁄4 ins. diam., 31⁄2-in. stem, in a drill hole in the top of a basalt rock 

outcrop, 10 x 4 ft., projecting 3 ft. above ground, with top mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30

 CBR AP 1

S 31

2009

from which

A ponderosa pine, 14 ins. diam., bears N. 79° E., 13 lks. dist., 

mkd. AP1 S30 BT.

Set a steel fence post, NE, 3 lks. dist. of corner.

24.61 Camp Bay Road, graded gravel, 30 lks. wide, in a curve, from S. 50° E. to N. 55° W.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
425

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

25.22 Point for angle point No. 14, on the southwesterly right-of-way line of Camp Bay 

Road, hereinafter surveyed, determined at intersection, 25 ft. dist. from, and at right 

angle to, the present road center line.

Drove a steel rebar, 28 ins. long, 3⁄4 in. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, cement an 

aluminum post, 7 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., over top, with aluminum cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30

 AP 14 CBR

S 31

2009

Set a steel fence post, N, 2 lks. dist. of corner.

38.225 The amended closing cor. of secs. 30 and 31, monumented with a basalt stone, 14 x 

9 x 4 ins. (Record, 15 x 10 x 7), mkd. CC on the E. face with 1 notch on the S. and 5 

notches on the N. edges.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 36 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

AM

T 5 S

R 6 E R 7 E

S 30

S 25 CC

S 31

2009

Deposit the mkd. stone alongside and buried a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

38.365 The closing cor. of secs. 30 and 31, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., heretofore described.

________________________________________________________________

Restoring the 1896 survey executed by Oscar Sonnenkalb

_____________________________

From the cor. of secs. 29, 30, 31, and 32.

N. 0°39' E., bet. secs. 29 and 30.

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth, on the W. side of barbedwire fence.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
426

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

20.14 The S. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30, established and recorded by Scott M. Rasor, 

Idaho PLS No. 6374, in 2002, as shown on Owyhee County Record of Survey 

Instrument No. 608089; monumented with a steel rebar, 5/8 in. diam., firmly set, 

projecting 2 ins. above ground, with an aluminum cap, 2 ins. diam., mkd. S 1/16 S29 

S30 2002 PLS 6374. This is accepted as a careful and faithful establishment of the 

corner, from which new bearing trees

A larch, 19 ins. diam., bears N. 38° E., 27 lks. dist., mkd. S1/16 S29 BT.

A cedar, 34 ins. diam., bears N. 37° W., 641⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. S1/16 S30 BT.

Set a steel fence post W., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in light timber and moderate undergrowth, W., 30 lks. 

dist. of barbed-wire fence.

________________________________

N. 0°38' E., beginning new measurement, posting and blazing true line.

Continue over level land, through moderate timber and undergrowth, along W. side of 

barbed-wire fence.

 0.56 Old, poorly maintained barbed-wire fence, bears E., 31 lks. dist. to corner of fences 

extending S. and W.; continue over level land, along W. side of barbed-wire fence.

17.584 Point for angle point No. 1, Public Land Boundary in the E1/2 of sec. 30, determined 

at record dist. (168.70 ft.) from the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30, heretofore described, 

based on the land description of the exceptions contained in Owyhee County Warranty 

Deed Instrument No. 402708, heretofore described.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 27 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

 S 30 S 29

AP 1

2009

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, SW, 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in light timber and dense brush, E., 41⁄2 lks. dist. of old 

barbed-wire fence. End of posting and blazing true line.

20.14 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30, first identified and perpetuated by person(s) 

unknown; subsequently verified and further perpetuated by Richard C. Tucker, Idaho 

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
427

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

PE No. 1947, as shown on Owyhee County Corner Perpetuation and Filing Record 

and Record of Survey Instrument No. 210438, both recorded in 1979; and further 

verified, accepted, and recorded by other local surveyors, and most recently by Scott 

M. Rasor, Idaho PLS No. 6374, in 2002, as shown on Owyhee County Record of 

Survey Instrument No. 608089; monumented with a galvanized iron pipe, 3⁄4 in. diam., 

loosely set, projecting 8 ins. above a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 10 ins. high, and with a 

brass cap, 2 ins. diam., mkd. T5S R7E 1/4 S29 S30 TUCKER IDAHO NO. 1947, from 

which the remaining evidence of the original bearing trees

A sawed and rotted ponderosa pine stump, 36 ins. diam., bears S. 281⁄2° E., 

561⁄2 lks. dist., with an old chopped-open blaze. (Record, S. 25° E., 57 lks. 

dist.)

and the 1979 accessory by Tucker

A Douglas fir, 18 ins. diam., bears N. 601⁄2° E., 51 lks. dist., with healed-blaze.

and 2002 accessories by Rasor

A ponderosa pine, 12 ins. diam., bears S. 45° E., 45 lks. dist., mkd. by an 

aluminum location tag, head high, on side facing corner, and by a nail and 

shiner, side center.

A ponderosa pine, 7 ins. diam., bears S. 751⁄2° W., 321⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. by an 

aluminum location tag, head high, on side facing corner, and by a nail and 

shiner, side center.

This position has been well verified and long recognized by the local surveying 

community, adjoining landowners, and other interested parties, and is accepted as a 

careful and faithful perpetuation of the original corner.

Corner is located on level land, in light timber and undergrowth, in an old, abandoned 

and down barbed-wire fence, extends N. and S., and E., 76 lks. dist. of gravel 

driveway, 15 lks. wide, in a curve, from N. 40° E. to S. 60° W., leading to the "Blue 

Heron" bed-and-breakfast residence.

________________________________

N. 1°19' E., beginning new measurement.

Over rolling land, through light timber and moderate undergrowth, generally along old 

barbed-wire fence line.

12.003 A local property corner, established, but not recorded, by Alan V. Kiebert, Idaho PLS 

No. 974, in 1984, at intersection with the southwesterly right-of-way line of Glengary 

Bay Road, at a point 25 ft. dist. from, and at a right angle to, the present road center 

line, and at record dist. (792.14 ft.) from the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30, based on 

the land description of the exceptions contained in Owyhee County Warranty Deed 

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
428

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Instrument No. 402708, heretofore described; monumented with a steel rebar, 1⁄2 in. 

diam., firmly set, projecting 2 ins. above ground, with a yellow plastic cap, mkd. 

KIEBERT PLS974. This is accepted as a careful and faithful establishment of the 

point described in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 402708, and is used 

as a controlling element for a portion of the survey of the Public Land Boundary in the 

E1/2 of sec. 30, heretofore described.

________________________________

N. 1°20' E., beginning new measurement.

Continue over open, level land, within the right-of-way of Glengary Bay Road.

 0.38 Glengary Bay Road, asphalt surface, 30 lks. wide, bears E. and W., at intersection with 

graded gravel road, 30 lks. wide, bears irregularly N.; continue over nearly level land, 

generally along W. edge of gravel road.

 7.20 Road curving to N. 35° E; leave road and continue within open, power line clear-cut.

 7.985 The N. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30, established and recorded by Douglas R. 

Meigs, Idaho PLS No. 5576, in 1994, as shown on Owyhee County Record of Survey 

Instrument No. 453656; monumented with a steel rebar, 5/8 in. diam., firmly set, 

projecting 10 ins. above, with a yellow plastic cap, 11⁄4 ins. diam., mkd. D.R. MEIGS 

PLS5576. This is accepted as a careful and faithful establishment of the corner.

From this cor., the cor. of secs. 19, 20, 29, and 30, bears N. 1°20' E., 19.99 chs. dist., 

first reported as identified and recorded by Richard C. Tucker, Idaho PE No. 1947, 

in 1979, as shown on Owyhee County Corner Perpetuation and Filing Record by 

Philip J. Bloom, Idaho PLS No. 3318 (Tucker Engineering), and Owyhee County 

Record of Survey Instrument No. 213569; subsequently verified, accepted, and 

recorded by other local surveyors, and most recently by Lance G. Miller, Idaho PLS 

No. 6107, in 2000, as shown on Owyhee County Record of Survey Instrument 

No. 568524; monumented with a galvanized iron pipe, 1 in. diam., firmly set, 

projecting 19 ins. above ground, with a brass cap, 2 ins. diam, mkd. T5S R7E S19 S20 

S29 S30 TUCKER IDAHO NO. 1947, with the original slate stone, 18 x 12 x 4 ins., 

loosely deposited along the W. side, and when oriented properly, plainly mkd. with 5 

grooves on the E. and S. faces, from which the remaining original bearing trees

A rotted out fir root socket, 32 ins. diam., bears N. 59° E., 27 lks. dist., with no 

marks. (Record, N. 561⁄2° E., 30 lks.)

A Douglas fir snag, 22 ins. diam., bears S. 80° W., 111 lks. dist., with a 

partially chopped open healed-blaze. (Record, 115 lks.)

A sawed Douglas fir stump, 21 ins. diam., bears N. 46° W., 187 lks. dist., with 

the lower portion of a healed-blaze.

and the 1979 accessories by Tucker

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
429

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

A Douglas fir, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 711⁄2° E., 88 lks. dist., with a healedblaze.

A Douglas fir snag, 12 ins. diam., bears S. 621⁄2° E., 1121⁄2 lks. dist., with a 

healed-blaze.

A sawed Douglas fir stump, 16 ins. diam., bears N. 651⁄2° W., 45 lks. dist., with 

the lower portion of a healed-blaze.

This position has been well verified and long recognized by the local surveying 

community, adjoining landowners, and other interested parties, and is accepted as a 

careful and faithful perpetuation of the original corner.

Corner is located on an ENE slope, near the center of an open power line clear-cut, and 

in an old, abandoned and down barbed-wire fence, bears N. and S,

______________________________________________________________________

From the cor. of secs. 19, 20, 29, and 30.

N. 89°42' W., bet. secs. 19 and 30.

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

19.99 Point for the E. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 19 and 30, at proportionate dist. bet. the cor. of 

secs. 19, 20, 29, and 30, and the 1896 meander cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the E. shore 

of Gamlin Lake, hereinafter described, based on the official record of the 1896 survey. 

Point falls on private land and at request of landowner no permanent monument 

established.

38.315 The 1896 meander cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the E. shore of Gamlin Lake, first 

reestablished and monumented, but not recorded, by Alan V. Kiebert, Idaho PLS No. 

974, in 1984, at proportionate dist. bet. the cor. of secs. 19, 20, 29, and 30, and the 

amended closing cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., based on the official 

record of the 1896 survey; subsequently verified and accepted by James R. Weatherly, 

Idaho PE/LS No. 2896, as shown on Owyhee County Corner Perpetuation and 

Filing Record and Record of Survey Instrument No. 316993, both recorded in 1986; 

identified by magnetic location, and presumably monumented with Kiebert's 1984 

railroad spike, as described by Weatherly in 1986, at a presently undetermined depth 

below the asphalt surface of Glengary Bay Road. (The monument was not exposed for 

practical reasons related to county road maintenance.) There is no remaining evidence 

of the original corner. This position has been well verified and long recognized by the 

local surveying community, adjoining landowners, and other interested parties, and is 

accepted as a careful and faithful reestablishment of the original corner, from which the 

1984 accessories by Kiebert, as reported by Weatherly in 1986

A Douglas fir, 10 ins. diam., bears N. 71⁄4° E., 671⁄2 lks. dist., with a healedblaze.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
430

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

A steel rebar, 5/8 in. diam., firmly set, projecting 8 ins. above ground, bears 

S. 89°42' E., 41.5 lks. dist., with an aluminum cap, 11⁄2 ins. diam., mkd. T5S 

R7E 1984 21.41/WC S19/S30 MC RLS 974, and an arrow pointing to the 

corner.

Corner is located E., 41⁄2 lks. dist. of the center of Glengary Bay Road, asphalt surface, 

35 lks. wide, bears S. 33° E. and N. 33° W., curving to S. 30° E.

________________________________

N. 89°42' W., beginning new measurement.

Over level land, across Glengary Bay Road.

 0.30 Present water's edge, at toe of road fill-slope, on the E. shore of Gamlin Lake; continue 

across lake.

 1.67 Point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 19 and 30, first established and recorded, but not 

monumented, by Richard C. Tucker, Idaho PE No. 1947, in 1979, at proportionate dist. 

bet. the cor. of secs. 19, 20, 29, and 30, and the amended closing cor. of secs. 19 and 

30, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., based on the official record of the 1896 survey, as shown 

on Owyhee County Record of Survey Instrument No. 213569; presently determined 

at proportionate dist. bet. the 1896 meander cors. of secs. 19 and 30, on the E. and W. 

shores of Gamlin Lake. This point has long been recognized by the local surveying 

community, adjoining landowners, and other interested parties, and is accepted as a 

careful and faithful establishment of the position of the original corner. Point falls in 

Gamlin Lake; no permanent monument established.

________________________________

N. 89°42' W., beginning new measurement.

Continue across Gamlin Lake.

20.13 True point for the 1896 meander cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the W. shore of Gamlin 

Lake, first reestablished and recorded, but not monumented, by Richard C. Tucker, 

Idaho PE No. 1947, in 1979, at proportionate dist. bet. the cor. of secs. 19, 20, 29, and 

30, and the amended closing cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., based 

on the official record of the 1896 survey, as shown on Owyhee County Record of 

Survey Instrument No. 213569; subsequently verified, accepted, and witnessed by 

James R. Weatherly, Idaho PE/LS No. 2896, as shown on Owyhee County Corner 

Perpetuation and Filing Record and Record of Survey Instrument No. 316993, both 

recorded in 1986; presently determined on line with, and at Weatherly's plat-record 

dist. (410.19 ft.) from, his 1986 witness cor. to the meander cor., hereinafter described. 

There is no remaining evidence of the original corner. This point has been well verified 

and long recognized by the local surveying community, adjoining landowners, and 

other interested parties, and is accepted as a careful and faithful reestablishment of the 

point for the original corner. Point falls on marshland, in high cattails and standing 

water, on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake; no permanent monument established.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
431

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

From this point, Weatherly's 1986 witness cor. to the 1896 meander cor. of secs. 19 and 

30, on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, bears N. 89°42' W., 6.215 chs. dist.; monumented 

with a steel rebar, 5/8 in. diam., firmly set, top flush with the surface of the ground, 

with an aluminum cap, 2 ins. diam., mkd. T5S R7E S19 S30 WCMC 410.25 1986 PE 

LS 2896, and located on level, wet marshland, in high cattails.

________________________________

N. 89°42' W., beginning new measurement.

Continue over level, wet marshland, through high cattails.

19.86 The closing cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., heretofore described.

20.00 The amended closing cor. of secs. 19 and 30, monumented with a basalt stone, 14 x 

9 x 4 ins. (Record, 15 x 10 x 7), mkd. CC on the E. face with 1 notch on the S. and 

5 notches on the N. edges, with evidence of a mound of earth, 5 ft. diam., 5 ins. high, 

alongside to the W.

At the corner point

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 36 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

AM

T 5 S

R 6 E R 7 E

S 19

S 24 CC

S 30

2009

Deposit the mkd. stone and set a steel fence post alongside, and buried a magnet 

beneath the stainless steel post.

______________________________________________________________________

Dependent Resurvey of the Adjusted 1896 Record Meanders of

Gamlin Lake in Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Restoring the 1896 survey by Oscar Sonnenkalb

_____________________________

From the true point for the 1896 meander cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the W. shore of 

Gamlin Lake, heretofore described.

Dependent Resurvey of a Portion of the Subdivisional Lines,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
432

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Thence with the adjusted 1896 record meanders of the shore of Gamlin Lake, in front 

of private land, in sec. 30.

S. 37° 01' W., 3.795 chs.

S. 11° 59' W., 3.595 chs.

S. 23° 30' W., 5.99 chs.

S. 0° 02' E., 6.99 chs. At 3.215 chs. on this course, the NE corner of lot 

12, hereinafter described, identical with the 2009 

auxiliary meander cor. on the W. shore of Gamlin 

Lake, at a point from which the witness cor. to the 

2009 auxiliary meander cor., bears N. 89°49' W., 

2.362 chs. dist., hereinafter described.

Continue in front of Federal interest land, lot 12.

S. 20°33' E., 5.995 chs. At 1.175 chs. on this course, the SE corner of lot 

12, hereinafter described, identical with the 2009 

special meander cor. on the W. shore of Gamlin 

Lake, at intersection with the E. and W. center line 

of the NW1/4 of sec. 30, heretofore described, at a 

point from which the witness cor. to the 2009 special 

meander cor., bears N. 89°49' W., 0.505 chs. dist., 

hereinafter described.

EDITOR NOTE.— Remainder of the Dependent Resurvey of the Adjusted 1896 

Record Meanders of Gamlin Lake in Section 30 is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Dependent Resurvey of the 1910 Meanders of the

Left Bank of the Snake River in Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho 

______________________________________________________________________

Restoring the 1910 survey executed by Frank D. Maxwell

_____________________________

From the point for the 1910 meander cor. of secs. 31 and 32, for the left bank of the 

Snake River, heretofore described.

Thence with the adjusted 1910 meanders of the left bank, downstream in sec. 31.

S. 57°50' W., 6.315 chs.

S. 69°19' W., 6.41 chs.

S. 80°18' W., 5.405 chs.

S. 89°17' W., 9.005 chs. At 3.36 chs. dist. on this course, intersect the N. and 

S. center line of the SE1/4 of sec. 31; the SE 1/16 

sec. cor. of sec. 31 bears S. 0°02' W., 9.74 chs. dist.; 

no permanent monument established.

Dependent Resurvey of the Adjusted 1896 Record Meanders of

Gamlin Lake in Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
433

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

At 6 chs. dist on this course the downstream end of 

an island bears N., 4 chs. dist.

S. 69°49' W., 11.42 chs.

S. 80°18' W., 12.015 chs. At 3.73 chs. dist. on this course, intersect the N. and 

S. center line of sec. 31; angle point No. 1, Parcel 

A, sec. 31 bears S. 0°03' W. 6.715 chs. dist.; no 

permanent monument established.

S. 63°35' W., 12.125 chs.

S. 52°36' W., 7.02 chs. At 2.77 chs. dist. on this course, intersect line 2-3, of 

Parcel A, sec. 31; angle point No. 2, bears N. 53°15' 

E., 2.94 chs. dist.

At 3.84 chs. dist. on this course, intersect line 3-4 of 

Parcel A, sec. 31; angle point No. 3, Parcel A, bears 

N. 0°02' W., 0.015 chs. dist.

S. 67°04' W., 11.02 chs.

S. 77°48' W., 3.505 chs. At end of course, the true point for the 1870 and 

1910 meander cor. of secs. 31 and 36, for the left 

bank of the Snake River, on the E. bdy. of sec. 36, T. 

5 S., R. 6 E., heretofore described.

______________________________________________________________________

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

From the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 30 and 31.

N. 1°02' E., on the N. and S. center line of sec. 30.

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

20.08 Point for the center south 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30, occupied by a pine, 18 ins. diam., 

mkd. S30 on E. side and CS on W. side, from which

A stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground, for 

a reference monument, bears N. 60° 45’ E., 125.6 lks. dist., with brass cap 

mkd. RM C S30 C 2009 and an arrow pointing to the corner.

A stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., set 23 ins. in the ground, for 

a reference monument, bears S. 30° 45’ E., 125.6 lks. dist., with brass cap 

mkd. RM C S30 C 2009 and an arrow pointing to the corner.

Dependent Resurvey of the 1910 Meanders of the

Left Bank of the Snake River in Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho 
434

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

31.09 Point selected for a witness cor. to the 2009 special meander cor. on the S. shore of 

Gamlin Lake, at intersection with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, and in a 

collar of stone, with brass cap mkd.

WC

SMC

C

S 30

C

2009

from which

A larch, 20 ins. diam., bears S. 68° E., 36 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

A fir, 16 ins. diam., bears S. 46° W., 391⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, E., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in moderate timber and undergrowth, S., 27 lks.dist. of 

the present water's edge, on the S. shore of Gamlin Lake, bears N. 70° E. and S. 70° W.

Continue within, and across, Gamlin Lake.

31.735 True point for the 2009 special meander cor. on the S. shore of Gamlin Lake, at 

intersection with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30; point falls in Gamlin 

Lake; no permanent monument established.

40.15 Point for the center 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 30, at intersection with the E. and W. center line, 

falls in Gamlin Lake; no permanent monument established.

60.215 Point for the center north 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30, falls in Gamlin Lake; no permanent 

monument established.

80.28 The point for the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 19 and 30.

______________________________________________________________________

From the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30.

N. 89°56' W., on the E. and W. center line of sec. 30.

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

 6.795 Intersect line 2-3, Public Land Boundary in the E1/2 of sec. 30; angle point No. 2, 

bears S. 1°12' W., 2.517 chs. dist., hereinafter described; no permanent monument 

established.

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
435

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

19.895 Point for the center east 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, and in a 

collar of stone, with brass cap mkd.

E 1/16

 C C

S 30

2009

from which

A fir, 19 ins. diam., bears S. 68° W., 16 lks. dist., mkd. CE1/16 S30 BT.

A larch, 20 ins. diam., bears N. 391⁄2° W., 67 lks. dist., mkd. CE1/16 S30 BT.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, SW, 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on nearly level land, in moderate timber and undergrowth, S., 80 lks. 

dist. of hiking trail, 3 lks. wide, bears E. and N. 80° W.

32.312 Point selected for a witness cor. to the 2009 special meander cor. on the E. shore of 

Gamlin Lake, at intersection with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, and in a 

collar of stone, with brass cap mkd.

WC

S

 SMC C C

30

2009

from which

A ponderosa pine, 18 ins. diam., bears N. 75° E., 93 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

A larch, 13 ins. diam., bears S. 30° E., 651⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

Set a steel fence post, E., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in moderate timber and undergrowth, E., 30 lks. dist. of 

the present water's edge, on the E. shore of Gamlin Lake, bears N. 30° E. and S. 50° W.

Continue within, and across, Gamlin Lake.

33.36 True point for the 2009 special meander cor. on the E. shore of Gamlin Lake, at 

intersection with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30; point falls in Gamlin 

Lake; no permanent monument established.
436

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

39.79 The center 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

50.15 Present water's edge, on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, bears S. 30° E. and N. 45° W.

50.34 Point for the 2009 special meander cor. on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, at intersection 

with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30.

Drove a steel rebar, 24 ins. long, 3⁄4 in. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, cement an 

aluminum post, 8 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., over top, with aluminum cap mkd.

S

 C C SMC

30

2009

from which

A fir, 23 ins. diam., bears S. 55° E., 44 lks. dist., mkd. SMC S30 BT.

A Douglas fir, 16 ins. diam., bears S. 35° E., 81⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. SMC S30 BT.

Set a steel fence post, S., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Continue over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

19.815 Point for the center west 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, and in a 

mound of stone, 2 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

W 1/16

 C C

S 30

2009

from which

A fir, 9 ins. diam., bears S. 18° E., 16 lks. dist., mkd. CW1/16 S30 BT.

A granite boulder, 20 x 8 ft., projecting 10 ft. above ground, 

bears N. 791⁄2° W., 671⁄4 lks. dist., mkd. BXO near the SW corner, 

2 ft. above surface of the ground.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, W, 2 lks. dist. of corner.

78.99 The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of sec. 30 only, on the W. bdy. of the Tp.

______________________________________________________________________

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
437

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

From the center east 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

N. 1°11' E., on the N. and S. center line of the NE1/4 of sec. 30.

Over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

 0.80 Hiking trail, 3 lks. wide, bears E. and N. 80° W.

 2.70 Leave timber, edge bears N. 50° E. and N. 30° W.; continue over open, grassy meadow 

and across wet marshland.

18.85 Leave marshland, edge bears S. 40° E. and N. 40° W.; continue through moderate 

timber and undergrowth.

20.025 Point for the NE 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30, at intersection with the E. and W. center line 

of the NE1/4.

Drove a steel rebar, 28 ins. long, 3⁄4 in. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, cement an 

aluminum post, 8 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., over top, with aluminum cap mkd.

NE 1/16 S 30

2009

from which

A Douglas fir, 13 ins. diam., bears S. 42° W., 231⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. AP9 S30 

BT, identical with the SW bearing tree for angle point No. 9, Public Land 

Boundary in the E1/2 of sec. 30, hereinafter described.

A Douglas fir, 13 ins. diam., bears N. 67° W., 611⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. AP9 S30 

BT, identical with the NW bearing tree for angle point No. 9, Public Land 

Boundary in the E1/2 of sec. 30, hereinafter described.

Set a steel fence post, SW, 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in moderate timber and undergrowth, near the toe of 

fill-slope, on the SW side of Glengary Bay Road.

20.035 Intersect line 8-9, Public Land Boundary in the E1/2 of sec. 30; angle point No. 9, 

bears N. 36°06' W., 0.229 chs. dist., hereinafter described; no permanent monument 

established.

20.64 Glengary Bay Road, asphalt surface, 30 lks. wide, bears S. 37° E. and N. 39° W.

Continue across road and asc. over rolling SW slope, through moderate timber and 

undergrowth.

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
438

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

40.055 The E. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 19 and 30.

______________________________________________________________________

From the N. 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 29 and 30.

N. 89°49' W., on the E. and W. center line of the NE1/4 of sec. 30.

Over rolling SSW slope, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

19.465 Glengary Bay Road, asphalt surface, 30 lks. wide, bears S. 37° E. and N. 39° W.

19.933 Intersect line 8-9, Public Land Boundary in the E1/2 of sec. 30; angle point No. 9, 

bears N. 36°06' W., 0.241 chs. dist., hereinafter described; no permanent monument 

established.

19.94 The NE 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

20.75 Edge of wet marshland, bears S. 40° E. and N. 30° W.; continue through cattails and 

across standing water.

22.86 Point for a special meander cor. on the E. shore of Gamlin Lake, at intersection 

with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30; point falls in Gamlin Lake; no 

permanent monument established.

Continue within, and across, Gamlin Lake.

39.885 The center north 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

______________________________________________________________________

From the point for the center north 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30.

N. 89°49' W., on the E. and W. center line of the NW1/4 of sec. 30.

Within, and across, Gamlin Lake.

24.96 True point for the 2009 special meander cor. on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, at 

intersection with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30, identical with the 

SE corner of lot 12, hereinafter described; point falls in Gamlin Lake; no permanent 

monument established.

25.23 Present water's edge, on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, bears S. 13° E. and N. 24° W.

25.465 Point selected for a witness cor. to the 2009 special meander cor. on the W. shore of 

Gamlin Lake, at intersection with the adjusted 1896 record meanders in sec. 30.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, and in a 

mound of stone, 3 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
439

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

WC

S

 N N SMC

30

2009

from which

A larch, 32 ins. diam., bears N. 54° W., 59 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

A fir, 29 ins. diam., bears N. 22° W., 139 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, W., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Continue over rolling land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

39.59 The N. 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30 only, on the W. bdy. of the Tp., identical with the SW 

corner of lot 12, sec. 30, hereinafter described.

_____________________________________________________________________

Subdivision of Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

_____________________________________________________________________

From the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 6 and 31, on the S. bdy. of the Tp., heretofore described, 

identical with angle point No. 5 Parcel A, sec. 31, hereinafter described.

N. 0°03' E., on the N. and S. center line of sec. 31, identical with line 5-1, Parcel A.

18.355 Point for angle point No. 1, Parcel A, determined at intersection with a line described 

as East, 1320 ft.+/- from the previous angle point as described in the legal description 

in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 85209, hereinafter described in the 

survey of Parcel A, sec. 31.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 31

C

AP 1

PAR A

C

2009

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post alongside the stainless steel post.

Subdivision of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
440

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Corner is located W., 50 lks. of a water pipeline, 28 ins. diam., bears NNE and SSW 

curving S.

EDITOR NOTE.― Remainder of the Subdivision of Section 31 is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Survey of the 2009 Meanders of an

Unnamed Island Within Gamlin Lake in Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Memorandum: An investigation preliminary to this survey determined that the 

present shore of Gamlin Lake has remained essentially unchanged since the time of 

the original survey. It was also determined the unnamed island in the northwesterly 

portion of Gamlin Lake, in section 30, was in existence at the time of statehood, has 

always been surrounded by water, and is within the adjusted 1896 record meander line. 

Certain facts relevant to this determination are as follows: (1) The largest trees on this 

island are a minimum of 140 years old; and (2) Local residents have always known 

this island to exist, and a very-early local resident kept goats on this island to prevent 

them from straying. Affidavits attesting to these facts is attached to, and made a part of, 

this record. In view of the above this island has been classified as unsurveyed public 

domain land, and is surveyed accordingly.

______________________________________________________________________

From the 1896 meander cor. of secs. 19 and 30, on the E. shore of Gamlin Lake, 

heretofore described.

S. 52°46' W., on a connecting line.

Over water, across Gamlin Lake.

21.83 Point for the 2009 auxiliary meander cor. in sec. 30, on the mean high water line 

and present water's edge, on the SE shore of island, in cattails at a location where 

it is impracticable to establish a permanent monument; no permanent monument 

established.

From this point, the point selected for a witness cor. to the 2009 auxiliary meander cor. 

in sec. 30, bears S. 49°20' W., 1.407 chs. dist.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

Subdivision of Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
441

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

Survey of the 2009 Meanders of an

Unnamed Island Within Gamlin Lake in Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

WC

AMC

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30

2009

from which

A ponderosa pine, 25 ins. diam., bears N. 101⁄2° E., 44 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

A ponderosa pine, 27 ins. diam., bears N. 701⁄2° W., 55 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

Buried a magnet beneath the stainless steel post.

Corner is located in scattered timber and light undergrowth, on a prominent high spot 

near the S. end of the island.

Thence with the 2009 meanders of the island.

N. 14° 10' W., 0.73 chs.

S. 81° 37' W., 0.975 chs.

N. 26° 15' W., 0.94 chs.

N. 10° 32' W., 1.68 chs.

N. 33° 18' W., 1.13 chs.

N. 62° 41' W., 0.695 chs.

S. 20° 45' W., 0.895 chs.

S. 7° 22' E., 1.84 chs.

S. 32° 30' E., 2.47 chs.

S. 3° 18' E., 0.69 chs.

S. 47° 37' E., 0.55 chs.

N. 79° 21' E., 0.76 chs.

N. 26° 29' E., 1.495 chs. At end of course, the true point for the 2009 

auxiliary meander cor. in sec. 30, on the SE shore of 

island, and place of beginning.

______________________________________________________________________

Survey of the 2009 Meanders of the

Right Bank of the Snake River in Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Memorandum: The 2009 meanders of the right bank of the Snake River supersede 

the 1910 meanders in section 31. The meanders represent the ordinary high water 

mark.

______________________________________________________________________
442

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Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

From the 1910 and 2009 meander cor. of secs. 31 and 32, on the 2009 right bank of the 

Snake River, heretofore described.

Thence with the 2009 meanders of the right bank, in front of Federal interest land, 

downstream in sec. 31.

S. 54° 14' W., 7.05 chs.

S. 62° 23' W., 8.97 chs. At 6 chs. dist. on this course, the downstream end of 

an island, bears S., 7 chs. dist.

S. 68° 10' W., 4.43 chs.

S. 62° 09' W., 5.02 chs.

S. 72° 03' W., 6.62 chs.

S. 81° 25' W., 5.73 chs.

S. 76° 33' W., 6.03 chs. At 1.795 chs. dist. on this course, the point for the 

2009 special meander cor. of sec. 31, on the E. and 

W. center line of sec. 31; no permanent monument 

established.

At end of course, the point for the 2009 special 

meander cor. of sec. 31, on the N. and S. center line 

of sec. 31; no permanent monument established.

S. 69° 24' W., 5.20 chs.

S. 64° 56' W., 3.07 chs.

S. 48° 05' W., 2.47 chs.

S. 75° 31' W., 6.63 chs.

N. 86° 58' W., 12.37 chs.

S. 32° 04' W., 0.86 chs.

N. 73° 13' W., 1.26 chs.

S. 52° 20' W., 1.29 chs.

S. 8° 43' E., 0.95 chs.

S. 79° 43' W., 3.63 chs.

S. 60° 36' W., 1.58 chs. At end of course, the true point for the 2009 meander 

cor. of sec. 31 only, for the 2009 right bank of the 

Snake River, on the W. bdy. of the Tp.

______________________________________________________________________

Survey of the Public Land Boundary in the

E1/2 of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Memorandum: This survey of the public land boundary in the E1/2 of section 

30 is based on the land description of the exception contained in Owyhee County 

Warranty Deed Instrument No. 402708, dated and recorded March 13, 1992, conveying 

land from J.D. Lumber Inc. to the United States of America. The public land boundary 

is identical with the southwesterly right-of-way line of Glengary Bay Road and is 

surveyed parallel with, and 25 feet distance from, the present road center line. The 

Survey of the 2009 Meanders of the

Right Bank of the Snake River in Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
443

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

exception is 50 feet in width based upon the fact that the prescriptive easement width 

along this portion of Glengary Bay Road is 50 feet. And further, that Owyhee County, 

local surveyors, adjoining land owners, and other interested parties, all recognize and 

agree with the fact that the southwesterly right-of-way line along this portion of the 

road is 25 feet distant from the present road center line. Because the present road center 

line has remained unchanged since before the time of the conveyance, the necessary 

portion of the present road center line was surveyed as a reference line prior to the 

survey of the southwesterly right-of-way line. This reference line was then used as 

controlling elements for determining the public land boundary, identical with the road 

right-of-way location.

______________________________________________________________________

From angle point No. 1, Public Land Boundary, on line bet. secs. 29 and 30, heretofore 

described.

N. 89°36' W., on line 1-2.

Over rolling land, through light timber and dense brush.

 6.818 Point for angle point No. 2, Public Land Boundary, determined latitudinally at 

deed-record distance (984.68 ft.) from angle point No. 3, hereinafter described, and 

longitudinally at deed-record distance (450.00 ft.) from angle point No. 1, heretofore 

described.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 26 ins. in the ground, and in a 

mound of stone, 2 ft. base, to top, with brass cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30

AP 2

2009

from which

A Douglas fir, 14 ins. diam., bears S. 57° W., 811⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. AP2 S30 BT.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, SW, 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in dense small timber and undergrowth.

EDITOR NOTE.― Remainder of the Public Land Boundary is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Survey of the Public Land Boundary in the

E1/2 of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
444

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Memorandum: This survey of the right-of-way lines of Camp Bay Road in the 

SW1/4 of section 30 is based on the land description of the exception contained in 

Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 440375, dated February 3, 1994, 

and recorded February 10, 1994, conveying land from The Nature Conservancy to 

the United States of America. The right-of-way lines are surveyed parallel with, and 

25 feet distance from, the present road center line. The exception is 50 feet in width 

based upon the fact that the prescriptive easement width along this portion of Camp 

Bay Road is 50 feet. And further, that Owyhee County, local surveyors, adjoining land 

owners, and other interested parties, all recognize and agree with the fact that the rightof-way lines along either side of this portion of the road is 25 feet distant from the 

present road center line. Because the present road center line has remained unchanged 

since before the time of the conveyance, the necessary portion of the present road 

center line was surveyed as a reference line prior to the survey of the right-of-way 

lines. This reference line was then used as controlling elements for determining the 

road right-of-way locations.

_____________________________________________________________________

From angle point No. 1, on the northeasterly right-of-way line of Camp Bay Road, at 

intersection with the line bet. secs. 30 and 31, heretofore described.

Thence, on line 1-2, on the northeasterly right-of-way line of Camp Bay Road, parallel 

with, and 25 ft. dist. from, the present road center line, along the arc of a circular curve 

to the left, having a radius of 1,133.75 ft.; the long chord bears N. 53°08' W., 2.240 chs. 

dist.

Over nearly level land, through scattered timber and moderate brush.

 2.241 Point for angle point No. 2, identical with a point of tangent, determined at right angle 

to, N. 32°35’ E., and 25 ft. dist. from, a point in the present road center line.

Drove a steel rebar, 30 ins. long, 3⁄4 in. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, cement an 

aluminum post, 8 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., over top, with aluminum cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 30

AP 2

CBR

2009

from which

Survey of the Right-of-Way Lines of

Camp Bay Road in the SW1/4 of Section 30,

T. 5 S. R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
445

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

Survey of the Right-of-Way Lines of

Camp Bay Road in the SW1/4 of Section 30,

T. 5 S. R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

A Douglas fir, 19 ins. diam., bears N. 78° E., 29 lks. dist., mkd. AP2 S30 BT.

A Douglas fir, 17 ins. diam., bears N. 34° W., 241⁄2 lks. dist., mkd. AP2 S30 BT.

Set a steel fence post, N., 41⁄2 lks. dist. of corner.

________________________________

N. 56°53' W., on line 2-3, on the northeasterly right-of-way line of Camp Bay Road, 

parallel with, and 25 ft. dist. from, the present road center line.

EDITOR NOTE.― Remainder of the Survey of the Right-of-Way Lines of Camp Bay 

Road is omitted.

______________________________________________________________________

Survey of Lot 12 in the NW1/4 of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Memorandum: This survey of lot 12 in the NW1/4 of section 30 is based on the 

land description contained in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instruction No. 622165, 

dated and recorded April 9, 2003, conveying land from The Nature Conservancy to the 

United States of America. Lot 12 is riparian to Gamlin Lake.

______________________________________________________________________

From the NW corner of lot 12, identical with the witness point on the W. bdy. of sec. 

30, heretofore described.

S. 89°49' E., on the N. boundary of lot 12, parallel with, and 322 ft. dist. from, the E. 

and W. center line of the NW1/4 of sec. 30, heretofore described.

Over nearly level land, through moderate timber and undergrowth.

11.908 Point selected for a witness cor. to the 2009 auxiliary meander cor. on the W. shore of 

Gamlin Lake.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 28 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

WC

T 5 S R 7 E

S

 AMC

30

2009

from which
446

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

A Douglas fir, 8 ins. diam., bears S. 12° W., 36 lks. dist., mkd. X BT.

A Douglas fir, 12 ins. diam., bears S. 87° W., 461⁄2 lks. dist., 

mkd. WC AMC S30 BT.

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post, S., 2 lks. dist. of corner.

Corner is located on level land, in grassy meadow, near E. edge of moderate timber and 

undergrowth, W., 31 lks. dist. of present water's edge, on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, 

bears N. 8° E. and S. 35° E.

Continue within Gamlin Lake, through cattails, and across water.

14.27 The NE corner of lot 12, identical with the true point to the 2009 auxiliary meander 

cor. on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, at intersection with the adjusted 1896 record 

meanders in sec. 30; point falls in Gamlin Lake; no permanent monument established.

________________________________

S. 0°02’ E., beginning new measurement, along the meanders of lot 12.

In front of Federal interest land, lot 12, identical with the adjusted 1896 record 

meanders of the shore of Gamlin Lake, heretofore described.

 3.775 An angle point on the adjusted 1896 record meanders of the shore of Gamlin Lake, 

heretofore described; no permanent monument established.

________________________________

S. 20°33’ E., beginning new measurement, along the meanders of lot 12.

In front of Federal interest land, lot 12, identical with the adjusted 1896 record 

meanders of the shore of Gamlin Lake, heretofore described.

 1.175 The SE corner of lot 12, identical with the true point for the 2009 special meander cor. 

on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, at intersection with the E. and W. center line of the 

NW1/4, heretofore described; point falls in Gamlin Lake; no permanent monument 

established.

________________________________

N. 89° 49’ W., beginning new measurement.

On the S. boundary of lot 12, identical with the E. and W. center line of the NW1/4, 

heretofore described.

 0.505 The witness cor. to the 2009 special meander cor. on the W. shore of Gamlin Lake, 

heretofore described.

14.63 The SW corner of lot 12, identical with the N. 1/16 sec. cor. of sec. 30 only, on the W. 

bdy. of the Tp., heretofore described.

________________________________

Survey of Lot 12 in the NW1/4 of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
447

CHAINS

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

Survey of Lot 12 in the NW1/4 of Section 30,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

N. 0°05’ W., beginning new measurement.

On the W. boundary of lot 12, identical with the W. bdy. of the Tp., heretofore 

described.

 4.88 The NW corner of lot 12, identical with a witness point on the W. bdy. of the Tp., 

heretofore described.

______________________________________________________________________

Survey of Parcel A in Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho

______________________________________________________________________

Memorandum: Parcel A is that portion of lots 9 and 10, section 31, described 

as the exception in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 85209, dated 

September 27, 1951, and recorded July 3, 1952 in Book 43 of Deeds, Page 147, 

conveying land from Tom L. and Elenor Jones to Idaho Power Company. Parcel A is 

shown on sheet 16 of 17 of Idaho Power Company drawing 20-D-165522, dated 1-25-

54, titled C.J. Strike H.E. DEV. PROJECT BOUNDARIES. Drawing 20-D-165522 

superseded sheet 87 of drawing 20R-9475, dated 6-30-52, and titled the same.

______________________________________________________________________

From angle point No. 1, Parcel A, on the N. and S. center line of sec. 31, heretofore 

described.

West, on line 1-2, Parcel A, on the bearing described in the legal description contained 

in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 85209.

 0.755 North end of the center line of an existing road across Parcel A, 30 ft. wide, bears S. 

0°10' E. Point is located in the center of a graveled road, 20 ft. wide, bears North and 

S. 0°10' E.; no permanent monument established.

18.86 Point for angle point No. 2, Parcel A, determined at the record distance, according 

to the legal description contained in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 

85209.

Set a stainless steel post, 30 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 27 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

T 5 S R 7 E

S 31

AP 2

PAR A

2009

Buried a magnet beneath and set a steel fence post alongside the stainless steel post.

________________________________
448

CHAINS

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

S. 53°15' W., on line 2-3, Parcel A, on the bearing described in the legal description 

contained in Owyhee County Warranty Deed Instrument No. 85209.

 2.94 Intersect the adjusted 1910 meanders of the left bank of the Snake River, bears N. 

52°36' E. and S. 52°36' W. From this point, the present left bank bears northwesterly, 

1.10 chs. dist., bank bears NE and SW.

 4.00 Point for angle point No. 3, Parcel A; no permanent monument established.

S. 0°02' E., on line 3-4, Parcel A sec. 31.

0.015 Intersect the adjusted 1910 meanders of the left bank of the Snake River, bears N. 

52°36' E. and S. 52°36' W. From this point, the present left bank bears northwesterly, 

1.10 chs. dist., bank bears NE and SW.

15.875 The point for angle point No. 4, Parcel A, heretofore described.

_____________________________________________________________________

 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The area contained in this survey is located in broken land in Elmore and Owyhee 

Counties, approximately 8 miles northeast of Bruneau, Idaho. The land is drained 

by draws and canyons which drain into the Snake River, which flows southwesterly 

through the area of the survey. Elevations range from about 2,100 feet above sea level 

along the Snake River to about 2800 feet above sea level on uplands on the north and 

south sides of the river.

Graveled and dirt roads extending northerly from State Highway No. 78 and southerly 

from Goldsmith Road provide access to the area. There are several pumping stations 

along the Snake River which provide irrigation water to farmland north, south, and 

northwest of the area surveyed. The area of the survey along the Snake River is 

used for the grazing of cattle. In section 30 the soils in the area consist mainly of a 

rocky loam, and no evidence of any mineral activity was noted. Almost all of the 

forested areas have been logged at one point in time, and there are several home-site 

tracts adjacent to, or within, the survey area. At the present time, the area appears 

to be mostly valuable for scenic and recreational purposes, and the Bureau of Land 

Management Gamlin Lake Recreation Site is located on the southeasterly side of the 

lake, in the NE1/4 of section 30. Access to this site is provided by Glengary Bay Road.

In section 31 the vegetation is sagebrush, greasewood and grass. Islands in the Snake 

River on the east and west side of the area surveyed are covered with willow brush and 

scattered box elder and Russian olive trees. Most of the survey area in section 30 is 

forest land consisting of ponderosa, white, and lodgepole pine, Douglas and grand fir, 

cedar, and larch timber. Cottonwood, alder, and willow is present throughout the area, 

with open, grassy meadows and wet marshland in those areas adjacent to Gamlin Lake, 

which is located in the northerly portion of section 30.

Survey of Parcel A in Section 31,

T. 5 S., R. 7 E., Boise Meridian, Idaho
449

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

FIELD ASSISTANTS

NAMES CAPACITY

 Rick A. Jones Surveying Technician

 Rebecca E. Smith Surveying Technician

 Randy J. Baker Survey Aid

 Susan W. Matherson Survey Aid

 
450

Appendix II - Specimen Field Notes - Dependent Resurvey Manual of Surveying Instructions

CERTIFICATE OF SURVEY

I, Victoria M. Caldwell, Cadastral Surveyor, HEREBY CERTIFY upon honor, that in pursuance of special 

instructions bearing the date of the 1st day of May, 2009, and the supplemental special instructions 

bearing the date of the 20th day of July 2009, I have dependently resurveyed a portion of the south and 

west boundaries of the township, the subdivisional lines, the adjusted 1896 record meanders of Gamlin 

Lake in Section 30, and the 1910 meanders of the left bank of the Snake River in section 31, and the 

subdivision of sections 30 and 31, the survey of an unnamed island within Gamlin Lake in section 30, 

the survey of the meanders of the right bank of the Snake River in section 31; the public land boundary 

in the E1/2 of section 30, the right-of-way lines of Camp Bay Road in the SW1/4 of section 30, lot 12 in 

the NW1/4 of section 30, and Parcel A in section 31, Township 5 South, Range 7 East, Boise Meridian, in 

the State of Idaho, which are represented in the foregoing field notes as having been executed by me and 

under my direction; and that said survey has been made in strict conformity with the special instructions, 

the Manual of Surveying Instructions, and in the specific manner described in the foregoing field notes.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Cadastral Surveyor

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

Boise, Idaho

The foregoing field notes of the dependent resurvey of a portion of the south and west boundaries of the 

township, the subdivisional lines, the adjusted 1896 record meanders of Gamlin Lake in Section 30, and 

the 1910 meanders of the left bank of the Snake River in section 31, and the subdivision of sections 30 

and 31, the survey of an unnamed island within Gamlin Lake in section 30, the survey of the meanders 

of the right bank of the Snake River in section 31; the public land boundary in the E1/2 of section 30, the 

right-of-way lines of Camp Bay Road in the SW1/4 of section 30, lot 12 in the NW1/4 of section 30, and 

Parcel A in section 31, Township 5 South, Range 7 East, Boise Meridian, Idaho, executed by Victoria M. 

Caldwell, Cadastral Surveyor, having been critically examined and found correct, are hereby approved.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Idaho

CERTIFICATE OF TRANSCRIPT

I CERTIFY That the foregoing transcript of the field notes of the above described surveys in Township 5 

South, Range 7 East, Boise Meridian, Idaho, is a true copy of the original field notes.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Idaho

May 19, 2010

June 18, 2010

Victoria M.Caldwell

Marian E.Rynock
451

Appendix III

Specimen Field Notes

MINERAL SURVEY

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

MINERAL SURVEY NO. 20220 A and B

COLORADO

________

FIELD NOTES

OF THE

SURVEY OF THE MINING CLAIM OF THE GOLD MINING COMPANY

KNOWN AS THE JIM DANDY, PRINCE, AND PROTECTOR LODES AND DUMP MILLSITE

COTTONWOOD MINING DISTRICT, CHAFFEE COUNTY

_________

SECTIONS 7, 8, 17, AND 18, TOWNSHIP 16 SOUTH, RANGE 80 WEST,

OF THE SIXTH PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN,

IN THE STATE OF COLORADO

Surveyed by H.B. SANDS, Mineral Surveyor, under order dated April 9, 2009

__________

Survey Commenced May 11, 2009; Completed May 15, 2009

Address of claimant’s agent,

John Jones, 561 Foster Building, Denver, Colorado 81401

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Claim Dates of Recorded Recorded BLM Mining

Locations and With With Claim Serial

Amended County BLM Number

Locations

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Jim Dandy 7/26/1932 9/29/1980 10/09/1980 CMC 164161

Prince 8/31/1930 9/29/1980 10/09/1980 CMC 164160

Amended 8/10/1971 9/23/2004 9/29/2004

Protector 8/31/1930 9/29/1931 10/09/1931 CMC 164159

Amended 6/16/1971 9/12/1971 10/07/1971

Dump Millsite 8/10/1971 9/29/1980 10/09/1980 CMC 164162
452

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Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

This survey was made with one Name Brand Navigation, Model Number 1234 ssi, 

Global Positioning System (GPS) base receiver, serial number 3543A11961, one 

Name Brand Navigation, Model Number 5678 GPS rover receiver, serial number 

0430103786, and one Name Brand total station, Model ABC-901, serial number 

0368756, to measure angles and distances. The instruments were in good condition 

at the time of the survey, all adjustments were in good order, and compared with a 

standard at the time of beginning the survey and found to be correct.

The basis of bearing for this survey was determined with reference to the true meridian 

from Cor. No. 1 of the Jim Dandy lode, at Latitude 38° 45’ 01.017” N., and Longitude 

106° 20’ 02.029” W., NAD 83 (CORS96) (EPOCH:2002), to the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, 

and 18 as calculated from the GPS observations of these monuments. The resultant 

mean bearing and ground distance is S. 55° 40’ 00” W., 212.50 ft. dist. All bearings in 

this record refer to the true meridian and are mean bearings.

Lines and connections of this survey were run using GPS real time kinematic 

surveying system or by direct methods where the lines are accessible. The inaccessible 

lines were run by traverse methods. The distances are reported as horizontal 

measurement at a mean ground elevation of 5,000 feet above sea level, in U.S. Survey 

Foot.

The magnetic declination observed at some corners of the survey gave a uniform value 

of 13° E.

_____________________________________________________________________

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

_____________________________________________________________________

JIM DANDY LODE

Beginning at Cor. No. 1 of the Jim Dandy lode, identical with Cor. No. 1 of the Prince 

lode of this survey.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

MS 20220A

 JD 1

 PRI 1

2009

from which

The cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, bears S. 55o 40’ 00” W., 212.50 ft. dist., 

hereinafter described.

U.S. Mineral Monument SPORPHYRY bears S. 30o 15’ 30” E., 1,165.81 ft. 

dist., hereinafter described.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
453

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado

Cor. No. 3, M.S. No. 18837 C.O.D. lode, bears N. 58o 45’ E., 208.47 ft. dist., 

hereinafter described.

A yellow pine, 14 ins. diam., bears N. 10o 00’ E., 38.3 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. JD 1 20220A XBT.

A distant peak, known as Barren Mt., bears N. 55o 57’ W.

Thence N. 28o 50’ W.

170.28 Intersect line 3-4, M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 3 bears 

N. 61o 27’ E., 871.43 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 4 bears S. 61° 27’ W., 628.57 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

301.30 Lode line; discovery point bears N. 50o 23’ E., 496 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

350.97 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 8, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 7, and 

8 bears N. 0° 50’ E., 4,886.17 ft. dist. and the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18 bears 

S. 0° 50’ W., 427.35 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

370.28 Intersect line 4-1, M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 4 bears 

N. 44o 30’ E., 1,332.42 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 1 bears S. 44° 30’ W., 167.58 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

456.67 Intersect line 4-1, Protector lode of this survey, at a point from which Cor. No. 4 bears 

N. 47° 49’ E., 696.94 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 1 bears S. 47° 49’ W., 803.06 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

535.90 Cor. No. 2, identical with Cor. No. 2 of the Prince lode of this survey.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, and in a 

mound of stone, 3 ft. base to top, with brass cap mkd.

MS 20220A

 JD 2

 PRI 2

2009

from which

A granite rock in place, 46 x 34 ins., 26 ins. above ground, bears S. 24o 00’ E., 

10.5 ft. dist., mkd. XBO JD 2 20220A.

Thence N. 50o 23’ E.

120.28 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 8, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 7, and 

8 bears N. 0° 50’ E., 4,647.44 ft. dist. and the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18 bears 

S. 0° 50’ W., 666.08 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.
454

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Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

 679.32 Intersect line 3-4, Protector lode of this survey, at a point from which Cor. No. 4 bears 

S. 42° 11’ E., 46.70 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 3 bears N. 42° 11’ W., 553.30 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

1,150.19 Intersect line 4-1, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 4, 

identical with Cor. No. 2, M.S. No. 12071 Major lode, bears S. 59o 25’ E., 94.50 ft. 

dist. and Cor. No. 1 bears N. 59° 25’ W., 505.50 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

1,230.73 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 12071 Major lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 2, 

identical with Cor. No. 4, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, bears S. 11o 00’ E., 101.30 

ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 1 bears N. 11° 00’ W., 198.70 ft. dist., both hereinafter 

described.

1,291.67 Intersect line 3-4, M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 4 bears 

S. 45o 30’ E., 26.31 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 3 bears N. 45° 30’ W., 273.69 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

1,500.00 Cor. No. 3, on line 3-4, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode.

Falls on granite bedrock outcrop, even with the general surface of the ground, mkd. X 

JD 3 20220A; from which

Cor. No. 3, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, bears N. 34o 45’ E., 1,270.00 ft. dist., 

hereinafter described.

Cor. No. 4, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, bears S. 34o 45’ W., 330.00 ft. dist., 

identical with Cor. No. 2, M.S. No. 12071 Major lode, both hereinafter 

described.

A silver spruce, 16 ins. diam., bears N. 40o 00’ E., 47.5 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. JD 3 20220A XBT.

Thence S. 28o 50’ E.

 234.60 Lode line; discovery point bears S. 50o 23’ W., 1,004 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

 241.90 Intersect line 2-3, M.S. No. 12071 Major lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 2, M.S. 

No. 19910 Golden lode bears N. 79° 00’ E., 299.46 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 2, identical 

with Cor. No. 4, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, bears S. 79o 00’ W., 310.46 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

 404.50 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode, claimant herein, at a point from which 

Cor. No. 2 bears N. 47° 12’ E., 280.00 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 1 bears S. 47o 12’ W., 

620.00 ft. dist., both hereinafter described; identical with a Cor. of Tract A, hereinafter 

surveyed.

 535.90 Cor. No. 4; identical with a Cor. of Tract A, hereinafter described.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
455

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Falls on a rock slide, no permanent monument established.

Thence S. 50o 23’ W.

42.00 Point for a Cor. of Tract A, hereinafter surveyed.

99.66 Point selected for the witness cor. to Cor. No. 4.

Falls on top of a granite boulder, 48 x 26 ins., 36 ins. above ground, mkd. X-WC JD 4 

20220A.

612.92 Intersect Cor. No. 3, M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. lode, identical with line 6-1, M.S. 

No. 19910 Golden lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 2, M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. 

lode, on line 6-1, M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode, bears S. 28° 33’ E., 300.00 ft. dist. 

and Cor. No. 1, M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode, bears N. 28o 33’ W., 96.46 ft. dist., all 

hereinafter described.

1,500.00 Cor. No. 1, identical with Cor. No. 1 of the Prince lode of this survey and place of 

beginning.

_____________________________________________________________________

PRINCE LODE

From Cor. No. 1 of the Prince lode, identical with Cor. No. 1 of the Jim Dandy lode of 

this survey, heretofore described.

Thence N. 28o 50’ W., identical with line 1-2, Jim Dandy lode.

Some intervening items are described in the survey of the Jim Dandy lode.

267.95 Lode line; discovery point bears S. 42o 25’ W., 849 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

535.90 Cor. No. 2, identical with Cor. No. 2 of the Jim Dandy lode of this survey, heretofore 

described.

Thence S. 41o 58’ W.

215.30 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

S. 45o 30’ E., 149.14 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 2 bears N. 45° 30’ W., 150.86 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

360. Road, gravel, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 15o E. and N. 15o W.

598.76 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

N. 24o 48’ E., 399.35 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 2 bears S. 24° 48’ W., 1,100.65 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
456

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Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

756.32 Intersect line 4-1, Protector lode of this survey, at a point from which Cor. No. 4 bears 

N. 47° 49’ E., 1431.05 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 1 bears S. 47° 49’ W., 68.95 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

782.15 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 18, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 

18 bears S. 89° 16’ E., 606.05 ft. dist. and the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18 bears 

N. 89° 16’ W., 1,996.21 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

900. Chalk Creek, 18 ft. wide, course S. 40o E.

930. Road, dirt, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 40o E. and N. 40o W.

1,504.00 Point for Cor. No. 3.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

MS 20220A 

 PRI 3

 2009

from which

A corner of the location bears N. 28o 50’ W., 12.5 ft. dist., hereinafter 

described.

A silver spruce, 14 ins. diam., bears N. 10o 00’ E., 15.0 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. PRI 3 20220A XBT.

A yellow pine, 26 ins. diam., bears S. 45o 00’ E., 22.5 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. PRI 3 20220A XBT.

Thence S. 28o50’ E.

 255.45 Lode line; discovery point bears N. 42o 25’ E., 651 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

 331.80 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

N. 24o 48’ E., 1,461.00 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 2 bears S. 24° 48’ W., 39.00 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

 507.30 Point for Cor. No. 4.

Set a brass tablet, 31⁄4 ins. diam., 31⁄2-in. stem, in a concrete post, 24 ins. long, 6 ins. sq., 

16 ins. in the ground, with top mkd.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
457

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Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado

MS 20220A

 PRI 4

 2009

from which

A corner of the location bears S. 28o 50’ E., 16.1 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

A point on a granite bedrock outcrop, even with the general surface of the 

ground, bears S. 26o 00’ E., 20.0 ft. dist., mkd. XBO PRI 4 20220A.

Thence N. 43o 00’ E.

 220.00 Cor. No. 2, Dump Millsite of this survey.

 480. Creek, 2 ft. wide, course N.

 665. Road, dirt, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 55o E. and N. 55o W.

 780. Chalk Creek, 16 ft. wide, course S. 50o E.

 880.00 Cor. No. 1, Dump Millsite of this survey.

1,084.80 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 2 bears 

N. 61° 27’ E., 1,259.50 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 1 bears S. 61o 27’ W., 240.50 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

1,110. Road, asphalt, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 40o E. and N. 40o W.

1,237.60 Intersect the line bet. secs. 17 and 18, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, 

and 18 bears North, 68.30 ft. dist. and the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 17 and 18 bears South, 

2,582.02 ft. dist., both hereinafter described. Enter patented land.

1,331.00 Intersect the line bet. secs. 8 and 17, at a point from which the W 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 

8 and 17 bears S. 89° 59’ E., 1,245.18 ft. dist. and the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18 

bears N. 89o 59’ W., 63.70 ft. dist., both hereinafter described. Leave patented land.

1,494.90 Cor. No. 1, and place of beginning.

_____________________________________________________________________

PROTECTOR LODE

Beginning at Cor. No. 1 of the Protector lode.

Falls on top of a granite rock in place, 56 x 14 ins., 18 ins. above ground, mkd. X PRO 

1 20220A; from which
458

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Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

The cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, bears N. 88°16’ E., 640.10 ft. dist., 

heretofore described.

Cor. No. 1 of the Jim Dandy and the Prince lodes of this survey, bears 

N. 80° 19’ E., 827.10 ft. dist., heretofore described.

Thence N. 42° 11’ W.

37.49 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 18, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 

18 bears S. 89° 16’ E., 665.07 ft. dist. and the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18 bears 

N. 89° 16’ W., 1,937.19 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

 245.44 Intersect line 3-4, M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 4 bears 

N. 24o 48’ E., 518.26 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 3 bears S. 24° 48’ W., 981.74 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

 300.00 Lode line; discovery point bears N. 47o 49’ E., 73 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

 320. Chalk Creek, 20 ft. wide, course South.

 600.00 Cor. No. 2.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 24 ins. in the ground, with brass 

cap mkd.

MS 20220A

 PRO 2

2009

from which

A yellow pine, 14 ins. diam., bears S. 51o 00’ W., 22.0 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. PRO 2 20220A XBT.

A yellow pine, 12 ins. diam., bears N. 45o 00’ W., 35.0 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. PRO 2 20220A XBT.

Thence N. 47o 49’ E.

80. Chalk Creek, 19 ft. wide, course S. 30o E.

557.88 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 20100 Silver lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

N. 64° 25’ E., 1,312.09 ft. dist., and Cor. No. 2 bears S. 64o 25’ W., 187.91 ft. dist., 

both hereinafter described.

625. Road, gravel, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 20o E. and N. 20o W.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
459

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1,390.00 Point selected for the witness cor. to Cor. No. 3.

At a point 5 ft. above the base of a granite cliff, 120 ft. high, facing S. 10o E., mkd. X 

WC PRO 3 20220A.

1,434.44 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 8, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 7, and 

8 bears N. 0° 50’ E., 3,924.92 ft. dist. and the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18 bears 

S. 0° 50’ W., 1,388.60 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

1,500.00 Cor. No. 3.

Falls at an inaccessible point on the cliff, described above, no permanent monument 

established.

Thence S. 42o 11’ E.

 40. Base of cliff, bears N. 80o E. and S. 80o W.

 280.77 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 20100 Silver lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

N. 64° 25’ E., 329.02 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 2 bears S. 64o 25’ W., 1,170.98 ft. dist., both 

hereinafter described.

 300.00 Lode line; discovery point bears S. 47o 49’ W., 1,427 ft. dist., hereinafter described.

 342.02 Intersect line 2-3, M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode, at a point from which point for Cor. 

No. 3 bears N. 44° 30’ E., 596.95 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 2 bears S. 44o 30’ W., 

903.05 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

 553.30 Intersect line 2-3, Jim Dandy lode of this survey, at a point from which Cor. No. 3 

bears N. 50° 23’ E., 820.68 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 2 bears S. 50° 23’ W., 679.32 ft. dist., 

both heretofore described.

 600.00 Cor. No. 4.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 12 ins. in the ground and in a 

mound of stone, 3 ft. base to top, with brass cap, mkd.

MS 20220A

 PRO 4 

2009

Thence S. 47o 49’ W.

 625.39 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 8, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 7, and 

8 bears N. 0° 50’ E., 4,745.51 ft. dist. and the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18 bears 

S. 0° 50’ W., 568.01 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
460

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Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

 696.94 Intersect common line 1-2, Jim Dandy and Prince lodes of this survey, at a point from 

which common Cors. No. 1 bears S. 28° 50’ E., 456.67 ft. dist. and common Cors. No. 

2 bears N. 28° 50’ W., 79.23 ft. dist., heretofore described.

 889.61 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

S. 45° 30’ E., 93.94 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 2 bears N. 45o 30’ W., 206.06 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

1,050. Road, gravel, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 15o E. and N. 15o W.

1,312.10 Intersect line 1-2, M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode, at a point from which Cor. No. 1 bears 

N. 24o 48’ E., 440.63 ft. dist. and point for Cor. No. 2 bears S. 24° 48’ W., 1,059.37 ft. 

dist., both hereinafter described.

1,431.05 Intersect line 2-3, Prince lode of this survey, at a point from which Cor. No. 2 bears 

N. 41° 58’ E., 756.32 ft. dist. and Cor. No. 3 bears S. 41° 58’ W., 747.68 ft. dist., both 

heretofore described.

1,459.68 Intersect line bet. secs. 7 and 18, at a point from which the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 

18 bears S. 89° 16’ E., 610.01 ft. dist. and the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18 bears 

N. 89° 16’ W., 1,992.25 ft. dist., both hereinafter described.

1,500.00 Cor. No. 1, and place of beginning.

_____________________________________________________________________

Mineral Survey No. 20220 B

_____________________________________________________________________

DUMP MILLSITE

Beginning at Cor. No. 1 of the Dump Millsite, on line 4-1, Prince lode of this survey.

Set a brass tablet, 31⁄4 ins. diam., 31⁄2-in. stem, in a concrete post, 24 ins. long, 6 ins. sq., 

16 ins. in the ground, and in a mound of stone, 3 ft. base to top, with top mkd.

 MS 20220B

 PRI

 

DMS 1

 2009

from which

The cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, bears N. 36o 28’ E., 410.30 ft. dist., 

hereinafter described.

Thence S. 43o 00’ W., identical with line 4-1, Prince lode.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
461

FEET

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Intervening items are described in the survey of Prince lode.

660.00 Cor. No. 2, on line 4-1, Prince lode of this survey.

Occupied by a yellow pine, 18 ins. diam., mkd. DMS-2-20220B; from which

A yellow pine, 18 ins. diam., bears S. 80o 00’ E., 17.5 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. DMS 2 20220B XBT.

Thence S. 47o 00’ E.

220. Creek, 2 ft. wide, course N. 50o E.

330.00 Cor. No. 3.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 12 ins. in the ground to bedrock, 

and in a mound of stone, 3 ft. base to top, mkd.

 MS 20220B

DMS 3

 2009

No bearing objects or bearing trees available.

Thence N. 43o 00’ E.

390. Road, dirt, 16 ft. wide, bears S. 40o E. and N. 40o W.

430. Chalk Creek, 20 ft. wide, course S. 35o E.

660.00 Cor. No. 4.

Set a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 14 ins. in the ground to bedrock, 

and in a mound of stone, 3 ft. base to top, mkd.

MS 20220B

 DMS 4

2009

from which

A yellow pine, 16 ins. diam., bears N. 15o 00’ E., 20.5 ft. dist. to face, 

mkd. DMS 4 20220B XBT.

Thence N. 47o 00’ W.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
462

FEET

Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

330.00 Cor. No. 1, and place of beginning.

The Dump Millsite contains 5.00 acres.

_____________________________________________________________________

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

_____________________________________________________________________

 AREAS

 Acres

 Total area, Jim Dandy lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.129

 Area in conflict with —

Tract A, hereinafter described . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.450

M.S. No. 12071 Major lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.095

M.S. No. 19142 I. X. L. lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.708

M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.815

M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode, exclusive of its conflict

with M.S. No. 12071 Major lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.767

M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.572

M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode, exclusive of its conflict

with Tract A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.122

M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.357

M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, exclusive of its conflict with:

 (1) M.S. No. 12071 Major lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.082

 (2) M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.246

 (3) M.S. Nos. 12071 and 19557 Major and Alley lodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.030

 Total area, Prince lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.008

 Area in conflict with —

NW1⁄4 NW1⁄4 sec. 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.050

M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.258

M.S. No. 19142 I. X. L. lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.744

M.S. No. 19142 I. X. L. lode, exclusive of its conflict

with NW1⁄4 NW1⁄4 sec. 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.694

M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.675

Total area, Protector lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.661

 Area in conflict with —

M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.826

M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.776

M.S. No. 20100 Silver lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.036

Jim Dandy lode of this survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.981

Jim Dandy lode of this survey, exclusive of its conflict

with M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.000

Prince lode of this survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.650

Mineral Survey No. 20220 B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
463

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Prince lode of this survey, exclusive of its conflict with:

(1) M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.628

(2) M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.342

(3) M.S. Nos. 4923 and 19557 Idella and Alley lodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.320

Total area, Dump Millsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.000

TRACT A

That portion of M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode in conflict with Jim Dandy lode of 

this survey, excluded by said Golden lode in favor of a location now abandoned, is 

bounded and described as follows:

Beginning at Cor. No. 4 of the Jim Dandy lode —

Thence N. 28o 50’ W., identical with line 4-3, Jim Dandy lode, 131.40 ft., to line 1-2, 

M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode;

Thence S. 47o 12’ W., identical with line 2-1, M.S. 19910 Golden lode, 275.60 ft., to a 

point;

Thence N. 79o 00’ E., 237.60 ft., to line 4-1, Jim Dandy lode;

Thence N. 50o 23’ E., identical with line 1-4, Jim Dandy lode, 42.00 ft., to place of 

beginning.

Tract A contains 0.450 acres.

LOCATION

This survey is located in the E1⁄2 SE1⁄4 sec. 7, SE1⁄4 SW1⁄4 and W1⁄2 SW1⁄4 sec. 8, 

NW1⁄4 NW1⁄4 sec. 17, and NE1⁄4 NE1⁄4 sec. 18, of T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal 

Meridian, Chaffee County, Colorado.

The survey of the Jim Dandy and Protector lodes and the Dump Millsite is 

identical with the notice of location or amended notice of location and as marked on 

the ground. The survey of the Prince lode is wholly within the amended notice of 

location and as marked on the ground; Cor. Nos. 1 and 2 are identical with corners of 

the location; Cor. Nos. 3 and 4 differ to the extent previously shown; both hereinafter 

described.

Location survey corners Jim Dandy lode:

Cor. No. 1, identical with Cor. No. 1, Prince lode, monumented with a wood post, 

4 ins. sq., firmly set, projecting 4 ft. above ground, mkd. JD 1 on NE side and PRI 1 on 

the NW side.

Cor. No. 2, identical with Cor. No. 2, Prince lode, monumented with a granite 

stone, 30 ins. x 24 ins., firmly set, projecting 12 ins. above ground, mkd. JD 2 on the 

SE side and PRI 2 on the SW side.

Cor. No. 3, monumented with a wood post, 4 ins. sq., firmly set, projecting 4 ft. 

above ground and in a mound of stone, 6 ft. base, 5 ft. high, with an aluminum flasher 

mkd. JD 3.

Cor. No. 4, determined from the location survey witness cor., on line 3-4, 99.66 ft. 

dist., from the witness cor., which is a point on top of a granite boulder, 48 x 26 ins., 36 

ins. above ground, mkd X-WCJD, falls on a rock slide.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
464

Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

Location survey corners Prince lode:

Cors. 1 and 2 heretofore described.

Cors. 3 and 4 hereinafter described.

Location survey corners Protector lode:

Cor. No. 1, monumented with an unmarked pine post, 8 ins. diam., loosely set, 

projecting 6 ft. above ground and in a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 3 ft. high.

Cor. No. 2, monumented with a wood stake, 2 ins. x 4 ins., firmly set, projecting 4 

ft. above ground, mkd. PRO 2 on E. side.

Cor. No. 3, determined from the location survey witness cor., on line 2-3, 

110.00 ft. dist., from the witness cor., which is a point 5 ft. above the base of a 

granite cliff, 120 ft. high, facing S. 10o E., mkd. XWCPRO3, falls at an inaccessible 

point on the cliff.

Cor. No. 4, monumented with an iron rod, 3⁄4 in. diam., firmly set, projecting 

12 ins. above ground.

Location survey corners Dump Millsite:

Cor. No. 1, monumented with a mound of stone, 4 ft. base, 3 ft. high.

Cor. No. 2, monumented with a yellow pine, 18 ins. diam, mkd. DMS-2 on E. side.

Cor. No. 3, monumented with a sandstone, 24 ins. x 18 ins., firmly set, projecting 

12 ins. above ground and in a mound of stone, 3 ft. base to top, no marks visible.

Cor. No. 4, monumented with a pine post, 4 ins. diam., firmly set, projecting 4 ft. 

above ground, with aluminum tag mkd. DMS4.

EXPENDITURES

The improvements and the value of the labor and improvements made upon or for 

the benefit of each of the lode locations embraced in said mining claim by the claimant 

or its grantors are as follows:

Jim Dandy lode

No. 1 The discovery cut of the Jim Dandy lode, the face of which being the discovery point, 

is on the lode line N. 50° 23’ E., 496 ft. dist. from a point on line 1-2, 301.30 ft. dist. 

from Cor. No. 1; 6 ft. wide, 15 ft. face, runs N. 50o 23’ E., 30 ft. dist. to face and portal 

of tunnel, 5 x 7 ft. in size, running N. 50o E., 23 ft. dist. to breast; at breast is a winze, 

5 x 5 ft., 20 ft. deep; tunnel and winze timbered.

Value of cut, tunnel, and winze, $380.

No. 2 A tunnel, 5 x 7 ft. in size, the portal of which bears N. 70o 57’ E., 374 ft. dist. from Cor. 

No. 2, Jim Dandy lode, and runs N. 51o 03’ E., 148 ft. dist., thence N. 31o 45’ E., 18 ft. 

dist., thence N. 50o 31’ E., 49 ft. dist. to breast; partly caved.

Value, $2,300.

No. 3 A trench, the west end of which bears N. 38o 12’ E., 395 ft. dist. from Cor. No. 1, 

Jim Dandy lode; 4 ft. wide, 8 ft. deep, running N. 48o E., 40 ft. dist.

Value, $125.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
465

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Prince lode

No. 1 The discovery cut of the Prince lode, the face of which being the discovery point, is 

on the lode line S. 42o 25’ W., 849 ft. dist. from the center of line 1-2; 6 ft. wide, 13 ft. 

face; running N. 42o 25’ E., 20 ft. dist. to face.

Value, $100.

No. 2 A shaft, the center of which bears N. 20o 42’ E., 450 ft. dist. from Cor. No. 4, Prince 

lode; 4 x 7 ft., 3 ft. deep.

Value, $130.

Protector lode

No. 1 The discovery cut of the Protector lode, the center of which being the discovery point, 

is on the center line, N. 47° 49’ E., 73 ft. dist. from the center of line 1-2; 6 x 8 ft., 

18 ft. deep, partly timbered.

Value, $200.

COMMON IMPROVEMENT

An interest in a common improvement described as follows:

A tunnel, 6 x 7 ft. in size, the portal of which bears S. 34o 00’ W., 668 ft. dist. from 

Cor. No. 1, Prince lode; running N. 3o 30’ E., 230 ft. dist. to Sta. 1; thence N. 23o 30’ 

E., 280 ft. dist. to pt. A and 350 ft. dist. to Sta. 2; thence N. 7o 45’ E., 19 ft. dist. to pt. 

B, 100 ft. dist. to pt. C, and 210 ft. dist. to breast at date of survey. At pt. A, a drift, 5 x 

7 ft. in size, runs N. 74o 30’ E., 56 ft. dist. to breast. At pt. B, a drift, 5 x 7 ft. in size, 

runs N. 58o E., 71 ft. dist. to breast and foot of raise, 5 x 5 ft., 16 ft. high. At pt. C is 

the beginning of a stope, 70 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and averaging 30 ft. in height.

Value of tunnel, drifts, raise, and stope, $14,200.

Value of one-eighth interest, $1,775.

This improvement is in course of construction for the development of the three 

lodes of this survey and M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. lode, M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode, 

M.S. No. 20100 Silver lode, and the Lead King and Daisy lodes, unsurveyed, which 

are all the contiguous lode claims owned in common within the range of benefit of said 

tunnel.

The surface rises rapidly to the north and east from the portal of the tunnel, and the 

extension in its present course, with necessary laterals, affords the most practical and 

economical means of developing each of the stated lodes at depth.

Five hundred dollars or over has been expended in this improvement in such 

a manner as tends to the development of each lode of this survey subsequent to its 

location and to the time since which common ownership and contiguity have prevailed; 

therefore an undivided one-eighth interest in its value is hereby credited to each of said 

lodes and a like interest apportioned to each of the other stated lodes of the common 

group.

The first 165 ft. dist. of this tunnel, valued at $2,400 was credited to M.S. No. 

19142 I.X.L. lode.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
466

Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

An undivided one-half interest in the first 290 ft. dist., valued at $2,200, was 

credited to M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode.

An undivided one-fifth interest in the first 510 ft. dist., valued at $1,520, was 

credited to M.S. No. 20100 Silver lode.

Except as above stated, no portion of or interest in this improvement has been 

credited heretofore as patent expenditure to any lode claim.

OTHER IMPROVEMENTS

A cut, 6 ft. wide, the face of which bears S. 17o 42’ W., 402 ft. dist. from Cor. 

No. 2, Prince lode, runs East, 20 ft. dist., to 12 ft. face.

A shaft, 4 x 6 ft., 10 ft. deep, the center of which bears N. 37o 17’ E., 318 ft. dist. 

from Cor. No. 1, Jim Dandy lode.

Claimant of each unknown.

A plank ore bin, 14 x 20 ft., 3 ft. deep, the N. corner of which bears S. 3o 00’ W., 

210 ft. dist. from Cor. No. 1, Dump Millsite; the long sides bears N. 20o W.

Claimant herein.

A frame compressor house and shop, the NE corner of which bears S. 25o 00’ E., 

80 ft. dist. from Cor. No. 1, Dump Millsite; 16 x 30 ft. in size; the long sides bears 

N. 85o W.

Claimant herein.

A frame bunkhouse, the NE corner of which bears S. 50o 00’ W., 690 ft. dist. from 

Cor. No. 1, Prince lode; 20 x 50 ft. in size; the long sides bears N. 85o W.

Claimant herein.

A bridge, the east end of which bears S. 3o 00’ W., 153 ft. dist. from Cor. No. 1, 

Dump Millsite; of logs and planks, 10 ft. wide and 30 ft. long, bears N. 50o E. and 

S. 50° W.

Claimant herein.

OTHER CORNER DESCRIPTIONS AND SUPPLEMENTAL DATA

The history of official surveys pertaining to this survey is as follows:

Lawrence H. Muller, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed canceled M.S. No. 492 Green 

Ranger lode in 1877, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted October 30, 

1877.

Philip J. Porter, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode in 1880, as 

shown on the official plat of survey accepted June 4, 1880.

Walter L. Hunnemiller, U.S. Deputy Surveyor, surveyed the subdivisional lines in 

1881, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted June 30, 1882.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
467

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

Davidson Hull, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 12071 Major lode in 1886, 

as shown on the official plat of survey accepted February 8, 1887.

Otto P. Carter, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 18837 C.O.D. lode in 1904, 

as shown on the official plat of survey accepted August 4, 1904.

Frank M. Jackson, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. lode in 

1904, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted July 23, 1905.

John M. More, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode in 1905, as 

shown on the official plat of survey accepted March 18, 1906.

John U. Threadwell, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode in 

1907, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted May 19, 1907.

Ernest P. Rand, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode in 1907, 

as shown on the official plat of survey accepted December 24, 1907.

Thomas A. Till, Mineral Surveyor, surveyed M.S. No. 20100 Silver lode in 1907, 

as shown on the official plat of survey accepted April 1, 1908.

Arthur A. Johnson, Cadastral Surveyor, resurveyed a portion of the subdivisional 

lines in 1973, under Group No. 698, as shown on the official plat of survey accepted 

January 31, 1974.

The U.S. MINERAL MONUMENT – SPORPHYRY; at Latitude 38° 44’ 

51.066” N. and Longitude 106° 19’ 54.616” W. NAD 83 (CORS96) (EPOCH:2002); 

established by M.S. No. 492.

Found a granite stone, 10 x 8 ins., projecting 12 ins. above ground, and in a mound 

of stone, 2 ft. base, to top, mkd. USMM on NW side.

from which the original bearing objects

A granite rock in place, 21⁄2 x 2 ft., 8 ins. above ground, bears S. 44o 40’ W., 

37.4 ft. dist., mkd. USMM XBO SRY.

A granite rock in place, 2 x 11⁄2 ft., 4 ins. above ground, bears N. 44o 20’ W., 

166.4 ft. dist., mkd. USMM XBO SRY. (Record, 176.4 ft.)

At the corner point

Set an aluminum post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground, with 

aluminum cap mkd.

USMM

SPORPHYRY

MS 492

2009

The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 17 and 18, monumented with an iron post, 2 ins. diam., 

firmly set, projecting 5 ins. above ground, with brass cap mkd. T16S R80W 1/4 S17 

S18 1973; as described in the dependent resurvey by Arthur A. Johnson, Cadastral 

Surveyor, accepted January 31, 1974.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
468

Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

The cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, monumented with an iron post, 2 ins. diam., 

firmly set, projecting 12 ins. above ground, with brass cap mkd. T16S R80W S7 

S8 S17 S18 1973, with a mound of stone, 3 ft. base, 2 ft. high, W. of the corner; 

as described in the dependent resurvey by Arthur A. Johnson, Cadastral Surveyor, 

accepted January 31, 1974.

The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 8 and 17, remonumented with an aluminum tablet, 4 ins. 

diam., firmly set in concrete, flush with the surface of the ground, mkd. T16S R80W 

1/4 S8 S17 1974; by Charles M. Gesner, Registered Land Surveyor No. 1492, in 1974, 

as described in Record of Survey No. 26401, Chaffee County Surveyor’s Office. This 

is accepted as a careful and faithful perpetuation of the position of the original corner.

The W 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 8 and 17, established by Charles M. Gesner, 

Registered Land Surveyor No. 1492, in 1974, as described in Record of Survey No. 

26401, Chaffee County Surveyor’s Office, with an iron rod, 5/8 in. diam., firmly set, 

projecting 4 ins. above ground, with aluminum cap mkd. W1/16 S8 S17 1974. This is 

accepted as a careful and faithful establishment of the corner position.

The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 8 was searched for and no evidence found. 

Calculated corner position by single proportion; no permanent monument established.

The cor. of secs. 5, 6, 7, and 8, determined from the remains of two original 

bearing trees; a yellow pine snag, 28 ins. diam., 10 ft. high, bears N. 10° E., 50 lks. 

dist., with healed blaze; and a rotted silver spruce stump, 24 ins. diam., 3 ft. high, bears 

S. 70° E., 75 lks. dist., with truncated healed blaze showing on top; chopped open 

blaze and found BT scribe marks on 10 ins. core diam. (Record 12 ins. diam., S. 80° 

E.); found no evidence of the remaining original bearing trees. At the corner point, set 

a stainless steel post, 28 ins. long, 21⁄2 ins. diam., 23 ins. in the ground and in a mound 

of stone, 3 ft. base to top, with brass cap mkd. T16S R80W S5 S6 S7 S8 2009; from 

which a new bearing tree, a yellow pine, 8 ins. diam., bears N. 42° W., 109 lks. dist., 

mkd. T16SR80WS6BT.

The 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18, monumented with the original stone, 18 x 12 

ins., firmly set, projecting 5 ins. above ground, mkd. 1/4 on north face.

The section line bearings are reported as mean bearings.

The line from the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 17 and 18 to the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18 

was found to be North, 2,650.32 ft. dist., instead of the record N. 0° 05’ W., 2,652.02 ft. 

dist., as approved in the 1974 dependent resurvey

The line from the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 8 and 17 to the W 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 8 and 

17 was found to be S. 89° 58 W., 1,310.74 ft. dist., instead of S. 89° 54’ W., 1,309.90 ft. 

dist., as shown on Record of Survey No. 1492. The record was West, 1,317.36 ft. dist., 

by the original 1881 survey.

The line from the W 1/16 sec. cor. of secs. 8 and 17 to the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, 

and 18 was found to be N. 89° 59’ W., 1,308.88 ft. dist., instead of S. 89° 54’ W, 

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
469

Manual of Surveying Instructions Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey

1,309.90 ft. dist., as shown on Record of Survey No. 1492. The record was West, 

1,317.36 ft. dist., by the original 1881 survey.

The line from the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, to the cor. of secs. 5, 6, 7, and 8, 

was found to be N. 0° 50’ E., 5,313.52 ft. dist., instead of the record North, 5,280 ft. 

dist., by the original 1881 survey.

The line from the cor. of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, to the 1⁄4 sec. cor. of secs. 7 and 18, 

was found to be N. 89° 16’ W., 2,602.26 ft. dist., instead of N. 89° 19’ W., 2,603.24 

ft. dist., as shown on Record of Survey No. 1785, Chaffee County Surveyor’s Office, 

by Charles M. Mercer, Registered Land Surveyor No. 2020, in 1999. The record was 

S. 89° 56’ W., 2,636.43 ft. dist., by the original 1881 survey.

M.S. No. 4923 Idella lode: Cor. Nos. 1, 3, and 4 are monumented with granite 

stones, firmly set and properly mkd.; Cor. No. 2 is lost. Line 3-4 was found to be 

approximately correct as approved; line 4-1 was found to be S. 65o 05’ E., 299.40 ft. 

dist., instead of S. 65o 12’ E., 300.00 ft. dist., as approved; line 1-2 shown as approved.

M.S. No. 12071 Major lode: Cor. No. 2 is monumented with a pine post, firmly 

set and properly mkd. Cor. No. 2 is identical with Cor. No. 4, M.S. No. 20062 Copper 

lode described below; no other corners could be found. All lines shown as approved. 

Owing to the absence of Cor. No. 1, the apparent error in the connecting line to the cor. 

of secs. 7, 8, 17, and 18, could not be verified.

M.S. No. 18837 C.O.D. lode: Cor. No. 3 is monumented with a granite stone, 

firmly set and properly mkd.

M.S. No. 19142 I.X.L. lode: Cor. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are monumented with pine 

posts, firmly set and properly mkd.; Cor. No. 1 could not be found. Lines 2-3 and 3-4 

are correct as approved; lines 1-2 and 4-1 are shown as approved.

M.S. No. 19557 Alley lode: Cor. No. 1 is monumented with a pine post and Cor. 

No. 4 with a granite stone, both firmly set and properly mkd.; Cor. Nos. 2 and 3 are 

lost. Line 4-1 was found to be S. 44o 30’ W., 1,500.00 ft. dist. instead of S. 44o 20’ W., 

1,500.00 ft. dist., as approved; lines 1-2 and 3-4 are shown at right angles to line 4-1, 

and each 300.00 ft. dist. as approved; this makes line 2-3, N. 45o 30’ E., instead of

N. 45o 20’ E., as approved, and lines 1-2 and 4-3 each N. 45o 30’ W., instead of 

N. 45o 40’ W, as approved. From Cor. No. 4 of the Alley lode, Cor. No. 2, M.S. 

No. 12071 Major lode, identical with Cor. No. 4, M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode, bears 

S. 21o 10’ W., 128.70 ft. dist., instead of S. 20o 35’ W., 136.0 ft. dist., as approved.

M.S. No. 19910 Golden lode: Cor. Nos. 1, 2, and 6 are monumented with granite 

stones, firmly set and properly mkd. Lines 1-2 and 6-1 are correct as approved.

M.S. No. 20062 Copper lode: Cor. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are monumented with pine 

posts, firmly set and properly mkd. Cor. No. 4 is identical with Cor. No. 2, M.S. 

No. 12071 Major lode, described above. All lines are correct as approved.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
470

Appendix III - Specimen Field Notes - Mineral Survey Manual of Surveying Instructions

M.S. 20100 Silver lode: Cor. Nos. 1 and 2 are monumented with granite stones, 

firmly set and properly mkd. Line 1-2 is correct as approved.

MEMORANDUM

[EDITOR NOTE.— Here explain any allowable disagreement with the location 

certificate, and show the cause.]

Location survey corners Prince lode:

Cor. No. 3 is monumented with a pine post, 4 ins. sq., firmly set, projecting 4 ft. 

above ground and in a collar of stones, mkd. PRI 3 on E. side.

Cor No. 4 is monumented with a mound of stones, 4 ft. base, 3 ft. high.

Mineral Survey No. 20220 A and B

T. 16 S., R. 80 W., Sixth Principal Meridian, Colorado
471

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

FIELD ASSISTANTS

NAMES CAPACITY

John B. Smith Surveying Technician
472

CERTIFICATE OF SURVEYOR

I, H. B. Sands, Mineral Surveyor, HEREBY CERTIFY upon honor, that in pursuance of an order received 

from the Bureau of Land Management, at Denver, Colorado, dated April 9, 2009, I have carefully 

executed the survey of the claim of The Gold Mining Company, known as the Jim Dandy, Prince, and 

Protector lodes, and the Dump Millsite, situated in surveyed sections 7, 8, 17, and 18, Township 16 South, 

Range 80 West, Sixth Principal Meridian, in the State of Colorado.

This survey, designated as number 20220 A and B, has been executed by me and under my direction 

and has been made in strict conformity with said order, the Manual of Surveying Instructions, and in the 

specific manner described in the foregoing field notes.

I FURTHER CERTIFY that the labor expended and improvements made upon and for the benefit of the 

lode locations embraced in the said mining claim by claimants or grantors are fully stated in my report. 

The character, extent, location, and itemized value are specified in full detail. No portion of, or interest in, 

said labor and improvements so credited to these claims has been included in the estimate of expenditures 

upon any other claim.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Mineral Surveyor

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

Denver, Colorado

The foregoing field notes of mineral survey number 20220 A and B, in surveyed sections 7, 8, 17, and 

18, Township 16 South, Range 80 West, Sixth Principal Meridian, in the State of Colorado, executed by 

H. B. Sands, Mineral Surveyor, under order dated April 9, 2009, having been critically examined and 

the necessary corrections made prior to their certification by the surveyor, the field notes and the survey 

therein described are hereby approved.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Colorado

CERTIFICATE OF TRANSCRIPT

I HEREBY CERTIFY that the foregoing transcript of the field notes of the above described mineral 

survey number 20220 A and B, in surveyed Township 16 South, Range 80 West, Sixth Principal Meridian, 

Colorado, is a true copy of the original field notes.

__________________ ___________________________________

Date Chief Cadastral Surveyor for Colorado

June 1, 2009

June 22, 2009

H.B. Sands

William B. Tellher
473

Appendix IV

Supplemental Plat

Specimen Plat

The supplemental plat specimen plat can be found in the pocket inside the back cover.

475

Appendix V

Protraction Diagram

Specimen Plat

The protraction diagram specimen plat can be found in the pocket inside the back cover.

477

Index

A

Absentee owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Acceptance of survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Accessories, corner. See Corner accessories

Accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198–200, 205–209

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242–248, 256–259

prior to entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 268–271

surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208–212

Accuracy. See also Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

amended protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

line measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

verification of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Acquired lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5, 19

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272–282

tidewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222–223

Acts

August 7, 1789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

September 2, 1789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

May 18, 1796 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 7–8, 20, 285

March 1, 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–21

May 10, 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

March 26, 1804 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

February 11, 1805 . . . . . . . . . . . 8–9, 21, 147, 181

March 3, 1811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

April 25, 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8–9, 21

April 24, 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 21

May 29, 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

April 5, 1832 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 21-22

June 30, 1834 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

July 4, 1836 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

June 12, 1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

August 3, 1846 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

March 2, 1849 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

March 3, 1849 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

September 28, 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

January 22, 1853 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

March 3, 1853 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

March 12, 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

May 30, 1862 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

April 8, 1864 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

July 23, 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 22

July 26, 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

July 9, 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 350

May 10, 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350, 365

March 3, 1879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 23

May 17, 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 350

July 5, 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

February 8, 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

August 20, 1894 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

February 26, 1895

Isolated Tract Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

June 11, 1896 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

June 4, 1897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

April 29, 1898

Arkansas Compromise Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

March 3, 1899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

June 6, 1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

June 17, 1902

Reclamation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 334–335

April 28, 1904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

February 1, 1905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

May 17, 1906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

June 11, 1906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

June 27, 1906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 335

May 27, 1908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

March 3, 1909

General Resurvey Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 18

March 4, 1909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

June 25, 1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 341

August 10, 1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

September 21, 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 18

February 25, 1920

Mineral Leasing Act . . . . . . . . 345, 347, 350

May 21, 1920

Economy Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

March 20, 1922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

March 3, 1925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-24

August 10, 1933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

May 4, 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

May 31, 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

June 1, 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

July 7, 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

July 14, 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

1946

Administrative Procedure Act . . . . . . . . . 132

July 31, 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

August 8, 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

1948

Federal Water Pollution Control Act . . . . 188

1950

Federal Records Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1953

Submerged Lands Act . . . . . 24, 88, 189–191
478

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

June 8, 1954 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

July 23, 1955

Materials Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Surface Resources Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

July 7, 1958

Alaska Statehood Act . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 26, 88

July 31, 1958

National Forest Townsite Act . . . . . . . . . 343

March 18, 1960

Millsite Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

July 14, 1960

Public Land Administration Act . . . . . . . . 24

1969

Federal Mine Health and Safety Acts . . . 347

December 18, 1971

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act

 (ANCSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24–25, 337, 340

1972

Quiet Title Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 155

October 21, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Federal Land Policy and Management Act

 (FLPMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 24–25, 351

1977

Federal Mine Health and Safety Acts . . . 347

Surface Mining Control and

 Reclamation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

December 2, 1980

Alaska National Interest Lands

 Conservation Act (ANILCA) . . . . . . 25–26

January 12, 1983

National Forests System Lands

 Small Tracts Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 342

August 16, 1988

Alaska Submerged Lands Act . . . . . . . 25–26

October 5, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

August 10, 1993

Hardrock Mining Claim

 Maintenance Fee Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

December 28, 2000

Education Land Grant Act . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

November 10, 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

October 18, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Adjustment for curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–31

Administrative Procedure Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Administrative surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 157, 333–334

Admiralty Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 191, 225

Adverse possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Agricultural lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 19

Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 90, 181

Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

lakes, rivers, and streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25–26

meandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 88

measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

mining laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Native allotments and surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

navigable waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25–26, 192–193

PLSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 76

railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

townsite surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 337–338, 340–341

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act

(ANILCA) of December 2, 1980 . . . . . . . 25–26

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)

of December 18, 1971 . . . . . . . 24–26, 337, 340

Alaska Statehood Act of July 7, 1958 . . . . . . 24, 26, 88

Alaska Submerged Lands Act of

August 16, 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25–26

Alienated lands. See also Federal 

interest lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 129, 139–140

bona fide rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162–163

fraudulent or erroneous surveys . . . . . . . 159–162

as parcels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 217–218, 222–223

Alinement

accumulated error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

allowable deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–47

rectangular limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–49

Aliquot parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47–48, 66, 80

Indian allotment surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

supplemental plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Allotment surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330–334

Alluvial rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197–200, 206

Amended monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Amended orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

Amended protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–81

cancellation of surveys and townships . . . . . . . 78

control positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

corner positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–79

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–77

methods of construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

outboundaries of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78–79

Plan of Survey Coordinates (POSC) . . . . . . 77–79

protracted blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77–78, 80–81

Amended surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–363

Angle of convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Angle points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 108, 117, 126

as corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148, 171

of meander lines . . . . . . . . . . . 174–175, 185–186

nonrectangular surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336–337

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 141

Apparent misclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32

Approval of survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Aquatic vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Arc length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32–33
479

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

computation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299–301

on plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299–301, 320–321, 327

quarter sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

units of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 90

Arkansas Compromise Act of April 29, 1898 . . . . . . . 7

Arpent unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Assignment instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Assistant Secretary–Land and Minerals

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Astronomic meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28, 33, 35

Auxiliary guide meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Auxiliary meander corners (AMC) . . . . . 83–85, 87–88,

117, 120, 125–126

Avulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199–205

backswamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–242, 259–260

channelization/rechannelization . . . 202, 236–242

classical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

completion of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234–236

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

and emergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

and erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 232–234

evidence of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 203–204, 208

ice jam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

International Boundary Rivers . . . . . . . . 204–205

islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

legal effect of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200–204

levee cutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

point bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

and resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202–203

Yazoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

B

Backswamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Bancos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Bar, river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Basart Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268–271

Base lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 42, 169

Bearing

accuracy requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

allowable deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–47

governing boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

line of constant bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29–30

line of constantly changing bearing . . . . . . . . . 30

mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–30, 34

Bearing objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Bearing trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121–122, 126

Bed scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Blaze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 118

Blocks, townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338–339

Bona fide rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

alienated lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162–163

mining claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370–372

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 155, 157–163

special surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335

Bottom lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Boundaries. See also Township exteriors;

Water boundaries

grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176–177

irregular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–58, 126, 174

latitudinal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 44–47, 50–51

legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 18

meridional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 43–44, 51

mineral lands leasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

mining claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

nonrectangular surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

principles for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

rivers as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186–187

unofficial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Braided streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198, 201

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) . . . 4–5, 8, 10–11

and Forest Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

and GLO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23–24

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131–132, 147–148

State Offices of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–15

Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) . . . . . . . . . 23, 334–335

C

Cadastral survey. See also Survey . . . . 2, 29, 156–157

Cadastral surveyor

and legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

responsibilities of . . . . . . 2, 12, 76, 144–145, 352

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Cadastral Survey Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 147

California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 22, 30, 90

Call, topographic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152

Cancelled survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 139, 363

Cardinal equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Cardinal square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Case decisions

Adams v. Boston Wharf Company . . . . . . 278–279

Alabama v. Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Alaska United Gold Mining

Co. v. Cincinnati-Alaska

Mining Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271–272, 296, 366

Algoma Lumber Co. v. Kruger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Apex & Extralateral Rights Issues

Raised by the Stillwater Mineral Patent . . . . 365

Argillite Ornamental Stone Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Aria v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 201
480

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

Arkansas Sunk Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262–264

Arkansas v. Tennessee . . . . . . . 201, 234–236, 256

Barclay v. Howell’s Lessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Baxter v. Evett’s Lessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Beaver v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243–245

Belligerent and Other Lode Mining

Claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356–357

Benson Mining & Smelting Co. v.

Alta Mining & Smelting Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Bonelli Cattle Co. v. Arizona . . . . . . . . . . 238–241

Borax Consolidated Ltd. v.

Los Angeles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 222

Borough of Ford City v. United States . . . 99–100

Brattain Contractors, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

Burt A. Wackerli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

California Coastal Commission v.

Granite Rock Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370–371

California ex. rel. State Lands Commission v.

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Chapman & Dewey Lumber Co. v.

St. Francis Levee District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Charles B. Reynolds, Jr., et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

Churchill v. Grundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Cissna v. Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Commissioners of Land Office of State of

Oklahoma v. United States . . 249–251, 254–256

Cost of Official Survey of a Mining Claim... . . 362

County of St. Clair v. Lovingston . . 206, 245–248

Cox v. Hart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Cragin v. Powell . . . . . . . . . . . 129, 131, 271, 296

Crooked Lake and Bear Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Daniel Ball, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187–188

David A. Provinse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

DeBoer v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268–269

Del Monte Mining and Milling Co. v.

Last Chance Mining and Milling Co. . . . . . . 364

Dennis J. Kitts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

Dunlap v. Stetson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Economy Light and Power Company v.

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 228, 230

Emerson v. Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Exxon Corp v. Bureau of Land

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253–254

French-Glenn Live Stock Co. v. Springer . . . . 264

Georgia v. South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . 261–262

Golden Sun Mining Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad Co. v.

Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252–253

Grant v. Pilgrim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Gray v. Deluce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277–278

Handly’s Lessee v. Anthony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Hardin v. Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Hardy Salt v. Southern Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Harrison v. Fite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Hidden Treasure Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Hidee Cold Mining Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

Holmes Placer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

Houston v. Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259–260

Howard v. Ingersoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–99

Iris v. Town of Hingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Iron Silver Mining Co. v. Elgin Mining

& Smelting Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

Jack K. Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

James Carretto and Other Lode Claims . . . . . 361

James L. Harden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Jeems Bayou Fishing and Hunting Club v.

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264–267

John McClennen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Johnston v. Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 215, 222

Kaiser Aetna et al. v. United States . . . . . . . . . 188

Kirby v. Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Knight v. United States Land Association . . . . 158

Koch v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253–254

Lane v. Darlington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Lane v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Lara v. Secretary of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Lee Wilson and Company v.

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262–264

Lessee of McCullock v. Aten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Lincoln Placer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Longview Fibre Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Louisiana v. Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259–260

Madison v. Basart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 268

Mason v. Cromwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Minnehaha Creek v.

Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229–230

Minnesota Mining Co. v.

National Mining Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Mississippi v. Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Montello, The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187–188

Moss v. Ramey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Mulry v. Norton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Nebraska v. Iowa . . . 201–202, 207, 232–233, 235

Newsom v. Pryor’s Lessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Niles v. Cedar Point Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Ogilvie v. Copeland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Oklahoma v. Texas . . 186, 188, 192, 215, 232, 254

Olive Wheeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251–253

Oregon ex. rel. State Land Board v.

Corvallis Sand and Gravel Co. . . 193, 238–241

Ownership of Submerged Lands...v.

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

Packer v. Bird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Peterson v. Morton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 241–242

Peterson v. Watt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 241–242

Phillip Dephanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
481

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

Placer claim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

P&M Petroleum Mgmt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Pollard’s Lessee v. Hagan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 187

Porter v. Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Port of Portland v. Island in the

Columbia River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260–261

Preston’s Heirs v. Bowmar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Puyallup Indian Tribe v. Port of Tacoma . . . . 202

Railroad Co. v. Schurmeier . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 249

Robinson v. Forrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Salt Wells Live Stock Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Sam K. Viersen, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345

San Francisco Savings Union, et al. v. Irwin . . 89

Sawyer v. Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Scott v. Lattig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248–249, 252

Security Land & Exploration Co. v. Burns . . . 264

Shively v. Bowlby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Sinnott v. Jewett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

Smallidge et al. v. Brown & Gilley . . . . . 273–275

Smith v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Snow Flake Fraction Placer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

South Dakota v. Madill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Sparhawk v. Bullard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

State of Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264–267

State of Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

State of Oregon v. Bureau of Land

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

State v. Muncie Pulp Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

St. Louis v. Rutz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256–259

Stone v. Boston Steel & Iron Company . . 275–276

Udall v. Oelschlaeger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Uhlhorn v. U.S. Gypsum Company . . . . . 236–238

United States v. 11,993.32 Acres of Land

in North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

United States v. Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

United States v. Appalachian

Power Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 191, 226–228

United States v. Byrne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 201

United States v. Chandler-Dunbar . . . . . . . . . 253

United States v. Claridge . . . . . . . . . 100–102, 206

United States v. Cowlishaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

United States v. Crow, Pope & Land

Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

United States v. Curtner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

United States v. Harrell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

United States v. Hess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

United States v. Holt State Bank . . . 191, 225–226

United States v. Hurlburt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

United States v. Hutchings . . . . . . . .249–251, 254

United States v. Lara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

United States v. Mission Rock Co. . . . . . . . . . . 252

United States v. Morrison . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 295

United States v. Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 186, 193

United States v. Reimann . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131, 157

United States v. Ross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228–229

United States v. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

United States v. Swanson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

United States v. Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 230–232

United States v. Walton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269–270

United States v. Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

United States v. Webb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

Ventura Coast Oil Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Veta Grande Lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Wackerli v. Morton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Walker v. The Boston & Maine Railroad . . . . . 277

Wallace v. Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Walter Bartol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Walton v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269–271

Warner Assets Realization Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Waskey v. Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

Western Aggregates, LLC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Wheeler v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Whitaker v. McBride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Whitmore v. Brown & Gilley . . . . . . . . . . 273–275

Williams v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Wittmayer v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

Wolff v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251–253

Wonson v. Wonson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278–282

Wright vs. Roseberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Zunamon v. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 102–103

Certificate of survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Chain of title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Chain unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Channelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 236–242

Chief Cadastral Surveyor . . . . . . . . . 8, 11–12, 21, 285

Chief Geographer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 18, 20

Chute channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Claims. See also Mining claims

fraudulent or erroneous surveys . . . . . . . 161–162

and good faith location rule . . . . . . . . . . . 154–155

intersecting lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58–59

lode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351, 355–357, 368

placer, . . . . . . . . . . . 351, 353, 355–357, 365–366

and subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

tract segregation of . . . . . . . . . 139–141, 321–328

Clarke’s Spheroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Closing corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 169, 172–173

Closure

apparent misclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32

error of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 50, 54–55, 91

limits of . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 54–55, 61, 90–91, 344

Collateral evidence . . . . . 136, 148–150, 154–157, 160

Colonial method of partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 214

Colonial States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 7, 188

Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
482

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

Commerce Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 191

Commissioner of the General Land Office

(GLO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 21–22

Compass rule adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Completion surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–63, 214

Condemnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Contract file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 295, 308

Control points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 121

Convergence, angle of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Convergency of meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–33

Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37–38

Conveyances. See also Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

ANCSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

interim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 131

intersecting lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

and land description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

navigable waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188–189

and official plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

and protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

and USIS surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Coordinate systems

geographic position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34–35

latitudes and departures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

National Geodetic Survey (NGS) . . . . . . . . . . . 34

State Plane Coordinate

Systems (SPCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35–36, 166

Corner accessories . . . . . . . . . 107–108, 121–127, 148

bearing objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

bearing trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121–122, 126

marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–127

memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–123

pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123–124, 126

Corners. See also Lost corners; Meander corners;

Monumentation; Witness corners . . . . . . . .13, 40, 42

angle points as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148, 171

closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 169, 172–173

controlling weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 178

defective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50–51

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

elongated sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114–115

existent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148–149, 165

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . 61–63

field note record of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293–294

fixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 105

intermediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–118, 126

intersecting and terminating section lines . . 58–59

junior-senior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–170

lines between . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–92

marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109–121, 124–127

maximum/minimum

control . . . . . . . . . 43, 58–59, 112, 120, 125, 293

mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . 356–357, 359, 368

obliterated . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–136, 149–150, 165

official . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

original . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 50, 165

and protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–79

rectangular limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

senior-senior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–171

sixteenth-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

special purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 148, 177

special survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330, 332

standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 42, 169

subdivision-of-section . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 69–70, 74,

117, 126

symbols for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

township exteriors . . . . . . . . . 12, 43–46, 166–171

townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

unmonumented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Correction lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 42, 169

Crossing closing corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Cumulative error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–31

D

Datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Defective corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50–51

Deflection of the vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–10

Department of Treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Departure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Dependent resurveys. See also Resurveys . . . 129–130, 

133–137

field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290, 292–293

and good faith location rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367–372

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320–321

points of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–157

special case conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–162

special surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333–335

specimen field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411–450

townsites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 183–184, 186, 212

Director of Bureau of Land

Management (BLM) . . . . . 2, 5, 8, 10–11, 15, 17, 23

Disclaimer of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Distance measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28, 30–31

D.M.D. method of computation . . . . . . . . . . . 300–301

Doctrine of Reemergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Double meridian distance method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Double proportionate measurement . . . . 165–168, 171
483

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

E

Economy Act of May 21, 1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Education Land Grant Act of

December 28, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Education Land Grant surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Elongated sections . . . . . . . . . . . 66–68, 114–115, 142

Emergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199–200

Emergence by accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206–208, 316–317

and avulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 232–234

and river meanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198–199

and submergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Erroneous omitted lands . . . . . 219–221, 262–267, 317

Erroneous surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–162

Errors. See also Measurement

accumulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

apparent misclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32

and cardinal equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

of closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 50, 54–55, 91

compass rule adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

index correction for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 178

standard line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Evidence

of avulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 203–204, 208

collateral . . . . . . . . . 136, 148–150, 154–157, 160

corroborative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–151

direct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150–154

and field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

good faith locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154–155

individual testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150–151

international boundary monuments . . . . . . . . . 154

line trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–153

local points of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–157

meander corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

original . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–204, 208

relevant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

satisfactory local conditions . . . . . . . . . . 155–156

scintilla of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

State boundary monuments . . . . . . . . . . . 153–154

substantial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

sufficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

topographic calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152

types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

witness corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

witness points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Exchange surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341–342

Existent corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148–149, 165

Extension of property line method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Extension surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–63

Extralateral rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364–365

F

Face, tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Falling of line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 47

Farm units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335

Federal authority survey . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 29, 156–157

Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) . . 11, 36

Federal interest lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7

administration of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5

islands and sandbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

legal boundaries in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 18

navigable/nonnavigable waters . . . . . . . . . . 5, 186,

188–190, 192, 214–217

ownership of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 4–5, 19

removal of improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–132, 139, 156

and State law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 18, 153

swamp and overflowed lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 193–194, 206–209

Federal Land Policy and Management

Act (FLPMA) of October 21, 1976 . . 10, 24–25, 351

Federal Mine Health and Safety Acts of 1969

and 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Federal records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Federal Records Act of 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Federal Water Pollution Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Field notes. See also Records, survey . . . . . . . . . 93–96,

285–295

abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

as evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

field returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

geographic positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

headings and subheadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

index diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358–360

monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105–106, 292

notations and amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

order of writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290–292

placer claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357–358

and plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285–286

preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286–287

reproduction and distribution of . . . . . . . . . . . 294

and restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 290, 292–293

rules for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13

specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

dependent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . 411–450

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451–472

original survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375–410

standardization of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292–294

titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287–289

township . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
484

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

townsite surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339–340

Filing, official . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 26, 286, 295–296

Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Fixed corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 105

Flood plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90, 181

Foot, U.S. Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 37

Foreign sovereign land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 19, 22

Forest Homestead Entry surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

14(c) surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 340–341

Four-way proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 171

Fractional sections . . . . . . . 13–14, 22, 66, 69–70, 186

Fragmentary surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315–318

Fraudulent surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–162

French tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

French units of area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

G

General Forest Exchange surveys . . . . . . . . . . 341–342

General Land Office (GLO) . 4, 8–10, 21–24, 333–334

General Mining Law of 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

General Resurvey Act of March 3, 1909 . . . . . . . 9, 18

Geodesic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Geodetic meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28, 33

Geodetic methods. See also Survey . . . . . . . . . . 29, 32

Geographic Coordinate Data Base

(GCDB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318–319, 346

Geographic position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34–35

Geological derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Geospatial data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Good faith location . . . . . . . . . 133, 135, 154–155, 162

Governing lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 43

Grant boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176–177

Grazing lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Great circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Grid bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Grid coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Grid distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 35

Ground distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 32, 35

Group file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 295, 308, 310, 318

Guide meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

auxiliary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

irregular boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–58

Gunter’s link chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

H

Hack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Half-mile posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Hardrock Mining Claim Maintenance

Fee Act of 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

I

Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Improved lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154–155, 160–161

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–362

removal of improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . 158–159

Independent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . 130, 133–134, 143

bona fide rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162–163

field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

new section lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141–143

outboundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–139

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321–328

tract segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137–142

Index correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 178

Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Indian lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 9, 22–23, 90, 190–191

allotment surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330–334, 341

boundaries of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Indian Service surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333–334

reservation surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Informative traverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 194

Initial points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Inland waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184–185

Interagency Cadastral Coordination

Council (ICCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Interim conveyances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 131

Interior Board of Land Appeals (IBLA).

See also Case decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11

Intermediate corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–118, 126

International boundary monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

International Boundary Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . 204–205

International Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

International System of Units (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Irregular boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–58, 126, 174

Irregular sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62–63

Irregular townships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–57, 59–60

Island Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218, 254–262

Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86–88

avulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248–262, 260–261

partition lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215

unsurveyed . . . . . . . 22, 24–25, 87, 218, 251–254

Isolated Tract Act of February 26, 1895 . . . . . . . . . . 22

J

Junior-senior corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–170

K

Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
485

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

L

Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83–85, 184, 186–187, 193

avulsive changes to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262–267

navigability of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225–226, 229–230

relicted beds of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212–214

Lambert projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Land

beneath navigable waters . . . . . . . . . 20, 189–191

classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 19

descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 130

Land Ordinance of May 20, 1785 . . . . . 1, 7, 18, 20, 27

Laplace correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Latitude, circles of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Latitudinal boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44–45, 50–51

Latitudinal difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Latitudinal section lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–55

Leasing, mineral lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345–347

Legal acres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Legal rulings. See Case decisions

Legal subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 21, 47, 138, 320

Levee, natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Limits

of closure . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 54–55, 61, 90–91, 344

rectangular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–50, 55, 91

Line of constant bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29–30

Line of mean high tide (MHT) . . . . . . 81–88, 222–223

Line of sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 34

Lines. See Section lines

Line trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 121, 127, 152–153

Link unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Litter examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Local surveys. See also Resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

bona fide rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 129

measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35–36

monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154, 156

points of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–157

and protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

subdivision by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73–74

and supplemental plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Location, good faith . . . . . . . . 133, 135, 154–155, 162

Location certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

Location monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 121, 127, 359

Location surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353

Lode claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351, 355–357, 368

Lode Law of 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Longitudinal difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Long lake method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Lost corners. See also Restoration of

lost corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 40, 130, 136

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

meander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171–172

mining claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

and witness corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Lots

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

and disposals record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329–330

Indian allotment surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330–334

legal subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 366

numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65–68, 297, 309, 330

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 323–324

townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Loxodromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

M

Maine case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272–275

Manual of Surveying Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–4

development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–4, 18

and PLSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

supplements, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 19, 145

Massachusetts case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275–282

Massachusetts Ordinance of 1641-1647 . . . . . 223, 272

Materials Act of 1927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Maximum control corners . . . . . . . . . . . . 112, 120, 125

Mean bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–30, 34

Meander corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–43, 112

auxiliary . . . . . . 83–85, 87–88, 117, 120, 125–126

as evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171–172

partition lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210–212

special . . . 83, 85, 87–88, 115–116, 120, 125–126

witness corner meander corner (WCMC) . . . . 184

Meander lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–82, 84–85, 88

angle points of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174–175, 185–186

erroneously omitted lands . . . . . . . . . . . . 219–220

lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

land outside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 269–271

mineral lands leasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345–346

mining claims and millsites . . . . . . . . . . . 366–367

and ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 89, 183, 221

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184–185

Meandering. See also Navigable waters;

Water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–88, 183–186

agricultural test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

of alluvial rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

angle points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

islands and sandbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86–87, 218

lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83–85

line of mean high tide (MHT) . . . . . . . . . . . 81–88

litter examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

nonnavigable water bodies . . . . . . . . . . . 186–187
486

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

ordinary high water mark

(OHWM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–88, 97–103, 196

and partition lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–217

and protracted blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

remeandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 209, 218

rivers and tidewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 85, 87–88

salient point method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

soils examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

and subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

survey record and field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

swamp and overflowed lands . . . . . . . . 87, 89–90

vegetation examination . . . . . . . 82–83, 87–88, 90, 

98–100, 102–103

Mean high tide (MHT) . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–88, 222–223

Measurement. See also Errors; Survey methods

accumulated error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

and coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35–36

datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

direct/indirect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28

distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28, 30–31, 37–38

and elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

excess or deficiency in . . . . . . 12, 43–44, 166, 174

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 61

instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

method of proportionate measurement . . . . . . 152,

165–174, 178

rectangular limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

townsite surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

verification of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Medial lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–197, 367

Median lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–197

Memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–123

Meridian

angle of convergence of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

astronomic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28, 33, 35

convergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–33

geodetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28, 33

guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 43, 55–58

principal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–42

reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 354

true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–29, 354

Meridional boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–44, 51

Meridional section lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 33, 54–55

Metes-and-bounds surveys . . . . . . . . 19, 158, 335–337

Metric conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Mexican units of distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37–38

Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Mile corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Military reservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Millsite Act of March 18, 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Millsites . . . . . . . . . .351, 353, 355–356, 362, 365–367

Mineral lands

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271–272

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 19

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367–372

and water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . 222, 271–272

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 . . . . . . . . . 345, 347, 350

Mineral Leasing Act surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345–347

Mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 9, 350–372

amended orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

cancellation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358–359, 368–371

corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356–357, 359, 368

dependent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367–372

extralateral rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364–365

field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358–360

gaps and overlaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371–372

improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–362

legal subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365–366

location survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353

lode lines and end lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355–356

method and order of procedure . . . . . . . . 356–358

mineral monuments . . . . . . . . . 108–109, 359, 370

mineral patent application survey . . . . . . 353–355

mining law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350–351

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297, 313–314, 360

segregation surveys . . . . . 314–315, 348–349, 351

sequential grants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

specimen field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451–472

subsurface estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

tunnel sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Mine surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348

Minimum control corners . . . . . . . 43, 58–59, 112, 120,

125, 293

Mining claims. See also Mineral surveys

extralateral rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364–365

improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–362

laws governing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350–351

lode claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351, 355–357, 368

and patents . . . . . . . . . . . . 351, 360–362, 369–371

placer claims . . . . . . 351, 353, 355–357, 365–366

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

riparian rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366–367

segregation surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348–349

title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368–371

types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351–352

valid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353

Mining Laws of 1866, 1870, and 1872 . . . . . . . 19, 350,

352, 367

Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Misclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32

Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
487

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 90

Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 105–127

amended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

ANCSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

angle points . . . . 84, 108, 117, 126, 139, 141, 186

construction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–107

corner accessories . . . . . . 107–108, 121–127, 148

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

destruction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105–106, 292

international . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

intersecting section lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

legal significance of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154, 156

location monuments . . . . . . . . 108, 121, 127, 359

marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109–121

metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

mineral monuments . . . . . . . . . 108–109, 359, 370

mineral segregation surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

partition lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211–212

reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107–108, 120–121, 126

restoration of lost corners . . . . . . . . 170, 172–173

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–137, 139, 162

small tract surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

special purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 107–109, 117,

120–121, 126–127

State boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153–154

and subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

tree monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118–122

types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

witness corners . . . . . . . . . 84, 105, 107, 120, 126

N

Names of topographic features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

National Forest Homestead Entry and Allotment

Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 341

National Forest Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23–24, 26

National Forest System Lands Small Tracts Act of

January 12, 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

National Forest System Lands small

tracts surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342–343

National Forest Townsite Act of July 31, 1958 . . . . 343

National Forest townsite surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

National Geodetic Survey (NGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

National Park Service (NPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) . . . 11, 36

National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) . . . . . . 346

Natural levees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Navigability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186–193

legal definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187–188

navigability investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . 191–193

and ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188–189

State law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191–192, 215

Navigable waters.

See also Nonnavigable waters . . . . . . . 5, 7–8, 20, 24

Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25–26

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225–231

Federal control of . . . . . . 186, 188–190, 192, 193

lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225–226, 229–230

lands beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 189–191

mining claims and millsites . . . . . . . . . . . 366–367

partition lines on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–212

rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226–228, 230–232

Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 30

New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Non-Federal lands

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

legal boundaries in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Nonnavigable waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186–187, 208

lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

mining claims and millsites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 214–217,

228–229, 230–232

Non-public land States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Nonrectangular surveys . . . . . 158, 335–337, 341, 357

North American Datum of 1983

(NAD 83) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 33, 346

North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Northwest Territory Ordinance of July 13, 1787 . . . 20

Numbering

lots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65–68, 297, 309, 330

townships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 20

tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 163, 329

O

Obliterated corners . . . . . . . . . 135–136, 149–150, 165

Office of Hearings and Appeals (OHA) . . . . . . . . . . 10

Official corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Official filing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 26, 286, 295–296

Official resurvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148, 157–158

Official surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 29, 156–157, 286, 296

Offshore islands and rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16, 20, 90

Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16–17

Omitted lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 184, 219–221

One-eight corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

One-point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136, 178

Opposite banks delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–197

Ordinances

1641-1647

Massachusetts Ordinance . . . . . . . . 223, 272
488

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

May 20, 1785

Land Ordinance . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 7, 18, 20, 27

July 13, 1787

Northwest Territory Ordinance . . . . . . . . . 20

Ordinary high water mark (OHWM) . . . . . 81–88, 196

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97–103

Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 90

Original corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 50, 165

Original surveys. See also Rectangular surveys, 

system of; Resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 17, 27, 39–40

cancellation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

and local surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

and resurveys . . . . . . . . . . 129–130, 144, 155–157

specimen field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375–410

Overflowed lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 22, 87, 89–90

“Overflow lands” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Ownership. See also Federal interest lands . . . . . . . . 64

absentee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

and accretions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205–207

and avulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204, 206

and erroneous location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158–159

islands . . . 215, 218, 248–251, 254–256, 260–261

and local surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

and meander lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 89, 183, 221

mining claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368–371

navigable/nonnavigable waters . . . . 186, 188–189

and relictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

and resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–132

P

Parallelism doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Parallel lines

of PLSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

substantially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Parallel of latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29–30

Parcels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Partially surveyed sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70–73, 315

Partition lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–217

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272–282

land outside meanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–222

on navigable waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–212

nonnavigable rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–217

relicted beds of lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212–214

Patents. See also Conveyances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 20

and avulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

and interim conveyances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

mineral patent application survey . . . . . . 353–355

and mining claims . . . . . . 351, 360–362, 369–371

navigable waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

and non-Federal improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

and official plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

and survey rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Perch unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Perpendicular method of partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

Placer claims . . . . . . . . . . 351, 353, 355–357, 365–366

Placer Law of 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Plane survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32, 35–36

Plan of Survey Coordinates (POSC) . . . . . . . . . . 77–79

Plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295–328

amended protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

angle points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

areas on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299–301, 320–321, 327

as base drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

certifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307–308

and conveyances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

copies of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

corner symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

dependent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320–321

drafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64–65

erroneously omitted lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . 62–63

farm units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335

and field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285–286

fragmentary surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315–318

hierarchy of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–21

independent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321–328

index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323–324, 327–328

inking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301–303

legal significance of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301–306

and lotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

memorandum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

mineral segregation surveys . . . . . . 297, 314–315

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . 297, 313–314, 359–360

mine survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

notations, amendments,

and corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308–309

and patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318–320

reproduction and distribution of . . . . . . . . . . . 308

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320–328

scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298, 307

segregated tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 321–328

sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–96

specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296–297, 473, 475

subdivisions on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298–299

supplemental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309–313, 327, 344

three-plat system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

titles and subtitles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

topographic features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306–308

township . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298–299

townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
489

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

witness corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Point bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Point of record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Pole unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Possessory rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 105–106, 181, 340–341

Principal Clerk of the Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 22

Principal meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–42

Private land. See also Alienated lands . . . . . . 5, 10–11,

19, 22

Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Property Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 191, 231

Proportionate acreage method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Proportionate measurement . . . . . . 152, 165–174, 178

Proportionate medial line method . . . . . . . . . . 213–214

Proportionate shoreline method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Protraction

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . 60–61

subdivision by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64–66

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 42, 45, 50

Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

amended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–81

control positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

and conveyances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

corner positions in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–79

partially surveyed sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

plats of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318–320

protracted blocks . . . . 77–78, 80–81, 88, 118, 126

specimen plat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Public domain lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5, 8n, 11, 19

Public Land Administration Act of July 14, 1960 . . .24

Public lands

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5, 8n, 19, 24

inventory of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

location of surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

small tract surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343–345

Public land States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 5, 15–17

Public Land Survey System (PLSS).

See also Rectangular surveys, system of;

Survey methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 7, 129

parallel lines of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

PLSS datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–29, 36–37

rectangular/orthogonal plans . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 29

rules of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–14

special surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

and State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS) . . 35

Q

Quarter-quarter-quarter sections . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 113

Quarter-quarter sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

marking corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113–114, 125

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141–142, 161

subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 21–22, 69

Quarter sections

area of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

marking corners . . . . . . . . 112–113, 119–120, 125

restoration of lost corners . . . . . . . . 171, 173, 181

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 69

Quiet Title Act of 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 155

R

Range lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Reappearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Rechannelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Reclamation Act of June 17, 1902 . . . . . . . . . 334–335

Reclamation projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Reclamation Service (RS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335

Records, survey. See also Field notes . . . . . . . . . 93–96

access to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

disposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329–330

Federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

field data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285–286

location of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 22

mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

original . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 136–137

special instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283–285

township . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 58

transcribed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166

Rectangular limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–50, 55, 91

Rectangular surveys, system of.

See also Public Land Survey System (PLSS);

Survey methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 19, 39–95

aliquot parts in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47–48

and coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

departures from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21–22

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . 60–63

history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

legal requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–40

limits of closure . . . . . . . . . . 50, 54–55, 61, 90–91

lines of constant bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

and local surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

marking lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–92

meandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–88

overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–40

protraction diagrams . . . . . . 42, 45, 50, 72, 76–81

subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–40, 64–75

survey record and field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . 93–96

swamp and overflowed lands . . . . . . . . . . . 89–90

townships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–60

and unsurveyed land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
490

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

Reemergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 208

Reference meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 354

Reference monuments . . . . . . . 107–108, 120–121, 126

Regular sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47–49, 50

area of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

center lines of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Regular townships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–55

Regulation posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105–106

Reliction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199, 205–209, 212–214

Reliction surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208–209, 212–214

Remeandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 209, 218

Remote sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Removal of improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158–159

Reservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Restoration of lost corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–181

cardinal equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

closing corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 172–173

controlling weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 178

grant boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176–177

hiatus or overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170–171

index correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 178

irregular boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

junior-senior corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–170

meander lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174–175

one-point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

proportionate measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 165–174

quarter sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171, 173, 181

section corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

senior-senior corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–171

standard corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

township corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166–171

two- and three-point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Restricted land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Resurveys. See also Dependent resurveys;

Evidence; Independent resurveys;

Restoration of lost corners;

Water boundaries . . . . . . . 9–10, 18, 50, 61, 129–281

angle points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 141

and avulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

bona fide rights . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 155, 157–163

and boundary stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

collateral evidence . . 136, 148–150, 154–157, 160

and court jurisdiction . . . . 131–133, 136, 138, 148

direct evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150–154

existent corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148–149

field examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134–135, 141

field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 290, 292–293

meander lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184–185

mineral lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367–372

monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . 136–137, 139, 162

obliterated corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–150

official . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148, 157–158

one-point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

and original surveys . . . . 129–130, 144, 155–157

and ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–131

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320–328

purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

records of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 136–137

retracements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 135, 165

section lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 139, 141–144

special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

State boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 141–142

township exteriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 139, 142

true lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Retracement. See also Resurveys . . . . . . 130, 135, 165

Rhumb line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 34

Rights-of-way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Riparian boundaries. See Meandering;

Water boundaries

Riparian rights. See also Navigable waters . . . . . . . 345,

366–367

Riverfront tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Rivers. See also Avulsion; Navigable waters . . . . . . 85,

186–187

acquired lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

alluvial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197–200, 206

flood stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

International Boundary Rivers . . . . . . . . 204–205

navigability of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226–228, 230–232

nonnavigable . . 184, 214–217, 228–229, 230–232

Rod unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Round lake method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Rule of decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

S

Sandbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 218

Sea level distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 32, 35

Secretary of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Secretary of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . 9–11, 22, 24, 131

Secretary of the Treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 22, 131

Sectional correction lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–58

Sectional guide meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–58

Section lines

fixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

intersecting and terminating . . . . 58–59, 141, 162

latitudinal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–55

marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 91–92

and meanderable bodies of water . . . . . . . . . . . 66

meridional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 33, 54–55

as offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45–46

protracted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 139, 141–144
491

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

Sections. See also Quarter-quarter sections;

Quarter sections; Subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–40

elongated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66–68, 114–115, 142

fractional . . . . . . . . . . . 13–14, 22, 66, 69–70, 186

irregular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62–63

legal center of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

marking corners . . . . . . . . . . . . 111–118, 124–126

outlying areas protracted as surveyed . . . . . 60–64,

69–70, 315–316

partially surveyed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70–73, 315

quarter-quarter-quarter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 113

regular, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 32, 47–50, 62

restoring lost corners, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Segregation, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137–142, 162–163

mineral surveys, . . . . . . . 314–315, 348–349, 351

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 321–328

Segregation surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341–343

Senior-senior corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–171

Shore space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 223

Sight trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 152

Single proportionate measurement . . . . . . . . . 168–174

SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Sixteenth sections. See Quarter-quarter sections

Sketch plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95–96

Small circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Small tracts surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342–345

Soil classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 96

Source of law determination . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 193–194

South Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Spanish units of distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37–38

Special case dependent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . 159–162

Special instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283–285

Special meander corners (SMC) . . . . . . . 83, 85, 87–88

corner accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–126

marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115–116, 120

Special purpose corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 148, 177

Special purpose monuments . . . . . . . . . . 105, 107–109

accessories to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–127

marks on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120–121

Special surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329–349

corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330, 332

Education Land Grant surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

14(c) surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 340–341

General Forest Exchange surveys . . . . . . 341–342

Indian allotment surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330–334

Mineral Leasing Act surveys . . . . . . . . . . 345–347

mineral segregation surveys . . . . . . . . . . 348–349

mine surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348

National Forest Homestead Entry and

Allotment Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

National Forest System Lands small

tracts surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342–343

National Forest Townsite surveys, . . . . . . . . . 343

nonrectangular surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335–337

public lands small tract surveys . . . . . . . 343–345

statutory method of subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . 330

subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329–334

three-mile method of subdivision . . . . . . 332–333

townsite surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337–340

Specimen field notes

dependent resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411–450

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451–472

original survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375–410

Staking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340–341

Standard corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 42, 169

Standard lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Standard parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 42–43, 169

State boundary monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153–154

State law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

avulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

navigable/nonnavigable waters . . . . 191–192, 215

property boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

swamp and overflowed lands . . . . . . . . . 7, 89–90

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 189–190, 193–194, 

206–209, 218

State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS) . . .35–36, 166

Station trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 152

Statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Stone mounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123–124, 126

Straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 39–40, 64–75

extension and completion surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 62

fractional sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 21, 47, 138, 320

local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73–74

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365–366

and monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

PLSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

by protraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64–66

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 141–142

segregated tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323–324

small tract surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

special surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329–334

by survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68–73

township . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 14, 20, 54–59, 63

water boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Subdivision-of-section corners . . . . . . . . 64, 69–70, 74,

117, 126

Submerged Lands Act of 1953 . . . . . . 24, 88, 189–191

Submergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199–200

Subsurface estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 222

Superseded surveys. See Independent resurveys

Supplemental plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309–313, 327, 344

specimen plat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
492

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

of 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Surface Resources Act of 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

Survey. See also Local surveys; Mineral surveys;

Original surveys; Resurveys; Special surveys

accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208–212

administration laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–10, 20–26

administrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 157, 333–334

airborne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

allotment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330–334

amended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–363

cadastral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 29, 156–157

cancelled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 139, 363

certificate of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–63, 214

contract/direct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–10

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

erroneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–162

exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341–342

expenses of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 22–23, 25

extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–63

Federal authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 29, 156–157

forcible opposition to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 23

Forest Homestead Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

14(c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 340–341

fragmentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315–318

fraudulent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–162

General Forest Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . 341–342

Indian Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333–334

location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353

metes-and-bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 335–337

mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348

mineral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313–314, 348–349, 351

Mineral Leasing Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345–347

mineral patent application . . . . . . . . . . . . 353–355

National Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 342–343

nonrectangular . . . . . . . . . 158, 335–337, 341, 357

official . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 29, 156–157, 286, 296

plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32, 35–36

principles and practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

and record systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 22

reliction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208–209, 212–214

reservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341–343

small tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342–345

subdivision by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68–73

townsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337–340

tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 160, 177, 292, 342–345

Survey methods. See also Public Land Survey

System (PLSS); Rectangular surveys,

system of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–38

apparent misclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32

arc length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32–33

convergency of meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–32

coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34–36

curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–31

deflection of the vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

line of constant bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29–30

lot and block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–28

metes-and-bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

parallel lines of PLSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

PLSS datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–29, 36–37

true meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Surveyor General . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–4, 8, 18, 20–21, 23

Swamp lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 22, 87, 89–90

T

Table of latitude and departure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Talweg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 197

Tectonic change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Terminal lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Terrestrial vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 87–88, 100

Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Thalweg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 197

Thread of river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 197

Three-point proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Tidal flats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223, 272–282

Tidelands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 83, 87–88, 189

Tidewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 85, 87–88

acquired lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222–223

case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272–282

Timber lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Title of ownership. See also Ownership . . . . . . . . . . 64

Topographic calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152

Topographic features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306–308, 338

Township . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–40, 43–60

aliquot parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47–48

field notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

fractional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

irregular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55–57, 59–60

lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

marking corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 119, 124

numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 20

plats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298–299

regular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–55

subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 14, 20, 54–59, 63

survey record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 58

Tract A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Township exteriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–54

allowable deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–47

corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 43–46, 166–171

defective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50–52, 55–57
493

Manual of Surveying Instructions Index

error of closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 54

latitudinal boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . 44–47, 50–51

meridional boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–47, 51

monumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

official record of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

partially surveyed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 50

rectangular limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–50

resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 139, 142

section lines as offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45–46

Townsite corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Townsite surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 337–340

Tract A townships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Tracts

corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 163, 329

small tract surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342–345

Tract segregation. See Segregation

Tract surveys . . . . . . . . . . 137, 160, 177, 292, 342–345

Transitional vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Transverse Mercator projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Traverse lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Tree monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118–122

Trespass remedy method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

True corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

True lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

True meridians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–29, 354

Tunnel sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Two-point proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

U

United States Army Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . 188

United States Geological Survey (USGS) . . . . 23, 334

United States Indian Service (USIS) surveys . 333–334

United States Supervisor of Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

United States Supreme Court rulings.

See Case decisions

United States Survey Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 37

Units

area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

linear measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

of subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–40

Unmonumented corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Unofficial boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Unsurveyed lands.

See also Protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 72

islands . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 24–25, 87, 218, 251–254

mineral lands leasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

small tracts on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

and subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70–72

Upland. See Meandering

Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

V

Vara units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37–38

Vegetation examination . . . . . . . . . . . 82–83, 87–88, 90,

98–100, 102–103

Vertical, deflection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

W

Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Water boundaries. See also Meandering;

Resurveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183–224

accretion prior to entry . . . . . . . . . . 221, 268–271

acquired lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222–223

alienated lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217–218

avulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199–205, 232–242

erroneous omitted lands . . . . . 219–220, 262–267

gradual changes in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242–248

inland waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184–185

islands and sandbars . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 24, 86–88,

214–215, 218, 248–262

lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83–85, 184, 186–187,

193, 204, 212–214

land outside meanders . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 269–271

legal effects of changes in . . . . . . . . . . . . 205–206

mineral lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222, 271–272

navigability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 7–8, 20, 24–26,

186–193, 345–346

opposite banks delimitations . . . . . . . . . . 194–197

partition lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–217

and protracted blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

protraction diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

rivers and tidewaters . . . . . . . . 83, 85, 87–88, 184,

186–187, 197–200, 204–206, 222–223

source of law determination . . . . . . . . . . 193–194

State law . . . . . 189–190, 193–194, 206–209, 218

and subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

subsurface estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 222

water body movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197–209

Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 90

Witness corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

marks on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

mineral surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

monumentation . . . . . . . . . 84, 105, 107, 120, 126

witness corner meander corner (WCMC) . . . . 184

Witness points . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 121, 126, 152, 153

Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
494

Index Manual of Surveying Instructions

Z

Zero accretion points (ZAPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Inside the back cover is a facsimile of the 2009 plat of a township in Alaska 

surveyed under the public land survey system. The plat represents an original 

survey executed in accordance with the specifications set forth in the Manual of 

Surveying Instructions and special instructions. The field notes were approved, 

the plat was accepted, and the survey is officially filed.

The township is designated Township 10 North, Range 80 West, Seward 

Meridian, counting north and west from the Initial Point of the Seward Principal 

Meridian and Baseline in Alaska. The basis of location for this survey is the 

approved Bureau of Land Management Protraction Diagram which provides 

the plan of survey for land described by aliquot part and referenced to the 

rectangular survey system. This township was surveyed to accommodate 

Alaska Native village and regional land selections authorized under the Alaska 

Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of December 18, 1971, as amended 

(85 Stat. 688; 43 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.).

Individual Native allotment parcels and meanderable or navigable water 

bodies have been segregated within surveyed sections, and lots have been 

created. Alaska Native allotments were surveyed prior to the township survey 

as United States (U.S.) Surveys, under the Alaska Native Allotment Act of 

May 17, 1906, as amended (34 Stat. 197; 43 U.S.C. 270-1 repealed), and are 

shown as hashed polygons within the township. Under ANCSA, only the 

exterior boundaries of the selected or designated areas at angle points and at 

intervals of approximately 2 miles on straight lines are surveyed and marked. 

Most, but not all, of the township boundary has been returned as surveyed 

to accommodate the future subdivision of the township, a portion of which 

remains unsurveyed.

The mention of company names, trade names, or commercial products does not

constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Federal Government.


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