Fire Service Features

of Buildings and Fire Protection Systems 

www.osha.gov

OSHA 3256-07N 2006
Employers are responsible for providing a safe and

healthful workplace for their employees. OSHA’s

role is to assure the safety and health of America’s

workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach, and education; establishing

partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health.

This publication is in the public domain and may be

reproduced, fully or partially, without permission.

Source credit is requested, but not required.

This information is available to sensory impaired

individuals upon request. Voice phone: (202) 693-

1999; teletypewriter (TTY) number: (877) 889-5627. 
Fire Service Features

of Buildings and Fire Protection Systems

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

U.S. Department of Labor

OSHA 3256-07N 

2006

1
Acknowledgments

Numerous individuals assisted in the development of

this document. OSHA wishes to express its deepest

appreciation to the following individuals for their significant contributions to this manual.

Edwin G. Foulke, Jr.

Assistant Secretary

The following persons provided a courtesy technical

review:

David M. Banwarth, P.E.

David M. Banwarth Associates, LLC (DMBA)

Samuel S. Dannaway, P.E., 

President and Chief Fire Protection Engineer, S.S. 

Dannaway and Associates, Inc.

Former Volunteer Firefighter, Prince Georges 

County, MD.

Ivan J. Humberson, P.E.

Fire Marshal, City of Gaithersburg, MD.

Former Volunteer Firefighter, Prince Georges and 

Frederick Counties, MD.

Greg Jakubowski, P.E., CSP

Senior Program Safety Specialist, Merck & Co., Inc.

Penn. State Fire Instructor

Captain, Lingohocken Fire Company, Bucks 

County, PA.

Chris Jelenewicz, P.E. 

Engineering Program Manager, Society of Fire 

Protection Engineers

Past Chief, Chillum-Adelphi Volunteer Fire Dept., MD.

Michael J. Klemenz, P.E.

Davis-Ulmer Sprinkler Company, Inc.

Past Deputy Chief, Liverpool, N.Y. Fire Department

James Lathrop

Vice President, Koffel Associates, Inc.

Deputy Chief, Niantic, CT Fire Department

Eric. N. Mayl, P.E.

Fire Protection Engineer, Koffel Associates, Inc.

Captain (Ret.) D.C. Fire Department

Jim Tidwell

National Director, Fire Service Activities 

International Code Council

Executive Deputy Chief (Ret.), Fort Worth Fire 

Department, TX.

The following persons contributed photographs or

diagrams for this manual:

David Banwarth, P.E., Banwarth & Associates

Jeff Cisney, P.E., General Services Administration

Glen Ellman, Freelance Photographer

Michael Eversole, U.S. Secret Service

John Guyton, Prince Georges County Fire 

Department, MD (retired)

Neal Hobbs, Montgomery County Fire and Rescue, MD.

Ivan J. Humberson, P.E., Fire Marshal, City of 

Gaithersburg, MD.

Bryan Iannacone, College Park Volunteer Fire 

Department, MD. 

Michael J. Klemenz, P.E., Davis-Ulmer Sprinkler 

Company, Inc.

Vito Maggiolo, Freelance Photographer

National Fire Protection Association

N.J. Department of Community Affairs, Division of 

Fire Safety

Rockville, MD Fire Marshal’s Office

Rick Schartel

Michael Schwartzberg, Freelance Photographer

Marty Smith, Alarm Tech Solutions

Tempe, AZ Fire Department

Anthony Turiello, Rescue Air Systems, Inc.

Queens Printer of Acts of Parliament, U.K.

Craig Willms, College Park Volunteer Fire Department, 

MD.

Jeff Woodard, College Park Volunteer Fire 

Department, MD. 

The following persons contributed their professional

expertise and assistance:

Anthony Catroppo, Alarm Tech Solutions

Mike Eversole, U.S. Secret Service

Beth Forbes, Washington Suburban Sanitary 

Commission

Nicholas S. Havrilla, Jr., University of Maryland

Heather Heath, N.Y. Empire Chapter, Society of Fire 

Protection Engineers

Mark Lentocha, Chesapeake Chapter, Society of Fire 

Protection Engineers

Dallas Lipp, Montgomery County Fire and Rescue, MD.

Jeffery P. McBride, P.E., EBL Engineers, LLC

Mary McCormack, Fire Department Safety Officer’s 

Association

Kevin McNamara, College Park Volunteer Fire 

Department, MD.

Tommy Nguyen, College Park Volunteer Fire 

Department, MD.

Michael Ramey, Operations Manager, Alarm Tech 

Solutions

Kevin Riley, Phoenix Fire Department, AZ.

Thomas W. Shand

Tom Slane, College Park Volunteer Fire Department, 

MD.

Scott Stookey, Phoenix Fire Department, AZ.

Anthony Turiello, Rescue Air Systems, Inc.

Steve Welsh, Fire Protection Engineer

2

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction

PURPOSE 5

SCOPE 5

A FIRE SERVICE PRIMER 6

FIRE SERVICE CHALLENGES 8

MANUAL ORGANIZATION AND USE 9

TERMINOLOGY 9

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS 10

Chapter 2

Building and Site Design

GENERAL 11

FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS 11

PREMISES IDENTIFICATION 16

FIRE HYDRANTS 18

FIREFIGHTER ACCESS 21

HAZARDS TO THE FIRE SERVICE 26

Chapter 3

Sprinkler Systems

GENERAL 28

ZONING 28

WATER SUPPLY CONTROL VALVES 29

FIRE PUMPS 31

PARTIAL SPRINKLER SYSTEMS 32

Chapter 4

Standpipe Systems

GENERAL 33

FIRE HOSE CONNECTIONS 34

DESIGN PRESSURE 37

PRESSURE REGULATING DEVICES 38

STANDPIPE ISOLATION VALVES 39

OTHER DESIGN ISSUES 40

Chapter 5

Fire Department Connections

GENERAL 41

QUANTITY 42

INLETS 43

LOCATION 44

POSITION 46

MARKING 47

TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS 49

Chapter 6

Fire Alarm and Communication Systems

GENERAL 50

ZONING AND ANNUNCIATION 51

GRAPHIC DISPLAYS 53

FIRE DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATION 55

VOICE ALARM SYSTEMS 56

FIRE DEPARTMENT COMMUNICATIONS 

SYSTEMS 57

FIRE COMMAND CENTERS 58

Chapter 7

Other Systems

FIREFIGHTER EMERGENCY POWER 

SYSTEMS 59

FIREFIGHTER BREATHING AIR SYSTEMS 60

FIREFIGHTER RADIO SIGNAL 

RETRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 61

SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMS 63 

Appendix

Sources of Referenced Standards

and Information 64

OSHA Assistance 65

OSHA Regional Offices 67

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 3
4

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

This manual provides a general overview of a particular topic related to OSHA standards concerning

fire and emergency protection. The manual is advisory in nature and informational in content. It is

not a standard or a regulation, and it neither creates new legal obligations nor alters existing obligations created by OSHA standards or the Occupational Safety and Health Act.

Employers are required to comply with hazard-specific safety and health standards as issued and

enforced either by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or by an OSHAapproved State Plan. In addition, Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the

General Duty Clause, requires employers to provide their employees with a workplace free from 

recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. Employers can be cited for 

violating the General Duty Clause if there is such a recognized hazard, and they do not take reasonable steps to prevent or abate the hazard. However, the failure to implement any of the recommendations in this manual is not, in itself, a violation of the General Duty Clause. Citations can only be

based on standards, regulations, and the General Duty Clause.

This manual does not supersede or substitute for any local or state laws, codes, ordinances, regulations, or amendments thereto. This manual shall only be used as a nonbinding supplement to a

jurisdiction’s requirements.
Chapter 1

Introduction

PURPOSE

The purpose of this manual is to increase the

safety of building occupants and emergency

responders by streamlining fire service interaction

with building features and fire protection systems.

The information in this manual will assist designers

of buildings and fire protection systems to better

understand the needs of the fire service when they

are called upon to operate in or near the built environment (figure 1.1). To put this another way, architects and engineers create workplaces for firefighters. Designs can be tailored to better meet operational needs, thereby reducing the time it takes to

mitigate an incident.

The guidance in this manual is expected to

decrease the injuries to responding and operating

fire service personnel. When an incident can be

mitigated faster, there is less time for the hazardous

situation to grow in proportion. With less potential

exposure, employees occupying buildings will be

afforded greater protection from fire incidents.

Employee occupants as well as fire service employees will realize the benefits of this manual in terms

of safe working conditions as intended by the

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.

The codes and standards governing buildings

and fire protection systems are well understood by

designers. However, many portions of these codes

and standards allow design variations or contain

only general performance language. The resulting

flexibility permits the selection of different design

options. Some of these options may facilitate fire

service operations better than others.

The particular needs and requirements of the

fire service are typically not known thoroughly by

persons not associated with these operations. This

manual discusses how the fire service interacts with

different building features and it suggests methods

for streamlining such interaction. To provide the

most effective protection, fire service personnel

should be considered as users of building features

and fire protection systems. While far less frequent

than mechanical events or other failures, fire can

cause greater destruction in terms of property loss,

disruption of operations, injury, and death. 

Designers routinely consider the needs and

comfort of building occupants when arranging a

building’s layout and systems. Within the framework of codes and standards, design options may

be exercised to benefit a particular owner, tenant,

or user. For example, a building code would typically dictate the minimum number of lavatories and

water fountains. However, the location, distribution,

and types of such facilities are left to the designer

in consultation with the client.

The application of fire protection features in

buildings is similar. For instance, a fire code may

require the installation of a fire department connection for a sprinkler system or an annunciator for a

fire alarm system. However, there may be little or

no guidance as to the location, position, features,

or marking of such devices. This manual provides

this type of guidance to designers. However, specific local requirements or preferences may differ.

Input should always be obtained from local code

officials and the fire service organization, the

“client” in this case.

SCOPE

This manual is to be used voluntarily, as a companion to mandatory and advisory provisions in building

codes, life safety codes, fire codes, safety regulations, and installation standards for fire protection

systems. The material contained in this document

focuses on ways that building and fire protection

system designers can contribute to the efficiency of

fire suppression operations. 

This material is applicable to all fire service

organizations, including fire brigades and fire

departments. Many of the considerations in the following chapters will also help during responses for

other emergencies, such as hazardous materials

releases, emergency medical care, non-fire rescues,

and terrorist events.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

(Fig. 1.1) Commercial building fire at night with 

multiple exposures.

5
Users of this manual must understand its limitations. It is directed to designers of buildings and

fire protection systems to help them build on existing codes and standards to assist the fire service.

For example, the topic of emergency radio communications can be extensive; however, its treatment

here is limited to the equipment in buildings that

can support radio communications. Likewise, there

are entire standards and books written about sprinkler, standpipe, and fire alarm design. However,

this manual covers only portions of those systems

with which the fire service interacts and suggests

design details that will help streamline or support

fire service operations.

A FIRE SERVICE PRIMER

This section will give those outside the fire service

a basic understanding of how the fire service operates during an emergency. It will also familiarize

them with the varying capabilities and organizations involved in fire fighting.

Fire service organizations can be classified as

career, volunteer, or a combination of both. Career

staff members are paid for their work, while volunteer members are unpaid. Combination organizations have both career and volunteer staff. Career

organizations typically serve the larger, more urban

or industrial settings, although many smaller cities

or towns will have a full or partial career staff.

Volunteer organizations are usually found in more

suburban or rural settings, although some serve

densely populated areas and have very high emergency response rates.

Another way to categorize fire departments is by

whether fire stations are staffed with personnel

ready to respond. Most career organizations have

personnel who remain in the station while on duty.

However, “call firefighters” are paid on a perresponse or hourly basis and do not remain in their

station awaiting emergency calls. Most volunteers

respond from home or work when they are alerted

to an emergency. On the other hand, there are

organizations that have volunteer personnel

staffing their stations on shifts or even living in the

stations.

Another fire service organization is the industrial

fire brigade. This is an organized group of employees specifically trained to provide fire suppression,

and perhaps related emergency activities, for a specific employer. Members may be dedicated full

time to emergency operations, or emergency

response may be a part-time, collateral duty.

A typical emergency begins with the discovery

and reporting of an incident. The time span of this

phase can vary greatly, and the fire service has no

control over this. After the report is received, the

information is processed and the appropriate units

are alerted. Those firefighters not staffing the station (whether volunteer, paid on-call, or collateral

duty fire brigade members) must travel to the station. Firefighters then don their protective equipment, board the vehicles, and the response phase

begins. In some organizations or scenarios, members not staffing the station may go directly to the

incident scene.

(Fig. 1.2) A view from above of both a pumper (top) and

an aerial apparatus (bottom), in this case a platform type

of aerial.

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Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
The fire service response to a structure fire

would normally involve a number of different

units. Fire department vehicles are called apparatus; one is sometimes referred to as a “piece” of

apparatus. They come in a wide variety of forms

for specialized uses; however, the basic types are

pumper and aerial apparatus (Figure 1.2).

A pumper apparatus normally carries hose, a

pump, and a small water tank. Together with its

personnel, this is called an engine company. Their

main responsibility is to deliver water to the fire.

Initially, the engine company may operate using the

water available in their tank; however, any incidents

other than small exterior fires will typically require

that a continuous water supply be established.

This is done via hose lines carrying water from a

source of supply (fire hydrant, lake, pond, temporary basin) to the on-board pump, which then

boosts the pressure to hose lines or other devices

attacking the fire.

An aerial apparatus is typically equipped with a

long aerial ladder or elevating platform on top, an

assortment of ground ladders, and many power

and hand tools. Together with its personnel, this is

often called a truck (or ladder) company. They are

responsible for all support functions, including

forcible entry, search, rescue, laddering, and ventilation. If aerial apparatus is not available, these

truck company functions must be performed by

another unit. 

There is also an apparatus called a “quint. ”

Each of these vehicles is equipped as both a

pumper and an aerial apparatus to perform either

function. If provided with adequate staffing, and

positioned properly at an incident, quints can perform both functions.

Upon arrival at an incident, firefighters must

handle many tasks. Standard operating procedures

should enable firefighters to quickly assess the situation, and initially arriving units to go into operation (Figure 1.3). Rescuing of occupants is the first

priority, followed by confining and extinguishing

the fire. In some cases, firefighters must stop the

fire before proceeding with rescues. 

Incident command begins with the rapid gathering of information by the first arriving officer. This

is called “size-up. ” Incident command expands

as additional units and chief officers arrive.

Commanders must base strategies on the limited

information available at any given time regarding

the fire, the building, and the occupants. As they

receive additional information, commanders should

revise their strategies. As needed, they can call for

additional resources. Units from another jurisdiction or district that respond are referred to as

“mutual aid” units.

As the fire incident is brought under control, 

salvage, overhaul, and investigation activities take

place. These activities, although dangerous and

important, are less time-sensitive. As a result, they

are less of a consideration for building and fire protection system designers.

(Fig. 1.3) During initial

operation at this structure, the first arriving

engine crew is already

using a fire lane, a 

fire hydrant, the fire

department connection,

and the key box.

Interior operation will

soon involve the alarm 

system, stairways,

standpipe system, and

other building features.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 7
FIRE SERVICE CHALLENGES

Fire service operations take place in stressful, timesensitive environments (Figure 1.4). Delaying

operations, even slightly, especially during the critical initial phase when the first arriving resources

are committed, can adversely affect subsequent

operations and the outcome. Delays caused by

poorly located fire hydrants, confusing alarm information, ineffective communication systems, or

inaccessible valves will have a ripple effect on the

other portions of the operation. During these

delays, the fire will be growing exponentially.

Members of the fire service perform their functions during all times of the day or night, in any

weather conditions, and frequently in unfamiliar

environments. Their work environment is dangerous, mentally stressful, and physically exhausting. Decisions must often be made without an

ideal amount of information, due to the many

unknowns on the fireground (such as what is on

fire, how much is burning, where the fire is spreading, and where the occupants are located). 

These factors stack the deck against the safety

of firefighters. Even simplifying the firefighters’ job

in small ways will increase the level of safety for

them, and thereby for building occupants. Design

features that save time or personnel can make a

great difference. Any feature that provides additional information regarding the fire, the building, or the occupants, as well as any method to

speed the delivery of this information also helps.

Pre-incident plans (often called “preplans”) are

documents prepared by fire departments to assist

in emergency operations in specific facilities. They

should contain the location of, and information

about, the fire protection features discussed in this

manual. Preplans are usually prepared and maintained by the unit that normally responds first, or is

“first due,” to a particular facility. One could

argue that some of the considerations in this manual are not necessary if the fire department prepares

thorough preplans. However, the best pre-incident

planning cannot overcome situations where the

first due unit is committed on another response,

out of position, or out of service. Nor can it foresee

changes in personnel. It is simply unrealistic to

count on all responding personnel to be aware of

the pre-incident plan. 

Pre-incident planning makes sense but it will

always have limitations. Fire departments and firefighters that are more familiar with features of

buildings in their response area are better prepared

to deal with fires and other emergencies. Designers

can assist in pre-incident planning by providing

copies of building and system plans (paper or electronic) to the fire service after first seeking permission from the building owner.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) statistics show a steady decline of fire-related deaths

in the U.S. during the 1990s. During that same

decade, however, the number of firefighter fatalities

has remained relatively steady. The National Fallen

Firefighters Foundation has developed a list of

safety initiatives to reduce firefighter line-of-duty

deaths and is playing a lead role in their implementation.

MANUAL ORGANIZATION AND USE

Each chapter of this manual includes a narrative

describing the specific building feature and how 

the fire department interacts with it. Boxes, entitled

“Considerations, ” highlight specific items that a

designer should consider for each topic. Photos

and diagrams illustrate both good and bad examples of concepts and recommendations.

(Fig. 1.4) Firefighters arriving at a high-rise fire. During this 

operation, firefighters will interact with most of the features 

discussed in this manual. To successfully mitigate an incident

of this nature, firefighters must make many decisions rapidly,

and carry out various operations simultaneously. Time saved

due to design with the fire service in mind will translate into

increased firefighter and occupant safety.

8

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
Although this manual contains generic considerations, designers should seek and follow the advice

of the fire service organization serving each project

they work on. In some cases, the fire department

will have statutory authority to take part in the plan

review, permit process, and inspections of these

facilities or to approve some features of the building or site. In any case, it is wise to also include the

fire service at an early stage in the design process,

when changes are easier and less costly. 

There are many ways for the fire protection

community to disseminate or incorporate the information in this manual. Simply handing it out to

designers is a great start. Developing a handout

based on this document that is specific to a particular jurisdiction is another good strategy. The recommendations can also serve as a basis for local

code amendments which carry the force of law.

Many of the recommendations in this manual

cost nothing to implement. They simply provide

direction in cases where the model codes or consensus standards allow options. Designers can

implement these recommendations directly, in consultation with the fire department. Other recommendations in this manual may carry costs,

depending on the particular codes adopted in a

given jurisdiction. In such cases, those who would

be affected by these costs should be consulted. 

Codes and standards typically include a clause

that permits the code official to allow alternatives to

strict compliance, as long as the prescribed level of

safety is not diminished. In some cases, a higher

level of safety for firefighters can be achieved

through this process. For example, a voluntary

radio repeater system may provide more protection

(and may also be less costly to install) than a coderequired firefighter communication system.

Equivalent alternatives should be documented

along with justification.

This manual may also serve as a resource for

those interested in improving codes and standards

for building or fire protection system design.

While current codes in the U.S. provide for firefighter safety, much more remains to be accomplished. For instance, building codes in the U.K.

have specific fire service provisions, such as dedicated, protected fire stairs and elevators. Streamlining and simplifying fire service operations should

be considered an integral part of the overall fire

safety framework for the built environment.

TERMINOLOGY

The terminology used in this manual is as generic

as possible, just as it is in the standards of the

National Fire Protection Association and the

International Code Council. Many variations in

terms will be encountered in different areas of the

U.S. or in other countries. For example, this manual

uses the term “aerial apparatus” to describe a fire

service vehicle with a long, aerial ladder. Yet, in this

country alone, other terms used to describe the

same vehicle include: “truck, ” “ladder, ” “aerial, ”

“ladder truck, ” “tower, ” or “tower ladder. ” Or,

in some cases, the same terms could be used to

describe a particular aerial fire apparatus.

Similarly, in some areas the term “truck” refers

only to aerial apparatus, while in other areas this

term could also include pumper apparatus. 

In another example of potentially confusing 

terminology, fire apparatus drivers in some areas

of the country are referred to as “engineers.”

Consider the situation of an architect speaking to a

fire officer in an area where this terminology is

used. You can easily see how the fire officer could

use the term “engineer” to mean a driver, while

the architect interprets the term as a building

design engineer.

The editions of the codes and standards referenced in this manual are not included. The information and requirements referenced in this manual

are from the latest editions available during the

manual's development in 2004. Subsequent revisions to these codes and standards may change the

sections or the requirements referenced. The editions adopted by local or state laws in a given jurisdiction may vary. 

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 9
AHJ (Authority Having Jurisdiction): the entity

legally designated to enforce a code or standard.

Apparatus: fire service vehicle.

Apparatus, aerial: apparatus that carries ladders

and tools.

Apparatus, pumper: apparatus that carries hose,

a pump, and a water tank.

Apparatus, quint: apparatus that contains aerial

and pumper equipment.

Code Official: a fire code official, building code

official, or authority having jurisdiction.

Code Official, Building: person legally designated

to enforce a building code.

Code Official, Fire: person legally designated to

enforce a fire code.

Engine company: pumper apparatus and 

personnel.

First due unit: engine company or truck company designated to respond first to an incident at a

given location.

Hose lay, straight (or forward): an engine company evolution (task) to lay hose from a water

source to an incident scene or another unit.

Hose lay, reverse: an engine company evolution

(task) to lay hose from an incident scene or

another unit to a water source.

Hose line, preconnected: a hose of fixed length

with a nozzle attached and connected to a discharge outlet on a pumper.

IBC: International Building Code.

IFC: International Fire Code.

Ladder company: aerial apparatus and personnel.

NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.

NFPA 1: Uniform Fire Code.

NFPA 101: Life Safety Code.

NFPA 241: Standard for Safeguarding

Construction, Alteration, and Demolition

Operations.

NFPA 1141: Standard for Fire Protection in

Planned Building Groups.

NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety

Code.

Pre-incident plan: document containing information on a specific facility to facilitate emergency

operations.

Truck company: aerial apparatus and personnel.

1 0

Occupational Safety and 

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GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS
Chapter 2

Building and Site Design

GENERAL

The faster the fire service can respond, enter,

locate the incident, and safely operate in a building, the sooner they can mitigate an incident in a

safe manner for themselves as well as occupants.

This chapter contains guidance on this topic for

both building site layout and interior design features. Those preparing design documents such as

site plans, civil plans, foundation plans, and architectural layouts would typically use this information. Building designers desiring to locate fire protection systems features should consult the appropriate chapters of this manual for further guidance.

FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS

Properly positioning fire apparatus can be critical at

a fire scene. In particular, placing aerial apparatus is

critical for positioning of the aerial ladder or elevating platform, which is mounted on top of these

vehicles (Figure 2.1). Pumper apparatus also need

to get close enough to the building to facilitate hose

line use. The location of other specialized apparatus, or small vehicles, such as chief’s cars or ambulances, should only be of particular concern to the

designer of unusual facilities. For instance, a sports

arena may need to be designed for entry of ambulances but not fire apparatus. 

Many structures are situated on public streets

that provide fire fighting access. Others, which are

set back from public streets, have private fire apparatus access lanes or “fire lanes, ” for short. These

enable fire apparatus to approach the building and

operate effectively (Figure 2.2). Fire lanes can be

dedicated to fire service use, or can serve ordinary

vehicular traffic as well.

There are many considerations for both public

roads and fire lanes: clear width, clear height,

length, turn radius, arrangement, distance from the

building, and paving materials. In all cases, the

most stringent practicable dimensions should be

considered for design, since future apparatus purchases or mutual aid apparatus from other jurisdictions may exceed the specifications required in a

given jurisdiction at any given time.

Extent of Access

Minimum building access for fire apparatus is a

function of the access road reaching to within a certain distance of all portions of the building’s first

(Fig. 2.1) Good aerial apparatus access at an apartment

fire. This fire lane is wide enough to allow passing even

when aerial outriggers are extended, and it is located a

proper distance from the building to facilitate aerial 

operations.

(Fig. 2.2) Fire lane dimensions, reprinted with permission

from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Code Handbook, © 2003,

National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 1 1
floor exterior walls. This limit in NFPA 1 and the IFC

is 150 feet for buildings without a complete sprinkler system. For fully sprinklered buildings, NFPA 1

permits this distance to be increased to 450 feet;

the IFC leaves this decision up to the discretion of

the code official. Further, NFPA 1 requires that the

road extend to within 50 feet of an exterior door

providing interior access. 

The distance from the building to a road or fire

lane is sometimes referred to as “setback distance. ” NFPA 1141 has additional guidelines for

access locations versus building location, with variations depending upon building size, height,

sprinkler protection, and separation from other

buildings.

Perimeter Access

The options available for attacking a fire increase as

more of a building’s perimeter becomes accessible

to fire apparatus (Figure 2.3). A concept, known

as “frontage increase, ” appears in the IBC and

NFPA 5000. If a structure has more than a certain

percentage of its perimeter accessible to fire

apparatus, these codes allow the maximum size

of the building to be increased. Ideally, the full

perimeter would be accessible.

During renovations, designers should use particular caution to ensure that the perimeter access

continues to meet the NFPA requirements of fire

(Fig. 2.3) A combination

of two public roads and

two private fire lanes provides full perimeter

access to this building.

and building codes. The original building site may

have been based on a frontage increase. Changing

the amount of perimeter access can result in noncompliant building size.

Number of Fire Lanes

A single access route is a basic requirement in both

NFPA 1 and the IFC. However, both codes allow the

code official or AHJ to require additional access

routes due to various factors that could inhibit

access (such as terrain, climate, or vehicle congestion). NFPA 1141 requires two access routes for

buildings over two stories or 30 feet in height.

Multiple fire lanes should be as far removed from

one another as practicable. 

Turnarounds

Long, dead-end fire lanes or roads should provide 

a means for fire apparatus to turn around. Both

NFPA 1 and the IFC require turnaround space for

dead-ends that are more than 150 feet long. There

are a number of configurations that facilitate turning maneuvers. These include, “T-turn, ” “Y-turn, ”

and round cul-de-sac style arrangements (Figures

2.4 and 2.5 for NFPA diagrams). NFPA 1141

requires a 120-foot turnaround at the end of deadends more than 300 feet long. Turnaround diagrams also can be found in Appendix D of the IFC. 

1 2

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
Clear Width

The basic clear width requirement for apparatus

access in the IFC and NFPA 1 is 20 feet. NFPA 1141

calls for one-way fire lanes that are 16 feet wide;

however, this applies to roads that do not abut

buildings. A clear width of 20 feet will allow most

aerial apparatus to extend the outriggers necessary

to support the aerial ladder or elevating platform

while in operation (Figures 1.2 and 2.1). However,

some recently manufactured aerial apparatus 

require 24 feet of clear width for outrigger extension.

Lanes wide enough for apparatus to pass one

another will facilitate developing and expanding

operations. NFPA 1141 contains a 24-foot clear

width requirement for two-way fire lanes. Appendix D of the IBC calls for a 26-foot clear width at fire

hydrant locations, extending for a distance of 20

feet in both directions, as well as a 26-foot width in

the vicinity of buildings that are 30 feet or more in

height (for aerial operations). NFPA 1141 also contains guidance on access in parking lots.

Rolled or rounded curbs adjacent to properly

designed sidewalks can effectively increase access

width. These allow apparatus to easily negotiate

curbs.

Height

The basic requirement for clear height of fire lanes

in the IFC, NFPA 1 and NFPA 1141 is 13 feet 6 inches. Some modern aerial apparatus may require 14

feet of clearance. Potential for accumulation 

of snow and ice should be factored into height

requirements. The NFPA 1 handbook recommends

at least 14 feet in colder climates. Newer aerial

apparatus may also require additional height.

Finally, avoid overhead wires or other obstructions

when determining fire lane locations.

(Fig. 2.4) Fire apparatus “Y-” and “T-turnarounds.”

Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire

Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA.

(Fig. 2.5) Fire apparatus cul-de-sac turnaround. 

Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire

Code Handbook, © 2003, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 1 3
Building Proximity 

In areas with aerial apparatus that may respond to

an emergency, the road or fire lane should be positioned at a distance from the building that will

accommodate aerial ladder operation. Access too

close or too far from the building will limit aerial

ladder use. Where a fire lane is parallel to a building that is more than 30 feet high, Appendix D of

the IFC calls for the near edge of the lane to be

between 15 and 30 feet away from the building. 

Turn Radius

The IFC and NFPA 1 leave turn radius requirements

to the code official and AHJ. However, NFPA 1141

requires a minimum inside turn radius of 25 feet

and a minimum outside radius for turns of 50 feet.

The cul-de-sac depicted in Figure 2.5 shows an

effective inside turn radius of 40 feet. Further, NFPA

1141 requires 2-foot curb cuts on either side of a

fire lane where it connects to a road. 

Grade

NFPA 1 sets a maximum grade (slope) of 5 percent

for fire lanes. NFPA 1141 specifies a 10 percent maximum, as well as a 0.5 percent minimum to prevent

pooling of water. However, some manufacturers

have lower limits for specific apparatus. When aerial

apparatus is set up for operation, the vehicle body

must be leveled with the outriggers. The least grade

possible would allow for the most rapid setup.

Loads

All access roads or lanes should be built to withstand the loads presented by modern, heavy fire

apparatus as well as potential weather conditions.

Paved surfaces, bridges, and other elevated surfaces (such as piers or boardwalks) should be

designed to handle the weight of all apparatus that

may use them. The IFC Appendix D has a load

design requirement of 75,000 pounds. U.S.

Department of Transportation standards dictate

requirements for both load and frequency. The IFC

references the Standard Specification for Highway

Bridges from the American Association of State

Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

Materials

All-weather paved access is the best surface. Some

jurisdictions permit the use of paver blocks or subsurface construction for fire lanes (Figure 2.6).

These permit an area to be partially or fully landscaped, while being strong enough to allow fire

apparatus to negotiate the area. However, these

materials do have inherent limitations. Unless their

perimeter is clearly marked, it is easy to drive off

the edge. Also, in regions subject to snow accumulation, areas with paver blocks and subsurface construction cannot be plowed effectively (Figure 2.7).

(Fig. 2.7) The same paver block access lane as shown in

Figure 2.6, but covered with snow. Access is blocked by a

mound of snow plowed from the adjacent parking lot.

(Fig. 2.6) Paver blocks were chosen instead of paving for

this access road. The aesthetic benefits are minimal, and

the road cannot be plowed effectively.

1 4

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
(Fig. 2.9) The delays caused by electronic gates can be

minimized by providing the fire department with access

cards or remote access controls. 

(Fig. 2.8) Manual gates cause inherent delays because

personnel must dismount to unlock them or cut through

chains. However, they can also help keep the fire access

lane clear by preventing vehicle parking.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 1 5

Gates, Barricades and Security Measures

Security concerns may impact fire service access.

Gates (manual, electric, or radio controlled), bollards, pop-up barricades, and other perimeter

controls can delay fire service operations. On the

other hand, these access control measures can

assist in keeping vehicular traffic away from fire

lanes (Figures 2.8 through 2.10). During the design

phase of a project, careful coordination between

those responsible for security and fire protection

can help resolve both concerns. In addition, proper

gate size, location, and swing can facilitate fire service access. Wooden bollards are designed with cuts

near their bases to allow access when apparatus

bump them and break them. However, this results

in delays while they are broken and cleared from

the path of the apparatus, and may also cause

damage. 

Speed Control Measures

Speed bumps or humps can impact fire apparatus

access. Due to their suspension, these vehicles

must come to a nearly complete stop to pass over

these bumps, delaying arrival to a fire scene.

Some special speed bump designs allow for fire

apparatus to straddle bumps, while passenger

vehicles cannot do so. Dips should also be avoided

so that long wheel-base vehicles do not hit bottom and damage undercarriage components and

overhanging equipment.

Marking

Fire lane signage is important, both for the public

and enforcement officials (Figure 2.8). Examples

include signs, curb painting, or curb stenciling. A

jurisdiction’s requirements must be followed exactly to ensure that no-parking provisions are legally

enforceable. Speed bumps should be conspicuously painted, and signs indicating their location should

be posted in climates subject to accumulation of

snow and ice. Load limits should be posted conspicuously on both ends of bridges or elevated surfaces.

(Fig. 2.10) Pop-up barricades such as these are appearing more frequently due to security concerns. Unless

security forces are constantly present to operate them,

however, the fire department should be provided with a

means to do so. 
PREMISES IDENTIFICATION

The fire service must be able to rapidly identify and

locate a specific building. Address numbers should

be placed on the building facing the street or road

on which the building is addressed. If the building

entry faces a different street, both the street name

and the number should be on the address sign. 

Numbers should be large enough to read from

the street or road. If this is not possible due to the

location of the building or due to obstructions,

additional signs should be provided (Figure 2.11).

The IFC specifies that address numbers be a minimum of 4 inches high. Some jurisdictions have a

higher minimum height requirement, especially for

commercial properties. The number should be in

Arabic numerals rather than spelled out (for example, “120” instead of “One Hundred Twenty”).

Buildings set back in groups that share common

entrances can make quickly locating a specific

building and the shortest route to it difficult. On

such sites, additional signs with directional arrows

and/or diagrams of the buildings and access layout

should be posted (Figures 2.12 and 2.13).

Whenever possible, signs should be illuminated.

In areas subject to snow accumulation, signs should

be positioned above anticipated accumulations.

See the section Firefighter Access on page 21

for signage to assist the fire service in identifying

portions of a building, or interior layouts.

Considerations – Fire Apparatus Access

■ Extent of Access: Within 150 feet of the farthest exterior point; can be farther in sprinklered buildings.

■ Perimeter Access: As many sides of the building and as much of the perimeter as possible;

take advantage of frontage increases.

■ Number of Fire Lanes: More than one when

dictated by code official or AHJ.

■ Turnarounds: Provided for on all dead-ends

more than 150 feet long.

■ Clear Width (excluding parking): Minimum 20

feet; preferably, 24 feet to allow passing and

26 feet in the vicinity of fire hydrants or points

of aerial access.

■ Clear Height: Minimum 13 feet 6 inches; higher where subject to accumulations of snow

and ice.

■ Obstructions: Avoid overhead wires and other

obstructions.

■ Proximity to Buildings for Aerial Operations: If

parallel to buildings more than 30 feet high,

locate near edge 15–30 feet away.

■ Turn Radius: Minimum 25 feet inside and 50

feet outside.

■ Curb Cut: If provided, extend 2 feet beyond on

each side of intersecting fire lane. 

■ Grade (slope): Maximum 5 percent; least

grade possible for aerial operation areas.

■ Load: Access routes, both on grade and elevated, designed for the largest possible apparatus load.

■ Materials: Design access routes for all-weather

use.

■ Security Measures: To minimize delays, specify

that keys, electronic access cards, or remote

access controls are provided to the fire department. 

■ Barricades: Use non-destructive gates or posts

rather than breakaway bollards.

■ Gate Size: At least 2 feet wider than fire lanes.

■ Gate Location: At least 30 feet from public

right-of-way.

■ Gate Swing: Away from direction of fire apparatus travel.

■ Speed Bumps: Avoid them, or design them for

fire apparatus. 

■ Signage: Provide for no-parking areas, and for

load limits.

■ Special Apparatus: May require more stringent

criteria than above.

(Fig. 2.11) Supplemental address sign at the entrance

serving this building set far back from the road.

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Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
Considerations – Premises Identification

■ Location: Addresses should be on each building.

■ Numeral size: At least 4 inches high for single

family homes, and preferably 6 inches high for

all other properties; larger if necessary to be

visible from the street.

■ Numerals: Addresses (numbers) should be in

Arabic numerals.

■ Color: Addresses should be in a color that contrasts with the background.

■ Provide street name with the address number

for entrances facing other streets.

■ Provide additional address signs at entrances

to the property when the building address is

not legible from the public street.

■ Common entrances: Provide directional or diagrammatic signs for groups of buildings sharing common entrances; include locations of

fire hydrants, fire department connections,

and fire alarm annunciator panels.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 1 7

(Fig. 2.12) Directional address sign at the entrance of a

property. 

(Fig. 2.13) Diagrammatic sign showing an entire complex

of buildings and their address(es). The addition of fire

hydrant locations (and any other fire protection features)

would assist responding firefighters.
FIRE HYDRANTS

Optimal positioning, spacing, location, and marking of fire hydrants can aid the fire service during

emergency operations. Public fire hydrants are

often under the purview of a local water authority, many of whom use American Water Works

Association (AWWA) standards for fire flow and

other criteria. The building design team is often

responsible for hydrants and water supply systems

on privately owned property sites. Both the IFC

and NFPA 1 include appendices that give criteria for

fire flow, and fire hydrant location and distribution.

Other criteria can be found in NFPA 24, Standard

for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and

their Appurtenances. 

(Fig. 2.14) This hydrant should not have been located

where it is likely to be blocked. Loading docks, by nature,

will likely have vehicles parked. This is an example of

building a potential deficiency into a facility. The truck

could prevent use of the large pumper connection or

cause the base to be kinked when used. Note the yellow

bollards which protect the hydrant from vehicle collision.

(Fig. 2.15) Here is a pumper connected

to a hydrant by its front-mounted suction hose. The pumper end of the hose

has a swivel to facilitate reaching

hydrants on either side.

1 8

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

Features

Typically, hydrants have a large suction hose connection (41

/2 inches is a common size) called a

“pumper outlet” or a “steamer” connection. Plus,

they normally have two, 21/2 inch hose connections.

Both wet-barrel type hydrants and the dry-barrel

types used in areas subject to freezing have these

features. Dry hydrants (those connected to a static

source such as a tank, well, or pond) often have

only a large connection or pumper outlet. Criteria

for dry hydrants can be found in NFPA 1142,

Standard for Water Supplies for Suburban and

Rural Firefighting.

Hose can be connected directly to a fire hydrant

only if the connections match those needed by the

area fire service. This includes type (threaded or

quick-connect), thread style and size of connection.

If the connections do not match, adapters (if available) will slow response.

Position

Optimal location and positioning of hydrants facilitates rapid connection of hose lines and devices.

Considerations for designers include height, orientation, distance from the curb, and distance from

surrounding obstructions (Figure 2.14). A clear

distance is essential around the hydrant to enable

a hydrant wrench to be swung 360 degrees (see

Figure 2.16b) on any operating nut or cap nut. If

the nearby obstruction is a plant or bush, consider

its potential growth when planning for hydrant

placement. 
Spacing

Maximum distance between hydrants differs greatly, depending on various local standards. IFC and

NFPA 1 both include tables within appendices that

enable a designer to find the required fire flow for

any given building, and then select the corresponding hydrant spacing. Where apparatus may approach from different directions, hydrants should

be placed primarily at intersections. If additional

hydrants are needed to comply with local spacing

requirements, they should be spaced along blocks

at regular intervals.

Location

Pumpers may utilize hydrants in different ways.

If the fire is close enough, a pumper can be positioned at a hydrant and use a large-diameter suction hose (Figure 2.15). Pumpers in urban and suburban areas with hydrants are generally equipped

with large-diameter suction hoses connected to an

intake on the pumper’s front bumper, rear step, or

side. This suction hose may be as short as 15 feet.

In many urban areas, however, pumpers carry

longer suction hoses in order to reach hydrants on

the opposite side of a single line of parallel parked

cars.

If a fire is not close to a particular hydrant, a

pumper may have to lay one or more hose lines

between the hydrant and the fire. If a pumper lays

a supply hose line from a hydrant towards the

building with the fire emergency, this is called a

“straight” or “forward” hose lay (Figures 2.16a and

2.16b). The opposite (laying supply hose from a

building on fire to a hydrant farther down the

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 1 9

(Fig. 2.16a) Pumper stopping to 

initiate a forward hose lay from a

hydrant.

(Fig. 2.16b) The same pumper completing the straight lay towards the

fire scene, and a firefighter preparing

to operate the hydrant after the hose

is safely layed out.

(Fig. 2.16c) Pumper performing a

reverse hose lay from a fire scene

(to feed the monitor nozzle shown)

towards a hydrant.

street) is called a “reverse lay” (Figure 2.16c).

Many fire departments use one or the other of

these options as their standard procedure.

Designers should take this into account when

locating hydrants. For instance, hydrants at the

end of dead-end streets will not facilitate straight

hose lays.

Hydrants that are too close to a particular building are less likely to be used due to potential fire

exposure or collapse. Locating hydrants at least 40

feet away from protected buildings is recommended. If this is not possible, consider locations with

blank walls, no windows or doors, and where structural collapse is unlikely (such as building corners).

A rule of thumb for collapse zone size is twice the

distance of the building’s height. This is not

a consideration in urban areas, where a multitude

of hydrants are available for any given location.

Marking

A number of methods are used to enable firefighters to rapidly identify hydrant locations. The color

used for hydrants should contrast as much as possible with the predominating surroundings. Some

localities place reflective tape around the hydrant

body. Other jurisdictions mount reflectors (usually

blue) in the roadway in front of each hydrant; however, in cold weather climates these reflectors are

often obstructed by snow. 

The best way to identify hydrants in areas subject to snowy weather is a locator pole which is visible above the highest expected snowfall. These are
reflective or contrasting in color, and some have a

flag, sign, or reflector mounted on top (Figure 2.17).

These poles should be flexible enough to return to

their upright position if someone tampers with them,

or rigid enough to prevent this type of tampering.

Some jurisdictions or sites go so far as mounting a

light (usually red or blue) above the hydrants. 

A color coding system may indicate flow capability of hydrants. One such system is contained in

NFPA 291, Recommended Practice for Fire Flow

Testing and Marking of Hydrants.

During construction or demolition, fire hydrants

may be out of service. Designers should specify

that inoperative hydrants be covered or marked

during their projects, so that firefighters will not

waste time attempting to use them.

(Fig. 2.17) One example of a hydrant locator

pole with a reflective flag.

Considerations – Fire Hydrants

■ Position: Orient the pumper outlet toward the

access lane or street.

■ Height: Center of lowest outlet should be 18

inches above grade.

■ Location: Within 5 feet of an access lane or

street; preferably with no intervening parking.

■ Protection: Provide bollards if there is no curb

between the road surface and the hydrant;

locate at least 3 feet from the hydrant.

■ Obstructions: Locate 3 feet from any surrounding obstructions.

■ Consider fire department approach directions

and hose-laying procedures when locating

hydrants.

■ Avoid locations likely to be blocked, such as

loading docks.

■ Position hydrants at least 40 feet from buildings they serve. 

■ Specify a hydrant marking system; in cold climates, use distinctive poles.

■ Where possible, color code hydrants to indicate flow.

■ Specify that inoperative hydrants be covered

or marked. 

2 0

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
FIREFIGHTER ACCESS

Once firefighters have arrived and positioned their

apparatus, they must go to work. Some factors

affecting their efficiency include: the distance and

terrain between the apparatus access and the building; how easily they can enter the building; the

building’s interior layout and vertical access

(stairs/elevators/roof access); and, how quickly firefighters can locate fire protection features and utilities. The designer can make a positive impact in all

of these areas. 

Site access

Firefighters must hand carry all equipment beyond

the point where apparatus access ends. Increased

distance translates into additional time and effort to

set up ladders, hose lines, and other equipment. If

the area is easy to negotiate by foot, firefighters

can move more quickly. The IFC and NFPA 1 contain requirements for access to building openings,

such as approved walkways that lead from the

apparatus access points to the entry doors.

Fire department pumpers carry hose lines for

attacking fires. These are usually smaller in diameter than the hose lines used to supply water to the

pumper from a water source. Many pumpers have

one or more hose loads of a fixed length connected

into a pump discharge. These are “pre-connected”

hose lines, often called simply “preconnects.” Firefighters deploy them rapidly for quick fire attack.

However, their useful range is limited by their

length, which is generally between 100 and 400

feet. Designers planning unusual designs for their

buildings or working with unusual sites should

coordinate with the local fire department regarding

hose line access unless a standpipe system is provided in the building.

Buildings under construction or renovation pose

their own particular concerns to the fire service.

Code provisions can be found in the IFC Chapter

14, IBC Chapter 33, NFPA 5000 Chapter 14, and

NFPA 241. Designers should consider the accessibility of fire department connections, fire

hydrants, and entry points. Some locations may

be more likely to be obstructed by construction

storage, truck unloading, cranes, phasing of the

construction, and security fences. Designers should

consider specifying these locations and the location

of temporary and permanent fire protection equipment to avoid conflicts (Figures 5.14 and 5.15).

Key Boxes and Entry Doors

If firefighters need to conduct interior fire suppression operations, they must enter the building at one

or more points. The fire service has an array of tools

to force entry into buildings. However, forcing entry

takes extra time and usually damages the building.

Key boxes (also called “access boxes” or “lock

boxes”) are small lockable vaults mounted outside

building entrances (Figure 2.18). They are opened

with a master key held by the fire department.

Inside the box are the building’s keys. Some jurisdictions require key boxes; others give building

owners the option of installing them, or risking the

need for firefighters to force entry into their buildings along with any resulting damage. Code officials enforcing the IFC and NFPA 1 may require key

boxes. When key boxes are optional, designers

may want to educate owners on their benefits.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 2 1

(Fig. 2.18) Key box adjacent to fire command center.

These boxes are often provided at main building entry

doors. Note the fire department connection on the left.
First arriving firefighters will often base their

point of entry on which windows have fire or smoke

venting from them. In most cases, entrances that

serve any particular window will be readily apparent from the outside. If it is not obvious which door

to enter to reach which area, signs or diagrams

should be provided outside each entrance door

indicating portions of the building accessible from

the corresponding door (Figure 2.19).

In multi-tenant buildings, such as shopping centers and malls, tenants usually have rear exit doors

that firefighters may access. Often these doors look

alike, making it hard to correlate a given door with a

particular tenant. Labeling rear doors on the outside

with the tenant’s name, address number and/or suite

number, using lettering at least six inches high with

a 1/2 inch stroke (thickness of lines in each letter) prevents this problem (Figure 2.20).

Any door that appears to be functional from the

outside, but is unusable for any reason, should

have a sign reading “THIS DOOR BLOCKED. ” The

lettering should be at least six inches high with a 1/2

inch stroke. If these doors are properly marked,

firefighters will not waste time trying to gain entry

through them. 

(Fig. 2.19) Apartment locator. This door does not access

apartments whose windows flank it.

(Fig. 2.20) Rear doors of a shopping center labeled for

rapid access: utility room, fire protection equipment

room, and individual tenant space.

2 2

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

Interior Access

Large, unusual, or complex buildings present a

challenge to maneuvering and locating specific

areas. Directional signs with room/tenant numbers,

and graphic directories of tenant/agency layout can

assist the public (Figure 2.21). The same diagrams

may assist firefighters if they include: stairway and

elevator identifiers, fire hose valve locations, fire

alarm control panel location, fire alarm annunciator

location, fire pump location and other fire protection features. Diagrams should also contain features to assist unfamiliar users with orientation,

such as road names or a compass point.

Detailed floor plans showing building layout and

fire protection systems can assist the fire service.

In buildings with fire command centers, a good

location for these plans is in this command center.

In other buildings, these plans may be locked inside

the fire alarm annunciator panel. 
Elevators

The use of elevators during fire incidents is very

controversial. Elevators are not usually used for

occupant evacuation. One exception is trained

operators evacuating occupants with special needs.

They should, however, be designed for fire service

use. The elevator standard widely referenced in

building and fire codes is ANSI A17.1, Safety Code

for Elevators and Escalators. It details the two

phases of emergency operation.

Phase 1 of elevator emergency operation consists of a recall system that automatically sends elevators to a “designated” primary level. This occurs

upon activation of a manual recall switch at the

designated level or upon activation of smoke detectors in the elevator lobbies, hoistways, or machine

rooms. If a detector is activated on the designated

primary level, the elevator cars go to an alternate

floor level. In either case, the elevators are rendered unavailable to building occupants. They

remain at the recall level with doors open, so the

fire service can quickly determine that they are

clear of occupants and then use them in a manual

control mode.

The designated recall level usually is the ground

or entry level. This will facilitate rapid fire department access. For buildings with entrances on

multiple levels, designers should consult the fire

department about the entrance firefighters intend

to use initially. The fire department may also prefer

to coordinate the designated recall level with the

location of the fire alarm annunciator, fire control

room, and/or the fire department connection. 

Phase 2 emergency operation permits the fire

service to use the elevators under their manual

control. Phase 2 operation overrides all automatic

controls, including the Phase 1 recall. 

Solid-state elevator control equipment operates

correctly only if maintained within a certain temperature range. NFPA 101, NFPA 5000, and the

IBC require independent ventilation in machine

rooms containing solid-state equipment that controls elevators traveling over certain distances.

Whenever such elevators receive emergency

power, their corresponding machine room ventilation would also receive emergency power. These

features help maintain at least one elevator operational throughout fire suppression operations.

Currently, ANSI A17.1 requires an automatic

power shutdown feature for elevators that have fire

sprinklers located in their machine rooms and,

under certain conditions, in hoistways. Shutdown

(2.21) Shopping complex diagram with views of the

overall complex as well as the interior tenant diagram 

of the building in which the diagram is located.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 2 3

Equipment and Utility Identification

A routine function in any advanced fire suppression

operation is to control (usually shut down) utilities.

Making it easy to locate and identify utilities will

speed firefighters’ progress. Electric, gas, and

other fuel controls should be located either in dedicated rooms with exterior marked entrances, or at

exterior locations away from openings such as windows or doors (Figure 2.20).

NFPA 170, Standard for Symbols for Use by the

Fire Service, contains symbols for marking gas and

electric shut-offs. Air handling equipment should

also be prominently marked, especially if located

out of sight. The fire service may need to quickly

access rooms containing the following equipment:

water service, control valves, fire pumps, electric

service, switchgear, generators, fans and other

mechanical equipment. Lettering for this signage

should be at least six inches high with a 1

/2 inch

stroke (thickness of lines in each letter), unless the

standard symbols are used.

Marking of fire protection system devices within

buildings is discussed further in the chapters on fire

alarm systems, sprinkler systems, standpipe systems, and fire department connections.
occurs upon or prior to the discharge of water, usually when heat detectors mounted next to each

sprinkler head are activated. These heat detectors have both a lower temperature rating and a

higher sensitivity (a lower response time index)

than the sprinkler. However, to minimize the

chance that firefighters will be trapped by a power

shutdown, the temperature rating of the heat detector should be as high as feasible. Another shutdown method involves water flow detectors;

however, these detectors cannot employ a time

delay, so designers seldom choose this method.

Note that in many cases NFPA 13, Standard for the

Installation of Sprinkler Systems, permits sprinklers

to be omitted from these areas.

The National Fire Alarm Code, NFPA 72, requires

that smoke detectors in either the elevator hoistway

or the elevator machine rooms trigger separate and

distinct visible annunciation at both the fire alarm

control unit and the fire alarm annunciator. This

alarm notifies firefighters that the elevators are no

longer safe to use, and it also provides some warning time prior to the shutdown feature that is

required with sprinkler protection. In addition, ANSI

A17.1 requires a warning light in elevator cabs to

flash when an elevator problem is imminent. 

Stairs

NFPA 1, NFPA 101, NFPA 5000, the IBC, and the IFC

all require that identification signage be provided

inside stairwells at every level (Figure 2.22). These

standards all require stairwell signs in buildings

over a certain height, but the height thresholds

vary. Signage should show the stair identifier, floor

level, terminus of the top and bottom, roof accessibility, discharge level, and direction to exit discharge. On floors that require upward travel to

reach the exit, a directional indicator should also

be provided. It is important that these signs be

located 5 feet above the floor and be visible with

the stair door open or closed. In hotels or other

buildings with room or suite numbers, the signs

should also include the room or suite numbers

most directly accessed by each stair on every level,

(i.e., second floor of stairway 3 has direct access to

rooms 202 through 256). The latter signage would

be extremely important where certain stairways

provide no access to some sections of the building. 

Buildings more than 3 stories in height above

grade should have roof access. The IBC and IFC

require this, except for buildings with steeplypitched roofs (with a more than 4:12 slope). 

As stated above, the IFC, the IBC, NFPA 5000,

and NFPA 241 contain special construction/demolition requirements. One stairway should be completed as construction advances. Conversely, as

demolition progresses, one stairway should be

maintained. These standards also address lighting

and fire rating of the enclosure. 

Stair Capacity

Building and fire codes typically require that stairs

accommodate exiting occupants. Fire service personnel who may use the stairs are not factored into

exit capacity calculations. In situations where occupants are still exiting and firefighters are using the

same stairs to enter the building (“counter-flow”),

the evacuation may take longer. 

Furthermore, in most cases, stairway capacity

is designed based on the floor with the highest

occupant load. Typically, stairs are not widened as

one travels in the direction of egress unless the

stairs converge from both above and below. This

approach assumes that people will evacuate in a

phased manner, beginning with the floor(s) closest

to the fire origin. In an immediate general evacuation, or when people from other areas self-evacuate, the increased load will slow evacuation.

Both of these bottlenecks will be made worse as

the height of the building increases. Furthermore,

total evacuation is becoming more commonplace

due to concerns about terrorism. 

(Fig. 2.22) Stairway ID sign.

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An effective solution to the counter-flow issue is

a dedicated firefighting stairway. Codes in the

United Kingdom contain specifications for such firefighting stairs, elevators, and intervening lobbies in

buildings of a certain height (Figure 2.23). Current

U.S. codes do not require dedicated stairways or

elevators. The disadvantages of dedicated firefighting stairways include: cost, space, and the effort

needed to keep them clear and in operating order.

A solution to egress delays caused by either

counter-flow or total evacuation is to provide additional exit capacity by means of additional stairs or

widened stairs. Cost and space are also disadvantages of this solution.

(Fig. 2.23) Dedicated firefighting stairway/elevator

tower. © Crown Copyright 2000 Queen’s Printer of

Acts of Parliament.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 2 5

Considerations - Firefighter Access

■ Consider firefighter foot access in site design.

■ Avoid using areas that are likely to be

obstructed (i.e., shipping and receiving areas).

■ Label blocked doors with exterior signage.

■ Coordinate temporary construction storage

and loading areas with access points and fire

protection features.

■ Provide key boxes when required; recommend

their use in other areas.

■ Locate key boxes as recommended by the particular fire department.

■ Include fire protection features on building

directories.

■ Provide signs or diagrams at limited access

entrances.

■ Identify rooms containing utility shutoffs and

fire protection equipment.

■ Coordinate elevator recall level with fire service operating procedures.

■ Design elevator shutdown feature to minimize

the chance of trapping firefighters.

■ Provide identification signs at each level of

every stairway.

■ Extend stairs up or down with construction or

demolition; consider the need for lighting and

rated enclosure.

■ Where total evacuation of a large building is

likely, consider additional egress capacity.

■ Where firefighter counter-flow is expected,

consider additional egress capacity or dedicated firefighting stairs.

These issues currently remain unresolved in the

code community; however, a designer may

encounter these issues on projects for large, highsecurity, or high-profile facilities. Further guidance

on the movement of people in buildings can be

found in the Society of Fire Protection Engineers’

publication, Human Behavior in Fire.
HAZARDS TO THE FIRE SERVICE

During a fire, any building may become inherently

unsafe for occupants and fire service personnel.

However, some building construction features

present unique or unexpected hazards. This section

discusses these hazards. 

Lightweight Construction

Trusses are widely used in construction to span

wide areas without the need for vertical supports,

reducing both material and construction costs

(Figure 2.24). Under ordinary conditions, trusses

work well and building codes have permitted this

type of construction for many years. However,

trusses often fail suddenly and totally during

fires. Both wood and metal trusses are made of

interdependent members which all fail if one

member fails. Adjacent trusses, in their weakened

state, are then unable to carry the additional load

and these also fail in quick succession. It is impossible for crews operating at a fire to predict the time

or extent of a collapse since they cannot see how

many trusses are affected, which components, and

to what extent.

Wood trusses have less mass than solid lumber,

which greatly reduces the “extra” wood compared

to solid joists that burn through more slowly and

provide indications to firefighters of an impending

collapse. The higher surface area-to-volume ratio of

trusses compared to joists allows trusses to burn

more quickly. In addition, the metal gusset plates

that hold wood truss components together may fail

quickly as fire consumes the wood in which the

gusset teeth are shallowly embedded. 

Many firefighters have been killed in collapses

attributed to trusses, particularly wooden ones,

since the 1970s. Incident commanders and/or safety officers typically consider the presence of trusses

in their fireground risk analysis. Marking these

buildings that include trusses makes this information immediately available to firefighters. The

State of New Jersey requires this as a direct

result of five firefighters losing their lives in

Hackensack in 1988 (Figure 2.25). 

Another component used to maximize construction efficiency is the wooden I-beam. Similar to

trusses, I-beams eliminate extra wood, thereby providing less warning prior to failure under fire conditions. However, they lack the metal gusset connection plates that appear to be at the root of many

wood truss failures.

(Fig. 2.24) Building with wood truss construction. The

adjacent finished building shows no indication from the

exterior that wood trusses were used in its construction.

(Fig. 2.25) New Jersey truss building identification

emblems.

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Wherever these lightweight construction techniques are used, serious consideration should be

given to providing sprinkler protection throughout

the building, if not already required. Sprinkler

protection of combustible concealed spaces is an

important feature for firefighter safety. 

Further discussion about lightweight construction can be found in “Building Construction for the

Fire Service, ” published by the NFPA.

Shaftways

Vertical shafts within buildings sometimes have

exterior openings accessible to firefighters. Any

such doors or windows should be marked “SHAFTWAY” on the exterior with at least 6 inch high lettering (Figure 2.26) as required by the IFC and NFPA 1.

This warns firefighters that this would be an unsafe

entry point. If properly marked, time will not be

wasted attempting entry at these points. 

Normally, interior openings to shafts are readily

discernable. Ordinary elevator doors are not likely

to be mistaken for anything else. However, other

interior shaft openings that could be mistaken for

ordinary doors or windows should also have shaftway marking.

Skylights

Without special precautions, roof-mounted skylights obscured by heavy smoke or snow may collapse under the weight of a firefighter. Skylights

should be designed to bear the same weight load

as the roof. The same applies to coverings over

unused skylights. If this is not practical, mount barriers around skylights to prevent firefighters from

inadvertently stepping on them. 

Considerations – Hazards to the Fire Service

■ Provide prominent exterior signs on all

buildings with truss construction.

■ Mark all exterior shaftway openings.

■ Mark all interior shaftway openings that are

not readily discernable.

■ Never design traps or pitfalls into buildings.

■ Use design precautions to prevent falls

through skylights.

(Fig. 2.26) Exterior shaftway marking.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 2 7
Chapter 3

Sprinkler Systems

GENERAL

Sprinkler systems provide early fire control or extinguishment, helping to mitigate the hazards for occupants and firefighters alike. Building codes, fire

codes, and life safety codes specify when to provide

sprinkler systems. These may be either locally written codes or adopted model codes such as the IBC,

the IFC, NFPA 1, NFPA 101, or NFPA 5000. In addition, various sections of the OSHA standards

require the installation of sprinkler systems.

A widely accepted installation standard for commercial system design is NFPA 13, Standard for the

Installation of Sprinkler Systems. Other standards

include: NFPA 13D, Standard for the Installation 

of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family

Dwellings and Mobile Homes; and NFPA 13R,

Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 

in Residential Occupancies up to and Including

Four Stories in Height. Designers may also refer

to NFPA 13E, Recommended Practice for Fire

Department Operations in Properties Protected by

Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems, although any

given fire service organization may follow different

standard operating procedures.

There is some flexibility in portions of the system that may impact the fire service. This chapter

provides guidance to designers so they may exercise this flexibility to benefit fire department operations. Fire department connections for sprinkler

systems are covered in Chapter 5. Standpipe systems (which are often integrated with sprinkler systems) are covered in Chapter 4. Sprinkler designers

should also see Chapter 6 for additional guidance

on fire alarm annunciation, and Chapter 7 for special coordination considerations about smoke control systems.

ZONING

It is important for sprinkler designers and fire alarm

designers to work together, especially in unusual

buildings. The fire alarm system will often have an

annunciator to indicate the location of the alarm to

the fire department. Sprinkler piping arrangement

will limit options for fire alarm annunciation of

water flow signals. Coordination is essential to furnish the fire service with clear information on the

fire or its location.

Sprinkler designers often think in terms of ceiling levels, since sprinkler piping and sprinkler heads

usually are at ceilings or roof decks. However,

alarm signals are reported in terms of their floor

level to enable the fire department to respond to

the correct floor during an emergency. Consider the

situation of a building with two levels adjacent to a

single level “high-bay” area. The first floor sprinkler zone should include both the high bay area and

the lower level of the two-level section because

each of these areas shares the same floor.

Meanwhile, the upper level of the two-story section

should have its own zone, even if the piping it contains is on the same level as the high bay area. 

In buildings with standpipe systems, sprinkler

systems are usually combined with them and fed

by a single water supply. Sprinkler systems are fed

from the bulk feed mains or from vertical standpipe

risers. NFPA 13 requires that sprinkler controls

remain independent of standpipe systems. Typically, all sprinklers would be located downstream

from a control valve that will not shut off any fire

hose connections (Figure 3.1). This enables the fire

department to shut off the sprinklers during the

rare occasions when a sprinkler pipe fails, or the

sprinklers are not controlling the fire. In this manner, hose connections remain available for manual

fire suppression without losing pressure from the

broken pipe, or the excessive number of activated

sprinklers. 

In some situations, when a building does not

include a standpipe system, NFPA 13 allows fire

hose connections to be fed from sprinkler systems.

In these cases, closing the sprinkler system valve

would shut off the fire hose connections. 

In some cases, sprinkler systems are fed from

two different standpipes or feed mains, in a “dualfeed” arrangement. Although this provides a

hydraulic design advantage, NFPA 13 recommends

against it to avoid confusion. If a designer chooses

this arrangement (and the code official permits it),

cross-reference signs should be provided at each

valve. Each of these signs would indicate the location of the companion valve that feeds the same

system. No single sprinkler system should be fed

from three or more points, since the flow from a

single sprinkler may not activate any of the flow

switches. 

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WATER SUPPLY CONTROL VALVES

Fire service personnel often need rapid access to

valves. If a valve is closed during an incident, it

may need to be opened to permit flow of water. If a

sprinkler valve is open, it may need to be closed to

assist in manual suppression efforts.

NFPA 13 requires marking for all water supply

control valves including main valves, pump valves,

sectional valves, and zone valves. The wording

“control valve” by itself does not tell a user the

specific use of the valve or what portion of the system is downstream of a particular valve. Using

more descriptive labels such as “12th floor” or

“pump bypass” will avoid confusion (Figure 3.1).

If a valve identification is not obvious, an additional diagram should be provided. For instance, if

a floor has multiple zones, each control valve sign

should identify the corresponding zone, such as

“12th floor east” or “zone 7-2.” A diagram of zones

and the boundaries between them should be

mounted adjacent to each valve (Figure 3.2). This

will enable firefighters to quickly determine which

valve controls each specific area.

NFPA 13 requires valves to be accessible for

operation. If valves are located in stairs, they will be

protected and easily accessible during a fire event.

When a water supply control valve must be

located in a room or in a concealed space, a sign

outside the door or access panel helps firefighters

to quickly locate it (Figure 2.20). If the concealed

space is above a suspended ceiling, the appropriate place for the sign is on the fixed ceiling grid,

rather than on a removable ceiling tile. In addition, some jurisdictions require exterior signs that

indicate the locations of interior valves (Figure 3.3).

Valve handles are often located high enough to

be out of vandals’ easy reach. However, such

placement requires a ladder to reach them when

Considerations – Sprinkler Zoning

■ Coordinate pipe arrangement with fire alarm

zoning.

■ Keep sprinkler controls independent of

standpipe systems.

■ Avoid dual feed systems, or provide crossreference signs.

(Fig. 3.1) Sprinkler zone control station and zone 

indicator sign.

(Fig. 3.2) Sprinkler zone diagram.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 2 9
vents (Figure 3.4). Post indicator valves should be

at least 40 feet from the buildings they serve. The

40 foot distance is called for in NFPA 24. 

Designers should require proper notification

when their designs require systems, or portions of

systems, to be temporarily shut off. This would typically occur during system alterations, or phased

installations. In these instances, the design documents should require notification of any system

impairments to the responsible fire service organization and coordination with the fire service about

any requirements that these impairments may entail. 

(Fig. 3.4) Wall control valve next to window. Fire issuing

from this window could prevent access to the valve.

Considerations – Water Supply Control Valves

■ Label all valves for specific use or area covered.

■ Provide diagrams to show boundaries

between zones.

■ Locate interior valves in enclosed stairs

wherever possible.

■ Provide signage for valves that are outside

stairs or in concealed spaces.

■ Provide exterior signs showing the location

of interior valves.

■ Locate exterior post indicator valves 40 feet

from the building.

■ Locate exterior wall-mounted valves 40 feet

from openings and within 5 feet of grade.

(Fig. 3.3) Exterior sign showing valve location (in this case

for a standpipe system).

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Occupational Safety and 

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necessary. Although some jurisdictions may

require that valves be low enough to reach without

a ladder, all minimum height requirements for

obstructions must be followed.

Valves for testing and draining purposes should

also be labeled. This will prevent any potential

confusion.

Exterior valves should be placed in locations

accessible even during a fire incident. Wall-mounted valves should be positioned no higher than 5

feet above grade (ground level) and located at least

40 feet from openings such as windows, doors, or
FIRE PUMPS

Fire pumps are used to boost the water pressure in

sprinkler and standpipe systems and to deliver the

required amount of water (Figure 3.5). This is necessary when the system is fed by a non-pressurized

water tank, or when the water supply feeding the

system has inadequate pressure. A fire pump may

be driven by an electric motor, diesel engine, or

steam turbine.

NFPA 20, Standard for the Installation of

Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection, contains

design and installation details for fire pump installations. NFPA 20 requires electrical monitoring of

pump controllers for pump running, power failure,

or controller trouble. These remote alarm signals

are often incorporated into fire alarm annunciators,

so that fire departments may identify the status of a

given fire pump.

A fire pump controller is the enclosure that contains controls and status indicators for a fire pump.

NFPA 20 requires these devices to be within sight

of the fire pump motor or engine. The automatic

transfer switch, which is often in a separate

enclosure, transfers power to a secondary power

source (when provided). Fire service personnel

may need access to this equipment during the

course of a fire.

NFPA 20 contains reliability requirements for

the power supply to an electrically driven fire

pump. For example, power supply lines must be

protected and the circuit must be independent of a

building’s electric service. The latter feature

allows the fire service to shut down building power

while the fire pump continues to run. 29 CFR

Subpart S must also be followed.

The most desirable location for a fire pump is in

a separate building. This affords the most protection from fire, and gives firefighters easy access to

the pump and its controllers. If locating the pump

in a separate building is not possible, a fire-rated

room with an outside entrance is the next best

option. NFPA 20 requires pump rooms to be separated from the rest of the building by 2-hour firerated construction in buildings without full sprinkler

protection, and 1-hour construction in fully sprinklered buildings.

Inside and outside entrances to fire pump rooms

should be labeled with signage. Minimum lettering

size should be six inches high with a 1

/2 inch stroke

(thickness of lines in each letter).

Considerations – Fire Pumps

■ Remote alarms for pumps should be at the

fire alarm annunciator, if provided.

■ Locate pumps in separate buildings if possible.

■ If pumps are in the same building, locate in

fire-rated room, preferably with an exterior

entrance.

■ Mark the entrances to pump rooms.

■ Observe special electric power supply

requirements.

(Fig. 3.5) Fire pump.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 3 1
PARTIAL SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

NFPA 13 requires installation of sprinklers throughout the building. However, in some situations the

code or standard requiring sprinklers calls for protecting only a portion of the building. In these

cases, exterior signage should indicate the portion

of the building covered. A good location for this

sign would be at the fire department connection

(see the section Marking, page 47).

Residential sprinkler systems installed under

NFPA 13D and 13R primarily protect lives rather

than property. Since property protection is secondary, large and significant areas may not have sprinkler protection (unsprinklered). One- and two-family

houses protected by NFPA 13D systems are readily

recognized as having this partial, life-safety type of

protection. 

Apartments and condominiums with NFPA 13R

systems may not be easy to identify. These systems are allowed in buildings four stories or less in

height. However, some buildings that are considered four stories in height by building codes may

still contain additional levels such as lofts, and

basements which may be partially below grade.

Several sides of these buildings may have six occupied levels above grade and still be considered four

stories in height (Figure 3.6). The large unsprinklered areas can adversely impact firefighter safety

and consequently the tactics employed. Fire department ground ladders may not reach the top occupied stories, and some apartment units may not be

reached by the available access for aerial ladders.

Exterior signage near the fire department connection can alert the fire department to this.

(Fig. 3.6) This building has six occupied levels from this

view. However, it is classified as a four-story building by

the code that was in effect during its construction. As

such, an NFPA 13R residential sprinkler system (with no

sprinklers in the combustible attic or in the floor/ceiling

assemblies) protects it. 

Considerations – Partial Sprinkler Systems

■ NFPA 13 systems: Provide sign near fire

department connection showing portion

protected.

■ NFPA 13R systems: Provide sign near fire

department connection indicating the system only covers life hazard areas.

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Chapter 4

Standpipe Systems

GENERAL

Standpipe systems consist of a fixed piping system

and hose valve connections to preclude the need

for long hose lays within tall or large buildings.

Water is fed into these systems either through an

automatic water supply or manually through a fire

department connection. The system delivers water

to hose connections throughout the building, usually in enclosed or exterior stairs (Figure 4.1). Firefighters then extend hose lines from these hose

connections to conduct interior fire suppression

operations. Standpipes are, in effect, a critical component in the supply of water to interior firefighting

crews. Deficiencies can have disastrous consequences, such the loss of three firefighters in the

1991 Meridian Plaza fire in Philadelphia.

Systems are classified according to usage: fire

department use (Class I), occupant use (Class II), or

combined fire department and occupant use (Class

III). The use of Class II and III systems has declined

over the years due to the training and equipment

requirements associated with them. The majority of

systems installed today are Class I. Consequently,

this chapter will focus on Class I systems.

Building and fire codes specify when designers

should incorporate standpipe systems. This can be

a locally written code or an adopted model code

such as the IBC, the IFC, NFPA 5000, or NFPA 101.

Standpipe systems requirements are based on

building height or interior travel distances. In addition, standards such as those issued by OSHA

require standpipe systems in certain situations.

The IBC and IFC include water supply requirements and some design details. The complete

installation standard for standpipe systems is NFPA

14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and

Hose Systems. This standard allows options for

hose connections, valving, and other design features. This chapter illustrates ways that designers

can impliment various options in different situations to assist the fire service.

The considerations in the section, Water Supply

Control Valves, on page 29, regarding valves also

apply to standpipe systems. Fire department connections are covered in Chapter 5 on page 41.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 3 3

(Fig. 4.1) A dry standpipe in an exterior stair. The FDC

inlet is to the right of the building entrance, the riser pipe

extends through the left side stair landings, and hose

connections are at each level, including the roof.
FIRE HOSE CONNECTIONS

Hose connections in Class I systems are typically

21/2 inch threaded outlets. As discussed in the Fire

Hydrant section, it is essential that hose connection type and size match that used by the fire

department in the jurisdiction where the building is

located. 

The primary location for hose connections is

within enclosed, fire-resistance rated stairs. Firefighters set up and begin their attack from within

the protected stair enclosure. Then the attack may

proceed towards the fire location. If a quick evacuation becomes necessary, the hose then functions as

a lifeline, leading the firefighters back to the protection of the stairs.

The current preferred location for stairway hose

connections is at the intermediate stair landings

between floors (Figure 4.2). This is because firefighters usually stretch hose from below the fire

floor for their protection. If the connections are at

intermediate landings, the hose line reaches farther

than it would if the connection were at the main

landing, a full story below the fire floor. However,

both NFPA 14 and the IBC permit connections to be

located at main floor landings, if so desired by a

given jurisdiction.

If hose valves are located on main landings,

consider the position of hose connections in relation to the door. The connections should not be

behind the door when it is open. Designers

should position the outlet to permit the hose line

to run out the door without kinking and without

obstructing travel on the stair.

Fire attack using hose lines from stairway hose

connections requires stair doors to be propped

open (Figure 4.3). This prevents the hose from

becoming kinked and restricting water flow; however, it can also allow smoke and heat to enter the

stairway. At this point, occupants should either

have exited the building, be below the level of the

fire, use another stairway, or be sheltered in place

until after the incident. But, there is now some concern within the fire protection community that

occupants may be exposed to fire or smoke conditions during these firefighting operations. Some

reasons for this include: conflicting evacuation

instructions, occupants not following evacuation

instructions, the need for the fire department to

operate from all stairways, or the need for total

building evacuation (especially in response to terrorist incidents). 

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Occupational Safety and 

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(Fig. 4.2) Hose connection on intermediate landing as

viewed from the main landing where the stair entry door

is located.

(Fig. 4.3) Training session showing a firefighter chocking

open a stair door to initiate a fire attack from a stairway

hose connection.
One resolution to the dilemma of charged hose

lines keeping stair doors open is to place hose connections just outside the stair door instead of inside

the stair enclosure (Figure 4.4). However, this is

not recommended because such a design forces

the fire attack to begin without the protection of the

stair enclosure and eliminates the lifeline concept.

A better solution is to place additional hose valves

just outside the stair door to give firefighters the

option of connecting hose lines to these or to the

connections within the stair enclosure. The connection outside the stair can be 11

/2 inches in size

to facilitate initial fire attack with smaller size

hose lines during occupant evacuation. This should

suffice for most fire situations in buildings with a

complete operable sprinkler system. However,

some fire departments do not use small sized

hose lines for standpipe operations. In those cases,

any additional hose connections would also need

to be 21

/2 inches in size. 

Another approach to maintaining the integrity of

stair enclosures during fire suppression operations

is to place hose connections in a fire-rated vestibule between the stairs and the building interior.

Although such vestibules require a little more

room, they can double as refuge areas for individuals with mobility impairments. If the vestibules are

open to the exterior, any smoke that does migrate

into them will dissipate easily (Figure 4.5).

If the location of stairs precludes hose lines from

reaching the farthest points of a particular floor, the

designer should include remote (or supplemental)

hose connections. NFPA 14 limits travel distance to

150 feet in buildings that do not have complete

sprinkler protection, and to 200 feet in fully sprinklered buildings. In buildings with a corridor system feeding multiple rooms, tenants, or agencies,

designers should locate remote hose stations within the corridor. Often a corridor’s walls, ceilings,

doors, and other openings will be rated for fire or

smoke resistance. If so, they provide some degree

of protection for firefighters, although it is usually

less than that provided by a stairway enclosure.

In any case, the least desirable place for remote

hose connections is within suites or tenant spaces.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 3 5

(Fig. 4.4) Hose connection on the corridor side of the

stair door.

(Fig. 4.5) Exterior view of open air vestibules between

the stair and the interior of a building.
(Fig. 4.6) Stripe on column to identify hose connection

location in a parking garage.

(Fig. 4.7) Sign to identify hose connection location

in an exhibit hall.

Remote hose connections outside of stairwells

can often be hard to locate. They should be placed

as uniformly as possible on all floors to make them

easier to find. Highly visible signs or other markings can assist firefighters in locating them quickly

(Figures 4.6 and 4.9). Often these may be tailored

to décor or occupancy to satisfy architects or interior designers (Figures 4.7 and 4.8). NFPA 170,

Standard for Symbols for Use by the Fire Service,

contains symbols for marking standpipe outlets

(hose connections).

Placement of remote hose connections can also

affect their accessibility. For instance, in parking

garages designers should try to locate hose connections adjacent to drive aisles. Where they are

intermingled with parking spaces, an access path

at least three feet wide delineated with bollards

or a raised, curbed area should be provided to

preclude cars from obstructing the connection 

(Figure 4.9).

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Occupational Safety and 

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Considerations - Fire Hose Connections

■ Determine if connections are to be on intermediate or main stair landings. 

■ Investigate feasibility of additional connections just outside stair doors or locating connections in vestibules.

■ Locate supplemental hose connections uniformly in corridors.

■ Use curbed raised access path to connections in parking garages.

■ Mark supplemental connections clearly. 

■ Make sure hose threads are compatible. 
DESIGN PRESSURE

Most new standpipe systems are designed by

hydraulic calculations. This ensures that the water

supply, pipe sizes used, and pumps (if needed) will

provide a certain flow and pressure at a specified

number of hose connections in the system. The

current NFPA 14 specifies a minimum design pressure for Class I systems of 100 pounds per square

inch (psi) at a specific flow rate, which depends on

the number of hose connections per floor. However, it includes an exception that allows design

pressures as low as 65 psi, if this will accommodate

the fire suppression tactics.

These minimum pressures are based on certain

assumptions about the fire department equipment

and tactics, as well as the fixed fire pump feeding

the standpipe system. The designer should compensate if the equipment or tactics vary from these

assumptions in a particular building or jurisdiction.

This will ensure the adequacy of fire streams to

assure the safety of firefighters conducting interior

operations.

A straight stream nozzle requires at least 50 psi

to operate. With the friction loss in fire hose added,

65 psi at the hose connection will provide 50 psi to

a straight stream nozzle with 250 gallons per minute (gpm) flowing through 100 feet of 21

/2 inch fire

hose. The same pressures can deliver 95 gpm

through 100 feet of 13/4 inch hose.

In 1993, NFPA 14 changed the minimum required

design pressure from 65 psi to 100 psi at the hose

connections. At the same time, this standard was

revised to permit longer distances between hose

connections and remote areas of a building.

Currently, this distance can be up to 150 feet for

buildings without complete sprinkler protection,

and up to 200 feet for fully sprinklered buildings.

The 100 psi design pressure will permit greater

flows or longer hose lines, but only with the same

straight stream nozzles.

Many fire service organizations begin their attacks

with fog or combination nozzles that generally

require at least 100 psi to operate. This dramatically increases the pressure requirements at the hose

connection. If 100 psi is actually available at the

connection, every combination of hose size and

length will result in inadequate nozzle pressure. It

is assumed that firefighters will use fog or combination nozzles early in a fire situation, when only

one or two hose lines are in operation. It is further

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 3 7

(Fig. 4.9) Bollards and striping to create an access path in

a parking garage. Bright signs at the top of column help

to locate the valve.

(Fig. 4.8) Sign to identify hose connection location in a 

shopping mall.
assumed that the total flow will be less than the

rated flow of the pump. At these lower flows, output pressures will be higher. Finally, it is assumed

that if the fire grows, either straight stream nozzles

will be utilized or the pumpers supplying the fire

department connections will provide greater pressures. 

Designers must be aware of this information for

a number of reasons. First, designers should only

use 65 psi minimum design pressure when a particular fire department so specifies, based on their

equipment and tactics. An example would be if a

department used only 21/2 inch hose and straight

stream nozzles for standpipe operations. Other

design conditions such as additional fire hose connections to enable shorter hose lines may also factor into the decision.

In all cases where lower pressure is not specifically approved by the fire department, 100 psi basic

pressure should be considered the minimum.

However, if any of the above assumptions about

the fire pump or the fire department equipment

and tactics are invalid in a particular building or

jurisdiction, designers should consider providing

pressures greater than the basic 100 psi at the hose

connections to facilitate adequate fire streams.

NFPA 14 imposes a maximum pressure limit of

175 psi on standpipe systems for fire department

use. Pressures in excess of 175 psi will invoke

requirements for pressure reducing devices, which

are covered in the next section, Pressure Regulating

Devices. 

PRESSURE REGULATING DEVICES

Pressure regulating devices (PRDs) restrict system

pressures, usually below 175 psi for Class I systems

(Figure 4.10). This is considered the maximum

safe operating pressure as well as the maximum

working pressure limit of most fire protection components. Proper design of PRDs is imperative so

that firefighters have adequate pressure for hose

streams. As a stark example, failure to coordinate

settings on these devices with fire department tactics emerged as a key issue in the 1991 Meridian

Plaza high-rise fire in Philadelphia, which resulted

in the death of three firefighters.

PRDs fall into three categories: pressure reducing

valves (PRVs), pressure control valves, and pressure

restricting devices. Pressure restricting devices do

not limit pressure during static (non-flowing) conditions, nor do they maintain a constant discharge

pressure. These devices incorporate orifice plates,

mechanical pressure restrictors, or valve limiting

stops. Pressure restricting devices are not used for

new Class I standpipe systems. However, designers

may encounter these when redesigning existing

systems, which would provide the opportunity to

implement some or all of the considerations below.

PRVs and pressure control valves limit both static and residual (flowing) pressures. However, many

of these valves are factory preset to attain specific

outlet pressures with specific inlet pressures. It is

important for designers to specify the inlet pressure

range for valves as well as the desired outlet pressure, so that they may be designed properly and

then installed on the correct floors. Careful attention during design, installation, acceptance testing,

and maintenance ensures that systems with PRDs

will function properly.

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Occupational Safety and 

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Considerations – Design Pressure

■ Use minimum 100 psi outlet pressure unless

specifically exempted by the fire department, with justification based on tactics.

■ If fog or combination nozzles are used for

standpipe operations, investigate fire

department procedures and tactics to check

the need for pressures over 100 psi (but not

exceeding 175 psi).

(Fig. 4.10) Hose connection equipped with a pressure

regulating device.
PRVs and pressure control valves have other

disadvantages. Their failure rate has been high,

resulting in the addition of testing requirements to

NFPA 14. Secondly, many cannot be adjusted by

firefighters during a fire, or they require special

tools and knowledge. Finally, hose connections

with these devices cannot be used as backup fire

department inlet connections, since water can only

flow through a PRD in one direction. 

The most reliable means of limiting pressures in

standpipe systems is to design them to preclude

the need for pressure regulating devices. In shorter

buildings, careful attention to the design of pumps

and the maximum pressure supplied by incoming

water mains can accomplish this. In taller buildings, the same concept can be applied to each separate vertical standpipe zone. Pressure fluctuations

in the water supply as well as the full range of fire

pump capacity are essential considerations in any

building. 

If the use of PRDs cannot be avoided, certain

design features will balance their disadvantages.

The easier the valves are to adjust in the field, the

faster the fire service can overcome any unforeseen

situation. Designers should select valves which can

be easily adjusted and specify that identification

signs and adjustment instructions be posted at

each valve. The tools required to perform field

adjustments should be kept in a secure yet accessible location such as the fire command center or 

a locked cabinet near the fire alarm annunciator.

Finally, a supplemental system inlet should be provided at the level of fire department entry. This can

be simply an extra hose connection without a PRD

on a riser. NFPA 14 recommends a supplemental

inlet, and it is especially important for systems with

a single fire department connection.

STANDPIPE ISOLATION VALVES

The considerations in the section, Water Supply

Control Valves, on page 29, apply to standpipe systems as well. This section gives additional guidance on valves specific to standpipe systems.

The vertical pipes that feed hose connections

are called standpipes or risers. If there are multiple

risers, NFPA 14 requires interconnections with supply piping to form a single system, with valves at

the point where each riser is fed by the main bulk

piping coming from the water supply point.

Designers should also put valves on the feed lines

to remote or supplemental hose connections (see

Fire Hose Connections, page 34). 

These valves are all called “standpipe isolation

valves.” The ones on vertical risers are called “riser

isolation valves. ” They allow the fire department

to shut off, or isolate, any given riser or feed that

breaks or otherwise fails. Firefighters may then use

the remaining standpipes.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 3 9

Considerations - Pressure Regulating Devices

■ Design to preclude the need for PRDs.

■ Specify the highest and lowest possible inlet

pressures at each PRD location. 

■ Select devices capable of simple emergency

adjustment.

■ Post identification signs and adjustment

instructions.

■ Provide adjustment tools in a secure, accessible location.

■ Provide backup inlet connection at fire

department entry level.

(Fig. 4.11) Isolation valve between the feed main (entering from the lower left) and the vertical riser (on the

right). It is located within the stair enclosure for protection. The valve at the top of the photo is a sprinkler zone

control valve.
NFPA 14 requires that riser isolation valves

separately control the feed to each standpipe

(Figure 4.11). Sequential valves are not acceptable

where a single valve in the bulk main can

shut off more than one downstream riser. For

risers in stairways, the riser isolation valves should

be within the fire-rated stair enclosure to protect

firefighters who may need to operate them. 

Previous editions of NFPA 14 required designers

to place the riser isolation valves at the bottom of

the risers to make them quickly accessible to firefighters. Fire departments may still prefer that

these valves be located on the level that they use

for their primary entry. If the bulk feed main is

located on a different level it could be piped up or

down to the fire department entry level, where the

isolation valve would be placed for that particular

riser (Figure 4.12).

OTHER DESIGN ISSUES

Standpipes should be installed as the construction

of a building progresses. These can be temporary

or permanent. Both the IFC and NFPA 241,

Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration,

and Demolition Operations, contain requirements

for standpipes during construction. Design documents should indicate the applicable requirements.

A marked, accessible fire department connection

(see the section, Marking, page 47) can suffice as a

water supply until building construction progresses to the point at which the water supply system

and fire department pumpers can no longer provide adequate pressure to the system. At this point,

a temporary or permanent fire pump also becomes

necessary.

In climates subject to freezing temperatures, it

is vital that standpipes in unheated areas be dry

type systems. Heat tracing and insulation are ineffective protection for dry fire protection systems

because water is not normally flowing through the

piping.

Large dry systems deserve special considerations. As the size of a dry system increases, the

time required to deliver water to the remote hose

connection increases. This is due to the increased

pipe volume that must be filled. This can be mitigated by subdividing the system into smaller independent systems, or zones. The disadvantage is

that fire department inlet connections to dry systems

cannot be interconnected (Figure 4.13). See the section, Marking, page 47, for specific recommendations regarding zone indicator signs or diagrams.

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Considerations - Other Design Issues

■ Specify temporary standpipes during construction.

■ Specify installation of the pump when height

exceeds fire department capability.

■ Design to mitigate long fill times for dry

standpipe systems.

Considerations - Standpipe Isolation Valves

■ Provide a separate valve on each riser for

independent control.

■ Locate valves for risers in stairs within the

stair enclosure.

■ Locate valves on fire department entry level.

(Fig. 4.12) The feed for this standpipe

was on a level above the fire department

entry. The supply pipe was fed down (on

the left) to the entry level, where the isolation valve was located. Then, the pipe

was routed back upwards (on the right) to

feed the standpipe riser. (Fig. 4.13) FDCs for

separate manual dry

standpipe systems

in a large parking

garage. 
Chapter 5

Fire Department

Connections

GENERAL

A fire department connection (FDC) includes one or

more fire hose inlet connections on a sprinkler system, standpipe system, or other water-based suppression system. The hose inlet connections

enable the fire department or fire brigade to hook

up hose lines from one or more pumpers and

feed water into the system to supplement the connected automatic water supply (Figure 5.1). In

manual dry standpipe systems, FDCs are the only

water supply.

Requirements for FDCs appear in the following

standards: 

■ NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of

Sprinkler Systems;

■ NFPA 13R, Standard for the Installation of

Sprinkler Systems in Residential Occupancies

up to and Including Four Stories in Height;

■ NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of

Standpipe and Hose Systems;

■ NFPA 15, Standard for Water

Spray Fixed Systems for Fire

Protection;

■ NFPA 16, Standard for the

Installation of Foam-Water

Sprinkler and Foam-Water

Spray Systems; and

■ NFPA 750, Standard on Water

Mist Fire Protection Systems.

These standards set minimum criteria for FDCs,

such as which systems require them, their arrangement, and the pipe sizes they feed. The IBC and IFC

also contain requirements for FDC location and

signage. This chapter will expand upon those criteria

and provide guidance on FDC location, quantity,

numbers of inlets, positioning, and marking. Also

included are particular considerations that need to

be taken into account during the building construction phase. 

In some cases, FDCs are not required because

they would be of little or no value. Examples

include remote buildings that are inaccessible to

the fire service, large open-sprinkler deluge systems that exceed the pumping capability of the fire

department, and very small buildings. 

Designers should always seek out and follow

fire department requirements, recommendations,

and advice for special circumstances. The sole

users of FDCs are the fire departments that must

connect to them. Any deficiency related to the

FDC can cause delays in fire suppression, and

therefore a decrease in the safety of both firefighters and building occupants.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 4 1

(Fig. 5.1) Charged hose lines connected to a wall-mounted FDC. The proximity of an FDC relative to building exits is discussed in the Location section at

page 44. 
QUANTITY

The above standards generally require a single FDC

such as the one in Figure 5.1. In some cases, an

additional interconnected FDC will be required. For

example, NFPA 14 requires multiple FDCs in

remote locations on high-rise buildings. This code

provision was added after experience with highrise fires showed that broken glass and debris

falling from a fire area can damage hose lines. A

second remote FDC increases the dependability of

the water supply.

The following section discusses the number of

inlets provided for each FDC. However, this decision can be related to the quantity of FDCs. If the

water quantity demand of the system is high

enough to justify more than two inlets, then the

designer should specify separate FDCs. This configuration would facilitate different pumpers feeding

different FDCs.

When a building has multiple FDCs, most fire

departments would prefer that they be interconnected. This enables the fire department to feed

any system from any FDC (Figure 5.2). However,

sometimes this is not possible. For example, a manual dry standpipe system (with no connected water

supply) cannot be interconnected with an automatic

sprinkler system. Sometimes, FDC interconnection is

not preferable, as discussed in the section, Other

Design Issues, page 40, regarding large dry standpipe systems. When FDCs are not interconnected,

the designer should consider special signage as discussed in the section, Marking, on page 47.

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Occupational Safety and 

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Considerations – FDC Quantity

■ Provide the required or appropriate number

of FDCs.

■ When more than two inlets are provided,

consider separate FDCs.

■ Separate FDCs should be located remotely

from one another.

■ Interconnect separate FDCs to feed all systems where possible.

(Fig. 5.3) A 4-inlet FDC. It would probably be more 

efficient, and give the fire department more options, to

have placed two, 2-inlet FDCs in different locations on

this building.

(Fig. 5.4) A quick-connect type of FDC.

(Fig. 5.2) Separate sprinkler and standpipe connections

(threaded types). To feed both systems, at least one hose

line must be connected to each of the two FDCs.
INLETS

Most standards do not specify the number of inlets

required on each FDC. NFPA 13 does say that a single inlet is acceptable for FDCs feeding pipe that is

3 inches or smaller. However, no requirements are

identified beyond that. Many FDCs have dual

inlets; these are often referred to as “siamese” connections. One rule of thumb is to provide one inlet

for each 250 gallons per minute (gpm) of system

demand, rounded up to the next highest increment

of 250 gpm. For example, if the system demand is

700 gpm, the designer would specify three inlets.

Likewise, a system with a demand of 800 gpm

would need four inlets (Figure 5.3).

To permit the connection of hoselines, the inlet

size and type (threaded or quick-connect) must

match the type used by the particular fire department. In jurisdictions where the fire service uses

threaded hose couplings, FDCs include one or

more 21/2 inch-size hose inlets (Figure 5.2). The

thread type will usually be NH Type (American

National Fire Hose Connection Screw Thread). To

facilitate the connection of the externally threaded

(male) end of fire hose lines, threaded inlets

should be the swiveling, internally threaded

(female) type. The non-threaded connections will

usually be 4 or 5 inches in size (Figure 5.4). 

NFPA 1963, the Standard for Fire Hose Connections, sets out specific detailed requirements for

both threaded and non-threaded (quick-connect)

hose connections.

The inlets are ordinarily required to be provided

with threaded plugs or breakaway-style caps. It is

important for the designer to specify these to minimize the chance of an inlet being obstructed by

trash or debris. If a firefighter notices an inlet

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 4 3

Considerations – FDC Inlets

■ Match type of connection and thread type to

the fire department’s hose.

■ Provide caps or plugs for each inlet.

■ Security caps: Obtain permission if optional

and specify that building owners give keys

to the fire department.

■ Large capacity systems should have one 21

/2

inch inlet for each 250 gpm of system

demand, unless a large capacity, quickconnect FDC is used.

blocked by debris, connection of hose lines will be

delayed while he or she attempts to clear it. If the

debris cannot be removed, that particular inlet or

the entire FDC may be rendered unusable. Unnoticed debris could block most of the flow to a fire

hose connection or a significant section of a

sprinkler system. Even worse, a firefighter could be

operating a hose line inside and suddenly have the

blockage clog the nozzle. 

Designers may specify lockable inlet caps for

security. Designers should obtain permission from

the fire department to use these caps, unless the

department requires their use. In addition,

designers should specify that building owners

provide tools or keys for unlocking these caps to

the fire department.
LOCATION

NFPA standards contain performance language

regarding the accessibility of FDCs and the ease

with which hose lines can be connected. How the

designer meets these requirements can streamline

fire department operations. 

The IBC and IFC specifically require that fire

departments approve FDC locations. It is important

for designers to seek and obtain this approval.

Both NFPA 13 and 14 require that FDCs be on

the “street side” of buildings. The intent is to make

them immediately accessible to approaching fire

apparatus. The street side is obvious in urban settings where buildings front directly onto the streets.

However, for buildings set back from the street, the

street side may be subject to interpretation. In

these cases, the designer should consult fire

department officials about apparatus approach

direction and operational procedures.

Another consideration is the location of FDCs in

relation to nearby fire hydrants or other water supply sources, (such as tanks, ponds, or lakes). Some

jurisdictions require FDCs to be within a certain dis4 4

Occupational Safety and 

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(Fig. 5.6) This FDC is mounted too close to a wall. 

Other obstructions could be fences, pipes, downspouts,

vegetation, etc.

(Fig. 5.5) FDC on street side of building. A firefighter is

stretching a hose line to an FDC after the pumper has

been spotted at a nearby hydrant. Also, close at hand 

are the main entrance and the key box which the officer

is unlocking.

tance of the closest fire hydrant. This allows a

pumper to hook up directly to a hydrant with its

suction hose and then use a pre-connected hose

line to quickly feed the FDC (Figure 5.5). For example, if pumpers in a jurisdiction each carry a 150-

foot pre-connected 21/2 inch hose line, a maximum

distance of 100 feet will enable firefighters to manually stretch this hose to the FDC, regardless of the

position of the pumper at the hydrant. If there are

multiple FDCs, each should meet this distance

requirement from separate hydrants to allow for

completely redundant operations.

An adequate amount of working room surrounding the FDC will enable a firefighter to

approach and connect hose lines. If the inlets are

straight-type (perpendicular to the wall), a clear

path approximately four feet wide would accommodate the firefighter and the hose lines. If the

inlets are angled-type, a clear distance of approximately three feet on each side of the FDC will prevent hose lines from kinking (and restricting flow)

when they are charged (Figure 5.6).

The designer should consider site conditions

leading to the FDC to make it easier for firefighters to stretch hose lines to it. Sidewalks, steps,

grassy areas, or low ground cover will not slow

down this process. However, if a firefighter needs

to negotiate walls, climb a ladder, maneuver
around a fence or hedgerow, or cut away a bush,

the operation will be delayed. Designers should

consider the potential growth of nearby bushes or

plants.

Locations that are likely to be blocked should

be avoided. Loading docks, by their nature, are

subject to temporary storage and vehicular traffic.

Another example of a poor location would be in

front of a supermarket or department store where

stock or carts may block the FDC at any time

(Figure 5.7). This may be a good reason to deviate from the “street front” requirement, or to

locate the FDC in a column abutting the road

(Figure 2.2). Designers should always keep in

mind how the building will be used, not just how

a particular item will look on the construction

plans (devoid of people and equipment).

Designers should pay special attention to hazardous materials. They should locate FDCs away

from fuel tanks, gas meters, or other highly flammable or explosive substances or processes

(Figures 5.7 and 5.8).

The designer should also consider the locations

of entrances and exits when locating FDCs. A

charged hose line is very rigid and will block an

outward-swinging door, or provide a trip hazard for

exiting occupants and entering firefighters (Figure

5.1). Avoid locating FDCs with their inlets pointed in

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 4 5

(Fig. 5.7) FDC in the cart area of a supermarket entryway. The FDC

is located where merchandise or shopping carts could easily block it,

or a fire in the adjacent propane storage area could restrict its use.

(Fig. 5.8) This FDC is located too close to the gas service

and meter. The breakaway caps make it necessary for a

firefighter to swing an axe or other tool to remove these

caps. This is an accident waiting to happen that could be

avoided through careful design coordination.
the direction of doors, so that firefighter access and

occupant egress is not impeded (Figure 5.9).

A freestanding FDC (such as the one shown in

Figure 5.11), is an option as long as it is acceptable

to the local fire department. Designers may position

these anywhere on the property. If an FDC is located

far from the building it feeds, consider the special

signage discussed in the section, Marking, page 47.

FDCs subject to vehicle damage should be protected by barricades such as the bollards often

used near fire hydrants (Figure 2.14). An alternative to protect wall-mounted FDCs is a wallmounted guard (Figure 5.3).

POSITION

The Appendix of NFPA 13 recommends that FDCs

be installed so that the centerlines of the inlets are

between 18 and 48 inches above the adjacent

ground. This height will make hose line connection

straightforward. Some jurisdictions may prefer a

maximum height of 42 inches, or even 36 inches.

Designers should position FDCs based on the

final grade, rather than the reverse. If the grade is

built up in one area with a mound of soil or mulch

to achieve the correct height, this can easily be

inadvertently changed later by a landscaper. Or, if a

platform is built to achieve the correct height, a fall

hazard is created for firefighters who may be working in the dark and/or in smoky conditions (Figure

5.10).

Wall-mounted FDCs should be positioned at

least 40 feet away from windows, doors, or vents.

This will minimize the chance that fire, heat, or

smoke will make it difficult to connect hose lines.

4 6

Occupational Safety and 

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Considerations – FDC Position

■ Meet all requirements or recommendations

for height above grade.

■ Do not use platforms or other artificial

means to achieve the correct height.

■ Position at least 40 feet from openings when

possible.

(Fig. 5.10) A platform built up to

reach an FDC creates a hazardous

condition. This

should not be

considered as

equivalent to

positioning the

FDC at a proper

height above

grade level.

(Fig. 5.9) An FDC pointed directly across the main

entrance of a restaurant. A connected and charged hose

line would impede both egress and entry.

Considerations – FDC Location

■ Locate on street side of buildings, or on line

of approach, if building is set back.

■ Locate within an easy hose line stretch of a

hydrant.

■ Locate where it may be easily reached by a

firefighter with a hose line.

■ Provide at least a 4-foot clear path to the

FDC.

■ FDCs with angled inlets should have 3 feet

of clearance on either side.

■ Avoid locations where the FDC may be

blocked by area use, e.g., merchandise, 

storage, equipment, vehicles, etc.

■ Avoid areas adjacent to hazardous materials.
MARKING

NFPA 13 and NFPA 14 require that a small sign with

one-inch raised letters be provided on each FDC to

identify the type of system (such as sprinkler, standpipe, or combined). These are frequently cast into

the plate surrounding the inlets with raised lettering. 

Some jurisdictions require or prefer more

prominent marking. Larger signs can be visible to

firefighters and pumper drivers from farther away.

Icons may be provided to indicate whether the connection feeds sprinklers, standpipes, or both. One

example of standard signage for this type of use

can be found in NFPA 170, Standard for Fire Safety

Symbols (Figure 5.11). Prominent signs can help

greatly where the FDC is on a building set back

from the street. Some jurisdictions require a light

to help identify the FDC’s location in the dark. 

Pump operators are normally trained to supply a

certain amount of water pressure to the FDC to

augment the system. For example, standard procedure could be to pump sprinkler systems at 125

pounds per square inch (psi), and standpipe systems at 150 psi. Firefighters may adjust this to provide additional pressure to a higher elevation in a

given building, or to account for different hose line

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 4 7

(Fig. 5.11) FDC sign with an NFPA 170 symbol for both

sprinkler and standpipe systems.

(Fig. 5.12) A nameplate on an underground transit 

system facility, showing the depth and maximum 

horizontal run of standpipe feed piping.

configurations on standpipe systems. When a

sprinkler system requires 150 psi or more to function properly, NFPA 13 requires that a sign indicate

the required pressure. Such a sign alerts the pump

operator to this unusual condition.

A designer should consider specifying additional

FDC signage for underground buildings or transit

system facilities. This is because the visual cues

that a pump operator typically has on aboveground

buildings (such as size or height), are absent. Also,

smoke or fire venting provides no indication about

the subsurface level where the fire is located. In

these cases, a sign indicating the maximum depth

and longest horizontal run of pipe gives a pump

operator an idea of the pressure he or she must

provide to reach the most remote areas of the

system (Figure 5.12).
In some circumstances, an FDC will feed a system covering only a portion of the building.

Signage at the FDC indicating such partial protection alerts responding firefighters to this, so they

may factor it into their risk analysis. Signage

should provide enough detail so that firefighters

connecting the hose lines can identify the proper

connection.

There are also situations (discussed in the sections, Other Design Issues, page 40 and, Quantity,

page 42) where multiple FDCs on a building are not

interconnected. In these cases, designers should

consider the signage to assist the fire department

in supplying the correct FDC. Diagrammatic signs

are visually the most helpful. 

FDCs that are far from the buildings they feed

also need special signs. If multiple buildings and

the FDC locations make it unclear which FDC goes

to which building, designers should provide appropriate identification (Figure 5.13).

4 8

Occupational Safety and 

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Considerations – FDC Marking

■ Mark FDCs prominently when remote from

fire apparatus access.

■ Add signage for systems with a demand

pressure over 150 psi.

■ Add signage for underground buildings and

facilities.

■ Mark partial systems (preferably with a diagrammatic sign).

■ Mark sections of non-interconnected systems (preferably with a diagrammatic sign).

■ Add signage if the corresponding building is

not clearly obvious.

(Fig. 5.13) Address indicator sign to show which 

building this FDC feeds.
TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS

Designers should consider the location and marking of temporary FDCs for temporary standpipes to

assist the fire service. The section, Other Design

Issues, on page 40, discusses temporary standpipes

during construction or demolition. 

When specifying the location of a temporary

FDC, the designer should consider using areas

around the construction site perimeter. If the FDC is

located well away from areas likely to be used for

storage, unloading, and heavy equipment such as

cranes, it is more likely to be accessible to the fire

service (Figure 5.14).

The designer should also coordinate the temporary FDC location with any planned construction

barricades. Fire service operations will be delayed if

walls or fences need to be breached to supply the

FDC.

Very prominent signs should mark the locations

of temporary FDCs. During construction, aesthetics

are not of great importance. A large, brightly colored sign with “FDC” painted in a contrasting color

will help the fire service locate the FDC rapidly

amid the clutter of a construction site (Figure 5.15).

Designers should also specify the removal of the

sign when the temporary FDC is removed.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 4 9

Considerations – Temporary FDCs

■ Coordinate FDC locations with areas likely to

be blocked during construction.

■ Mark FDC location with very large, brightly

colored signs.

(Fig. 5.14) This is a building under construction as viewed from a piece of fire 

apparatus turning the corner onto the block. Can you see the FDC? It is not labeled,

and it is blocked by a vehicle, a trash container, a fence, and construction materials.

It is directly above the car’s front bumper.

(Fig. 5.15) A temporary FDC labeled with a large colorful

sign, as well as large letters “FDC” spray-painted on the

building. 
Chapter 6

Fire Alarm and

Communication Systems

GENERAL

A fire alarm system consists of interconnected

devices and controls to alert building occupants to

fire or dangerous conditions and provide emergency responders with information on those conditions. Clear and concise information will enable

responders to operate efficiently and safely. 

Fire alarm systems monitor alarm-initiating

devices such as manual pull stations, automatic

detectors, or water flow indicators (Figure 6.1a). 

If a signal is received, the control components

process it via software programs or relays (Figure

6.1b). The system then activates audible and visual

evacuation notification devices (Figure 6.1c); sends

a remote signal to the fire service or other authorities; displays the location of the alarm; recalls elevators; and controls ventilation systems. 

Systems can vary widely in complexity. A basic,

fundamental system consists of a control panel,

initiating devices, and notification devices. On the

5 0

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

(Fig. 6.1a) Initiating device

(smoke detector).

(Fig. 6.1b) Control panel. (Fig. 6.1c) Notification device

(horn/strobe).

other end of the spectrum are complex selective

voice evacuation systems with integrated fire

department phone communications systems.

Detection systems have devices that automatically sense fire or its byproducts. Detection systems

are often integrated into fire alarm systems, and

this chapter covers both. 

Building and fire codes often specify requirements for fire alarms systems. Commonly used

codes include the IBC, NFPA 5000, and NFPA 101.

The National Fire Alarm Code, NFPA 72, is a comprehensive installation standard. This code, along

with the fire alarm wiring portion of the National

Electric Code, NFPA 70, sets the requirements for

design, installation, and maintenance. In addition,

OSHA standards create obligations with respect to

employee alarm systems. 

This chapter covers fire service personnel interaction with fire alarm systems and provides guidance for designers to facilitate operational efficiency. Elevator control, often interconnected with the

fire alarm system, is discussed in the section,

Firefighter Access, on page 21. The section, Smoke

Control Systems, on page 63, covers these systems. 
ZONING AND ANNUNCIATION

An annunciator panel displays information about

the location and type of alarm. This assists the fire

service with their initial response and may help

track the spread of smoke or heat. A building may

have multiple annunciators to serve multiple

entrances. Or, there may be different annunciators

for different users, such as the fire department, the

security force, and building management staff.

This manual focuses on annunciator features applicable to fire service use. Designers should always

consult the fire department on the design and location of these devices.

The location of an annunciator is critical to its

usefulness. Typically, the best location is at the

main entrance where the fire department plans to

initially respond. In some large buildings, it may be

beneficial to have duplicate annunciators at different locations. For buildings, such as high-rises with

fire control rooms, the annunciator is usually located within these rooms. However, depending on the

room’s accessibility, designers may choose to place

an additional annunciator at the main entrance.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 5 1

(Fig. 6.2) Simple fire alarm control panel with lamps and

zone labels for annunciation.

(Fig. 6.3) Control panel

with alphanumeric

annunciation display.

Each building should have its own annunciator,

even if a single fire alarm control system serves

multiple buildings. Fire service operations would be

delayed if it were necessary for one unit to report

to a given building to check the annunciator, then

relocate (or direct another unit) to investigate origination of the alarm. In large complexes, an additional master annunciator could assist the fire

service in locating the building where an alarm

originates.

Annunciators display alarm information in different ways. Some have lights or LEDs that are

labeled (Figure 6.2). Alphanumeric annunciators

have a readout-type display that may be programmed to show very specific information

describing the alarm signal (Figure 6.3). A printer is

yet another means of annunciation. It is usually

used in conjunction with other devices. In very

simple systems, the control panel serves as the

annunciator. In such cases, its location and features should meet all annunciator requirements.
The annunciator panel may also store building

plans and diagrams. These are then quickly accessible to firefighters. A note outside the panel can

indicate that it contains building plans or diagrams. 

All annunciators include:

■ Floor: the level where the signal originated;

■ Zone: the area where the signal originated; and

■ Device: the type of alarm or supervisory initiating device. 

Local fire or building codes may dictate zone

size. The annex of NFPA 72 specifies a maximum

zone size of 20,000 square feet and 300 linear feet.

The zone limitations in both the IBC and NFPA 5000

are 22,500 square feet and 300 linear feet. Zone

boundaries should coincide with fire ratings, smoke

ratings, or building-use boundaries. 

Zone descriptors, whether labels next to lamps

or alphanumeric displays, should provide pertinent

information to fire service personnel. Designers

should assume that users will not be familiar with

the building. Descriptors should be intuitive and

rapidly decipherable. As the building, layout, tenants, or room names change, building owners

should update descriptions.

Flow switches or pressure switches indicate

water flow. To direct the fire department to the

appropriate area, it is important that the zone indication show the area covered by the sprinkler system. The location of the switch itself is not important for fire department response operations.

Alarm devices indicate a situation requiring

emergency action and normally activate evacuation

signals.

Examples of Alarm Devices:

■ Manual pull station 

■ Sprinkler flow

■ Smoke detector

■ Heat detector

■ Kitchen cooking equipment extinguishing 

system

■ Clean agent system

■ Carbon dioxide system

■ Halon system 

Smoke and heat detectors should be further

identified on the annunciator by mounting location:

■ Area (ceiling)

■ Underfloor

■ Duct

■ Air plenum

■ Elevator lobby

■ Elevator machine room

■ Elevator hoistway

■ Stair shaft

Supervisory devices indicate abnormal conditions. They signal a need for non-emergency

action, such as repair, and they should not cause an

evacuation alarm or notify the fire department. 

Examples of Supervisory Devices:

■ Valve tamper switch (closed or partially

closed water supply control valve)

■ Dry sprinkler high or low air pressure switch

■ Pre-action sprinkler low air pressure switch

■ Water tank low temperature or low water

level indicator

■ Valve room low air temperature indicator

Some devices control certain building features,

such as fans, doors, or dampers. They may be

shown as “alarm” or “supervisory, ” depending on

the preference of the code official. 

Examples of Alarm or Supervisory Devices:

■ Duct smoke detectors

■ Air plenum smoke detectors

■ Underfloor detectors

■ Door closure smoke detectors

■ Elevator hoistway smoke detectors

■ Elevator machine room smoke detectors

■ Heat detectors for elevator shutdown

■ Stair smoke detectors

Note: Some jurisdictions require devices that are

subject to unwanted alarms (primarily duct or air

plenum smoke detectors) be supervisory. 

5 2

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
Status indicators give information about

whether the main fire alarm power is on, or they

report on the condition of devices external to the

alarm system. 

Examples of Status Indicators:

■ Main system power on

■ Main system trouble

■ Fire pump running

■ Fire pump fault,

■ Fire pump phase reversal

■ Generator run

■ Generator fault

■ Stair doors unlocked

■ Smoke control system in operation

Controls are switches that control features external to the fire alarm system.

Examples of Control Switches:

■ Remote fire pump start

■ Remote generator start

■ Smoke control manual switches

■ Stair unlocking switches

GRAPHIC DISPLAYS

If an annunciator shows any location-related information that is not obvious, a graphic diagram should

be provided. Examples are zone boundaries, room

names, or room numbers. Diagrams enable firefighters to determine where to investigate alarms

originating in locations with designations such as

“Zone 2 East,” “Suite 121,” or “Main Electric

Room.”

The graphic display may be a separate, printed

diagram mounted on the wall adjacent to the

annunciator. Or, it may be integrated with the

annunciator, in which case it is called a “graphic

annunciator. ” Some jurisdictions may require

graphic annunciators.

The design of the diagram is very important in

enabling firefighters to rapidly obtain needed information. Fire departments may have regulations or

policies outlining their requirements or preferences.

Some code officials require annunciators throughout their jurisdiction to have standardized features.

Orientation of the diagram will be important in

aiding firefighters to visually process the information it contains. The farthest point of the building

beyond the annunciator’s location should be at the

top of the diagram. 

Designers should begin with the building’s

outline in creating diagrams. Zones would be

identified by the boundary lines between them.

Likewise, for alarms designated by room, suite, or

tenant, these locations should be shown. A “You

Are Here” indicator shows the viewers where they

are in the building.

NFPA 13 permits most sprinkler zones to cover

as much as 52,000 square feet. Therefore, multiple

alarm zones may cover one sprinkler zone. If there

is one sprinkler zone on a floor and multiple alarm

zones, lamp or LED annunciators should report

only the floor and device type. An alarm from

another device type will light the appropriate zone

lamp. If there are multiple sprinkler zones per floor,

and sprinkler and alarm zone boundaries are not

coordinated, separate diagrams can show each.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 5 3

Considerations – Zoning and Annunciation

■ Provide separate panel for each building

served.

■ Locate for rapid fire department access near

the primary entrance or in the fire command

center.

■ Include basic information: Floor, zone,

device type (alarm or supervisory).

■ Meet zone size limitations.

■ Arrange devices subject to unwanted alarms

as supervisory.

■ Indicate area covered by sprinkler systems,

not location of switches.

■ Include status indicators for power and

external devices.

■ Include control switches for other fire protection features.
Consistent designations for any floor indications

used in the building will avoid confusion. For example, it is imperative that floor designations on the

signs mounted in stairways, elevator cars, and elevator lobbies, be consistent with the annunciator so

the firefighters report to the correct floor.

In addition to information about floors, zones,

and devices, many features of the building could be

shown on the diagram. These include fire protection systems and building components that the fire

department needs to be aware of (Figure 6.4).

Designers should remember that modifications

to the building or its layout may require changes to

the diagram. An annunciator with inaccurate information could be worse than no annunciator at all.

5 4

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

Considerations – Graphic Displays

■ Include graphics to show location-related

information.

■ Include standard features required for the

jurisdiction.

■ Coordinate the orientation of the diagram

with its location in the building.

■ Provide separate sprinkler diagrams if zone

boundaries do not coincide with other alarm

devices.

■ Coordinate floor level designations with elevators and stairways.

■ Include the following building features:

o Building address;

o North direction arrow;

o Stairs, their identification, and the floors

they serve;

o Elevators, their identification, and the

floors they serve;

o Elevator machine rooms;

o Exterior entrances;

o Standpipe locations;

o Location of utility controls (electric, gas,

fuel);

o Fire alarm control panel;

o Fire pump(s);

o Fire department connection(s).

(Fig. 6.4) Good diagram, with clearly organized and labeled

lamps, as well as building features to assist the fire service.
FIRE DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATION

Building or fire codes often require fire alarm systems to automatically alert the responsible fire

brigade, fire department, or other emergency

response forces. The important consideration for

fire department response is reporting the correct

location. Often an alarm service or off-site location

will receive the alarm signal and then retransmit it

to the fire department and/or fire brigade.

It is crucial that the address reported to the fire

department match the address where the alarm

originated. If a building has multiple addresses,

the one with the fire alarm annunciator or fire

command center, should be reported. If a building

includes separate, independent annunciators,

coordinate the remote signal with the correct

annunciator location (Figure 6.5).

Larger buildings with multiple sections or multiple entrances can be confusing. If possible, remote

fire department notification should include information on the section, wing, or entrance where units

should report, so firefighters may investigate an

alarm originating from the corresponding area. In

addition, strobe lights at entrances corresponding

to the alarm location for on-site notification can

greatly assist the fire department (Figure 6.6). 

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 5 5

Considerations - Fire Department Notification

■ Report the correct location/address.

■ Report the entrance with the alarm annunciator or fire command center.

■ Report the section or wing of the building, 

if available.

■ Report device type, if possible.

(Fig. 6.5) One of two annunciators in a building with four

wings, which fronts on three different streets.

(Fig. 6.6) Strobes above each tenant entry door indicate

the tenant where an alarm originates in this building,

which has multiple tenants with different addresses

fronting on two streets.
VOICE ALARM SYSTEMS

Voice alarms automatically send a voice evacuation

message to speakers in selected areas of high-rises

or expansive buildings, hospitals, and other buildings where total evacuation is impractical. A typical

high-rise arrangement would provide for the following areas to automatically receive a pre-recorded

evacuation signal: the floor where the alarm originates and the floors above and below it. Arriving

firefighters can evacuate additional areas by manually activating one, multiple, or all floors with the

manual select switches in the command center.

They also can override the pre-recorded message

and broadcast live voice announcements to any or

all evacuation zones with a microphone at the command center. Adjacent to each manual select

switch, visual indicators show which evacuation

zones are activated at any given time (Figure 6.7). 

Arrangement of evacuation zones depends upon

the design of the building and any evacuation plan

in place. Each floor is typically one evacuation

zone. Areas that are not separated by fire or smoke

barriers should not be divided into multiple evacuation zones. However, if a floor is divided by fire or

smoke barriers to enable occupants to take refuge

on either side, multiple evacuation zones should be

provided. Operators at the command center will

only be able to give different instructions to those

on either side of the barriers if the zone boundaries

coincide with the rated barriers. 

5 6

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

(Fig. 6.7) The grey panel is a voice alarm panel. The

lower window shows the microphone and the manual

select switches for the different evacuation zones.

In addition to normally occupied spaces, most

building and fire codes require speakers in stairways and elevator cabs. Each stairway and each

bank of elevators should comprise a single evacuation zone. In a building with selective evacuation, it

is undesirable to automatically activate the speakers in these areas. Also, there are typically no

detectors to warn of fire or smoke within the stairways or elevator cabs. Each of these zones typically

has “manual-only” selection capability for the operators in the fire command center. If a stairway has

detectors, the speakers in that particular stairway

could be configured into a separate, automatically

activated evacuation zone. Designers should ensure

that evacuation signals are not heard in areas that

are not to be evacuated.
Floors that are physically open to one another

should be arranged as a single evacuation zone.

This avoids the confusion possible when occupants

in portions of the space hear an evacuation signal,

but cannot clearly decipher it. A common example

of this situation is a series of parking garage levels

connected by open ramps. The group of interconnected levels should be designed as a single evacuation zone on the “floor, floor above, and floor

below” automatic evacuation scenario.

Atriums and other large open spaces spanning

multiple floors also deserve special attention in

buildings with selective evacuation. The arrangement depends upon the egress arrangement and

the building’s evacuation plan. The entire atrium

should comprise one evacuation zone. It may be

desirable to activate only the atrium zone upon

receipt of an alarm signal from within the atrium,

and not from alarm signals in other areas.

Designers should consider the legibility of signals

in areas adjacent to the atrium, so as not to cause

occupant confusion.

FIRE DEPARTMENT 

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Fire department communications systems are twoway telephone systems typically required in highrise buildings. The command center contains the

control unit with the main handset for use by the

fire department commanders (Figure 6.8a). Either

handsets or jacks for handsets are then placed in

areas of the building for firefighters to communicate with the command center (Figure 6.8b). If the

system uses jacks, a number of portable handsets

with plugs are provided in the command center for

distribution to firefighters.

Designers should plan for handsets or jacks in

locations where firefighters are likely to be operating. NFPA 72 requires only one handset or jack per

floor, one per exit stairway, and one in each fire

pump room. NFPA 101 requires them on every

level in each enclosed stairway, each elevator car,

and each elevator lobby. The IBC currently requires

handsets or jacks in the same locations as NFPA

101 and also in standby power rooms, fire pump

rooms, and areas of refuge. These additional jacks

or handsets can provide more rapid communications from these critical areas.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 5 7

Considerations - Voice Alarm Systems

■ Arrange evacuation zone boundaries along

fire or smoke separations.

■ Coordinate the evacuation zones with the

building evacuation plan.

■ Place areas or floors open to one another in

a single zone.

■ Arrange each bank of elevators into a manual-select zone.

■ Arrange each stairway into a separate zone

(manual-select type if no initiating devices

within stairway).

■ Arrange each atrium on a separate zone,

and consider message legibility when

arranging activation of adjacent areas.

(Fig. 6.8a) Fire officer

speaking into the handset

at the control panel for a

fire department communication system. This panel

also houses the handsets

used by firefighters at

remote jacks.

(Fig. 6.8b) A firefighter

using a handset in a remote jack located inside 

a stairway.
5 8

Occupational Safety and 

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Considerations - Fire Department

Communications Systems

■ Locate control panel in fire command center.

■ Locate jacks or handsets in stairs, elevator

cars, elevator lobbies, standby power rooms,

fire pump rooms, and areas of refuge.

■ When a fire department is willing to allow its

radio system to substitute, specify a signal

transmission analysis and retransmission

devices, if required.

Considerations - Fire Command Centers

■ Use a dedicated room unless the local fire

department permits and sanctions another

location. 

■ Include all fire protection control panels and

supporting equipment.

■ Provide visual cross-reference indicators for

multiple command centers.

Both the IBC and NFPA 101 contain exceptions

that allow fire departments to approve their radio

systems as a substitute for two-way telephone systems. For a radio system to be equivalent, the

radio signals should be operable in the same areas

(the command center and each remote jack or

handset location). To exercise this option, designers or building owners should test radio signals

and document of successful results. Signal retransmission devices may be necessary; this is discussed further in the section, Firefighter Radio

Signal Retransmission Systems, on page 61.

FIRE COMMAND CENTERS

Building or fire codes typically require high-rise

buildings to have a dedicated room or other location containing fire alarm and related fire protection

control equipment. These are called “Fire

Command Centers” in NFPA 72 and in the IBC. The

term “Central Control Station” is used in NFPA 101

and NFPA 5000. Yet another term, “Emergency

Command Center, ” is used in NFPA 1. Industry also

uses the expression “Fire Control Room.” 

Both the IBC and NFPA 72 require the room

containing the fire command center to be onehour fire-rated. These rooms often have exterior

entrances which should be prominently marked

(Figure 6.9). NFPA 72 and NFPA 101 permit lobbies

or other approved locations instead of a dedicated,

fire-rated room. The IBC requires the room to be at

least 96 square feet, with a minimum dimension of

8 feet. NFPA 72 requires at least a three-foot clearance in front of all control equipment.

The IBC contains a comprehensive list of equipment required in a fire command center. The lists

in NFPA 1, NFPA 101 and NFPA 5000 are about half

as long, and all of these items are on the list in the

IBC as well. The additional items in the IBC may

greatly assist firefighters in their operations. These

include: a work table, building plans, fire protection

system plans, and controls for air handling equipment, smoke control systems, and the generator

(Figure 6.10). 

If a building has multiple fire command centers,

visual indicators should show, at a glance, which

fire command center is in control at any given time. 

(Fig. 6.9) Fire command center next to main entrance.

The sign on the room should be visible to responding

firefighters.

(Fig. 6.10) Fire

command center

with fire alarm

and communications equipment,

a work table, and

adequate work

space for the incident command

staff.
Chapter 7

Other Systems

FIREFIGHTER EMERGENCY

POWER SYSTEMS

Firefighters regularly use electric power for lights,

ventilation fans, or other tools. In large or tall buildings they must run extensive lengths of electric

cable to feed equipment in remote areas of the

building. A fixed, emergency power system built

into the building can substitute for these long cable

runs, and save time and effort. This is analogous to

standpipe systems substituting for long hose lays.

In fact, one approach is to require an emergency

power system whenever standpipes are required. 

Emergency power systems include one or more

dedicated electric circuits feeding a series of electrical receptacles (Figure 7.1). They are wired on an

emergency circuit in the building and connected to

any backup power sources in the building. In this

manner, the outlets are continuously available for

fire department use, even after the main power is

shut down.

The designer should find out first if a jurisdiction

requires a firefighter emergency power system and

what specific criteria must be met. The plug type

the fire department uses for its electrical equipment

(Figure 7.2) determines the receptacle type. The

wiring methods and over-current protection must

meet 29 CFR Subpart S and any other local or state

codes.

Receptacles may be located on every level

inside each enclosed stairway. Some jurisdictions

may require, or prefer, them to be located outside

the stairwell. Additional receptacles may be placed

to accommodate a maximum length of cable. Or,

simply locating one receptacle next to each standpipe fire hose connection (Figure 7.1) may provide

good distribution. 

Mark receptacles so that firefighters can spot

them easily. For example, the designer could specify that each be painted red and labeled “For Fire

Department Use Only. ”

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 5 9

(Fig. 7.1) Firefighter emergency power receptacle next 

to a standpipe fire hose connection inside of a stair

enclosure.

(Fig. 7.2) A weather-resistant receptacle cover opened,

showing the twist-lock receptacle.

Considerations - Firefighter Emergency Power

Systems

■ Specify installation when required or

desired.

■ Specify the appropriate circuitry and receptacle type.

■ Specify connection to any standby power

sources in the building.

■ Provide receptacles in convenient, accessible locations.

■ Mark receptacles appropriately.
FIREFIGHTER BREATHING AIR SYSTEMS

Firefighters use self-contained breathing apparatus

(SCBA) for interior fire fighting. SCBA air is supplied by cylinders (often referred to as “bottles”)

that have a limited amount of air. When depleted,

these air cylinders need to be refilled or replaced

with full ones. Some fire service organizations have

specialized vehicles that contain systems known as

“cascade systems” that refill breathing air cylinders

at fire scenes.

A firefighter breathing air system is a system of

piping within a tall building or a sprawling structure

that enables firefighters to refill their breathing

apparatus cylinders at remote interior locations.

These systems are essentially air standpipe systems. A few jurisdictions in the U.S. require such

systems for high-rise buildings, or for long (i.e.,

over 300 feet) underground tunnels (both pedestrian and transportation).

Without such systems, firefighters must carry

additional breathing air cylinders to a staging area,

and others must transport cylinders back and forth

from a supply point outside. Permanently installed

breathing air systems make emergency operations

safer and more efficient by eliminating the need to

carry extra cylinders, reducing the time and personnel needed for logistical support. However, proper

function is dependent upon careful, thorough

design, as well as regular maintenance.

A firefighter breathing air system consists of a

piping distribution system that runs from a supply

point to interior “fill stations” or “fill panels.” Fill

panels contain short sections of hose with connections that fit firefighter’s air cylinders. Fill stations

are larger enclosures in which cylinders are replenished within a blast fragmentation container using

rigid fill connections. Both alternatives have the

necessary valves, gauges, regulators, and locks to

prevent tampering. Their mounting height should

facilitate easy connection of cylinders.

A good location for fill points (panels or stations) is just outside enclosed, fire-rated stairs.

Placement at every second or third level provides

reasonable coverage. This distribution enables firefighters to locate fill points quickly and set up a

replenishment operation in safe proximity to the

fire. With fill points just outside the stairs, refill

operations will not impede stairway traffic (whether

firefighters or occupants). A sign within the stair

enclosure, at each level with fill points, can indicate

the location of fill points (for example: “Breathing

Air Fill Panel, Out Door and 10 Feet to the Right.”).

Fill points should only be located inside the stair

enclosure after careful consideration by the fire

department and if additional space is allocated for

refilling operations. For tunnels, designers should

locate fill points a reasonable spacing apart, perhaps 200 feet. 

The supply to the distribution system will vary

according to fire department capabilities and preferences. One approach is to provide one or more

exterior fire department connection panels through

which the fire department supplies air from a

mobile air supply unit. Another is to provide fixed

air storage cylinders within the building, and an

exterior backup fill connection. The fixed storage

components would be in a lockable, air conditioned, fire-rated room with emergency lighting

and a pressure relief vent.

All fire department fill connection panels should

be in weather-resistant, locked enclosures marked

to indicate their use. Many of the design considerations for these connections are similar to those in

Chapter 5 for sprinkler/standpipe connections.

They should be located to make it possible for the

fill lines on the air fill unit to reach the connection

panel. 

The designer should provide a fire lane or a

road for the mobile air fill unit to access each fill

connection. Some of the design considerations in

the section, Fire Apparatus Access, on page 11, also

apply, in particular the paragraphs on material,

gates, barricades, security measures, and marking.

The clear height and width would need to accommodate only the fill unit, unless it also serves as

access for larger fire apparatus.

Reliability features are highly desirable on

breathing air systems. The piping should stay pressurized and the system should include a low air

pressure monitoring device. Air quality may be

supervised with carbon monoxide and moisture

monitors. The designer should specify an air quality analysis for the initial system acceptance as well

as ongoing periodic testing. The designer should

call for good installation practices, including keeping the piping free of oils, dirt, construction materials, or other contaminants.

6 0

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration
For adequate protection throughout an incident,

all components of the system should be separated

from other portions of the building or tunnel by

fire-rated construction. A rating equivalent to that

required for stair enclosures is reasonable.

The performance of the entire system should be

specified in terms of the number of air cylinders to

be filled simultaneously at remote locations, the fill

pressure, and the fill time. This will dictate the size

of the distribution piping and any air storage cylinders. All components should be specified for use

with breathing air, and marked to indicate their use.

FIREFIGHTER RADIO SIGNAL

RETRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Fire department portable radios are frequently

unreliable inside buildings and other structures

such as tunnels. Construction materials, earth, and

changes in the radio frequency environment can

greatly reduce the strength of radio signals. If a firefighter inside is unable to transmit or receive, he or

she must relocate closer to an exterior opening,

move to a different floor, use an alternate means of

communication, or resort to runners or direct voice

communications. Cell phone signals are affected by

the same factors as radio signals. Land line phones

will allow firefighters to communicate with dispatchers, but not other units; they may also be

affected by the incident occurring in the building.

All of these factors may delay operations, and create greater challenges in maintaining crew integrity

(Figure 7.3). 

New technology can improve signal transmission within buildings and structures through fixed

communications infrastructures. Passive approaches simply provide a conduit to assist in the transmission of signals. However, active methods

involve powered devices to amplify and retransmit

signals. 

For example, the “passive antenna system”

includes both an internal and an external antenna,

connected with a short coaxial cable. A “radiating

cable, ” also known as a “leaky coax” is a network

of coaxial cables with slots in the outer conductor

that create a continuous antenna effect. 

Increasing in popularity is an active signal transmission method involving a signal booster also

known as a “Bi-Directional Amplifier, ” or simply

BDA. These powered devices amplify signals

between an external antenna and one or more

internal antennae. Both reception and transmission

are amplified messages on portable radios within

the building. A network of antennae placed at

strategic locations or a leaky coaxial cable distribute signals throughout the coverage area. 

Some installations combine passive and active

approaches. Passive antennae generally work well

in small, well-defined areas. BDAs function well in

larger, diverse areas that need a coverage solution. 

Some jurisdictions have adopted laws or ordinances concerning public safety radio communications. In others, designers should consider specifyFIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 6 1

Considerations - Firefighter Breathing Air

Systems

■ Obtain and follow all applicable laws and

regulations.

■ Specify lockable fill stations or fill panels.

■ Specify proper mounting height for fill panels or fill stations.

■ Locate fill stations or fill panels just outside

stairways.

■ Provide signage in stairs at levels of fill panels/fill stations.

■ Specify on-site air storage when required.

■ Specify weatherproof lockable fire department connection panel(s).

■ Locate exterior fire department connection

panel(s) near access for the mobile air unit. 

■ Locate multiple exterior fire department connection panels remote from each other. 

■ Specify piping and other components suitable for high pressure breathing air.

■ Specify that all components be marked for

their use.

■ Specify CO monitor and low air pressure

alarm. 

■ Specify system performance as follows:

o Minimum number of cylinders to be

simultaneously filled;

o Maximum cylinder pressure;

o Maximum fill time.

■ Specify air quality analysis at acceptance,

and periodic testing.
ing a study to determine the possible need for

retransmission devices. Installing stationary communications infrastructures in high-rise buildings

and tunnels is one way to resolve communication

problems like those encountered by the Fire

Department of New York on September 11, 2001. 

Without laws requiring this equipment, cost considerations may discourage owners from voluntary

installations. However, owners of high-rises or

other target hazards may be swayed by increases

in property value or improved safety for tenants.

Alternatively, in high-rise buildings where firefighter communication systems are required, a code

official may permit the substitution of fixed communications infrastructures as discussed in the section, Fire Department Communications Systems, on

page 57. Perhaps, in the future, insurance companies will offer lower premiums for buildings containing such installations.

Many local communications ordinances currently in effect in the U.S. contain specific requirements

for system performance.

These include signal

strength, area coverage,

reliability, secondary

power supply, interference filters, acceptance

testing upon completion,

and ongoing periodic

testing.

6 2

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

Considerations - Firefighter Radio

Communications

■ Follow any local laws or ordinances for fixed

communications infrastructures.

■ Investigate the feasibility of voluntary compliance in other jurisdictions.

■ Specify minimum signal strength.

■ Specify percentage of the building to meet

the signal strength.

■ Specify the percentage of time that signal

strength is to be available.

■ Specify secondary power for at least 12

hours of continuous, full-load operation.

■ Specify filters needed to block interference

from nearby channels.

■ Specify a suitable acceptance test of all system functions and features.

(Fig. 7.3) Chief Officer on portable radio.
SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Smoke control systems (or smoke management

systems) are mechanical systems that control the

movement of smoke during a fire. Most are intended to protect occupants while they are evacuating

or being sheltered in place. The most common systems referenced in current codes are atrium smoke

exhaust systems and stair-pressurization systems.

In some specialized cases, zoned smoke control

systems may be provided. These feature zones or

floors that are either pressurized or exhausted to

keep smoke from spreading.

The IBC contains mandatory provisions for

smoke control systems. Designers can find NFPA’s

detailed provisions in two non-mandatory documents, the Recommended Practice for Smoke

Control Systems (NFPA 92A) and the Guide for

Smoke Management Systems in Malls, Atria, and

Large Areas (NFPA 92B).

The manual controls required or provided for

smoke control systems are a primary consideration

for the fire service. These manual controls can

override automatic controls that activate these systems. When fire department personnel arrive, they

can assess whether the automatic modes are functioning as intended. Incident commanders may

then use the manual controls to select a different

mode or turn any given zone off. It is imperative

that these controls override any other manual or

automatic controls at any other location.

A simple, straightforward control panel with

manual switches for the smoke control system(s)

will assist a firefighter who may be trying to decipher how the controls work just after awakening in

the middle of the night. Also, similar to annunciators, the fire department may have specific requirements or recommendations, and may prefer uniformity of panels within their jurisdiction.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 6 3

(Fig. 7.4) A well-designed,

easy-to-understand diagram

of a smoke control panel.

Each system has a single,

clearly labeled switch to

select each mode.
Both the IBC and NFPA 92A call for status indicators for each fan, damper, and other device. The

ICC requires individual controls for each of these

devices, but permits them to be combined for complex systems. A system need not be very large to

be considered complex. 

A good, simple panel layout might feature a single switch for each system or zone (Figure 7.4).

Each different position of the switch places the system in a given mode, and the corresponding activation or setting of the individual devices would be

configured “behind the scenes.” For example, a

stair pressurization system might contain a threeposition switch for each of three modes: “automatic, ” “pressurize, ” and “off. ” 

Zoned smoke control systems are often arranged with each floor as a separate zone. In other

cases, a floor may be split into multiple zones.

These should be indicated on a graphic display,

either on or adjacent to the smoke control panel.

See the section, Graphic Displays, on page 53, for

additional guidance on graphic displays.

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials

444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 249

Washington, DC 20001

Phone: (202) 624-5800

Fax: (202) 624-5806

http://www.transportation.org/aashto/home.

nsf/FrontPage

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

1819 L Street, NW, 6th floor

Washington, DC 20036 

Phone: (202) 293-8020 

Fax: (202) 293-9287

http://www.ansi.org

American Water Works Association

6666 W. Quincy Ave.

Denver, CO 80235

Phone: (303) 794-7711 or (800) 926-7337

Fax: (303) 347-0804

http://www.awwa.org

International Code Council

5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600

Falls Church, VA 22041

Phone: (888) 422-7233

Fax: (703) 379-1546

http://www.iccsafe.org

National Fire Protection Association 

1 Batterymarch Park

Quincy, MA 02169-7471

Phone: (800) 344-3555

Fax: (800) 593-6372

http://www.nfpa.org

6 4

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

Considerations – Smoke Control Systems

■ Settings for atrium smoke exhaust switches:

“auto, ” “exhaust, ” “off. ”

■ Settings for stair pressurization switches:

“auto, ” “pressurize, ” “off. ”

■ Settings for zoned smoke control switches:

“auto, ” “exhaust, ” “pressurize, ” “off. ”

■ If there is more than one zone per floor, provide a graphic diagram.

■ Settings for manual smoke venting system

switches: “exhaust, ” “off. ”

Designers should not confuse smoke control

systems with smoke or heat venting systems. The

latter are mechanical systems for the removal of

smoke. They are often arranged to activate only

manually. In some cases, they only remove smoke

after an incident.

Appendix

Sources of Referenced Standards and Information
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 6 5

OSHA Assistance

OSHA can provide extensive help through a variety of programs, including technical assistance about

effective safety and health programs, state plans,

workplace consultations, voluntary protection programs, strategic partnerships, training and education,

and more. An overall commitment to workplace safety

and health can add value to your business, to your

workplace and to your life.

Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines

Effective management of worker safety and health

protection is a decisive factor in reducing the extent

and severity of work-related injuries and illnesses and

their related costs. In fact, an effective safety and

health program forms the basis of good worker protection and can save time and money (about $4 for

every dollar spent) and increase productivity and

reduce worker injuries, illnesses and related workers’

compensation costs.

To assist employers and employees in developing

effective safety and health programs, OSHA published

recommended Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines (54 Federal Register (16): 3904-3916,

January 26, 1989). These voluntary guidelines apply

to all places of employment covered by OSHA.

The guidelines identify four general elements critical to the development of a successful safety and

health management program:

■ Management leadership and employee involvement.

■ Work analysis.

■ Hazard prevention and control.

■ Safety and health training.

The guidelines recommend specific actions, under

each of these general elements, to achieve an effective safety and health program. The Federal Register

notice is available online at www.osha.gov 

State Programs

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970

(OSH Act) encourages states to develop and operate

their own job safety and health plans. OSHA approves

and monitors these plans. Twenty-four states, Puerto

Rico and the Virgin Islands currently operate approved

state plans: 22 cover both private and public (state

and local government) employment; the Connecticut,

New Jersey, New York and Virgin Islands plans cover

the public sector only. States and territories with their

own OSHA-approved occupational safety and health

plans must adopt standards identical to, or at least as

effective as, the Federal standards. 

Consultation Services

Consultation assistance is available on request to

employers who want help in establishing and maintaining a safe and healthful workplace. Largely funded

by OSHA, the service is provided at no cost to the

employer. Primarily developed for smaller employers

with more hazardous operations, the consultation

service is delivered by state governments employing

professional safety and health consultants. Comprehensive assistance includes an appraisal of all

mechanical systems, work practices and occupational

safety and health hazards of the workplace and all

aspects of the employer’s present job safety and

health program. In addition, the service offers assistance to employers in developing and implementing

an effective safety and health program. No penalties

are proposed or citations issued for hazards identified

by the consultant. OSHA provides consultation assistance to the employer with the assurance that his or

her name and firm and any information about the

workplace will not be routinely reported to OSHA

enforcement staff.

Under the consultation program, certain exemplary

employers may request participation in OSHA’s Safety

and Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP).

Eligibility for participation in SHARP includes receiving

a comprehensive consultation visit, demonstrating

exemplary achievements in workplace safety and

health by abating all identified hazards and developing an excellent safety and health program.

Employers accepted into SHARP may receive an

exemption from programmed inspections (not complaint or accident investigation inspections) for a period of one year. For more information concerning consultation assistance, see the OSHA website at

www.osha.gov

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP)

Voluntary Protection Programs and on-site consultation services, when coupled with an effective

enforcement program, expand worker protection to

help meet the goals of the OSH Act. The three levels

of VPP are Star, Merit, and Demonstration designed

to recognize outstanding achievements by companies

that have successfully incorporated comprehensive

safety and health programs into their total manage-
6 6

Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration

ment system. The VPPs motivate others to achieve

excellent safety and health results in the same outstanding way as they establish a cooperative relationship between employers, employees and OSHA.

For additional information on VPP and how to

apply, contact the OSHA regional offices listed at the

end of this publication.

Strategic Partnership Program

OSHA’s Strategic Partnership Program, the newest

member of OSHA’s cooperative programs, helps encourage, assist and recognize the efforts of partners to

eliminate serious workplace hazards and achieve a

high level of worker safety and health. Whereas

OSHA’s Consultation Program and VPP entail one-onone relationships between OSHA and individual worksites, most strategic partnerships seek to have a

broader impact by building cooperative relationships

with groups of employers and employees. These

partnerships are voluntary, cooperative relationships

between OSHA, employers, employee representatives

and others (e.g., trade unions, trade and professional

associations, universities and other government agencies). 

For more information on this and other cooperative programs, contact your nearest OSHA office, or

visit OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov

Alliance Programs

The Alliances Program enables organizations

committed to workplace safety and health to collaborate with OSHA to prevent injuries and illnesses in

the workplace. OSHA and the Alliance participants

work together to reach out to, educate and lead the

nation’s employers and their employees in improving and advancing workplace safety and health. 

Groups that can form an Alliance with OSHA include employers, labor unions, trade or professional

groups, educational institutions and government

agencies. In some cases, organizations may be building on existing relationships with OSHA that were

developed through other cooperative programs. 

There are few formal program requirements for

Alliances and the agreements do not include an enforcement component. However, OSHA and the participating organizations must define, implement and

meet a set of short- and long-term goals that fall into

three categories: training and education; outreach and

communication; and promoting the national dialogue

on workplace safety and health. 

OSHA Training and Education

OSHA area offices offer a variety of information

services, such as compliance assistance, technical

advice, publications, audiovisual aids and speakers for

special engagements. OSHA’s Training Institute in

Arlington Heights, IL, provides basic and advanced

courses in safety and health for Federal and state

compliance officers, state consultants, Federal agency

personnel, and private sector employers, employees

and their representatives.

The OSHA Training Institute also has established

OSHA Training Institute Education Centers to address

the increased demand for its courses from the private

sector and from other Federal agencies. These centers are nonprofit colleges, universities and other

organizations that have been selected after a competition for participation in the program.

OSHA also provides funds to nonprofit organizations, through grants, to conduct workplace training

and education in subjects where OSHA believes there

is a lack of workplace training. Grants are awarded

annually. Grant recipients are expected to contribute

20 percent of the total grant cost.

For more information on grants, training and education, contact the OSHA Training Institute, Office of

Training and Education, 2020 South Arlington Heights

Road, Arlington Heights, IL 60005, (847) 297-4810 or

see “Outreach” on OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov.

For further information on any OSHA program, contact your nearest OSHA area or regional office listed at

the end of this publication.

Information Available Electronically

OSHA has a variety of materials and tools available

on its website at www.osha.gov. These include eTools such as Expert Advisors, Electronic Compliance

Assistance Tools (e-cats), Technical Links; regulations,

directives and publications; videos and other information for employers and employees. OSHA’s software

programs and compliance assistance tools walk you

through challenging safety and health issues and

common problems to find the best solutions for your

workplace.

A wide variety of OSHA materials, including standards, interpretations, directives, and more, can be

purchased on CD-ROM from the U.S. Government

Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents, phone

toll-free (866) 512-1800.
OSHA Regional Offices

Region I

(CT,* ME, MA, NH, RI, VT*) 

JFK Federal Building, Room E340

Boston, MA 02203

(617) 565-9860

Region II

(NJ,* NY,* PR,* VI*)

201 Varick Street, Room 670

New York, NY 10014

(212) 337-2378

Region III

(DE, DC, MD,* PA, VA,* WV)

The Curtis Center

170 S. Independence Mall West

Suite 740 West

Philadelphia, PA 19106-3309

(215) 861-4900

Region IV 

(AL, FL, GA, KY,* MS, NC,* SC,* TN*)

61 Forsyth Street, SW

Atlanta, GA 30303

(404) 562-2300

Region V

(IL, IN,* MI,* MN,* OH, WI)

230 South Dearborn Street 

Room 3244

Chicago, IL 60604

(312) 353-2220

Region VI

(AR, LA, NM,* OK, TX)

525 Griffin Street, Room 602

Dallas, TX 75202

(214) 767-4731 or 4736 x224

Region VII

(IA,* KS, MO, NE)

City Center Square

1100 Main Street, Suite 800

Kansas City, MO 64105

(816) 426-5861

Region VIII

(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT,* WY*)

1999 Broadway, Suite 1690

PO Box 46550

Denver, CO 80202-5716

(720) 264-6550

Region IX 

(American Samoa, AZ,* CA,* HI,* NV,* 

Northern Mariana Islands)

71 Stevenson Street, Room 420

San Francisco, CA 94105

(415) 975-4310

Region X

(AK,* ID, OR,* WA*)

1111 Third Avenue, Suite 715

Seattle, WA 98101-3212

(206) 553-5930

* These states and territories operate their own

OSHA-approved job safety and health programs

and cover state and local government workers as

well as private sector workers. The Connecticut,

New Jersey, New York and Virgin Islands plans

cover public employees only. States with approved

programs must have standards that are identical to,

or at least as effective as, the Federal standards.

Note: To get contact information for OSHA Area

Offices, OSHA-approved State Plans and OSHA

Consultation Projects, please visit us online at

www.osha.gov or call us at 1-800-321-OSHA.

FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 6 7

www.osha.gov