NUREG-1710

Vol. 1

History of Water Development in

the Amargosa Desert Area: A

Literature Review

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U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste

Washington, DC 20555-0001
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NUREG-1710

Vol. 1

History of Water Development in

the Amargosa Desert Area: A

Literature Review

Manuscript Completed: May 2004

Date Published: February 2005

Prepared by

M.P. Lee*, N.M. Coleman*, and T.J. Nicholson**

* Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste Staff

** Division of Systems Analysis and Regulatory Effectiveness

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste Staff

Washington, DC 20555-0001
NUREG-1710, Volume 1, has been

reproduced from the best available copy.
ABSTRACT

Historic accounts, geologic treatises, and

other key literature sources were used to

identify factors that contributed to the

development of local ground-water resources

in the Amargosa Desert area during the past

150 years. The literature suggests that the

earliest sources of fresh water supply were

the abundant, naturally occurring artesian

springs in Ash Meadows. The first hand-dug

well in the area was the Franklin Well; it was

dug in 1852 for workers performing a survey

of the California-Nevada State line. The first

mechanically bored wells were drilled in

valley-fill (alluvial) deposits for local

railroads, along their respective alignments,

sometime between 1905-07. About 1917,

the first irrigation well was drilled for an

experimental farm - the T&T Ranch. In the

late 1940s-early 1950s, permanent interest in

the area was established, in large measure

because of Federally-sponsored desert

reclamation programs. However, designation

of local aquifers as "protected," in 1979;

limiting soil conditions; and other factors

have curtailed local agricultural development.

Because of economic and technical factors,

alluvial aquifers have historically been the

most important sources of ground-water

supply. In general, drilling activity

historically preceded geologic understanding

of the ground-water resource.

This report is the first volume in the

NUREG-1710 series.

iii
CONTENTS

Abstract................................................................... iii

Conversion Factors ............ vii

Acknowledgments . ............ ix

Abbreviations .............. xi

1. Introduction.......................................................... 1

1.1 Purpose of Report. 2

1.2 Geographic Setting. 3

2. Historical Developments Before 1900.. 9

2.1 Native American Occupation. 9

2.2 Western Expansion .13

2.3 Early Mineral Exploration and Mining . 14

2.4 The Homesteading Movement .......................... 19

2.5 Desert Reclamation Programs - .20

3. Historical Developments After 1900 .. 25

3.1 The Second Mining Boom .25

3.2 Introduction of Railroads ...................... 27

3.2.1 The Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad.27

3.2.2 The Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad .............................. 28

3.2.3 Significance of Railroad Siting ........... ....................... 29

3.2.4 The T&T Experimental Farm ................................... 30

3.3 Developments in Drilling and Pumping Technology ........................... 37

3.4 Role of Hydrogeologic Investigations .............................. .41

3.4.1 Early Studies ............................... 42

3.4.2 Basin-Wide Studies .............................. 43

3.5 Regulation of Water Supply .............................. 44

3.6 Agricultural Activity in the Twentieth Century .. 46

3.6.1 Improvements in Irrigation Delivery Systems .47

3.6.2 Scientific Assessment of Soil Quality .50

3.6.3 Ash Meadows Land Withdrawals .51

3.6.4 Current Farming Activities .53

3.6.5 Current Water Supply .54

3.6.6 Consumption Rates .55

4. References .57

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FIGURES

1. Location Map of the Amargosa Desert Area ..................................... 4

2. Principal Vegetation Associations in the Amargosa Desert Area ........................ 6

3. Portion of Steward's 1938 Map Showing Native American Villages and Subsistence

Areas in the Death Valley Area ............................................. 11

4. Approximate Location of Emigrant Trail Routes Through Current NTS Boundaries .... ........ 15

5. Springs in the Ash Meadows Area ........................................... 21

6. Approximate Location of the T&T and LV&T Railroads in the Amargosa Desert Area. .... .... 31

7. Well Complex at the T&T Ranch ............................................ 38

8. Landsat Image of the Amargosa Desert Area ..................................... 49

TABLES

1. Primary Vegetation Associations in the Amargosa Desert Geographic Zones ................ 7

2. Resident Population in Nevada and Nye County, 1861-2000 ........................... 18

3. Discharge Rates for Springs in the Ash Meadows Area ............................. 22

4. Reported and Inferred Sources of Water Supply for the LV&T Railroad ................... 32

5. Reported and Inferred Sources of Water Supply for the T&T Railroad .................... 34

6. Water Supply Systems and Rates of Consumption for Major Communities

in the Amargosa Desert Area .................................. 56

APPENDICES

A. Plants and Animals in the Amargosa Desert Area ................................ A-1

B. Early Sources of Water Supply for Mining or Mining-Related Operations in

the Amargosa Desert Area .B-I

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CONVERSION FACTORS

The preferred system of measurement today

is the metric system, or the "System

Internationale (SI)." However, for some

physical quantities, many scientists and

engineers (as well as drillers) prefer the

familiar, and continue to use inch/pound

units (the so-called U.S. customary system).

Therefore, for ease of comparison with

existing drilling practice, in this regard,

inch/pound units will be used in this report.

Multiply By To obtain

inch (in) centimeter

feet (ft)

mile (mi)

square mile (mi2)

gallon

acre

gallons per day (gpd)

barrel (31 gallons)

acre-foot (acre-ft)

acre-foot per year (acre-ft/yr)

gallons per minute (gpm)

short ton (2000 pounds)

2.54

0.3048

1.609

2.590

0.00379

0.04047

0.00379

0.11924

1233

1233

0.00379

6.350

meter

kilometer

square kilometer

cubic meter

hectare

cubic meters per day

cubic meter

cubic meter

cubic meter per year

cubic meters per minute

kilograms

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (-F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (SC) as follows:

T = OF - 32)/1.8.

vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank several individuals

who provided useful information, comments,

and reviews that have enhanced the substance

of this report as it was being developed.

These individuals include:

John Bradbury (NMSS)

David Brooks (NMSS)

Jeff Ciocco (NMSS)

Brett Leslie (NMSS)

Latif Hamdan (NMSS)

Larry McKague (CNWRA)

Gordon Wittmeyer (CNWRA)

In addition, several individuals were helpful

in locating some of the references cited in

this report. They include Harold Drollinger

(Desert Research Institute/Las Vegas), Chad

Glenn (NMSS), Charles Gorday (NRC

Library Services Branch/Office of the Chief

Information Officer), Tim Gunter (DOE),

Darlene Higgs (NMSS), Vivian Mehrhoff

(NMSS), and Eric Smistad (DOE). Ellen

Kraus (NMSS) provided editorial guidance.

Lastly, the authors also appreciate the

conversations and assistance provided by

Jackie Gratton, of the Bureau of Land

Management (BLM - Las Vegas), who

provided information on BLM planning

activities in Southern Nevada.

These individuals do not necessarily approve,

disapprove, or endorse the views expressed

in this report. The views expressed herein are

the authors' and do not reflect an NRC staff

position, or any judgment or determination

by the Advisory Committee on Nuclear

Waste or the NRC, regarding the matters

addressed or the acceptability of a license

application for a geologic repository at Yucca

Mountain.

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ABBREVIATIONS

ACNW Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste

AEC Atomic Energy Commission

BLM Bureau of Land Management

CNWRA Center for Nuclear Waste Regulatory Analyses

CRWMS M&O Civilian Radioactive Waste Management System

Management and Operating (contractor to DOE)

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

ERDA Energy Research & Development Administration

EWDP Early Warning Drilling Program (of Nye County, Nevada)

FEIS Final Environmental Impact Statement

LV&T Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad

NAFR Nellis Air Force Range Complex

NDWR Nevada Division of Water Resources

NMSS Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards

NRC U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NPS National Park Service

NRDS Nuclear Rocket Development Station

NTS Nevada Test Site

SCP Site Characterization Plan

SCS Soil Conservation Service

TEI Technical Evaluation Investigation

T&T Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad

T and R township and range

URL uniform resource locator (on the Internet)

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

xi
1. INTRODUCTION

In 1878, American explorer John Wesley

Powell prepared the Report on the Lands of

the Arid Region of the United States (Powell,

1878).' During the preceding two decades,

Powell had crisscrossed portions of the

Nation, west of the 100h meridian, as part of

his geologic, geographic, -and ethnologic

reconnaissances. He noted that most of these

lands were arid, receiving less than 20 in of

rain annually. -Moreover, he noted that most

of the lands were public, and private interests

had already claimed most of the favorable

irrigable sites for farming. Shortly thereafter,

Powell conceived of the'notion to reclaim the

estimated "... 1,300,000 square miles of

these arid lands through' irrigation" 'for

beneficial use. Empirically, he' knew that

society possessed a great deal of practical

knowledge about hydraulic engineering (e.g.,

Rouse and Ince, 1957; Mabry, 1996), and

there were many -historic as well as'

archeological examples of where hydraulic

works were constructed to divert water for

household and agricultural use (Landels,

1978; Scarborough, 2003). To achieve

similar results in the Western United States,

Powell believed that what was needed was an'

irrigation survey. The survey would consist'

of topographic mapping to plot the catchment

basins (i.e., drainage systems), followed by

hydrographic measurements of stream flow,

and finally an engineering analysis to

determine the feasibility of constructing:

hydraulic structures to manage water

supplies.

After a number of water-related adversities in'

the Great Plains, in the 1870s and the early

1880s (Reisner, 1986; pp. 104-419),

Congress ultimately agreed to Powell's i

proposal in 1888, with the creation. of a'

Federal -Irrigation,; Survey2 (Frazier -and

1Also see Stegner (1962).

2The predecessor of the current U.S. Geological

Survey (USGS).

Heckler, 1972; p. 5). During the Western

drought of 1892-1904 (Gatewood and others,

1964; p. B28), Congress passed additional

legislation in the form of the Federal

Reclamation Act of 1902, which established

the forerunner of the U.S. Bureau -of

Reclamation, to continue such work.

Water availability has been a long-standing

issue in the history of the arid regions of the

United States (Reisner, 1986). Natural

rainfall is generally insufficient for farming.

Most western water supplies originate as

precipitation in the Sierra Nevada Mountains

with little, if any, precipitation generated in

the lowlands. There 'are few perennial or

intermittent streams present. In Southern

Nevada, for example, the only major

occurrences of surface water are cold artesian

springs and the Colorado River (and its

impoundments). There are many ephemeral

stream channels present that ared'associated

with the major drainage systems, such as the

Amargosa River.. Storm runoff occurs

irregularly between October and May in

response to convective weather fronts 'that

begin in the subpolar'North Pacific Ocean

(Burbey and Prudic, 1991; p. -D7). As a

consequence, stream discharge rates for

drainage systems can vary greatly in

magnitude. Some drainage systems, such as

the Amargosa River, are almost always dry.3

On arriving in the arid Southwest, Euro-'

American pioneers initially adopted Native

American practices to obtain fresh water.

Later, during the 'Industrial Revolution,

water-management practices from the mining

industry. were modified to supply 'the

agricultural and 'municipal water

3The Arnargosa River has flowed uninterrupted from

its headwaters on and around the Nevada Test Site (NTS)

to its distal end in Death Valley (California) only twice

since 1995 (Stonestrom and others 2003; p. 19). Springs

cause short reaches of the Amargosa River (i.e., the

Carson Slough) to be perennial to intermittent in their

flow.

1
requirements of growing western

communities. Advances in drilling and

pumping technology were adopted from the

petroleum and natural gas industry at the

beginning of this century. These advances,

combined with increased geologic

knowledge, were ultimately instrumental in

exploiting heretofore inaccessible ground

water. The history of water development in

the Amargosa Desert area generally follows

this model.

1.1 Purpose of Report

The purpose of this report is to summarize

the history of water development in the

Amargosa Desert area. Current residents in

the area acquire their drinking water almost

exclusively from local ground-water supplies.

Previous studies (Duguid and others, 1994;

National Research Council, 1995; Mackin

and others, 1997; and U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency - EPA, 1999) suggest that

a potential exposure scenario for a receptor

population near Yucca Mountain is at some

point hydrologically down-gradient from the

site, in the rural community of Amargosa

Valley, to the south, through the groundwater/food-ingestion pathway. Although

factors affecting the development and use of

ground water have been examined in the past

for several arid Western states (e.g., Clark,

1987; Hundley, 1992; Kupel,-2003), based

on a review of the literature, such factors,

have not been examined -for Nevada, in

general, and the Amargosa Desert area4 in

particular. Consequently, the primary authors

(Lee and Coleman), while formerly members

of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC) staff, performed a review of the

literature, both printed and electronic, to

identify key references. After completion of

that review, it was determined that it would

be useful to summarize this information in a

synthesis report, as a way to preserve

institutional knowledge on this subject.

The history of the area has been the subject

of previous studies, for other reasons [e.g.,

Steward (1938); Worman (1969); Pippin and

Zerga (1983); Lingenfelter (1986);

McCracken (1990a, 1992a, 1992b); Stoffle

and others (1990); Myrick (1992); Drollinger

and others (1999); and Hartwell and

Valentine (2002)].The Energy Research &

Development Administration (ERDA - 1977)

and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)

conducted environmental assessments over

the years (DOE, 1984, 1986, 1996, 2002a),

for which some information on local water

use was reported. Land and water-use

practices were the subject of preliminary

study by, DOE (1988a) following the

designation of Yucca Mountain by Congress

as a candidate site for a geologic repository

for the disposal of radioactive waste. More

recently, EPA, (1999) continued to examine

land and water-use practices as part of the

development of its radiation protection

standards for~ the potential geologic

repository. In preparing this report, the

authors relied on these and other key sources

to construct a chronological framework for

crafting the discussions.

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Other key sources included the following:

The History of Technology series, published

by the Cambridge University Press, provided

information on archetypical developments in

pumping and drilling technology; mineral

resource and water supply reports prepared

by both the Nevada Department of Mines,

Nevada Department. of Conservation and

Natural Resources, and the USGS; and

archeologic reports prepared by the Desert

Research Institute and the Los Alamos

National. Laboratory. These sources were

also quite helpful in reconstructing the

history described in the following pages.

Drilling records maintained by the Nevada

State Engineer and the USGS were another*

source of information that was used. No

proprietary or unpublished data sources were

reviewed - only information in the public

domain has been cited.

4Sometimes more commonly referred to as the

Amargosa Valley.

Finally the views expressed herein are the

authors'. They do not reflect an NRC staff

2
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position, or any judgment or determination

by the Advisory Committee on Nuclear

Waste or the NRC, regarding the matters

addressed or the acceptability of a license

application for a geologic repository at Yucca

Mountain.

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in

this NUREG is for identification purposes

and does not constitute endorsement by the.

NRC.

1.2 Geographic Setting

The Amargosa Desert is a valley located in

Southern Nye County, Nevada. It is

bounded by Clark County to the east and

Lincoln County to the west. To the south is

Inyo County, California. The valley

geographically satisfies the definition of a

"desert" because of high local temperatures

and low precipitation. This valley occurs at

the northern margin of the greater Mojave (or

Mohave) Desert of Southern Nevada where it

transitions to the Great Basin Desert, to the

north (Jaeger, 1957; pp. 123-158). This

valley covers an area of about 900 mi2 in Nye

County and 470 mi2 in Inyo County, and is a

subbasin of the generally larger Death Valley

drainage basin. A large part of the area is'

dominated by the Nellis Air Force Range

Complex (NAFR) and NTS; public access to

both is restricted. See Figure 1. The valley

also corresponds approximately to the

Amargosa Desert hydrographic basin (Rush,

1968), used to delineate areas or regions or

subject to water-resource investigations in

Nevada.

Interstate Highway 95 traverses the area and,

connects the city of Las Vegas (Clark"

County), in the east, with the major

population centers found in the northwestern

portions of the State (e.g., Beatty, Goldfield,

and Tonopah). State Highways 16, 29, and

58 extend southward from Highway 95, in

whole or in part, and connect the interstate

with the California highway system. The area

also contains lesser paved and unpaved roads

that are connected to these highways. There

are no longer railroads in the area, although

some communities, including NTS, do have

small airfields.

Nye County is largely rural (less than 1

person per square mile) and occupies about

16 percent of the State (in terms of area).

'The population distribution is uneven and

confined to discrete rural locations. A few

communities have populations in excess of

1000 people; however, these "communities"

are in fact collections of isolated farms and

ranches, mining settlements, or commercial

centers. Nevertheless, some of these may be

regarded as "commuter or bedroom"

communities. All of these communities are

located within the system of roads described

above. Approximately 13,000 people live

within 62 mi of NTS. About 70 percent of

the local population live in four major

communities - Beatty, Indian Springs,

Amargosa Farms, and, Amargosa Valley

(including Lathrop Wells). About 1500

individuals ( DOE, 1999; p. 3-80) reside in

about 500 households in the Amargosa

Farms-Amargosa Valley communities

[Civilian Radioactive Waste Management

System (CRWMS) Management and

Operating (M&O) Contractor, 2000; p. 10].

A significant percentage of the local

population may be transient (e.g., seasonal

workers) -'in the past reportedly ranging

'from 20 to 25 percent (DOE, 1986;

p. 3-102).

Before the Second World War, the area was

sparsely inhabited. 'Since then, the size of

the population in the area has been most

influenced by the level of activity at the two

largest regional employers - NTS and

NAFR. However, over the past two

decades, tourism and leisure, together, have

fast become a major industry in the southern

portion of the State, particularly in the Las

Vegas area, and many local residents now

earn a living in this growing sector of the

economy.

The climate in the region is caused by the

rain shadow effect from the Sierra Nevada

Mountains and the Transverse Range. As

noted earlier, the area is classified as a mid3
1161W I1. ~1153OW 115000

i I I

0 10 2 30 2OULTMR

'II

NFVADA A - - TEST Sf1

EXPLMATIlON

Basi

Mountianous we~

- Nevada Test She boundary

Figure 1. Location Map of the Amargosa Desert Area. Taken from Laczniak and others (1996).

4
latitude desert because of its high

temperatures and low annual rainfall, thus

making it one of the most arid regions in the

conterminous United States (Geraghty and

others, 1973; Plate 3). Local temperatures

range from an average daily minimum of

about 27 degrees Fahrenheit (TF), in January,

to an average daily maximum of over 99TF in

July, with wide daily and seasonal variations.

The humidity is low and wind movement

moderate most of the year. Rainfall

distribution is related to the elevation of the

land surface and the latitude. Rainfall is

usually lower in the valley and higher in the

surrounding mountains (ranges, hills, and

mesas). For example, rainfall averages less

than 4 in/yr in the low-lying valleys of the

Mohave Desert. In the high-altitude areas of

the Great Basin Desert, rainfall can average

more than 20 in/yr. Most rainfall occurs in

the winter and is associated with frontal

systems that cover large areas (many square

miles) of constant and less variable

precipitation. Snowfall is confined chiefly to

the higher -elevations (mountains). Winter

storms account for about two-thirds to threequarters of annual precipitation. By contrast,

summer convective cells are highly localized

and often more intense with fairly short

duration (hours). Summer thunderstorms are

common. Precipitation in the area ranges

from 3 to 8 in/yr (Prudic and others, 1995;

p. 8). In some years, at some locations, there

has been no measurable precipitation (Hunt

and others, 1966; p. 5).

It is worth noting that temperature, rainfall,

and other factors result in distinctive

vegetation patterns that can be used to further

describe local geography. See Romney and

others (1973) and Beatley (1974, 1975). For

example, high temperatures and low rainfall

within the valley itself favor the growth of

so-called "desert scrub" - mostly creosote

bush (Larrea divaricata) and white bursage

( Ambrosia dumosa). More moderate

temperatures and increased rainfall in the

surrounding highlands results in a different

suite of flora that forms open woodlands

containing sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata),

pifion pine (Pinus monophylla), and Utah

juniper (Juniperus osteoperma). Although

natural vegetation is generally sparse

throughout most of the region, the creosotebursage association has the greatest areal

extent, especially at the lower elevations

(Figure 2). Table 1 describes the primary

vegetation associations.

Lastly, the primary vegetation associations in

the Amargosa Desert area create habitats for

a variety of reptiles (32 species), birds (66

species), and mammals (46 species). See

Collins and others (1982). Small numbers of

wild horses and feral burros may also be

found locally.

Additional information on local biosphere

characteristics can be found in DOE (2002a).

5
U

115v EXPLANATION

Vegetation type

- Subalpine pine 380 ,Ponderosa pine

- Jeffry pine

36White fir

LIIMeadow

4~ARipanian weoland

California Chapparal

[ZI Mountain shrub - clearcut

Alpine - subalpine meadows

Pinyon pine

4 P -Ju-iper 37 eiMountain Mahogany

[J]Sagebrush

Sagebrush - perennial grass

- fiT]Rabbitbrush

Fg r Great basin grassfand

California disturbed grassland

Foothills grassland

Salt desert shrub

[ UBlackbrusth

Creosota - Bursage

L IGreasewood

Hopsage

360 Mesquite

1 11Mojave mixed shrub

Joshua tree

Shadescale

I JCatclaw Acacia

Land-swiace chasactw!Wtc

Highly developed

inland Dune

Barren

50 - Death Valley regional flow Universal 

Shaded-relief 

Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 1 1. 0 40 80 lilomerters system (DVRFS) boundary base from 1:250,000-scale Digital Eevation iII Model; sun illumination from northwest at 30 degrees 0 40 8,0 Miles above horizon

Figure 2. Principal Vegetation Associations in the Amargosa Desert Area. Scientific names for plants cited can be found in Appendix A. Taken from Hevesi and others (2003, P. 18). See the USGS URL site at http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/wriO340901.

6

COI

= = = M M M M U 
Table 1. Primary Vegetation Associations in Amargosa Desert Geographic Zones. Taken from Collins and others (1982). Collins and

others (p. 6) also describe an intermediary or transitional zone between the two deserts. Common vegetation names can be found

in Appendix A.

Geographic Primary Vegetation Elevation Mean Temperature (F) Rainfall Soil Type

Zone Association (ft) Range Maximum Minimum (in/yr)

Mohave Desert Larrea-Ambrosia < 3500 High Low Loose, sandy soils of

lower alluvial plains.

Larrea-Lycium-Grayia 3500-4000 81-88 28-40 5-7 Rocky surface pavement;

Transitional Coleogyne 4000-5000 83-84 34-36 9-912 Shallow, sandy-togravelly soils of upper

alluvial plains.

Great Basin Desert Artemisia 5000-6000 81 29 8 Deep soil profiles found

on slopes and ridges of

Artemisia-PinusJuniperus > 6000 72-79 25-29 10-11 local mountains.

.4
2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS BEFORE 1900

Because 'the Amargosa River and it

tributaries are almost always dry, before

1900, local cold springs, seeps, and natural

tanks5 played an important role in the early

history of the area. The indigenous Native'

American population was the first to benefit

from the accessibility of 'these supply

sources as part of their subsistence lifestyle.

Later, explorers sought out these resources

as part of the Western expansion movement.

With the arrival of Euro-American

prospectors and pioneers, most of the major

springs and seeps were appropriated to

provide reliable sources of water for newly

introduced mining, ranching, and farming

activities. Appropriation might include

diverting the spring discharge many miles or

tens of miles, using pipes or ditches.

Because the success of many early ranches

and farms in the area was tied to the

strength of the local mining economy, all'.

experienced the same "bo om or bust"

cycles characteristic of fluctuating mineral

prices at the time. A well-intended

homesteading program sponsored by the

Federal government proved initially

ineffective because of the absence of surface

streams and a limit in the number and

location of high-discharge springs. Thus,

before 1900, most historical developments

in the area were restricted to the locations of

existing springs, seeps, and tanks.

2.1 Native American Occupation 6

In historic times, Southern Nevada

(including the Amargosa Desert area) was

5Tanks are naturally occurring cisterns found at the

surface of an impervious rock.

6Much of the discussion in this section is based on

Steward (1938), who prepared the earliest and most

comprehensive ethnographic reconnaissances of the

Southwest United States. Review of information on

Paleo-Native American cultures, who also occupied the

area at one time, is beyond the scope of this report.

occupied by two Native American cultures - the Western Shoshone and Southern Paiute.

These peoples were descendants of earlierPaleo-Native American cultures believed to

have occupied the region during the

preceding 10,000 years. They were regarded

as nomadic hunter-foragers who relied on the

numerous springs for water found throughout

the area as well as for the local animals the

springs attracted and the vegetation they

sustained (Stoffle and others,- 1990).

Thordarson and Robinson (1971, Table 4)

identified about 80 artesian springs of various

sizes in Southern Nye County, in and around

NTS (south of the 37 * 15' parallel). Ball

(1907, pp. 22-23) notes that the placement of

many of the early Indian trails in the area

was influenced by the locations of these

springs and tanks, and the distance between

these -sites rarely exceeded 40 mi. Ball

(1907, p. 27) also notes that many local

springs, or directions thereto, were identified

using stone monuments ( cairns) and

petroglyphs.

The indigenous Native American population

was traditionally organized into

geographically distinct groups, usually with

unique linguistic patterns and 'designated

foraging areas. In numbers, the Southern

Paiute are believed to have been the largest

of the'two native populations.' In the mid- to

late-1800s, the total population in the greater

Las Vegas area was estimated'to have been

less than 450 (Steward, 1938; p. 182).7

Most Southern Paiute groups were believed

to'. reside in areas of major spring

concentrations - Ash Meadows, Indian

Springs, Manse, Pahrump, Tule (Figure 3) - or along reaches of the Amargosa River itself

7Steward's estimates were based on published and

unpublished estimates first made in the 1860s and 1870s.

9
(Steward, 1938; p. 182). 8 Smaller groups

lived at the more isolated springs, including

portions of what is now NTS. Local tribes

relied on a combination of hunting,

foraging, and farming for sustenance.

Sustenance could be found in both the

lowlands (valley) and the surrounding

highlands. Subsistence strategies revolved

around moving between the three

geographic zones (Table 1) depending on the

adequacy of the seasonal harvest ( Op cit.,

pp. 95-97). Staples were mesquite and

screw beans, and pifionnuts. These staples

were supplemented by seeds of sand

bunchgrass, Hopi rye, and Devil' s pin

cushion, as well as by cactus fruit and

stems, wild grapes, mariposa bulbs, Joshua

tree buds, and squaw cabbage beans.

Harvesting strategies also included the

collection of medicinal plants. Local reeds

and grass stems were used to make storage

baskets. Insects and their pupae were an

important source of protein and were

integral to the diet (Jaeger, 1957;

p. 167; Hartwell and Valentine, 2002,

p. 30).

At the time, Kit fox, mountain lion, bobcat,

mule deer, pronghorn antelope, bighorn

sheep, and game birds were also indigenous

to the area. Small game included jack

rabbits, squirrels, pack rats, quail, ducks,

snakes, lizards, and tortoises. See Appendix

A. However, meat (from large game) was

only occasionally taken (Jaeger, 1957;

p. 136). Steward (1938) frequently notes

that rabbit drives and antelope hunts, when

conducted, also served as a special social

function within tribal communities.

Popular foraging areas were reported to

have included Ash Meadows, Big Dune, the

Spring Mountains, the Funeral Mountains,

8Archeological investigation of NTS shows evidence

of the Southern Paiute culture in caches of artifacts

(beads, pottery, etc.) at camp sites, rock shelters, or

stone circles within the current boundaries. Close to

Yucca Mountain itself, the terraces adjacent to Fortymile

Wash contain abundant artifacts in the form of projectile

points, blanks, and flakes (Worman, 1969; Pippin and

Zerga, 1983).

the Shoshone Mountains, Calico Hills, and

the Spector Range (Figure 2). The normal

foraging range was about 20 mi from the

primary residential camp, although, for some

resources (such as pifion nuts, in high

altitude areas), the ranges could be as great,

as 50 mi (Drollinger and others, 1999; pp.

20-21). Criteria for the location of the

primary residential base were proximity to

water; wood (for fuel and use in shelter

construction); closeness to food caches; and

moderate winter temperatures (Steward,

1938; pp. 232-233). Housing thus consisted

of lightweight, temporary shelters that could

be moved to coincide with seasonal foodgathering practices (Stoffle and others, 1990;

p. 40). Several spring locations in NTS had

permanent housing made from local country

rock and included food caches; but these

locations have been interpreted as mainly for

use during seasonal harvesting/hunting

excursions (Worman, 1969; Stoffle and

others, 1990).

Before colonization, Hohokam and Puebloan

native cultures practiced irrigation-based

agriculture along the flood plains of major

rivers in Arizona (Davis, 1897), Colorado

(Baker and others, 1973), and New Mexico

(Harris, 1984). So-called "dry farming"

was not possible because of the low rainfall

rates. Crop irrigation was generally achieved

by taking advantage of the seasonal waterlevel fluctuation of rivers and streams within

flood plains (Bryan, 1929). Earlier reported

theories (Baker and others, 1973; pp. 10-12)

suggested that Spanish missionaries were

responsible for. introducing more

sophisticated irrigation techniques to collect

and divert surface water. However, Hundley

(1992; pp. 16-23) reports that Owens Valley

Paiutes in Eastern California were using

elaborate systems of earthen dams and canals

as early as A.D. 1000. Steward (1938)reports

that the Southern Paiute also used such

systems to diverted spring water in both Ash

Meadows and in Pahrump Valley. Manly

(1927, p. 151), for example, notes that

California-bound miners encountered

Southern Paiute-practicing irrigation farming

at Cane Springs in 1849.

10
Faova 7.-VIIIas and smbdatene areas of the Death Valley and Owens Valley reglona.

80285-D3d (Fre p. 38)

Figure 3. Portion of Steward's 1938 Map Showing Native American Villages and Subsistence Areas in

the Death Valley Area. Based on published and unpublished estimates first made in the 1860s and

1870s. Map shows that most aboriginal camps and villages identified at the time were in close

proximity to the many springs found throughout the area. Dashed lines show food-gathering routes.

No camps or villages are shown in the Ash Meadows area, which suggests that the Ash Meadows

Paiutes may have been displaced by or assimilated with Euro-American homesteaders by the time

the Stewart's compilation was prepared.

Locally fewer in number, the Western Shoshone occupied the northern portions of the area. They

are reported to have hunted and foraged in higher elevation areas - around Beatty and the Belted

Mountains. Steward (pp. 93-99, 182-185) reports that at least nine Shoshone families (or family

groups) maintained winter camps within current NTS boundaries in the 1870s and 1880s. With the

exception of aboriginal farming, the Western Shoshone lifestyle was not unlike that of the Southern

Paiute. Overall, the Western Shoshone are believed to have occupied a migratory area greater than

that of the Southern Paiute.

11

Co
* it

Initially, the primary crops grown were

indigenous plants - mostly grasses, tubers,

and local corns. Melons, maize, pumpkins,

squash, and beans were later introduced by

missionaries (Hundley, 1992; p. 17). Plots

were irrigated in alternate years in a practice

similar to fallowing to promote increased

crop yields and prevent encroachment of

nuisance vegetation (Op cit.). Despite these

efforts, there was never enough cultivated

food to rely solely on farming (Manly, 1927;

p. 183).9 The delicate balance found within

the Southern Nevada desert ecosystem could

not sustain a large indigenous population

(Alley, 1997; p. 3). This was confirmed by

Steward's 1938 (p. 49) population estimates

compiled for Southern Nevada, summarized

below:

Location Population Area Population

(m1l) Density

(persons/mi')

Beatty 29 1300 45

Belted Mountains 42 1300 31

Death Valley 42 1260 30

Las Vegas Valley 332 9450 28

(and vicinity)

Kawich Mountains 90 - 120 2025 22 - 17

* It was not possible to differentiate

between the respective Native

American groups (and the size of the

populations) because subsistence

areas were geographically

approximate, although it is generally

believed that the Western Shoshone

were locally fewer in number.

* The local variations in population

density were tied to the fertility of the

resource area claimed by a particular

ethnographic group (Op cit., p. 48).

Forage and game were generally

more abundant at higher topographic

elevations (in mountains) as

compared with lower elevations (in

valleys).

Despite uncertainty in the estimates, it is

generally believed that the local indigenous

population outnumbered that of the EuroAmericans before 1900 (Stoffle and others,

1990; p. 37). As a consequence, Native

Americans were able to maintain traditional

lifestyles, which included control of most of

the core spring locations and foraging areas.

However, the mining booms of the early

1900s generated a large influx of miners and

thus proportions between the two populations

changed. The indigenous population became

a numerical minority and as a result, most of

the major springs were "appropriated" to

supply the water needs for mining camps and

mineral processing sites and, later, small

farms." In addition, newly introduced

domestic livestock were allowed to freerange, thereby depleting natural forage that

were traditional foodstuffs (or medicinal

plants). Because of the absence of identified

mineral resdurces, certain areas -such as

Ash Meadows, Oasis Valley, Pahrump

Valley, and NTS became so-called "refuge"

In reviewing Steward's

points are noteworthy:

data, the following

* Many of the population estimates

were based on Native Americans

accounts obtained during the 1860s70s and were believed to have been

subject to some degree of bias ( Op

cit., pp. 46-48). Moreover, because

the population estimates reflected

post-Euro-American contact, the

estimates were considered low.10

9In the 1830s, horsemeat became a regular part of the

diet once the Old Spanish Trail became established, about

90 mi to the southwest of Yucca Mountain.

10At the time of the reporting, it was generally known

that the size of the indigenous population was declining,

principally because of newly introduced contagious

diseases. Other lesser factors included inter-racial

marriage, armed conflicts, homicide, and infrequent slave

raids.

"There is archeological evidence of a water rights

claim, dated 1919, to Twin Springs (in Fortymile Canyon)

by Frank L. Lathrop (the namesake of Lathrop Wells).

See Hartwell and Valentine (2002, p. 65).

12
areas (Op cit., p. 55). Although displaced

from some of their core camp sites, most

Native Americans continued to engage in

traditional hunting, foraging, and farming in

these -refuge areas. Produce "grown on

independently owned, small-scale Native

American farms was often marketed in the

mining camps (Op cit., pp. 38, 64).

Despite the waxing and waning of mining,,

the indigenous population was able to coexist

with the growing Euro-American population.

McCracken (1990b, p. 11), for example,

notes that the first rancherias established in

Pahrump Valley were by Paiutes - at Manse

Springs (late 1860s) and Pah rump Springs

(ca. 1875). Ball's geologic reconnaissance

map (dated 1906) identifies an "Indian

camp" within Oasis Valley to the west of

NTS, which was probably a Western'

Shoshone community (McCraken, 1992b; p.

99). Citing U.S. Census data for 1910,

Stoffle and others (1990, p. 64) notes several

Native American households (probably

Southern Paiute) owned rancherias in Ash

Meadows and Pahrump. When citing 1937

Bureau of Indian Affairs data, Stoffle and

others (p. 72) continues to note Native'

American households in major spring

locations'in Ash Meadows and Pahrump, as

well as inr Beatty and Oasis Valley (where

they comprised a significant proportion of the

local population). Stoffle and others (p. 72)

also identified Native Americans in remote

locations of what is now NTS, likely Captain

Jack and White Rock Springs, and possibly'

other unspecified sites. Census data at the

time indicate that most Native Americans

were -self-employed as farmers, ranchers,

prospectors, or miners. A few worked

intermittentjobs as teamsters, laundresses, or

seasonal help '(farming, ranching) to

supplement the more traditional subsistence'

lifestyle. Several individuals were able to

establish legal rights to spring-fed lands in

local courts outside of what is now NTS (Op

cit., pp. 63-64, 73-74). However,

withdrawal of what are now NTS lands, from

public use in the late 1930s, precluded

further Native American access, causing

some individuals or families residing therein

to relocate (Op cit., pp. 76-77). McCraken

(1992a,,- p. 99) notes that many Native

Americans also worked for the regional

railroads prior to the Depression. A high

percentage of the local population were also'

employed by the Works Progress

Administration. When that program ended

and the local railroads ceased to'operate,'

McCraken reports that Beatty's Native

American community disbanded (Op cit.).

2.2 Western Expansion

Many western migration routes coincided

with the (limited) occurrence of surface

water. For example, exploration of Southern

Nevada before the 1880s appears to have

been restricted to the Colorado River and to

the vicinity of Las Vegas Meadows. Because

of its great springs, the Old Spanish Trail

passed through Las Vegas, connecting Sante

Fe (New Mexico) and San Gabriel

(California) - see USGS (1970).

In historic times, Nevada is the last State to

have been entered by Euro-Americans

(National Geographic Society, 1953).

Trappers and missionaries traveled along the

Old Spanish Trail as early as 1829 (Hafen

and Hafen, 1954). The first geographical

surveys and mapping expeditions were

conducted by U.S. Army topographic

engineers - J.C. Frdmont (in the mid-1840s)

and G.M. Wheeler (in the 1870s).

Wheeler' s expeditions were the - first to

explore the present NTS, along portions of

Fortymile Wash. Over the next six decades

these excursions were followed by

expeditions of scientists and naturalists, as

well as boundary surveys to run township

(T), range (R), and section lines for the

territories. However, it wasn't until 1849

that the California gold rush led to a

precipitous increase in Western migration

and the search for emigration routes and

mineral resources in Nevada.

It was standard' practice at the time for

expeditions 'to 'follow 'existing Indian and

game trails, with their established sources of

drinking water, or to look for other natural

13
signs of water (phreatophyte vegetation as

well as wildlife) to maintain supplies.

Historical as well as archeological

information suggests that the Amargosa

Desert area (consisting of Southern Nevada

and Eastern California) was regularly

traversed in the late 1840s by emigrant

wagons and others on their way to California

who took advantage of the abundant springs.

See summaries in Long (1950), Worman

(1969, pp. 3, 5-8), Pippin and Zerga (1983,

pp. 51-54, 66-68), Hattori and McLane

(1981), and Drollinger and others (1999, pp.

20-24). Evidence suggesting Euro-American

exploration and subsequent habitation of

present NTS for the first time may have been

in 1847. A stone block engraved with the

name "R.J. Byor" and the date "1847" was

found near a cabin at Cane Spring. Long

(1950, p. 104) has suggested that it may have

been left there by one or more discharged

members of the Mormon Battalion.12

Before 1900, the principal migratory route

from Las Vegas to California was through

Ash Meadows to Death Valley, following the

line of springs that existed in the region at

the time. About 1849, a second shorter

migratory route came into existence - the socalled Emigrant Trail described by Long

(1950). Rather than wintering in Salt Lake

City, a few pioneers decided to strike a

southern route to California through what is

now NTS (Lingenfelter, 1986; p. 32), north

of the Old Spanish Trail. The Emigrant Trail

through present NTS had three different legs,

coincident with the locations of the principal

springs (Figure 4). These springs also

happened to be camp sites for the Western

Shoshone (Steward, 1938; p. 95). Later

stage, freight, and mail lines briefly operated

along one or more of these routes. Relay

12This U.S. Army unit was formed in July 1846 as a

home guard to protect migrating settlers during the

Mexican-American War of 1846-48. The 500-man

reserve unit was disbanded in 1846, and many of its

members later migrated west from Utah through Southern

Nevada to California (Op cit.).

stations were known to have been constructed

at several spring locations within current

NTS boundaries. Relay station construction

frequently, included improvements to the

spring discharge points as well as the

construction of wooden cabins and corrals

(Worman, 1969). Some likely relay station

locations (Cane and Tippipah Springs) have

stone cabins made from locally-available

country rock (Op cit.). However, the use of

these facilities for their intended purpose is

believed to have been short-lived - lasting no

later than 1910 (Pippin and Zerga, 1983;

p. 54). The reason for abandonment is

unclear but probably was because of

fluctuations in local mining activity, and the

establishment of railroads creating more

direct thoroughfares West.

2.3 Early Mineral Exploration and

Mining

After the discovery of placer gold at Sutter's

Mill (on the America River in California), the

lure of mineral wealth opened the West to

extensive exploration and prospecting. At

this time, Nevada was part of the Utah

Territory (van Zandt, 1976; pp. 158-160),

and a modest level of lead, zinc, and silver

mining was taking place in the Silver City

District of Lyon County (Lincoln, 1923;

p. 131). However, it wasn't until 1855,

after the discovery of the gold-silver

bonanzas in the Nevada Territory, that

mining began earnestly (Nevada Bureau of

Mines, 1964; p. 3). Prospecting intensified

after the 1859 discovery of the Comstock

Lode in Virginia City by the backwash of

miners and emigrants following the playingout of some California gold districts. In light

of the newly discovered mineral endowment,

Nevada achieved separate Territorial status

by Act of Congress in 1861, and Statehood

on October 31, 1864. Nye County was

created at this time from one of the nine

original counties (Esmeralda) in the

Territory.

14
Johnnie's

Waterj

EXPLANATION

AEC

TEST

I" SITE

4.4 ., .

Beatty

0 I

- l L -_-_

$- I t

White *Oak|4 g ke~§

' C ata lni 1: ............. * It 

Jack BapooseDry Lake

* *a Cavites ~~lpah / Tp | Oah Cak s

~ y _,--__I

L .... @ I

*SKULL -

*---Jaybavrs, Briers, Hayes ...

- Young . .

- - Manley, Bennetts, Arcanes

- - - - Haynes (West of Fairbanks Ranch)

- Savage. Pinney

* Spring

* Other Natural Surface Water Impoundment

C) Dry Lake

Probable Death Vatey

Forty-Niners Travel Routes In

Soutlwest Nevada

H

tSPECTOR

RANGE

* Indian SprOgs 0 10 20 .30 MILES I .I I I

I I I I

0 10 20 30 KILOMETIERS Fairbanks

Ranch

I Hole

A Charleston Peak

o Pahrump

Figure 4. Approximate Location of Emigrant Trall Routes through Current NTS Boundaries. The Emigrant Trail (ca. mid-I800s) through present

NTS had three different legs (Long, 1950), coincident with the locations of the principal springs. Overall, the use of NTS as a thoroughfare

had no impact on the development of water resources within the site. Taken from Fehner and Gosling (2000; p. 9), citing Koenig (1984).
it

The state's first census was conducted the

same year Territorial status was achieved.

The census reported a population of 14,404,

with the greatest portion (4581 individuals)

residing in environs of Virginia City."3

Before the late 1850s, there was little interest

in the Territory. As new ore bodies were

discovered, mining camps sprang up. In

Southern Nevada, there were at least 23

mining districts that were discovered by the

early 1900s (e.g., Kral, 1951). By 1880, the

State' s population had grown to

62,000,owing to the additional discovery of

the Ely Mining District (Eureka and Austin

mines). In general, during the first 50 years

of Statehood, before the First World War,

Nevada's economy depended chiefly upon

mining (State of Nevada, 1964; p. 273).

Prospecting was somewhat elementary by

today's standards. It mainly consisted of

walking the terrain, seeking outcrops, and

looking for native metals or other recognized

signs of mineralization as a guide to locating

ore bodies. (Another prospecting technique

was to locate and work abandoned Spanish

mines.) Most prospectors were self-schooled,

with no formal training. There was little

scientific documentation of known mining

districts based on what are now commonly

recognized ore deposit models (Wilburn and

others, 2001). Because of their unique

knowledge of local geography and resources,

Native Americans were often employed in

prospecting efforts (Stoffle and others, 1990;

pp. 36, 47, 49). Some Native Americans

also prospected on their own behalf and

staked their own mining claims (Op cit.,

p. 64).

Once discovered, ore bodies were typically

mined by hand, using pick and shovel, aided

by explosives when necessary. Depending

on the mineral commodity, refining would

sometimes needed to separate the valuable

ores from the host rock. This would be

achieved by crushing the ore and using water

to separate the fines. Dibner (1958, p. 86)

notes that Georgius Agricola's 1556 classic

mining treatise De Re Metallica goes into

considerable detail on the subject of washing

and separating mineral ores. Many of these

techniques have not fundamentally changed

from when they were first described by

Agricola in the 1500s. See Vogely (1985).

However, the large amounts of water needed

for the ore separation phase were not always

available from local sources. Consequently,

before the early 1900s, reduction of the

mineral ores to concentrated metals usually

took place outside of Southern Nevada.

Typically, unrefined ores were transported

by pack animal or wagon to the nearest

railroad depot (either Las Vegas or Tonopah

at the time) - which was many tens of miles

away. Consequently, only high-grade mineral

deposits were initially sought and exploited

because they proved to be the most profitable

to mine at the time - that is to say, highgrade ores were the easiest to recover; they

required little to no processing; and the

cheapest to ship given their weight per unit

value. However, such rich mineral deposits

are generally rare in nature. 14 Thus, given

the general lick of water and transportation

infrastructure, there was only a modest level

of prospecting and mining in and around the

Amargosa Desert before 1900.

For the most part, early prospectors were

looking for gold. Then, as now, gold was

the principal medium of monetary exchange.

The type of gold most often sought was

native gold in placer deposits. This form of

gold occurs when the precious metal

weathers from an ore body and is

concentrated by geologic processes downslope from the source rock. At the time,

placer mining could be performed relatively

inexpensively, and was well-suited to the

individual prospector. It required very little

in the way of materiel, and no special mining

13By 1863, the population was 10,000. Production at

the Comstock Lode peaked in 1877.

14

1n a geostatistical sense, rich deposits of secondary

ore minerals occur less frequently in nature than primary

ore deposits with lower metal content. See Lasky (1950)

and DeYoung (1981).

16
training. In general, because of differences

in density, the gold could be washed-out of

stream sands by agitation using pans or sluice

boxes in conjunction with water. When

water was not available, a dry form of

mining could take place also with pans, or

rockers, but these mining methods were not

very efficient.

Prospecting is reported to have begun in the

vicinity of Tucki Mountain (now Silver

Mountain) in 1849 (Lingenfelter, 1986;

p. 43), after the unexpected discovery of

silver ore, along one of the legs of the

Emigrant Trail. However, it is difficult to

estimate the true magnitude of these past

efforts because exploration statistics are

rarely published and there are few historic

accounts. One way to indirectly infer some

information about the magnitude of early

mining in the area would be to examine

topographic quadrangle maps of the area

published by the USGS, which record

physical conditions found in the field. Many

of the maps for the area show numerous

"dog holes" and possibly "pocket mines"

that bear testimony to the frenzy of

prospecting activity that must have taken

place over the years. Throughout the State

there are varying estimates of physical signs

of current and former mining and exploration

activity, ranging from about 200,000 to

310,000 locations. See Price and others

(1995, p. 3) and (1999, p. 362).

Another. way is to. examine the estimates of

resident population shown in Table 2. Based,

on the account of French and others (1981,;

p. 70), in the late 1800s, prospecting and

mining in the Nevada Territory were

reported to be at its highest in the spring and

early summer months, when surface water

supplies were the greatest. During the rest of

the year, miners and prospectors were

reported to have returned to California owing

to the cyclic depletion of such supplies (Op

cit.).15 Based on this behavior, therefore, it

isn't clear whether the population estimates

shown in Table 2 are average or peak annual

estimates.

Nonetheless, early exploration efforts did

meet with some initial successes and a

number of major deposits were discovered

(and reported), many of which were in

Eastern California. For example, Pleistoceneage borax lake deposits were discovered in

Death Valley in 1873 and later worked in

1882. The ore was hauled by the famed 20-

mule teams 165 mi southwest to the Southern

Pacific railhead at Mojave (California).

Silver was mined in the Panamint City

District, in the Panamint Mountains, from

1873-76. A gold district was discovered in

1890 in the northwest flank of the Spring

Mountains.

With the influx of miners, stagecoach and

carriage travel became more commonplace

throughout the area, and water stops along

travel routes became a necessity for both

draft animals and man. In general, the

abundant springs and tanks throughout the

area influenced the location of early

thoroughfares between the mining camps and

tent towns that developed within these mining

districts. Indian and game trails evolved to

wagon trails and later to finished carriage

ways. The location of these thoroughfares,

in relation to known surface water supplies

and signs of mining activity, can be found on

USGS topographic quadrangle maps of the

area, particularly on the now discontinued

1:62,500-scale editions. For example, the

Las Vegas-Bullfrog Stage was established in

1905 to serve the growing community of

Beatty, along a trail to the south of Yucca

Mountain. It is estimated that up to 1000

draft animals used this route daily (Hartwell

and Valentine, 2002; p. 61). Local Water

1

5

Also, during the spring and early summer (March - June), there are more tolerant working temperatures than

in mid-summer to early fall (July-September).

17
-- A

Table 2. Resident Population in Nevada and Nye County, 1861-2000. The last column in the

table shows the Nye County percentage contribution to the overall State population.

Population data taken from U.S. Census Bureau.

Year State Nye County

Population Population Percentage of State

1861 14,404 Not reported

1870 42,491 1087 2.56

1880 62,266 1875 3.01

1890 45,761 1290 2.82

1900 42,355 1140 2.69

1910 81,875 7513 9.18

1920 77,407 6504 8.40

1930 91,058 3989 4.38

1940 110,247 3606 3.27

1950 160,083 3101 1.94

1960 285,278 4375 1.53

1970 488,738 5599 1.15

1980 800,493 9048 1.13

1990 1,236,130 18,190 1.47

2000 1,998,258 32,485 1.63

stops were at Miller's Well No. 116;

Fairbanks (Blacks) Ranch; Longstreet Ranch;

Miller's Well No. 2; Rosewell;' and (Old)

Whitney's Well (Hattori and McLane, 1981;

p. 5). These sites can be found on the Ash

Meadows and Lathrop Wells topographic

quadrangle maps (1952 and 1961 editions,

respectively).

The increase in human activity placed

demands for water far above that which could

'Mendenhall (1909, p. 91) reports that this 200.ft

well, with a capacity of about 200 barrels per day, was

abandoned sometime in 1905.

be supplied by the local springs and tanks.17

In general, water development practices were

far from scientific. Overall, the intent was to

discover flowing artesian water (e.g., water

under sufficient hydraulic pressure or head to

flow at the ground surface). This is

suggested by Mendenhall (1909), where it

was noted that the location of early

17Before 1880, domestic per-capita water

consumption was'estimated to be about 3 to 5 gpd. By

1900, domestic per capita water consumption increased by

two orders of magnitude to about 100 gpd owing to

improved sanitation practices (Tarr and McMichael, 1977;

p. 25). However, per capita water consumption is

assumed to be generally higher in arid regions. In

Arizona, for example, per capita water consumption is

estimated to range from 160 to 267 gpd (Duguid and

others, 1994; p. A-2).

18
homesteads in Eastern California and

Southern Nevada could be correlated with the

occurrence of such springs. McCracken

(1992, p. 120) notes that by the late 1870s,

most of these favorable watering locations in

the area had been occupied (and likely'

appropriated from Native Americans).

2.4 The Homesteading Movement.

Mining in the west generally followed a

boom and bust cycle. Economic and

technologic developments changed what

minerals were being sought and how they

were mined. Despite these cycles, some

mining camps and communities in Southern,

Nevada continued to prosper because of the

quality of the ores and the size of the

deposits. By contrast, other mining districts

faltered as known ore bodies became

exhausted, and new and richer districts were

discovered. Mines could continue to make

profits on lower-grade ores so long as metal:

prices remained high.

At the time, both gold and silver were in

circulation as legal tender in the United

States. However, production from California.,

gold deposits was beginning to decline and.

there was an increase in the demand for;

silver. Western mining interests (and others)

wanted more silver coinage in domestic

circulation. To offset declining domestic gold

production, Congress passed the BlandAllison Silver Purchase Act of 1878 to keep

mines with lower-grade deposits in operation

and increase the amount of silver in

circulation. The act required the U.S.

Treasury to purchase not less than $2 million

nor more than $4 million worth of

domestically mined silver bullion for coins

each month, at market prices (Rabbitt, 1980;

p. 5). However, because declining ore'

quality affects mine profitability,' some

Nevada mines continued to close even with

18The are several accounts of local homesteading

efforts. Summaries have been prepared by Lingenfelter

(1986) and McCracken (1990a, 1992b) which, in turn,

have been relied on extensively in preparing this section of

the report.

this Federal purchase incentive. In 1890,

Congress supplanted Bland-Allison with the

Sherman Silver Purchase Act that required

the Treasury to purchase nearly twice as

much silver bullion as before. Immediately

following its passage, there was a short-term

increase in the price of silver bullion that was

later reversed by market forces. For a variety

of reasons, Congress repealed the Sherman

Silver Act in 1893. Congress later passed the

Gold Standard Act, in 1900, making gold

bullion the standard for the Nation's

currency. This action resulted in a further

drop in the price of silver bullion. With

silver prices dropping, those mining camps

and tent towns that relied primarily on silver

ores ceased to exist. These locations are

considered ghost towns today.

Thus, as the profit from mining began to

decline in a particular cycle, many miners

turned to farming or ranching' to help feed

the growing local population. The pattern of

farming in the Southwest varies from State to

State and reflects factors such as the

availability of surface water and suitable

soils, length of growing season, elevation,

and topography. As noted earlier, there are

few perennial streams and rivers, so most

farming typically took place in the rich soils

found in the lower-elevation flood plains.

-By the end of the 1870s, the first wave of

homesteaders had staked claims at most of

the major springs and seeps from Beatty

south, extending along the Amargosa River

into Ash Meadows, and beyond to Pahrump

Valley (Lingenfelter, 1986; p. 168).. The

land was public at the time and managed by

the General Land Office -within the

Department of the Treasury. These lands

were subject to private claims consistent with

the homesteading laws. Many of the local

springs bear the names of the first

homesteaders. Some homesteaders also

intermarried with the local Ash Meadows

Paiute.

Most homesteads had less than 100 head of

cattle that grazed on Larrea; Ambrosia, and

Hilaria. Depending on what the local

19
markets required, they also successfully

raised crops such as alfalfa, barley,

vegetables, fruits, and nuts (McCracken,

1990a; p. 29). Using Native American

farming methods, irrigation was achieved by

diverting a portion of the spring flow,

downslope, through hand-dug, lateral

ditches, into cultivated fields. Although the

claims were 160 acres in size (as required

initially by the Homestead Act of 1862), they

usually were only able to irrigate a fraction

of that land, owing to unfavorable soil

conditions and low spring discharge.

Because the principal market for locallygrown produce were miners, early

homesteading success was uniquely tied to

the strength of the local mining economy.

Thus, when mining operations ceased in the

Ivanpah and Tecopa (California) Mining

Districts in the 1880s, about half of the

Amargosa Valley homesteaders abandoned

their claims. The only remaining claims

were in the Ash Meadows and Pahrump areas

(Lingenfelter, 1986; p. 168).

The first reported pioneer settler in

Amargosa Valley was Charles King

(McCracken, 1990a; p. 28). He free-ranged

about 1300 head of beef cattle in Ash

Meadows around 1873, which he sold to

local miners, including those in the Panamint

City District. In the Amargosa Desert area,

Ash Meadows contains the largest

concentration of springs. This location is a

veritable oasis watered by dozens of springs

and seeps. Several of the springs discharge

an even flow rate of more than 720,000 gpd

(Dudley and Larson, 1976; p. 1). Total

discharge for all Ash Meadows springs is

reportedly about 16 million gpd (Op cit.).

Although the boundaries of this area are

poorly defined, Ash Meadows covers

approximately 63 mi2 (Figure 5) and is

characterized by dense to moderate growths

of natural forage comprised mostly of

mesquite, saltbush, and saltgrass. Table 3

describes the major springs of Ash. Meadows

and provides some recent information on

individual spring discharge rates. A more

comprehensive list of springs and seeps in the

area can be found in Thordarson and

Robinson (1971, Table 5).

2.5 Desert Reclamation Programs

Water availability has been a long-standing

issue in, the development of the arid

Southwest. Before the exploitation of ground

water, the only major occurrences of

perennial water were either springs or certain

major western rivers - Colorado, Gila,

Owens, Pecos, Rio Grande, Sacramento,

Salt, and San Joaquin. There are many

ephemeral stream channels present, including

those associated with the drainage systems of

the major rivers. Stream runoff occurs

irregularly in response to both summer and

winter storms. Consequently, early

homesteading activities were confined

principally to the lowlands where perennial

water supplies could be found.

Before 1900', most desert reclamation

projects were undertaken privately because

capital costs were typically too prohibitive

for individual farmers and there were no

government policies in this area at the time."9

However, as a result of State and Federal

intervention, it had been recognized that the

infrastructure in the Eastern United States

had been improved through subsidies for the

construction of roads, navigational

structures, harbors, railroads, and canals.20

If some comparable level of success were to

be achieved in the reclamation of the arid

Southwest, it was soon reasoned that the

Federal government would need to intervene.

Initially, Congress passed the Desert Lands

19During the 1870s, for example, several corporate

irrigation projects, using private monies, were

successfully operating in lowland areas of New Mexico

(Howell, 1869; Wilson, 1891; Shinkle, 1964) and

Colorado (Mack, 1887; Freeman, 1958), where suitable

soils and accessible water could be found. In Utah,

Morman 'cooperatives" had also constructed about 277

canals, totaling some 1043 mi, and were successfully

irrigating about 115,000 acres of farmland by the 1870s

(Kirby and others, 1956; p. 457).

20For example, see Armstrong and others (1976) and

Schodek (1987) for descriptions of some of these projects.

20
116,20' lligfi A'

~IFibnSSpr. a

Fi eSprings

.465

0- ----- T 18 S Spr. Tp. Ia i

CryI

felcr2 ete Sp$pemntrICctor.4 

Bose from U.S. Gtolotiol Survey,

Ash Meadows. 1:62.500

Figure 5. -Springs in the Ash Meadows Area. From Dudley and Larson (1976, p. 6).

21
Table 3. Discharge Rates for Springs in the Ash Meadows Area. Taken from Dudley and Larson (1976,

pp. 14-15). Note that QT means Quaternary- or Tertiary-age alluvial (valley-fill) or lake

sediments; Tr means travertine or fresh-water limestone; and Pz means Paleozoic-age limestone

or dolomite.

Name

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Fairbanks

Soda

Purgatory Spring

Rogers

Cold

Longstreer

McGillivary

Five Springs area I

Five Springs area 2

Five Springs area 3 (8 seeps)

Scruggs I

Scruggs 2

School

Crystal Pool

Collins

Davis I

Davis 2

Davis 3

Sink

King Pool

Indian Rock

Point of Rocks

Jack Rabbit

Big (aka Deep, Ash Meadows)

Bole

Last Chance

Unnamed (7 total)

Discharge Rate (gpm)

1430-2360

0-85

9-50

570-735

73-80

940-1260

0-155

0-75

0-60

35

90-140

60

6-25

1670-3070

5-10

395-720

5-175

30-38

0-25

685-2130

22-135

290-420

0-640

920-1120

12

1

1-195

Water-Bearing Unit

Tr

QT

Pz

Tr

QT

Tr

QT

QT

QT

QT

QT

QT

QT

Tr

QT

QT

QT

QT

QT

Tr

Tr

QTITr/Pz

Tr

Tr

QT

QT

QT

-

-

-

22
Act of 1877.2' Desert lands were defined by

this act to include those that had neither

timber nor mineral resources, nor were

capable of agricultural production unless

irrigated. This law allowed individuals to

claim and purchase 320 acres (1⁄2/2 Section) of

public land, provided that, within 3 years

they: (a) planted and irrigated 40 acres with

"ordinary agricultural crops"; (b) developed

a credible plan for irrigating the remaining

280 acres, including securing the necessary

water rights (or appropriations); and (c) had

demonstrated that they had expended at least

$3/acre in making the necessary irrigation

improvements and/or acquiring the necessary

water rights. (In the Amargosa Desert area,

the law also provided that joint water

development proposals would be allowed

among adjacent tracks of land. 2) Provided

that these terms had been met, within a 4-

year time frame, a land patent would be

granted. Overall, the act did not achieve the

outcome desired. Early homesteaders and

corporate concerns were able to monopolize

water rights in arable tracts of lowland areas

through the doctrine of riparian rights (Tank,

1983; p. 82), to the exclusion of all other

water rights (Reisner, 1986; p. 43).

In an effort to ensure the beneficial use of

water, Congress passed the Carey Act of

1894. This act was designed to give Western

states and territories additional land if they

constructed large-scale, public irrigation and

water storage systems. Few States and

territories took advantage of this law.

Congress next passed the Federal

Reclamation Act of 1902, which empowered

the Department of the Interior (specifically

the USGS) to plan, design, and construct

irrigation and water storage systems with

funds obtained from the sale of public lands

in the states and territories mentioned in the

Carey Act.3 Within the USGS, the

Reclamation Service was created to manage

the various water supply projects (Robinson,

1979).

2 1

Originally the Homestead Act of 1862.

IThe irrigation plan was assumed to include plans for

drilling the necessary number of wells to meet irrigation

needs.

23Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana,

Nevada, New Mexico, North and South Dakota, Utah,

Washington, and Wyoming.

23
3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS AFTER 1900

From 1890 to 1900, mining was scaled-back

greatly in Nevada because the known mineral

districts were mined-out and no new ones had

been discovered. However, in the early

1900s, a number of major mining districts in

Southern Nye County had been discovered.

This again caused increased interest in the

Amargosa Desert area. After the discovery.

of the Tonopah Mining District about 1900,

the first of two regional railroad lines was

introduced in 1906. About this time, there

were also developments in drilling and

pumping technology that permitted the

exploitation of ground water, in quantity, for

the first time. These developments were also

complemented by advances in geologic and

fluid mechanics sciences. These advances

improved the understanding of the physical

occurrence of ground water. In 1915, an

experimental farm was established by one of

the regional railroads. to demonstrate the

feasibility of irrigated farming in the valley.

By the outbreak of the Second World War,

mining had once again waned and the

railroads were gone. However, limited

farming and ranching persisted in large

measure because of the 1915 prototype farm.

3.1 The Second Mining Boom

As noted earlier, mining in the West

generally followed a boom and a bust cycle

because of the quality of the ores and the size

of the deposits being discovered. The!

Comstock Lode was dying out and other,

more promising mining areas never fully

materialized (Elliott, 1973; pp. 170-173).

By the early 1900s, though, hard-rock

mining was thriving once again in Southern

Nevada. Improved prospecting techniques

led to the identification of new mineral

deposit types, and the perfection of new,

mineral extraction technologies that permitted

the mining of larger ore deposits of lesser

grade, thereby creating the mining boom. 24

Additionally, miners could rework old tailing

dumps and formerly unprofitable mines as

commodity prices increased. Other

significant silver and gold discoveries were

being made at the Goldfield (ca. 1902) and

Bullfrog-Rhyolite (ca. 1905) Districts. With

the discovery of these and other new mining

districts, syndicates were formed and land

speculators began to descend on the major

mining centers. In many instances, mining

camps or tent towns were created overnight

by armies of miners and prospectors.

Building booms proceeded in some of these

camps, fueled by the influx of the merchant

and banking classes. This helped to keep

these communities flourishing. At the time,

high-value ores containing precious metals

(gold and silver), as well as base metals

(chiefly copper, iron, lead, and zinc) were

known to exist in non-alluvial rocks. Thus,

most of the prospecting was taking place

outside of the valley, in volcanic and igneous

rocks in the surrounding mountain ranges,

hills, and mesas.

The history of mining in Eastern California

and Southern Nevada has been welldocumented in the literature [see respective

summaries in Greene (1981), and Tingley

and others (1993)] and will not be discussed

further other than to note the following

points. First, the Nevada mining boom of

the early 1900s was largely responsible for

the establishment of several communities that

continued to exist long after mining had

ceased. Second, mining operations now

occurred in portions of the State that had

little or no apparent sources of water.

Mineral deposits were not always coincident

with the occurrence of surface water.

Despite its scarcity, water availability never

24

Specifically, the cyanide and flotation processes

were combined with crushing, amalgamation, and

concentration operations, which led to the increase in the

percentage of ore recovery (Chadwick, 1958; pp. 74-76,

95-96).

25

l
proved to be a serious impediment to mining

and mineral processing. In areas for which

there were no sources of supply, private

companies built simple water-conveyance

systems, or hauled in water to meet the

mining community needs (Elliott, 1973;

p. 214). Ball (1907, p. 157), for example,

noted that the closest source of water for the

Bare Mountain Mining District were springfeed portions of the Amargosa River, near

Beatty.

Logistically, therefore, the most accessible

source of water typically proved to be the

many local cold springs. The challenge,

albeit simple, was to transmit the water from

the spring location to that of the mining

operation. This was typically achieved by

collecting the spring discharge and delivering

it through a pipeline made of metal or wood.

The pipeline relied on gravity flow to move

water downhill, from the point of occurrence

to the point of need, so mechanical pumping

was not necessary. In describing early

accounts of mining activity, Lingenfelter

(1986) has provided some information on

local water supply solutions. See summaries

in Appendix B.25 The amounts of water

provided by this method depended on the

seasonal variations in spring discharge rates,

the efficiency of the collecting system at the

spring discharge point, and conveyance

losses through the pipeline. For most of the

smaller mining operations, this method

proved to be an effective supply mechanism

in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

When there were no nearby springs (or

ephemeral streams), another water supply

solution would be to haul water in or

" import" it from another location, by mule

or wagon, or later, by railcar. Again, the

amounts of water provided would depend on

the frequency and size of replenishment

25Although not cited, it is expected that wooden

sluices or ditches may have also been used. However, the

water supply solutions described in this appendix were

relatively simple in comparison to the 20 mi of hydraulic

works employed in the Comnstock Mining District

(Shamberger, 1972).

method. For example, Cane Spring (in Nye

County) was the only source of water for the

Wahmonie Mining District - the distance

between the two locations was about 4 mi.

However, because wagons were used to

transport supplies,26 it is likely that they may

have done so constantly when the mining

community reached its peak population

(albeit briefly) of 1500 to 2000. An example

of how much water transported by haulage

might cost can be derived. In 1907, it is

reported that water was being hauled to the

mining community of Rawhide (Mineral

County) by the Dead Horse Wells Water

Company. The supply wells were about 8 mi

outside of town and the haulage cost per

barrel was $2.50 (Batchelor and Batchelor,

1998; p. 69). Using the 1998 consumer

price index to adjust for inflation, that would

be about $80.00/barrel or $2.50/gallon, in

current dollars (Richard Turtil, NRC,

personal communication, January 1999).

By contrast, water supplies provided by

railcar could be replenished as frequently as

the train schedules permitted. The supplies

themselves were- a function of the railcar's

water tank capacity and the number of tank

cars per train. In the 1860s, railroads had

begun to modify rolling stock to carry water

_ (White, 1993; p. 359). Initial tank designs

were made from treated wood, and were

either rectangular boxes, oversized barrels,

or vats mounted on flat railcars. Because

designs varied and were non-standard, the

initial capacity of early rolling stock outfitted

to carry water can only be estimated to have

been about 1700 gallons per flatcar (Forbes,

1958; p. 121). About this time, "fire trains"

were also in regular use in the West,

including Nevada, for the purpose of

extinguishing track fires created by loose

embers escaping from locomotives (Solomon,

1998; p. 33). They had greater capacities

reaching about 7000 gallons per flatcar (Op

cit.). By the late 1880s, standardized cast

iron tank car designs were introduced with

26Probably 500-gallon tank wagons (Lingenfelter,

1986; p. 321).

26
slightly smaller capacities, ranging from

about 3400 to 5000 gallons ,per railcar

(White, 1993; p. 373).

When geologic conditions permitted, miners

could dig or drill wells to obtain water. As

noted later in this report, the depth to the

water table in the Amargosa Desert area is

quite-variable. Before the introduction of

drilling technology, wells were dug by hand,

using pick and shovel, or excavated, using

clamshell or orange-peel buckets.

Maintaining or increasing well capacity could

be achieved by deepening the well or drifting

laterally into the water-bearing strata

(Ransome, 1907; p. 24). Wells dug in'this

manner could be up to 70-ft deep or more,

with yields in the range of 4000 to 132,000.

gpd (Todd, 1980; pp. 165-167) depending on

aquifer properties. The first such reported

well in the area was the Franklin Well (Inyo

County - Section 5 of T26N, R5E).

Mendenhall (1909, pp. 36-37) notes that it

was dug in 1852 for parties performing a

survey of the California-Nevada State line.

Miller (1977, p. 11), citing other sources,

notes that about 40 wells were hand-dug in

the Death Valley-Amargosa Desert areas in

the late 1880s and early 1900s, to meet early

water-supply needs.

However, this particular supply solution had

certain limitations associated with it. First,,

there was a practical limit to the depth of

such wells, owing to stability of the

excavation - in unconsolidated geologic

materials. Consequently, lining or cribbing,

using wood or metal, was -employed, .to

prevent the' walls of the excavation from'

caving in (Todd, .1980; p. 168). Second, until'

the availability of pumping technology, water

would have to be hauled to the surface and

transported manually to the point of need.

Sometimes, surprisingly, there would be a'

problem with too much water. A common

problem in constructing underground mine

workings is the seepage of ground water.

When' sinking shafts or developing drifts,

water-bearing strata'- are sometimes'

encountered and ground water seeps into the'

excavation. This problem was frequently

reported in, the literature for mines in

Southern Nevadda, particularly by the turn of

the century, when, because of 'favorable

economics and new technologies, deep

underground mining had become more

common and the mining of lower-grade ores

at depth more feasible. As discussed later in

Section 3.3, pumps were now inuse for mine

dewatering. In the Goldfield Mining District,

for example, when ground water was suitable

for use, it was common to pump it out of the

mine to the milling location where it was

needed. The pumps used were either steam-,

gasoline-, or electrically-driven (Ransome,

1907; p. 24).

3.2 Introduction of Railroads

Stage and freight lines were introduced in

Southern Nevada as new mining districts

were discovered to facilitate commerce and

trade among the respective mining camps and

the ''nearest railroads (The Clason' Map

Company, 1907). For example, by 1905,

about 50 freighters were operating between

Las Vegas and the Bullfrog Mining District

in Beatty (Paher, 1971; p. 87). 'However,

the existing freightage system (consisting of

horse or mule teams with about a 22-ton

capacity) was soon overwhelmed by the

volume of materiel making its way to these

communities, and the high tonnage of

mineral ores being shipped out (Elliott, 1973;

pp. 215-216).

Thus, as the number of new mineral deposits

identified continued to grow, 'and mining

activity in the area increased, entrepreneurs

soon - recognized the potential for small

regional railroads. Two regional railroads'

ultimately served the Amargosa Desert'area - the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad (or

the LV&T) and the Tonopah and Tidewater

(or the T&T).

3.2.1 The Las Vegas and Tonopah

Railroad

Located at the north end 'of the valley, the'

LV&T was the first rail line introduced to the

area (Myrick,' 1992; pp. 454-503). It was

27
intended to connect the newly incorporated

town of Las Vegas (est. 1905) with the

growing mining community of Beatty, to the

west. The LV&T began regular operations

in 1906. Once completed, full service was

also extended to the nearby mining camps in

Rhyolite and Goldfield. A one-way, 197-mi

trip took about 8 hours to complete, which

was faster and more direct than the existing

carriage route slightly to the south. By 1907,

50 cars of freight were hauled daily to the

mining districts served by the railroad

(McCracken, 1992a; p. 37).

Before its construction, the main

transportation artery in the area had been an

unfinished roadway that existed farther south

of the LV&T alignment, approximately

contiguous with State Highway 95. It

connected the communities of Las Vegas,

Indian Springs, Ash Meadows, and Beatty.

A 1905 map reproduced in Myrick (1992,

p. 457), as well as a 1906 geologic

reconnaissance map of the area (Ball, 1907),

shows its approximate location. The trace of

this roadway can also be found on 1:62,500-

scale USGS topographic quadrangle maps for

the area - Big Dune (1952 edition), Lathrop

Wells (1961 edition), and Ash Meadows

(1952 edition). The Ash Meadows

topographic map shows, for example, that

the roadway trace closely follows many of

the existing spring locations (e.g., Fairbanks

and Longstreet). In those instances where

there were no naturally occurring sources of

supply, private wells were dug (e.g.,

Franklin, Miller's Nos. I and 2, Rosewell).

In the Yucca Mountain area, there were local

stops at Indian Springs and Charleston (to the

east of Amargosa Valley). Within Amargosa

Valley, local station stops could also be

found at Amargosa (at the base of the Spector

Range), Miller's Station (at the valley

floor), and Rosewell (northeast of Big Dune).

The second mining boom was beginning to

wane in Southern Nevada by the time the

second railroad line, the T&T, reached

Beatty. Business for the LV&T was helped

by the Carrara marble quarry (Kral, 1951;

p. 63). Operations were suddenly stopped

there in 1916, when the power supply to the

quarry as abruptly halted (Op cit.). Shortly

thereafter (about 1918), the LV&T ceased

operations because of declines in revenues,

and its assets were liquidated. In 1919, the

Nevada Department of Highways purchased

the right-of-way. In 1920, State Highway 5

(now Interstate 95) was constructed on the

track's roadbed (Myrick, 1992; p. 503),

thereby connecting Las Vegas and Beatty.

Railroad ties were ultimately appropriated by

local residents along the route for the

construction of homes, barns, shops, and

corrals.

3.2.2 The Tonopah and Tidewater

Railroad

At the southern end of the valley,

construction began on the T&T railroad in

1905 (Myrick, 1992; pp. 545-593). Initially,

the T&T was to haul borax ore (in the form

of the mineral colemanite) from the Lila C.

mine, which was located on the eastern flank

of the Funeral Mountains. The owners of the

LV&T denied the owners of the mine, the

Pacific Coast Borax Company, a rail

connection. Consequently, after obtaining

permission to establish a connection with the

Sante Fe Railroad system, the Pacific Coast

Borax Company decided to construct a

second railway line from California, to the

south, originating near Ludlow. Overall,

construction of the T&T line was slow and

hampered by labor problems, adverse desert

working conditions, and arduous topography

in the Amargosa River Canyon (Op cit.).

Nonetheless, by 1907, the T&T had been

extended to Death Valley Junction, with a

7-mi spur from there to the Lila C. mine. By

1907, the 250-mi system. also had stops as

far north as Gold Center (to the south of

Beatty) and Rhyolite.

However, by the time the T&T line reached

Beatty, the mining boom was waning in

27

In later years, there were attempts at establishing a

Portland cement plant at the site using water piped from

the upper reaches of the Amargosa River. However, the

effort was abandoned and the plant dismantled in 1936.

28
-1 ISouthern Nevada, and business for both it

and the LV&T began to suffer. Because it

had a more-direct route to the west coast, and

because of the dedicated borax ore shipments

from the Lila C. mine, it-is'^¢ generally

believed that the T&T was on sounder.

economic footing than the LV&T (Myrick,

1992; p. 559). By 1914, the higher-grade

ores at the Lila C. mine had been exhausted

and production began to fall-off. Mining

there ended in 1920 and another nearby mine

was subsequently opened - the Biddy

McCarty (Op cit., p. 586). Overall, though,

by the late: 1920s, these and other local

Pacific Coast Borax Company deposits

became depleted, and T&T profits began to

deteriorate because of a decline in ore

haulage. Business for the T&T was briefly

helped by the mining of specialty clays for

the petroleum industry in Ash Meadows.

The deposits were discovered in 1916 and

first mined about 1918 (Cornwall, -1972; p.

35). A -spur line was constructed to

Clay Camp to.'support mining operations

there, which produced about 1200 tons of ore

per month. -Mining at the site continued until

closure of the railroad in 1940.

In 1927, a three-quarter-mile rail spur was

constructed to Carrara, southeast of Beatty,

but revitalized quarry operations there ceased

the same year (Myrick, 1992; pp. 587-588).

By the outbreak of the Second World War,

the Carrara quarry was essentially abandoned

(McCracken, 1992b; p. 47). Other periodic

T&T ore haulage during the time includedtalc (Tecopa and Acme mines) and some

infrequent silver from Beatty (Myrick, 1992;

p. 591). By the late 1930s, operators of the

line filed to cease operations. ' Ultimately,

abandonment of the line was authorized in

July 1940 and the War Department

requisitioned the steel rails for scrap, which

were removed during 1942-43 '(Op cit.,

p. 593).

3.2.3 Significance of Railroad Siting

In examining . the history ' of water

development in the area, a question arises

about what- impact, if any, did ' the"

introduction of these two railroads have on'

the exploitation of local water supplies in

Southern Nevada? The answer is that the

railroads had a' major ' impact on the

exploitation of heretofore undeveloped

ground-water resources. This was in large

measure because of the railroad's access to

capital and technology. Maxey and Jameson

(1948, p. 5), report that the LV&T was the

first to drill for ground water in what was

then the railroad shop of the Las Vegas

depot, in 1907. Shortly thereafter, drilling

syndicates were formed to drill wells north of

railroad-owned property and sell off the land

for farming (Op cit.).2 ' This same drilling

expertise was later employed by the local

railroads in the Amargosa Valley.

As is the case with modern highways today,

railroad engineers at the time tended to favor

routes that were'as straight and as level as

possible, with a minimum of cut and fill.

That is to say both the LV&T and the T&T

designs emphasized directness and lowest

maximum grade between their. respective

termini. Because the earth's topography is

not uniform, railroad designs are typically a

series- of curves with easements and

transitions between the changing curve radii

that are a function of the train's proposed

operating speed. This classic' design

approach is apparent when examining the

1954 edition of the USGS 1:250,000-scale

topographic map for the 'Death Valley,

California-Nevada quadrangle. This map

shows a somewhat level LV&T alignment

(now State Highway 95), more or less,

following the 2800-ft mean-sea-level (msl)

topographic contour through most of the

28The construction of the LV&T was also

instrumental in the establishment of the community of Las

Vegas, in 1905. Senator William A. Clark (1839-1925)

was the principal owner of the LV&T. He also had

financial interests in another railroad line that already

passed through Las Vegas - the San Pedro, Los Angeles.

and Salt Lake Line (Myrick, 1992). When construction

began on the LV&T, Clark purchased the two ranches.

controlling the principal springs in the valley - the Las

Vegas (or Spring) Rancho and the Kiel (Kyle) Ranch.

These ranches were later purchased, subdivided, and sold

by the railroad (Crampton, 1976; pp. 37-39). In 1909,

Clark County was created from portions of Lincoln

County and named for the Senator.

29 -
valley. This route also happens to be the

most direct route to Beatty. By contrast, this

same map shows that the T&T alignment

closely traces the Amargosa River channel.

Although the T&T route is the most direct to

Beatty, it may not necessarily be the most

level. Because the river channel is the main

drainage artery for the basin, it is likely the

steepest geomorphic feature within the valley

floor. Myrick (1992, p. 546) notes that the

T&T relied on an old wagon trail as its road

base for most of its route (Figure 6).

Nevertheless, the location of either railroad

line alignment was not significant for

hydrogeologic reasons. As noted earlier, if

local water supplies could not be developed,

then the railroad would import water from

another location.

Again considering the LV&T, the alignment

of much of this railroad line took advantage

of existing water supplies at Tule Springs,

Corn Creek Springs, Indian Springs,

Miller's Station, and Rosewell. Table 4

indicates that the railroad was also able to

successfully develop wells at Corn Creek and

Amargosa, although the quality of the ground

water at the Amargosa location was

questionable (Carlson, 1974; p. 37). By

contrast, it appears that most of the water

supply for T&T station stops in the area were

supplied by drilled wells (Table 5), despite

the existence of local springs in the Funeral

Mountains. In addition, hand-dug wells, all

likely pre-dating the T&T, were already

known to be adjacent to the train bed, as

noted below:

knew local drilling would yield reliable

ground-water supplies. Also, it is important

to note that not all local supplies were

suitable for locomotive use because of their

high mineral content. Large bicarbonate and

sulfate concentrations could result in the

scaling and ultimately the corrosion of the

locomotive's steam boilers. Consequently,

local water supplies had to be chemically

analyzed to determine their suitability for

railroad use (Carpenter, 1915; p. 41).2

3.2.4 The T&T Experimental Farm

In its 33-year lifetime, the T&T railroad had

only a few years of profitable operation

(Myrick, 1992; p. 591). One of the plans to

increase the profitability of the line was to

demonstrate the feasibility of land

reclamation, using local ground-water

supplies, in heretofore undeveloped portions

of the valley, by establishing an experimental

farm. Some limited "back-yard" gardening

of vegetables and grains, by resident section

crews responsible for track maintenance, had

already been taking place at Leeland Station

(Section 5 of T16S, R48E) -the' first T&T

stop inside Nevada. See McCraken (1992b,

p. 44) and Myrick (1992, pp. 499, 549).3

In addition, farming had already been wellestablished in Pahrump Valley before 1900 at

the Bennett and Manse Ranches. See

Mendenhall (1909; p. 91) and McCraken

(1990b; pp. 11-20). On learning of these

achievements, T&T officials reasoned that if

farming could be established in the Amargosa

Desert, homesteaders would be attracted and

the agricultural products could be shipped by

the company. They expected that by

expanding the volume of commercial haulage

to include agricultural products, the railroad

29Based on the recommendations of Dole (1911).

30 The literature notes that the resident section crews

were mostly Mexican nationals and the inference is that

these individuals possessed the skills necessary to farm

arid land. At the time, Mexican society was largely rural.

Many in that society practiced traditional farming

methods, on small plots of land, that was essentially

subsistence agriculture and under conditions similar to

those found at Leeland Station.

Well Name Location * Depth (t) *

Unnamed (NV) T15S. R47E'* not reported

Franklin (CA) Section 5. 10

T26S, R5E

Unrnamed (CA) Section 9. 3

T26S. R5E

Kelly's (CA) Section 34. 19

T26S. RME

Taken from Walker and Eakin (1963; p. 49), unless otherwise specified.

1952 edition of the 1:62,500-scale USGS topographic map for the Big

Dune. Californin-Nevada quadrangle.

Thus, in all likelihood, railroad planners

30
To

Goldileld I

I A

A

Mining

D&sfWc

G.7C-1

C11

9-p

0

C arrarm *1~-

s "' CRA TER FLA T

* I

o I -

z,

z,

A

NEVADA TEST SITE

(ca. 1949)

Wahmonle Mining Dlsct

JACKASS A

FLATS NO

q0 A

EXPLANATION

- LasVegas and Toopah Railroad

* (ca. 1906.18)

. - - - Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad

(ca. 1907-30s)

-- T&T Spur Lhe

O Station Stop

A Spring

To

Las Vegas

Amargosa

LO

DEATH

VALLEY

NATIONAL

MONUMENT

(Ca. 1933)

- SPRING

MOUNTAINS

A A

' 5 10 MES

0 1 OKI T

Johnnle WMhe A O S 10MOMETER

A

I

A

1

A Ryan Mhing

Dls

A

A

A

A *" A

\%s

To

Lla C Mine

Figure 6. Approximate Location of the T&T and LV&T Railroads in the Amargosa Desert Area. Water supply information for the station

stops shown can be found in Tables 4 and 5. Detailed information on springs in the Ash Meadows area can be found in Figure 5 and

Table 3 of this report. Geographic base is from the 1952 edition of the USGS topographic map for theRyan, California-Nevada

quadrangle (1:62,500-scale).
Table4. Reported and Inferred Sources of Water Supply for the LV&T Railroad. Compiled from the rcecrences cited. The transformation of the former

LV&T railroad grade into what is now State Highway 95 destroyed archeological evidence at some of these sites. Thus, for some of the stations

identified (i.e., Charleston, Point-of-Rocks, Miller, Canon), it is likely that their locations can now only be found in the literature.

Location Elevation Milepost Water Type Comments Reference(s)

(msl - ft) from Source

Las Vegas

(mi) Depth Static

(ft) Water

Level

(It)

Las Vegas 2030 0 Unspecified LV&T < 100' 65 Well also supplied Corn Carpenter (1915); Maxey

well Creek Station construction. and Jameson (1948, p. 5)

Tule 2495 12 Tule springs Ground level Early 20' Century Mendenhall (1909, p. 92)

homestead; spring yields

about "one to two barrels [a

day]."

Corn Creek 2900 21 Corn Creek Springs b Ground level Early 20" Century Clark County Department

(2930' msl) homestead; spring of Comprehensive

discharges 125 gpm. Planning (1982, p. 207);

Thordarson and Robinson

(1971, p. 158)

Owens 3029 28 Not reported. - Established June 1907 to Carlson (1974, p. 184)

serve saw mills 12 mi away

at Charleston Peak.

Indian Springs 3136 44 Indian Springs ' Ground level Early 20' Century Carpenter (1915, p. 74);

(3175' msl) homestead.' Water piped Thordarson and Robinson

from spring 1 mi south of (1971, Table 5)

station. Spring discharge

about 430 gpm.

Charleston 3629 65.5 Not reported. -- Located at base of Spotted Hattori and McLane

Range, probably served (1982)

Mercury Valley and points

north.

Point-of-Rocks 3034 Not reported. - -- Station infrequently used.

Amargosa 2790 74.5 Well' 179 so Served Johnnie Mining Walker and Eakin (1963);

(aka Johnnie Siding) District, 12 mi to the Paher (1980, p. 325);

southeast, as well as Ash Hattori and McLane

Meadows area. (1982)
Location Elevation Milepost Water Type Comments Reference(s)

(msl - ft) from Source

Las Vegas

(ml) Depth Static

(ft) Water

Level

(ft)

Miller 2495 85 Well 186 183 Served Death Valley area. Ball (1907)

Originally part of the

Palmer-Rose overland

freight line between Las

Vegas and Beatty.

Cafion e 88 Not reported. - - Station infrequently used. Carlson (1974, p. 69)

Rosewell 2550 100 Well ' 210 178 Originally part of the Ball (1907); Mendenhall

Palmer-Rose overland (1909, p. 90); Carlson

freight line. (1974, p. 205); Hattori and

McLane (1982, p. 9)

Carrara 2880 107 Water piped from

undefined springs in

Gold Center (Beatty)

areah

Ground level Water supply system

consisted of 8-mi pipeline

and pumping station.

Lingenfelter (1986, p.

405); Hattori and McLane

(1982, p. II)

115 Principally the

Beatty 3284 .115 Principally the I

Beattyspringgroupl

(3370' msl).

Ground level Springs approximately I mi

north of Beatty; 100-200

gpm discharge. Also relied

on 1I-mi pipeline from Goss

Spring (125 gpm discharge).

Before pipelines, water was

hauled by burro at $5/barrel.

Lingenfelter (1986, pp.

218, 222); Malmberg and

Eakin (1962, p. 28)

a. 12-in well reported to be "deep."

b. Carpenter (1915; Plate 11) also shows 408- and 880-ft wells at the site.

c. Carpenter (1915, p. 74) notes that although four wells had been drilled in the area (ranging in depth from 100 to 700 ft. with a variable water table depth of 16 to 46 f), the

spring was still the preferred source of water supply for the railroad.

d. Originally the Towner Ranch, it provided overnight accommodations to travelers to Carson City. The ranch later formed the nucleus of what later became a major terminal

for various overland stage routes to Ash Meadows, Goldfield, Pahranagat (Maxey and Jameson, 1948; Clark County Department of Comprehensive Planning, 1982 (p. 194).

e. Location not precisely known.

f. Well reported destroyed (Walker and Eakin, 1963; p. 49). Mendenhall (1909, p. 91) also notes that Mfiller's Well No. 2, 6 mi to the south, was also a likely supply source.

This 70-ft well yielded about 200 barrels per day of "brackish water" (Op cit.).

g. Now dry, the hand-dug well originally yielded about 100 barrels per day (Carlson, 1974; p. 205).

h. Old Whitney well is believed to be about 4.7 mi from the site, farther up the former LV&T railroad grade (Hattori and McLane, 1982).

i. Other significant local springs include Goss, Indian, and Terry Springs (Malmberg and Eakin, 1962).
Table 5. Reported and Inferred Sources of Water Supply for the T&T Railroad. Compiled from the references cited. Water supplies at Beatty and

Carrara were developed before the arrival of the railroad.

Locations Elevation Milepost Watcr Type Comments Reference

(msl - ft) from Source

Beatty'

(ml) Depth Static

(ft) Water

Level

(ft)

Beatty (NV) 3344 0 Principally the Ground level See Table 4.

Beattyspring group.

Carrara (NV)b 3240 9 Water piped from Ground level See Table 4.

undefined springs in

Gold Center.

C

Ashton (NV) 2663 14 Well ? Served mining districts

in Northern Funeral

Mountains.

Leeland (NV) 2380 24 Well 179 ? Served Lee Mining District Walker and Eakin (1963,

(Funeral Mountains). p. 46)

Jenifer (CA) 2350 30 None -- - No stop. Served mining

districts in Northern Funeral

Mountains.

Scranton (CA) 2330 35 Well 23 21 Served mining districts Walker and Eakin (1963,

in Northern Funeral p. 49)

Mountains.

Bradford (CA) 2200 41 None -- -- No stop. Narrow-gauge spur Lingenfelter (1986,

to clay deposits (Clay Camp) p. 410)

to the west of Ash Meadows

Death Valley 2037 d 47 Well 200 63 Major railroad junction/yard Lingenfelter (1986)

Junction (CA) serving mining districts in

Southern Funeral Mountains

and Greenwater Range. Also

site of Pacific Coast Borax

Co. roaster plant.
Location Elevation * Milepost Water Type Comments Reference

(msl- ft) from Source

Beatty *

(ml) Depth Static

(tt) VWater

Level

(Rt

a. From Myrick (1992. p. 599).

b. Spur to site built in 1927, after dismantlement of T&T railroad.

c. Well depicted on the 1952 edition of the 1:62,500-scale USGS topographic map for the Ryan, California-Nevada quadrangle in Section 25 of T27N, R4E.

d. Lingenfelter (1986, p. 391) notes that drinking water was provided to local mining communities from supplies located in Death Valley Junction. Walker and Eakin (1963,

p. 49) identified two public wells in the area that are likely the 'East' and 'West" wells drilled by the Pacific Coast Borax Co. These wells are cited in the "Tonopah and

Tidewater Railroad Collection' of special papers (Box 1, Folders 5 and 6) located at the James R. Dickinson Library, University of Nevada (Las Vegas). French and others

(1981, p. 14) note that local residents obtain their water from a distribution system connected to a shallow well that does not meet State drinking water standards because of

total dissolved solids (T1 DS) levels in excess of 1000 mg/L, as well as high fluoride levels.

W /
could also increase revenues (Gower, 1969;

p. 28). The concept was sound because

farming and ranching had already been wellestablished in Ash Meadows for many years.

Consequently, between 1915-17, the T&T

railroad established a 10-acre experimental

farm and dairy. It was named the T&TRanch

and was located in Section 25 of

T16S, R48E, about 51/2mi southeast from

Leeland Station. The farm had a barn,

corrals, and other support buildings.

Although ostensibly under the technical

direction of the University of Nevada

(Reno), 3' the farm was operated by railroad

personnel (McCracken, 1992b; p. 67). The

farm provided fresh vegetables and milk to

the Furnace Creek Inn (in Death Valley) and

the Amargosa Hotel (at Death Valley

Junction) - both establishments were also

owned and operated by the Pacific Coast

Borax Company. McCraken (1992b, p. 69)

reports that irrigation water was pumped

constantly during peak growing season.

Although the T&T experimental farm had

been in operation since 1915, no new

homesteaders had been attracted to the area.

In fact, census records indicate that

Nevada's population was in decline (Table

2) while the populations of other Western

States were expanding. At the time,

McCracken (1992b, p. 68) reports that there

was the general belief that the conditions

imposed by the Homestead Act were too

difficult to meet - specifically, developing a

surface water supply sufficient to cultivate

the requisite 160 acres. In particular, it was

thought that Nevada's lack of surface water

resources was hindering its agricultural

progress (U.S. House of Representatives,

1919; p. 2).

In an effort to encourage more favorable

homesteading terms, officials of the T&T

31At the time, many States operated 'experimental

agricultural stations to improve on local farming practices

so this arrangement was not uncommon.

railroad persuaded Nevada State Senator Key

Pittman (1872-1940) to sponsor new

homesteading legislation in 1916. In 1919,

Congress passed the Pittman Underground

Water Act. This homesteading act was

intended to "...encourage the reclamation of

certain arid lands in the State of Nevada."

The act authorized the Secretary of the

Interior to issue permits for 160-acre tracts of

open, nonmineral public lands in the State

known to be irrigable, with permits not to

exceed a total of 2560 acres (i.e., one

Section). Each permit provided the

homesteader with exclusive rights to drill for

subsurface water on the tract. If, within two

years of receiving the permit, the

homesteader was able to locate and develop

sufficient ground water to raise crops on at

least 20 acres, the homesteader became

eligible to receive a patent to the full 160-

acre tract. The remaining three-quarters of

the tract (480 acres) would thereafter be

opened for settlement by others on 160-acre

increments as provided for by the 1862

Homestead Act. The primary purpose of the

Pittman Act therefore was "...to encourage

the discovery of artesian water on the public

domain in the State of Nevada without

appropriation or expense on the part of the

Government," in order to promote "[t] he

future development of the agricultural land of

the State." (U.S. Senate, 1915; pp. 1-2).

The only homesteaders to take advantage of

this new homesteading legislation were

themselves officials of the Pacific Coast

Borax Company, which owned the T&T

Railroad (McCraken, 1992b; p. 68). The

claims were centered around the T&T

Ranch, forming a contiguous block of land.

After drilling, the five claims were eventually

patented in 1927 and the homesteaders

subsequently consolidated their holdings by

forming the Leeland Water and Land

Company. Soon thereafter, the consolidated

land holdings were transferred to the

railroad's parent company (McCraken,

1992b; pp. 68-69).

36
Overall, the Pittman Act failed to

significantly advance agricultural

development in Nevada, and the Amargosa

Valley in particular, and Congress repealed

the act in 1964. The T&T- Ranch was

essentially abandoned by the early 1940s,

when railroad operations of its namesake

ceased (Bureau of Reclamation, 1975; p. 13).

The property remained abandoned until after

the Second World War. The lack of

commercial success of the ranch may have

been caused by the proximity of the site to

local markets. At that time, as well as today,

Venstrum (1939, p. 82) noted that one of the

major impediments to agricultural

development in Southern Nevada was the

isolation of local farms from major markets.

Although the use of the wells at the T&T

Ranch is considered to mark the beginning of

land reclamation and modern irrigation in the

Amargosa Desert area (Walker and Eakin,

1963; p. 37), it is not clear how many wells

were actually in use at this time. Records of

the Nevada State Engineer (Carson City),

suggest there may have been as many as five

observation wells (dated 1921), in addition to

one production well. McCraken (1992b,

p. 69) reports that initially several wells were

drilled to support farm operations, and they

ranged in depth from 72 to 88 ft. However,

farmers already recognized the potential for

ground-water-level declines in Southern

Nevada, from irrigation, as early as 1908

(Maxey and Jameson, 1948; p. 6). This

"well complex," consisting of a pumping

well surrounded by observation wells (Figure

7), may have thus been established by the

farm operators after the 'Pittman Act land

patents had been granted to better understand

ground-water phenomena in - an area

heretofore not evaluated.32

i .;

3.3 Developments in Drilling and

Pumping Technology 33

With the arrival of the railroads, more

abundant and reliable sources of water had to

be located. The locomotives at the time were

steam-driven and, given the arid climate and

the steep grades to be negotiated,'frequent

water stops were necessary to maintain boiler

supplies. Steam locomotive designs in the

1890s consumed about 80 gallons of water

per mile (White, 1998; p. 521) and carried

about 2000 gallons of water (Op cit., p. 65).

Given these constraints, boiler supplies for

operating locomotives are estimated to have

been in need of frequent replenishment (i.e.,

about every 25 miles or so).

Supply methods took on various forms.

Usually, the railroad companies attempted to

rely on surface water from local springs.

Kraus (1969) notes that sometimes railroads

would attempt to create man-made springs by

drilling horizontally into the sides of

mountains, hoping to collect percolating

surface water in so-called "infiltration

galleries" (Bennett, 1970). At the time, Ball

(1907, p. 22) noted that farmers used this

technique successfully to recover irrigation

water from alluvial fan deposits in

California. However, this supply method is

not believed to have been relied on in the

Amargosa Desert area.

When spring water wasn't available, fresh

water was hauled in, or wells were dug or

drilled. Ball (1907, p. 21) reports that, in

general, shallow wells were typically sunk in

the gravel areas' found in flats or gulches

adjacent to the main travel routes or near the

32Empirical evidence indicates that some amount of

ground water will always be retained within an aquifer

because of physical processes. Thus, it was important to

understand how much water a particular geologic unit

could actually supply to a production well. To determine

just how much water can be supplied by an aquifer, or its

speciflcyield (Meinzer, 1923; p. 51), pump tests were

devised. Such tests are reported in the literature as early

as 1904 (Clark, 1917; p. 84) and were used to determine

the general "water-yielding properties" of sands and

gravels. Specific yield was first defined by Meinzer

(1923, p. 70) as "...the total volume of water pumped by

the total volume of sediments drained." It is likely that

this well field arrangement, consisting of a pumping well

and several observation wells, was established at the T&T

Ranch for this purpose.

333- 3Unless otherwise noted, much of the discussion in

this section on developments in drilling and pumping

technology is based on Allen (1958); Bruce (1958);

Brantly (1971), and Tanish and Churchfield (1978).

37
WELL COMPLEX SUMMARY

Well Casing Depth Static Water

Diameter (ft) Level

(in) (it)

16SY48-36a1 Not reported 165 68

16S/48-25al 16 198 85

16Y49-36d2 16 62 54

16S/49-30b1 16 180 84

16Y49-31b1 161/2 153 69

16SY48-25c1 12 203 64

"9

0

oo O I iMile

0 1 l(ometer

LOCATION MAP

El 16Sl48.36a1

* 16Sl4836b2

-2240-

EXPLANATION

Pumping Well (ca. 1917) and Number

Observation Wells (ca. 1921) and Number

Water-Level ContourAbove Mean Sea

Level (in feet)

l48E R49E

61 1 1 1 It16 5 43 2 1

i _ _ _ _ 7 8 910 _1 12

I __ 18 17 16 15 14 13 T16S

22 24_20 21 22 23 24

21 292827 26 25

32 33 34 35 36

Figure 7. Well Complex at the T&T Ranch. Figure shows a pumping well surrounded by a series of observation wells. Data table

complied from Walker and Eakin (1963).
respective railroad alignments. Based on a

reconstruction of ground-water conditions

before 1952, Kilroy (1991) estimates that the

depth to water table in some places

(Amargosa Flat, Ash Meadows, and Franklin

Lake playa) was less that 20 feet. [Also see

Czarnecki (1990).] Thus, the digging or

drilling of wells would not have proven to be

too difficult a technical challenge, at that

time.

*Hence, it is likely that the first wells in the

area were either hand-dug (i.e., Rosewell,

Miller's Well Nos. 1 and 2) or man-made

improvements to existing spring-discharge

-points. Before 1900 and before the use of

mechanical excavation techniques became

widespread, it is also likely that early wells

were bored by hand-operated augers

following the drilling technique known to be

used in the Eastern United States at the

time.34 This drilling technique is well suited

for shallow water tables in unconsolidated

sediments. These conditions can be found in

many places in the Amargosa Desert.

Moreover, augering did not rely on large

amounts of water for lubrication and the

removal of cuttings, as is the case with other

(modern) drilling methods. Wells developed

in this manner were typically lined with a

casing of either concrete or metal pipe to

prevent the borehole from caving-in. Casing

also preserved the hydraulic properties of the

well.

Once constructed, various methods were used

to lift ground water to the surface. The

simplest method was to manually lift water

using a bucket and rope. Often, draft

animals were used. Later, more sophisticated

methods were used, such as [windmills" -

341n the 1880s, auger boring was the chief drilling

method for developing water wells in the Atlantic and

Gulf Coastal Plain areas of the United States (Carlston,

1943).

3Windmills are known to have been used in the

Sarcobatus Flat-Oasis Valley areas, for watering stock

(Malmberg and Eakin, 1962; Table 4). Although they are

not cited in the literature, it is likely that windmills were

also used in the area at one time because of the light-tohere the breezes were dependable (Murphy,

1901). Although these technologies may

have been innovative in their times, they

were not capable of providing water in

quantities sufficient to meet mining and

irrigation needs. 'However, two -major

technological developments - the perfection

of mechanical cable-tool drilling systems and

submersible pumps - changed all this.

Cable-tool Drilling Systems: Cable-tool (or

the "yo-yo") is the oldest type of the drilling

methods. Drilling is accomplished through

the regular lifting and dropping of a string of

preferable because they were less likely to be

tools,36 consisting of a drill bit, not unlike a

chisel, with a relatively sharp edge that

breaks the rock by impact (percussion) - that

is attached to one or more series of steel bars'

(cables) called "spring poles." The spring

poles added weight to the cutting surface as

well as length to the drill so that it would cut

rapidly and vertically. During the drilling

process, this' entire assembly is lifted and

released anywhere from 20 to '40 times

(strokes) per minute ranging from 1- to 3-

foot-lengths per stroke. The drill line is also

rotated during the operation, thereby creating

a borehole. After the drill bit has cut though

3 to 6 ft of a geologic formation, the string of

tools is extracted and the hole is bailed to

remove cuttings.' Because of the weight of

the drill string and spring poles, every cable

tool method usually has certain restrictions

that'depend on borehole depth and borehole

diameter. For example, small-diameter

boreholes may be drilled relatively deeper

than large-diameter boreholes.' Collapsing

rock formations may also further restrict'the

initial casing diameter. Generally, casing

size decreases as borehole depth increases.

Overall,' the cable tool drilling'method was"

usually effective for drilling boreholes in

consolidated materials, up to 2 ft in diameter,

moderate winds present.

IlThe full string of cable tool drilling equipment

typically consists of five components - a drill bit, drill

stem, drilling jars, swivel socket, and cable (Driscoll,

1986; p. 270).

39
and to depths of about 2000 ft (Todd, 1980;

p. 179). With the advent of this new

technology, most water wells in the United

States were drilled rather than dug. Drilled

wells were generally uncontaminated by

surface spoils, and more likely to provide

reliable water supplies (Bowman, 1911;

p. 25). They were also safer to construct.

The standard cable-tool drilling rig was

initially developed in the United States. The

completion of the first drilled well in

Charleston, West Virginia was about 1808

(Carlston, 1943; p.122). Initially, the drillbits were crude and shaped like fish tails. By

the mid-1800s, cable-tool drilling techniques

had been improved as a consequence of the

industrial revolution and the exploration for

petroleum and natural gas. Using a singlecylinder steam engine as a power source, this

drilling method was later used to develop the

first commercial oil well in the United States - the Drake Well in Titusville, Pennsylvania

- in 1859 (Brantly, 1971; p. 153). The

drilling derrick was adapted from its use as a

ship's crane (Derry and Williams, 1961;

p. 491) to aid in the withdrawal and storage

of drill-pipe and cutting tools. By the end of

the century, stand-alone drill rigs were

outfitted with wheels for mobility. By the

late 1920s-early 1930s, the rigs became

truck-mounted. Steam-driven versions were

replaced by versions powered by gasoline or

diesel fuel. Before the late 1950s, most wells

in Southern Nevada were drilled with cable

tools (Livingston, 1938; p. 151). The

simplicity of their design, ruggedness, and

ease of repair and maintenance-made the

cable-tool systems well-suited for operation

in isolated areas (U.S. Bureau of

Reclamation, 1977). However, this drilling

method was not well-suited for

unconsolidated rocks that were waterbearing, so casing of the borehole was often

necessary.

Cable drilling costs in the early 1900s were

about $1.25/ft, for the first 100 ft; increasing

by $0.50/ft for each succeeding 100-ft

increment (Carpenter, 1915; p. 40). Drilled

wells were usually cased. Drill-pipe and well

casing were locally acquired merchant

materials. Livingston (1938, pp. 151-152)

notes that the usual practice was to drill until

the borehole began to cave in and then install

casing along the weakened portion of the

excavation. Once the casing was installed,

drilling would proceed using a smaller

diameter drill bit. As a result, most wells in

the area have several sizes of overlapping

casings. Sometimes gravel packs or

perforated casings were used as screens (Op

cit., pp. 40, 63). Often no screen would be

used.

Some of the early wells in Southern Nevada

were uncapped and free-flowing (artesian).

This made it easy to exploit local water

supplies, but wasted large quantities of it.

For example, of the 100 wells sunk in the

Las Vegas Valley before 1912, all reached

ground water, and 75 were free-flowing

(Carpenter, 1915; p. 40). 37 This practice

ultimately resulted in early regulation of

ground-water supplies by the State Engineer

(see Section 3.5). However, unless the

ground water was already under sufficient

hydraulic head, the water supplies developed

using these drilling methods were not freeflowing. Thus, they were only sufficient for

a small livestock ranch and not mining and

irrigation, because the means for extracting

large volumes of ground water were still

lacking.

37The wells ranged in depth from 150 to 1150 ft. with

casing diameters ranging from 3 to 12 in, usually

averaging about 8 in.

3SAfter its initial development in France in the 1860s,

a second drilling method became available - rotary

drilling. This technology was first introduced to the

United States, in the 1 880s, in an effort to discover

ground-water supplies in remote areas of South Dakota

(Brantly, 1971; p. 216). The drilling bits themselves

consisted of conical cutting surfaces attached to hollow

drill pipe. The pipe is rotated to create a cylindrical

cutting motion that excavates geologic formations by

fracturing, grinding, and scraping. Unlike cable-tool

methods, rotary drilling operates continuously and relies

on drilling muds (clay-water mixtures) to lubricate the

cutting surface, seal the borehole, and remove cuttings.

Additional advantages include a rapid drilling rate and the

avoidance of the need to install casing during drilling.

This particular drilling method was found to be well-suited

40
Centrifugal Pumps: The use of ground

water as a source of supply was further

helped by the introduction of pumping

technology. Beginning in the 1800s, steamdriven reciprocating (piston) punimps were

already available, mostly in Europe and the

Eastern United States, for hydraulic

applications. These pumps had already been

found useful in dewatering underground

mines. The most popular of these was the

Cornish Beam or Pumping Engine (Stowers,

1958).39 In the mid-1850s, the rotary or

centrifutgal pump was developed. It was

mechanically simpler than other pumps for it.

had fewer moving parts. When compared

with other pump designs, the centrifugal

pump had been shown to be capable of lifting'

water against both low- and high-head water

conditions (Allen, 1958; p. 524). Also, but

more importantly, the centrifugal pump was'

capable' of higher, more constant delivery,

with less work (energy) at higher pressures

and speeds. See Hood (1898). In the early

1900s, smaller air-lift pumps came into

fashion for a brief time. These pumps,

though, have an uneven delivery.

Thus, once centrifugal pumps had been

demonstrated as a practical means :for

pumping water, designs were soon modified

for mobility and powered by coal gas, oil,

and gasoline. By the 1910s, pump designs

included electric versions adapted for

installation under water. Early designs were

surface-mounted, on large caissons, with

vertical turbine shafts (Carpenter, 1915;

pp. 42-43). Later, in the 1930s, electrical:

versions of the pumps were adapted for

submersion in the well bore.

for unconsolidated alluvial rocks, particularly those that

were water (fluid)-bearing (Carpenter, 1915; p. 40). In

addition, rotary systems permitted the inspection of drill

cuttings to evaluate geologic conditions, while drilling was

taking place - unlike cable-tool systems, which required the drilling process to be periodically (and frequently). stopped, to bail cuttings. Nevertheless, it wasn't until

1949 that a rotary system was used to drill a water well in

northern Nevada - near Denfo (Swanson, 1998; p; 96).

39By the early 1870s, such pumps were in operation

in Nevada. See the account given by Shamberger (1972,

pp. 39-41).

By the 1910s, it was commonplace to find

gasoline, diesel, or electric-powered

centrifugal pumps, ranging in size from 12 to

30 horsepower,40 supplying the water needs

of Eastern, Nevada. Pumps in this power

range were capable of irrigating between 5

and 50 acres of farmland (Wilson, 1896;

p. 45). When the first reported irrigation well

in the area was reported to have been drilled

in 1917 (Walker and Eakin, 1963; p. 37), it

is likely that it followed the model described

by Carpenter (1915), for Eastern Nevada.

Finally, the emergence of innovative drilling

and pumping technology did not go

unrecognized by the Nevada State

Legislature. As early as 1879, an act was

approved that permitted the-county to pay a

bounty of as much as $2/ft for any artesian

well drilled (Shamberger, 1991; p. 25).

Other types of 'financial incentives were

subsequently passed into State law, between

1887 and 1913, to encourage the private

development of ground water for the public

good (Op cit., pp. 26-27). -

3.4 Role of Hydrogeologic

Investigations

The use of ground water in Southern Nevada

generally preceded the scientific

understanding of its origin and occurrence.

As noted earlier in this report, Native

Americans, and later, Euro-American

homesteaders, were already well-established

at the sites of major local springs before the

40

A 15-horsepower (gasoline-driven) centrifugal

pump, for example, could deliver about 700 gpm of water

(Carpenter, 1915; p. 42). Ultimately, pump size was

based on water supply needs as well as aquifer-pumping

depth and other aquifer hydraulic characteristics.

Under the terms of the act, an individual having to

drill and case an artesian well would receive $2/ft for.

every foot of well drilled beyond 500 fR, provided that a

free-flowing well had been developed. -Before the passage

of the act, if a person already had drilled a well, they

received S2/ft for every foot of well drilled beyond 300 ft,

provided that a free-flowing well had been developed. The intent of this legislation was to give well owners an

incentive to continue with drilling if no water were

encountered at the 300- or 500-ft depths (Op cit.).

41
conduct of the first geologic surveys of

Southern Nevada. Many of the wells had

been drilled and developed before formal

scientific investigations were conducted and

results documented. Nevertheless, the ability

of geologists to prepare system-wide analyses

of hydrogeologic conditions has contributed

to ground-water development in the

Amargosa Desert area and elsewhere in the

State. Analyses such as these ultimately

improved the quality of earth science

information available for public and private

decision-making (e.g., Herfindahl, 1969;

Bernknopf and others, 1993).

3.4.1 Early Studies

During the late eighteenth and early

nineteenth centuries, fundamentals in the

geologic sciences were established in Europe

(Adams, 1954). These precepts subsequently

provided the theoretical basis for evaluating

the occurrence and movement of ground

water in the United States. Early groundwater resource investigations were conducted

by State Geological Surveys and at

universities located mostly in the East

(Rosenshein and others, 1986). Creation of

the USGS, in 1879, was intended to foster an

improved understanding of the water

resource potential for Western States

necessary for irrigation projects. Funding

was appropriated, in 1888, for water research

that led to the development of the Water

Resources Division of the USGS (Rabbitt,

1980; pp. 157-161). This division had its

first publication appear in 1896 (by Wilson).

Despite the existence of certain basic

hydrogeologic theories (i.e., Darcy 1856;

Dupuit, 1863), most of the early

hydrogeologic investigations were empirical.

They relied on the observation and

documentation of in-situ conditions found in

the field. Many of the early USGS

investigations 42 focused on ground-water

systems that had produced flowing artesian

wells because of the absence of extensive

42 Reported in the Water-Supply Paper series that

succeeded the Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper series.

surface water supplies (Meyer and others,

1988; p. 2), as well as no ready access to

steam or electrical power to operate pumps.

The first regional overview of water supply

in Southern Nevada was prepared by

Mendenhall in 1909. Coincidentally, in the

same year, one Carey LandAct application

was received from the Amargosa Valley Land

and Irrigation Company in Nye County.

Although the application was approved, it

was subsequently relinquished by the

organization (Shamberger, 1991; p. 87).

Large tracts of land were covered by

irrigation applications for speculative

purposes (Op cit., p. 85) by companies with

financial backing from the East (Reisner,

1986; p. 108) because there was no filing fee

nor price for the land. Shortly thereafter,

Carpenter (1915) described drilling and

irrigation practices in what were artesian

aquifers in the Las Vegas basin. Waring

(1921) later described these activities in

nearby Pahrump, Mesquite, and Ivanpah

Valleys. As a result of the work by

Mendenhall and other investigators involved

in national mapping efforts, Meinzer (1923)

was able to prepare the first comprehensive

treatise on the occurrence of ground-water in

the principal rock types of the United States,

including the local valley-fill deposits

considered characteristic of the Basin and

Range physiographic province in Southern

Nevada (Op cit., pp. 291-303).

The widespread availability of drilling and

pumping technology in the 1920s helped to

meet the increasing demands for water by a

growing western population and reclamationbased agriculture in Southern Nevada. Some

of this local activity was described by the

University of Nevada' s Agricultural

Experimental Station (Bixby and Hardman,

1928). However, in the arid west, because

of the increase in demand on ground water as

a source of supply, water tables declined in

areas for which natural recharge rates were

small in comparison to demand. This led to

an increase in the study of well and aquifer

hydraulics, during the 193Qs and 1940s, to

better understand ground-water recharge

42
phenomena. As a result of these studies (and

others), a series of classic scientific papers

describing fundamental geohydr6logy were

published. See Theis (1935,1940) and Jacob

(1940, 1947). Freeze and Back (1983),

Reilly (2004), and Fetter (2004a,' 2004b)

summarize this history in more detail.

Although not discussed in detail here, there

were parallel advances fluid mechanics

science that contributed to improvements in.,

the design of hydraulic machinery, such as

pumps and water conveyance systems. See

Rouse (1976) for a discussion of this history.

3.4.2 Basin-Wide Studies

There was rapid growth and unregulated use

of ground water in the 1920s and 1930s in

the greater Las Vegas Valley. This resulted

in increased withdrawal of water from local

aquifers by pumping, and decreased yields

from wells and springs. Although these

consequences were recognized as early .as

1908 (Maxey and Jameson, 1948; p. 6), it

wasn't until 1938 that the Nevada State

Engineer became more actively involved in

evaluating and managing ground-water

resources (Op cit., pp. 7-8).43 These events

led to a comprehensive evaluation of ground

water within the State.

In an attempt to determine how the Las

Vegas basin would respond to future

development, the State Engineers Office

entered into a cooperative agreement with the

USGS. The results of these investigations.

were later documented in a series of reports

- Livingston (1938); Maxey and Jameson-

(1946, 1948); Maxey and Robinson (1947);

and Robinson and others (1947). Early

findings of one particular investigation,

43In 1903, the Office of the State Engineer was.

created to help protect existing water rights and better

manage available water resources in Nevada. See

Schamberger (1991, p. 17). The early focus of this office

was in the management of surface water resources and

irrigation concerns. Later, in 1929, the Nevada Bureau of

Mines and Geology was established, in association with

the Mackay School of Mines, to provide information on the

geology and mineral resources within the state (Tingley, 1988; p. 287).

Livingston (1938), resulted in the Nevada

State legislature determining that immediate

changes to its water laws were necessary to

better conserve the ground-water resource.44

At the time of the Las Vegas artesian basin

studies, only a few of the valleys (i.e.,

hydrographic areas) in Nevada had

undergone ground-water development.

Although sizable ground-water resources

were thought to exist in other basins, their

extent was not known because of the absence

of data. Consequently, in 1945, the State

Engineers Office established a ground-water

study program that included a network of 250

observation wells throughout the State

(Schamberger, .1991; pp. 68-69). This

program was also conducted in cooperation

with the USGS, and results were published

by the State as Nevada Water-Resources

Bulletins (Op cit., p. 70). Beginning in

1960, the Nevada Department of

Conservation and Natural Resources and the

USGS published a ground-water resource

Reconnaissance . Series for basins not

previously evaluated in the Water-Resources

Bulletins (Op cit., pp. 69, 72). This included

ground-water resource evaluations for the

Amargosa Desert area (Walker and Eakin,

1963) and NTS (Rush, 1970).

There was increased geologic interest in

Southern Nevada following the creation of

the Nevada Proving Grounds (predecessor to

NTS)' for nuclear activities by the then

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).

Following publication : of a geologic

reconnaissance by Johnson and Hibbard

(1957), the USGS initiated a series of

regional ground-water studies. These studies

were published as 'Technical Evaluation

Investigations or TEIs and included the

Amargosa Desert area. Exploratory and test

wells were sometimes sunk as part of the

investigations.

44The Comprehensive Underground Wazer A ctof 1939

stipulates that all underground water.within the State

belongs to the public and is subject to appropriation for

beneficial use (Schamberger, 1991; pp. 57-58).

43
The next major evaluation of the groundwater phenomena in the Amargosa Desert

area was in the mid-1970s. At this time, the

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1975)

conducted a soil survey as part of its Inland

Basins Program, to determine the potential

for extensive agricultural development of the

area. As part of this survey, the Bureau of

Reclamation had a test well drilled for pump

tests. The 1500-ft well was used to evaluate

the thickness and character of the saturated

alluvium and to determine the depth to

Paleozoic bedrock. The USGS also initiated

the Regional Aquifer-System Analysis

Program during this time in response to a

Congressional mandate to develop

quantitative appraisals of the major groundwater systems of the United'States. The

interpretive report of the region including the

Amargosa Desert area was published as

Burbey and Prudic (1991).

In the early 1980s, in parallel with

Congressional passage of the Nuclear Waste

Policy Act and its implementing regulations,

the USGS (in consultation with several

states45) characterized and evaluated potential

hydrogeologic environments for the disposal

of high-level radioactive wastes in the Basin

and Range physiographic -province. The

results of these studies were published as

eight separate chapters to USGS Professional

Paper 1370.

Two synthesis reports on regional

hydrogeology were prepared in the mid1990s (Pal Consultants, 1995a and b) in

support of the Death Valley National Park

Draft Environmental Impact Statement and

General Management Plan prepared by the

National Park Service in 1998. In 1999, the

USGS sponsored a conference on the status

of geologic investigations in the Death Valley

National Park. This annual conference

(known as the Devil's Hole Workshop )

focuses on the regional hydrogeology of

Southern Nevada and Eastern California,

45Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico,

Texas, and Utah.

including the Amargosa Desert area. See

Slate (1999), for example.

More recent hydrogeologic studies at NTS

have been for the purpose of characterizing

the potential Yucca Mountain repository site

(e.g., Czarnecki and Waddell, 1984; Luckey

and others, 1996; D'Agnese and others,

1997). Many 'of these studies have been

published as Analysis Model and Process

Model Reports. To date, more than 450

boreholes have been drilled in support of

various scientific investigations of the Yucca

Mountain site (DOE, 2002b; p. 16).

Most recently, and again in association with

NTS activities, Nye County initiated its Early

Warning Drilling Program (EWDP) in the

late 1990s with support from DOE. The

EWDP has been described as a phased testwell drilling program intended to provide

important hydrologic information on the

shallow and deep saturated zones downgradient from the potential repository. This

program. is described in more detail in

Volume 2 (Lee and Coleman, 2005) of this

NUREG series.

3.5 Regulation of Water Supply

Because of the arid climate, there appears to

have been an early interest in both the

development and conservation of ground

water within Nevada (Maxey and Jameson,

1948; pp. 4-12). Historically, the only

reliable sources of water were the numerous

springs, weeps, and seeps, and ground water - to the extent it was accessible.

The State of Nevada legislature began to

regulate surface water use as early as 1866,

and ground water as early as 1879

(Shamberger, 1991; pp. 6, 25). In 1903, the

Office of the State Engineer was created to

help protect existing water rights and better

manage available water resources.

Introduction of subsurface drilling technology

in the late 1800s increased interest in the

exploitation of ground-water resources. The

Nevada legislature subsequently passed

additional legislation recognizing that the

44
i v v

ground-water resources would be subject to

appropriation by the State Engineer. The

legislature also required the adoption of

conservation, measures to case and cap

artesian wells (Op cit., p. 24). i

In an effort to conserve the resource, curtail

wasteful practices, -and protect legitimate

water rights, the Nevada State Legislature

approved the Comprehensive Underground

Water .Act of 1939 (Shamberger, 1991;

pp. 57-58). This act declares that "...all

underground (ground water) water within the

boundaries of the State belongs to the

public." To ensure beneficial use of the

resource, all water use in Nevada is regulated

by the Office of the State Engineer in the'

Division of Water Resources (NDWR)

through permitting or appropriation. See

Morros (1982, p. 20545) and State of Nevada

(1982, pp. 79_83).46 The maximum amount

of ground water that can be appropriated

from a given hydrogeologic basin in Nevada'.

is limited to its perennial or safe yield.4" For

each hydrologic basin in the State, the State'

Engineer has estimated the perennial yield.

These estimates rely on assessments prepared

cooperatively by NDWR and the USGS.

When ground-water withdrawals exceed

recharge, overdrafting or water-mining of the

basin can occur. (Water mining can occur

even at pumping 'rates well-below ,the'

recharge rate because the water table level,

reflects a recharge-outflow equilibrium

surface. Ground ,water can also cross

hydrographic basin boundaries and thereby

also affect equilibrium levels.)

Overdrafting of ground water produces a

number of undesirable effects. ,The most

46Ground water is appropriated by the Nevada State

Engineer in the manner described in Water Supply Report

2 (State of Nevada, 1982; pp. 79-83).

7The State Engineer applies the "safe-yield"

philosophy to the allocation of ground water in Nevada.

"Safe yield" is a term of art and is generally regarded as

the amount of water that can be pumped from an aquifer,

on a sustained annual basis, without depleting the reserve

or impacting existing legal rights. Any withdrawal in

excess of the safe yield can be considered an overdraft

(Mann, 1963).

significant is the depletion of the existing

resource because overdrafted water comes

from storage. Additional undesirable effects

include deteriorating water quality, well

interference,' arid land subsidence. Each of'

these effects are problematic from a cost

perspective. Over-appropriation is also

prohibited by the State. See Morros (1982;

pp. 20467-20557).

The current maximum permissible water-use

rate in Southern Nevada is based on the

State's perennial yield philosophy.

Residential or domestic use is limited to 1800

gpd per single-family unit (State of Nevada,

1982; p. 79), with only one well per

household. Agricultural or ranching use is

limited to 4 to 5 acre-ft/yr [Tom Gallagher,

NDWR (Carson City), personal

communication, July 1997]. However, it is

generally recognized that overdrafting has

occurred because of the over appropriation of

aquifers, throughout a large portion of

Southern Nevada (Maxey and Jameson,

1948; Malmberg, 1967;'Nichols and Akers,

1985; Harrill, 1986; Plume, 1989; Morgan

and Dittinger, 1996). This -has led to some

restrictions on development. In instances

where it is believed that ground-water

withdrawals could exceed ground-water

recharge, the State Engineer may issue a

statement known as a designation order, as a

means of protecting the aquifers in a groundwater basin from overuse (DOE, 1988b;

p. 3-114). As a designated basin, the order

defines the area of the overdraft and restricts

the issuance of new permits in that area.

Rapid growth in Southern Nevada during the

last half-century has resulted in an increased

demand for potable water.' As a result, there

have been documented overdrafts throughout

the region. These overdrafts have continued

for several decades and are likely a result of

the problems associated with determining

water'budgets, including the estimation of

perennial yield (e.g., D'Agnese and others,

1997), for hydrographic areas in 'Southern

Nevada. Because there have been overdrafts,

both the Amargosa and Pahrump Valley

basins are currently listed as designated

45
(State of Nevada, .1982; Table 29). The

implication of being designated is that the

agricultural use of ground water would have

the lowest preference of beneficial-use

ranking. Under the designation condition,

changes in authorization of existing water use

or new permitting for domestic and/or quasimunicipal use are favored (Science

Applications International Corporation, 1986;

pp. 3-5).

Another possible explanation for the

overdrafts could be a limitation on the State's

1939 regulatory authority. Ground-water

appropriations made before 1913, and used

continuously since then, are generally not

covered by the State Engineer's 1939

authority.Thus, because there are unregulated

ground-water rights in place, it is difficult to

evaluate the total amount of ground water

available for apportioning throughout the

State (State of Nevada, 1982; p. 80).48

Traditionally, supply-side solutions such as

reservoirs (dams) and canals have been used

to meet the growing water needs in the West

(Reisner, 1993). However, today such

solutions may have become prohibitively

expensive (Frederick and others, 1996). In

a 1992 report prepared for the State of

Nevada, it was noted that the greater Las

Vegas area would likely need to adopt a

regional solution to its water supply problem

(Water Resources Management, Inc., 1992;

p. 21). Inasmuch as Nevada already relies

on its full allocation from the Colorado

River, it has been suggested that a regional

supply solution for communities in the Las

Vegas valley may include acquiring

unallocated ground water in one or more of

the neighboring valleys (Basse, 1990; p 24).

There was a recent case, in Amargosa

Valley, where a private concern petitioned

the State Engineer to initiate forfeiture

proceedings to acquire unused water rights

for the purpose of reallocation (Buqo, 1997;

p. 30).

3.6 Agricultural Activity in the

Twentieth Century

From the 1920s to the 1940s, there was

relatively little development activity in the

area. The major population centers were

Beatty, Death Valley Junction (because of

borax mining); Ash Meadows (because of

clay mining and ranching); and the vicinity of

the Death Valley National Monument.49 The

State built a highway maintenance facility at

what is now Lathrop Wells in 1931

(McCracken, 1992b; p. 72). The Las Vegas

Bombing and Gunnery Range was created in

the early 1940s for the Army Air Corps, to

the northeast, using land that is within

current NTS boundaries. State Highway 29

was paved from the Lathrop Wells location to

Death Valley Junction in the late 1940s

(McCracken, 1992b; p. 47). In 1950, the

now renamed Nellis Air Force Range was

selected as, the site of the United States

continental nuclear test site and the AEC

assumed control of operations at the site.

These events had little effect, at the time, on

the development of ground-water supplies.

In 1948, the abandoned T&T Ranch was

reoccupied because of renewed interest in

farming at the site. By the mid-1950s, other

modern "homesteaders" began to arrive,

also intent on farming, owing to the opening

of the area to settlement under amended

48One of the more well-known examples of the

impacts of overdrafting in Southern Nevada was the

incident involving the now-present Ash Meadows National

Wildlife Refuge. Reduced discharge to some springs in

Southern Nye County, in the late 1960s-early 1970s,

resulted in the extinction of some late-Pleistocene

ancestral fish and the endangerment of others. Overdrafting in Southern Nevada has also resulted in land

subsidence and ground failures locally (e.g., Pavelko and

others, 1999).

49

1n the late 1920s-early 1930s, several modest desert

'resorts" had been created in what is now the Death

Valley National Monument. Hoping to attract tourism,

some enterprising individuals transformed the living areas

at former mining camps - e.g., Scotty's Castle, Furnace

Creek Inn, Saratoga Springs, Death Valley Viewi..

Amargosa Hotel - see Lingenfelter (1986, pp. 441-467). Shortly thereafter, the Death Valley National Monument

itself was established in 1933. During 193342, the

Civilian Conservation Corps (a New Deal unemployment relief measure) maintained camps there during the

construction of park infrastructure.

46
provisions to the Desert Lands Act,

(McCracken, 1992b; pp. 75-80), now

administered by the Bureau of Land

Management (BLM).50 Nuisancevegetation

(principally Larrea-Ambrosia) w"as cleared

from the irrigation plots and windbreaks

were planted to promote soil conservation

and protect crops from local wind conditions.

Drilling- records of the State Engineer

confirm the growth in twentieth century

homesteading, the trend toward modern land

reclamation, and increased ground-water use.

Beginning in the early 1950s, and continuing

through the,1960s, new drilling permits were

issued mostly for irrigation wells.5 ' Also

during this time, most of the original 1800s-:

era homesteads were subdivided and sold-off

as smaller farms and ranches, which

accounted for additional new permitted

drilling..

At the beginning of this phase of

development (early .1950s), there were about

8000 acres of patented land in the area

(Bureau of Reclamation, 1975; p. 13).

Following the arrival of electricity, in the

early 1960s, an additional 17,000 acres were

patented.52 These more recent homesteading

locations can today be easily identified by the

stands or rows of an evergreen variety of

50In 1946, BLM was formed within the Department of -

the Interior from the U.S. Grazing Service and the

General Land Office.

5 1No water wells were reported to have been drilled

for any purpose in the area between the mid-1920s and the

early-1950s (Lee and others, 2002).

52A major obstacle to expanded water use and

agricultural development was the absence of inexpensive

sources of power. Initially, the only sources of electricity

were diesel- (and some butane-) powered generators,

which were expensive and had to run almost constantly

during irrigation periods. In 1963, the Rural

Electrification Administration was instrumental in securing

commercial electric power for local residents and

businesses (McCracken, 1992b; pp. 84-87). With the

arrival of cheaper sources of electric power, there was

renewed interest in homesteading and the number of wells

in operation grew by about one-third. During the 1960-69

period, for example, there were 217 new drilling permits

issued; most were for irrigation.

saltcedar or Athel tamarisk53 used at the time

for windbreaks.

Although about 25,000 acres of land have

been patented54 through Desert Land Entry or

the Carey Act, in the early 1990s, BLM

ceased issuing land patents pending

development of a comprehensive resource

management plan for the administration of

the public lands under its jurisdiction in

Southern Nevada. Such- a plan (and its

attendant Environmental Impact Statement) is

required by the Federal Land Policy and

Management Act of 1976 and the National

Environmental PolicyAct of 1969, and would

include the Amargosa Desert area. In its

proposed resource management plan, BLM

recommended that no more than an additional

31,676 acres be made available for

discretionary development under Indian

Allotment, Desert Land Entry, or the Carey

Act. See BLM (1998b, 1998c).

3.6.1 Improvements in Irrigation

Delivery Systems

As noted earlier in Section 3.3, after the First

World War, there were many new

developments in pumping and drilling

technology as the demand for petroleumbased products increased. These advances,

particularly in the 1930s (Tanish and

Churchfield, 1978), also impacted the

exploitation and delivery of ground water

(Bruce, 1958; pp. 1368-1371). Further

impacts were realized by technical

improvements in the delivery and application

of irrigation water itself.

Most early irrigation methods in the area

53Athel tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla) is a fast-growing,

evergreen tree introduced to North America from the

Middle East in the early 1800s. It is well adapted to

alkaline soils, large temperature extremes, and windy

conditions characteristic of the desert Southwest. This

tree has numerous slender branches that grow into a dense

crown. Leaves are small and scale-like, and gray-green in

color. When fully grown, tree heights can range from 33

to 60 feet. In the past, the Athel tree was used for

windbreaks, erosion control, and shade. Deciduous

varieties of Tamarix are considered noxious weeds in the

United States.

54BLM (1998a, 2000) estimate.

47
. -it

utilized the direct diversion of surface water

from springs and streams. Earthen ditches

(furrows), sometimes in conjunction with

simple hydraulic structures, were used to

divert discharged ground water to crops by

way of gravity flow. In addition to being

somewhat labor-intensive, this passive

irrigation technique is both inefficient

(conveyance losses, uniformity in

application) as well as problematic (erosion

control, excess water sediment).

Nevertheless, many small farms in the area

today still rely on this irrigation method.

Improvements in the delivery and application

of irrigation water were achieved through the

use of new light-weight materials (plastic and

aluminum) as well as automatic control

devices. Initially (in the 1950s), the delivery

systems were flood siphon tubes and later (in

the 1960s), side-roll ("skid-tow") sprinkler

systems. Both delivery modes were

essentially stationary systems and had to be

moved manually from one irrigation location

to the next. During the last 20 years, centerpivot sprinklers were perfected and have

emerged as the irrigation system of

preference, particularly in the West. Such

systems are now automated and selfpropelled. What is most appealing about this

particular irrigation technology is that the

light and frequent application of water works

well in arid soils with high infiltration rates

and correspondingly poor water-holding

capacity. It is also regarded as a more

efficient and cost-effective irrigation method

that is better-suited to soils in places like the

Amargosa Desert. See Splinter (1976).

As revealed in Figure 8, center-pivot

irrigation systems are popular in the area.

They can be easily identified by virtue of

their characteristic signature - a circle - on

aerial photographs and satellite imagery.

Center-pivot irrigation systems generally

work as follows. 5 The irrigation system

consists of water sprinkler nozzles mounted

on a 6-in delivery pipe. Water is pumped

5 5Taken from Christiansen and Davis (1967).

into the pipe from a source at the center of

the field to the sprinklers, which are spaced

in such a way that the amount of water

applied increases with distance outward from

the center of the pivot. This delivery pipe is

generally about 8 ft above the ground and is

supported by a row of seven or more mobile

towers with steel or rubber wheels that are

driven with electric or hydraulic motors.

Most irrigation systems are designed to fit

the conventional unit of agricultural land in

the United States - about 160 acres or one

quarter-section of land. The circular pattern

irrigates about 133 acres of the one quartersection. These systems are fully electronic

(automatic), can apply about 2 in of water in

each 12-hr circular traverse, at a rate of 900

gallons/hour (Addink and others, 1975), and

can be adapted to apply commercial

fertilizers and herbicides. Regular

maintenance is required to maintain uniform

water applications by the spray nozzles

(Briggs and others, 1992).

The use of modern irrigation systems has

permitted labor savings as well as economies

in the size of acreage farmed. However, the

selection of a particular irrigation technique

depends on many factors. In general,

though, BLM estimates that it would cost in

excess of $250,000 to make the necessary

irrigation (capital) improvements required by

the Desert Land Entry-Carey Act. 56

58Estimated capital costs to purchase and construct an

irrigation system, and prepare the requisite 320 acres for

farming, in current dollars [source: Internet web site at

htp://wvww.blm.gov/nhp/landfacts/DesenLand (September

2001)]. The National Research Council (1999, p. 66)

places the capital costs of center-pivot systems alone at

about $300/acre. Capital costs for drilling and finishing

the water-supply well, estimated to range from $96/ft to

about $500/ft [see EPA (1999) and Wittmeyer and others

(2001)), are not included in these estimates. Also omitted

is the cost of a water pump needed to lift the water from

the water table and deliver it to the irrigation system for

crop application. They range in cost from $3000 to

$10,000 per system (Gollehon and others, 1994). Lastly,

having completed all of the capital improvements

necessary to perform irrigation, the operating (energy

costs) for the entire system need to be accounted for.

Estimates by Scherer (1998) for center-pivot systems are

about $644/acre and include well and pump costs. It

should be noted that individual estimates will vary by

location and whether the equipment is new or used.

48
-

(4

Fiue8 ada mg ofthAmgsaDsrAe.Noiasaeltaliuesapoxaey43

miesabveth ert'ssufae

49 CC3
To meet the growing water supply needs in

the area introduced by these modern

irrigation systems, about 160 new wells had

been drilled by the early 1960s (Walker and

Eakin, 1963; Table 3).

3.6.2 Scientific Assessment of Soil

Quality

Because of the potential interest in irrigated

farming, the Bureau of Reclamation

conducted the first of a series of

investigations in the late 1960s to evaluate

local soil conditions.5" In summary, these

investigations generally report the following.

The geologic basin comprising the Amargosa

Desert is partially filled with Tertiary- to

Quaternary-age sediments derived from the

surrounding topographic promontories

(mostly volcanic and carbonate sequences)

through weathering and erosion. The basin

materials are sorted to varying degrees

depending on the type of, and distance from,

the parent rock. The soils themselves are

geologically more recent and were formed on

alluvium deposited by the intermittent flow of

the Amargosa River and its tributaries. This

drainage system reworks and redeposits the

basin source material. Source materials are

also subject to wind action and dessication

due to droughts. As a result, local soils tend

to be spatially erratic and lack (vertical)

profile uniformity (McCormick and Naphan,

1955). The processes described above yield

a coarse class of "soils" (medium- to finetextured gravels, sands, and silts) that

generally hold little water - less than an inch

per foot of soil, compared with 2 or more

inches for finer-grained soils (Kaser, 1969;

pp. 33-26). Evaporation accounts for a

considerable amount of (near) surface water

loss because of low humidity (30 to 40

percent), abundant sunshine, and light to

moderate winds. Evaporation in the area

may exceed 120 in of pan evaporation

(French and others, 1981; p. 32). Because

coarse soils hold little moisture, they also

have insufficient capacity for retaining

nutrients and are therefore inherently less

fertile. Moreover, saline soil conditions exist

due to the high concentrations of soluble salts

in soil materials as well as a result of the

high evaporation rates. This is important

because in high enough concentrations, salt

compounds can obstruct germination and

impede a plant's ability to absorb water and

nutrients. Because of these conditions, only

salt-tolerant crops (halophytes), such as

alfalfa, tend to be successful in production.

In many areas, soils are also moderately

cemented with calcium carbonate that has

chemically precipitated from percolating

surface waters (McCormick and Naphan,

1955; pp. 15-18). The cemented soil, also

known as hardpan or calichd, generally has

the consistency of cured concrete and forms

impermeable zones near the ground surface.

These zones range in thickness from a few

inches to as much as 1 ft in the soil profile

(Bureau of Reclamation, 1975; p. 18). The

cementation obstructs surface water drainage

(percolation) which further contributes to soil

salinity. In addition, the calichd creates a

physical barrier which restricts the

penetration depth of root systems of plants,

particularly those with deep root networks

like alfalfa. 58 Dynamiting or mechanical

plowing (sometimes to depths of up to 5 ft)

may be required to render calichl-laden soils

workable (Amundson, 2000; p. 9).

Thus, for both geologic and pedogenic

reasons, many of the soils in the area have

been classified in the past as having

properties that "...preclude their use for

irrigated agriculture..." or "...have severe

limitations that reduce [the] choice of crops

or require special conservation practices or

both" (Sakamoto and others, 1974).59 Given

58Alfalfa has a root system that can grow to a depth

of 30 ft. when mature. However, it generally needs a

minimum of 5-7 ft of soil to develop a root system

adequate for production in arid areas (Ogrosky and

Mockus, 1964; pp. 21-83).

57 Because of their thin soil veneer and variable

topography, mountainous areas around the Amargosa

Desert basin have been generally excluded from soil

surveys.

59

Based on information prepared by the State

Engineer/University of Nevada, it is estimated that at least

60 percent of the soils in the Amargosa Desert Subbasin

are not considered irrigable; an additional 28 percent of

the soils are classified "...severely limited to very

50
these conditions, many of the Desert Land

Entry applicants discontinued crop irrigation

after a land patent was granted and some

never obtained permanent water rights

(Bureau of Reclamation, 1975; p. 48). The

principal reason appears to be the absence of

160 acres of contiguous arable land required

by the homesteading statutes (Op cit., p. 24).

3.6.3 Ash Meadows Land Withdrawals

In addition to the lands around the former

T&T Ranch, another early sought-after.

homesteading site was the Ash Meadows.,

area. The 22,116 acres of spring-fed

wetlands and alkaline desert uplands that

initially defined the Ash Meadows location

are situated in the southern tip of the

Amargosa Desert. They were incorporated

into the Death Valley National Monument in

1952 by Presidential Proclamation.

The location provides a habitat for 24 unique'

flora and fauna. (Four kinds of fish and one

plant are currently listed as endangered.)

There are about 50 permanent fresh-water

springs and seeps that discharge into the

refuge. Seven major springs (Big Springs,

Fairbanks, Rogers, Longstreet, Point of

Rocks, Jackrabbit, and Crystal) discharge

more than 10,000 'gpm, year round.

Although this discharge area is geologically

and hydrologically complex, it is believed

that a series of poorly connected gravel,

sand, and terrestrial limestone aquifers,

supplied by Paleozoic carbonate rocks to the

east, provide water to the refuge. See

Winograd and Friedman (1972) and

Winograd and others (1998). The extensive'

spring system there, including spring-feed

streams, supports a vast riparian zone with

abundant natural forage that historically was

important to both Native Americans and

early pioneers.

During the late 1960s, most of the lands,

there were still public and managed by BLM.

In 1967, on property -adjacent to the Ash

Meadows portion of the Death Valley

National Monument, Spring Meadows, Inc.,

established a commercial farm and ranch (the

Spring Meadows Ranch ) on 5645 acres of

land it obtained through a BLM land

exchange.60 Holdings for the ranch were

later increased to 12,000 acres through the

private purchase of contiguous, alreadypatented properties (McCracken, 1992b;

pp. 71-72). When necessary, additional local

ground-water rights were leased by the ranch

operators when land could not be purchased.

Besides development of the ranch and farm,

about 50 new boreholes were locally drilled

and a well field was developed.6' Other

capital improvements included roads, fences,

power lines, and the diversion of local

streams for irrigation. In summary, when

compared to other local farms in operation at

that time, the Spring Meadows Ranch was

substantial - 4000 acres were under

cultivation growing Bermuda grass, alfalfa,'

wheat, and barley; 1700 to 1800 head of beef

cattle grazed; and 100 individuals were

employed.

In April 1970, ranch operators sought to

further expand pumping operations in the

well field, and applied to the State Engineer

for changes to permitted water use from

several of the wells not currently in

production. However, during this time,

water-level declines had been observed at the

removed Devil's"'Hole Unit of the Death

Valley National Monument. In'the view of

the National Park Service (NPS), continued

or increased pumping 'of nearby wells was a

direct threat to the habitat of the endangered

-

60Under Section 8 of the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934.

In managing public lands, as a matter of long-standing

policy, BLM can exchange (i.e., 'trade' or 'swap")

public lands at one location for lands owned by

corporations, individuals, States, or local governments at

another location. However, the lands to be exchanged

must be of equal monetary value and located within the

same State. Through exchanges, non-Federal parties can

acquire lands with development or economic potential - commercial, industrial; residential, or agricultural. In

turn, the Federal Government acquires lands offering

public recreation, wildlife, and resource values.

severely limited..." in their ability to sustain some type of

cultivation.

61Mostly for operations at the Spring Meadows

Ranch. Based on State Engineer records for the period

1967-70.

51
Devil's Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis)

and other species of the genus Cyprinodon

because of the potential for additional waterlevel declines.

To resolve the issue, the State Engineer

conducted a public hearing in December

1970. NPS commissioned the USGS to

determine whether the Spring Meadows'

production wells were hydrologically

connected to Devil's Hole and, if so, which

of those wells could be pumped safely and

which should be limited to prevent further

water-level declines. At the hearing, NPS

requested either that the Spring Meadows'

application be denied or that the State's

decision on the application be postponed until

the USGS studies [later published as Dudley

and Larson (1976)] were completed. The

Nevada State Engineer declined to postpone

a decision, and ruled that the permit would

be granted since further economic

development of land on the Spring Meadows

Ranch would be in the public interest.

In August 1971, the United States filed suit

in Federal Court (in Las Vegas) seeking to

prevent Spring Meadows, Inc. from pumping

(except for domestic purposes) those wells

that were known or suspected to have an

effect on Devils Hole. Initially, Spring

Meadows, Inc. agreed to limit pumping at

certain wells; however, the suit was

reactivated when pumping resumed in 1972.

A subsequent District Court decision led to

court-ordered supervision of pumping

activity. Appeal of the pumping restrictions

was rejected by the Ninth Circuit Court in

1974. In 1975, Spring Meadows, Inc. (now

renamed Cappaert Enterprises) appealed to

the U.S. Supreme Court to review the earlier

court decisions because they conflicted with

state-assigned water rights (Dudley and

Larson, 1976; pp. 1-4). In a June 1976

decision, Cappaert et al. vs. the United

States et al. (426 U.S. 128), the Supreme

Court ordered that high-volume ground-water

pumping in the Ash Meadows area be

permanently enjoined to prevent further

water-level declines within Devil's Hole.u

Following the permanent injunction,

Cappaert Enterprises sold their operations in

the early 1980s to a Pahrump-based landdevelopment company, Preferred Equities.

Preferred Equities was planning to develop a

residential community for about 50,000 at the

property which had now grown to about

17,000 acres in holdings. Because of the

earlier pupfish controversy and concerns over

future impacts to the local ecosystem, The

Nature Conservancy arranged to purchase

12,600 acres of Preferred Equities land

holdings, as well as associated water rights,

to preclude future development in the Ash

Meadows area (McCracken, 1992b;

pp. 71-72). In June 1984, the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service purchased these holdings

and established the Ash Meadows Wildlife

Refuge.

Today, both the wildlife refuge and the

earlier National Monument site encompass

more than 22,000 acres. The Ash Meadows

Wildlife Refuge is currently undergoing

habitat restoration with an overall goal to

restore the area to its natural, pre-developed

state. This will involve re-directing some

spring discharges back into former natural - channels, restoring wetlands, removing nonnative species (particularly salt cedar, bass,

tropical fish, and crayfish), restoring native

riparian and upland vegetation, and removing

many of the man-made structures.

Drilling records maintained by the State

Engineer show that no irrigation well permits

were issued in the Ash Meadows area since

1972. Also, in the years since the Supreme

Court decision, continuous ground-water

monitoring has revealed that the water level

in Devil's Hole has recovered to prepumping levels [Tim Mayer, U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service (Portland), personal

communication, July 1997].

82An unofficial reprint of the Supreme Court decision

for this case can be found on the Internet web site at

http://1aws.findlaw. com/us/426/128.htm1.

52
3.6.4 Current Farming Activities

Because of the erratic distribution of arable

soils and the Ash Meadows land

withdrawals, farming has been generally

restricted to scattered tracts of land in

southern reaches of the valley. What

agricultural activities do occur are confined

chiefly to the center of the Amargosa Valley

and to the west of Nevada State Route 373.

This triangular parcel of land is viewed to

have relatively favorable soils and accessible

ground water in comparison to other portions

of the valley (Horak and Carns, 1997; p. 7).

Farming has been successful in the past, due

to careful - crop selection and special

management practices (CRWMS M&O,

1999; p. 10) as well as the application of

large quantities of irrigation water (EPA,-

1999; p. 8-43). The local growing season;

averages about 200 days [see Bedinger and

others (1985; Table 8, p. G32) and Sakamoto

and others (1974)] although some operations

may be closer to 300 days (Stonestrom and

others, 2003; p. 7). Irrigation methods are'

flood or sprinkler. The valley is subject to

winds of high velocity and duration, creating

a sand-blast effect on crops and accelerating

soil erosion (Bureau of Reclamation, 1975;

p. 21). Consequently, when farming does

take place, windbreaks are extensively used.

Late frosts can be a problem.. Fruit trees

grown locally usually bud in February, but a

killing frost tends to occur every one in four

years - in March.

In 1999, it was estimated that about 2500

acres were under cultivation locally (EPA,.,

1999; p. 8-40). Alfalfa is the principal

commercial agricultural product grown and

most of the local growers provide the local

dairy, operations with a portion of their

feedstock.63 Nine alfalfa farms were reported

63Winter hardy, drought-resistant varieties of alfalfa-.

were imported from Russian Turkestan in the early 1900s

and proved to be well-suited for the arid climate of the,

Western United States (Russelle, 2001; p. 259).

Nevertheless, because of its inherently low nutritional

value (e.g., total digestible nutrients), locally-grown

alfalfa is blended with nutritionally-richer alfalfa imported

from locations outside of the valley. No more than 10

percent of the production is used locally. Most of the

local crop is destined for markets outside of the State [Ken

in production in 1999, ranging in size from

65 to 800'acres and averaging about 255

acres (Op cit.). The long growing season

permits about seven cuttings per year.

However, most irrigation applications need

to be properly timed to maintain 'crop

growth. Under current practices, fields are

irrigated continuously from February through

November. Reported irrigation application

rates are variable, ranging from 0.3 to'0.4

in/day (or 6.6 to 8.9 ft/yr - Stonestrom and

others, 2003; p. 7):

Other agricultural products grown in the area

include lesser amounts of barley, oats, and'

hay. Winter temperatures'are generally too

low for the commercial production of winter

vegetables. Nevertheless, many local

residents maintain kitchen gardens and

orchards for private use. More than twodozen fruits,-nuts, and vegetables 'are or have

been grown locally (Eisenberg and others,

2001). With few exceptions, most -of 'the

farming takes place on a part-time basis, with'

the owner working full-time in another

occupation (Bureau of Reclamation, 1975;

p.' 13).

All the activities described above rely on

some degree of pretreatment of the soils

using commercial fertilizers, sometimes in

combination with compost. Despite the

effectiveness of these measures, there is

information to suggest deterioration of soil

conditions in already cultivated areas due to

increases in salinity and sodicity levels

(CRWMS M&O, 1999; p. 10). Over the

long-term, continued increases in salinity and

sodicity could lead to reduced agricultural

production and possibly abandonment of lowproduction lands (Op cit.).

State Engineer records "suggest that onlyI a

small percentage of local land is undergoing

irrigation at this time and most land users are

not using their allocated water rights' (Buqo,

1997; p. 30).' Overall, current agribusiness

in the area is based primarily on a single

Garey, Bar-B-Q Ranch (Amargosa Valley), personal

communication, May 1996.]

53
dairy operation rather than on wide-spread

farming. A current herd of about 6000-head

supports the Ponderosa Farms Dairy. See

CRWMS M&O (2000; p. 16). The location

of dairy operations here is reported to have

more to do with certain economic factors

(taxes, permits, state regulations) rather than

with agricultural conditions and variables

beneficial to bovine well-being (Op cit.,

p. 17).

3.6.5 Current Water Supply

Today, most Amargosa Desert area residents

live in widely spaced farms, ranches, and

single-family homes. Although some springs

meet (limited) local needs, almost all the

water used is provided through either public

or private wells. Some of the smaller

communities, individual residences, and

businesses rely entirely on private

(commercial) water suppliers (DOE, 1988b;

pp. 3-118 - 3-119). Only a few communities

(Beatty, Mercury, Tonopah, and portions of

Pahrump) have centralized public water

systems (DOE, 1986; p. 3-75).

In 1971, the USGS (Thordarson and

Robinson, 1971) performed one of the first

comprehensive surveys of ground-water

availability in the area. The survey was

conducted to assist AEC officials in assessing

damage claims to water wells and springs

possibly resulting from nuclear testing. The

USGS reviewed published and unpublished

geologic and ground-water data within a 100-

mi radius of NTS. The census covered

31,416 mi2 in portions of six counties in

Southern California and Nevada. The types

of information collected for the census

included aquifer type, water-table depth,

yield, and end use. This census' identified

6032 wells and 754 springs. Most of the

wells identified in the census (98 percent)

were located in alluvium. In addition to

being the most extensive surficial geologic

unit in the region, the alluvial basins are

usually the most topographically accessible

(occupying physiographic low terrain) and

have the highest water-yielding capacity of

the aquifer types identified. See Bedinger

and others (1989; Figure 1, p. Al). Using

USGS data, Fedors and Wittmeyer (2001)

describe completion details for typical wells

in the area. Water wells are also reported in

carbonate and volcanic rocks, but these

aquifers generally tend to have lower water

yields in the study area. Almost 54 percent

of the wells identified, in the census were

reported to be less than 200-ft deep. Almost

84 percent of the wells were reported to have

depths less than 490 ft. Sixty percent of the

wells were 'reported to yield at least 100

gpm. Most of the wells in the census area

(56 percent) were reported to be used for

domestic purposes. Irrigation (17 percent);

municipal and commercial (6 percent each);

and stock supply (2 percent), were other endusers of water (Thordarson and Robinson,

1971). (Nine percent of the wells in the 1971

identified in the census area were reportedly

no longer in use.)

In a 1988 survey of local wells, for purposes

of characterization of the Yucca Mountain

site, DOE reported that 50 percent of the

wells in the area (199 of 397) were used for

domestic use'and 41 percent (164 of 397)

were used for agricultural irrigation. The

remaining 9 percent of the wells were for

other uses. See DOE (1988b; p. 3-119).

Most of the wells are clustered around the

major population centers cited earlier. In

DOE's 1986 Environmental Assessment for

Yucca Mountain, the number of local wells

reported in operation was 207 (DOE, 1986;

p. 3-85).64 In recent years, the number of

domestic and irrigation wells in operation

locally is reported to be about 130 (CRWMS

M&O, 2000).A Well designs are consistent

with current standards (Driscoll, 1986).

Agricultural development is currently

confined to the southern portion of the

Amargosa Desert where ground-water depths

range from 33 to 130 ft below the ground

surface (Kilroy, 1991), and the gentle

topography and suitable soils permit farming.

64Citing State of Nevada data.

e 5sbid.

54
From this location, the depth to the water

table increases monotonically along a

trajectory extending northward, to more than

980 ft approximately 6 mi from the

southernmost perimeter drift of the potential

repository. For example, NTS well J-13, in

Jackass Flats, pumps ground water from a

minimum depth of about 980 ft below the

ground surface to support Yucca Mountain

site characterization activities; however, this

may be considered an exception to standard

water-supply practice in the area.

In general, water quality throughout the area

is adequate for personal consumption, stock,

and agricultural purposes. The exceptions

are areas in the Southern Amargosa Desert,

where evaporites from lacustrine deposits

cause the ground water to have TDS

concentrations in excess of 10,000

parts/million (Winograd and Thordarson,

1975). Until recently, some ground water

was used for processing specialty clays and

zeolites mined from lacustrine deposits in

Southern Amargosa Desert and in Ash

Meadows.

3.6.6 Consumption Rates

DOE has published information on groundwater consumption in the area in several

documents: the 1986 Environmental

Assessment; the 1988 Site Characterization

Plan (SCP); in the 1996 Final Environmental

Impact Statement (EIS) for the Nevada Test

Site and Off-Site Locations in tihe State of

Nevada (DOE, 1986, 1988b, and 1996,

respectively); and, most recently in technical

basis documents providing parameter values

for DOE performance assessments for the

Yucca Mountain site (CRWMS M&O, 2000).

Using limited consumption data for only

5216 Nye County inhabitants, DOE

estimated that the per-capita consumption of

water county-wide was 653,000 gpd per 1000

people6 (DOE, 1986; p. 3-74). Extrapolating

this figure county-wide to calendar year 2000

population (Table 2) produces a consumption

rate estimate of about 12 million gpd or 37

acre-ft/day. Projected annually, this

consumption rate is about 13,400 acre-ft/yr,

or more than twice the estimated available

perennial-yield amount. Analyses 'by

Fenelon and Moreo (2002, p. 60) place the

ground-water withdraw rate in 2000 at

13,000 acre-ft/yr.

DOE has also provided estimated water

consumption estimates for selected

communities in the Yucca Mountain area

(Table 6).' This information was first

reported in the Environmental Assessment

(DOE, 1986; p. 3-75), and subsequently

updated in the SCP (DOE, 1988b; p. 3-135),

and the Final NTS Environmental Impact

Statement (DOE, 1996; p. 4-132). Table 6

shows that all local communities in the area

rely on well water for their supplies.

Consequently, certain precautions need to be

in place to protect shallow wells from septic

contamination. Only a few communities

actually have (integrated) public sources of

supply.

Finally, it should'be noted that several manmade reservoirs have been built in the past to

meet the water-supply need for agricultural,

mining, or milling purposes, as noted below:

Name Capacity Supply Reference

(acre-ft) Source

Crystal Reservoir 1489 Crystal DOE (1988b.

Spring p. 3-24)

Clay Camp 43 Local wells DOE (1988b.

p. 3-24)

Death Vallry < 40 Not Giarnpaoli

Junction/Point reported (1986, p. 4)

of Rocks

6 6

Estimate based on consumption rate of 3.4 million

gpd per 5216 inhabitants.

55
Table 6. Water Supply Systems and Rates of Consumption for Major Communities in the

Amargosa Desert Area.

Community Water-Supply System a Estimated

Consumption b

Source Sewage Treatment (103 gpd)

Amargosa Valley/ Public' and private wells Septic tanks and 1585

Lathrop Wells evaporation ponds

Ash Meadows' Private wells and springs Septic tanks 40

Beatty 4 municipal wells' and spring Oxidation pond and 793

septic tanks

Crystal C Private wells Septic tanks 61

Death Valley Junction Private wells d Evaporation pond 17

Indian Springs c Municipal 'and private wells Evaporation pond and septic tanks 793

Indian Springs Air Wells' Imhoff Tank (sludge disposal in 396

Force Base ' pits)

Johnnie ' Not reported Not reported 7

NTS/Mercury ' Wells' Oxidation ponds and septic tanks 291

Pahrump Public' and private wells Evaporation ponds and septic 2480

tanks

Rhyolite Spring-fed storage tank Septic tank 3

a. From French and others (1981). DOE (1986, p. 3-38). and Science Applications International Corporation (1986. p. 3-6).

b. From DOE (1988b. p. 3-135).

c. Includes piped distribution system. See Gram (1985).

d. Not within Alkali Flat-Furnace Creek Ranch ground-water basin.

e. Water quality does not meet EPA ground-water quality standards.

f. With 20,000 gallon capacity.

56
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66
I

APPENDIX A

PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE AMARGOSA DESERT AREA

Scientific names for plants (flora) and animals (fauna) cited in this report. A more comprehensive

listing of local biosphere resources can be found in DOE (1996, 2002). Information on likely uses

was taken from Jaeger (1957) and Stoffle and others (1990).

Common Name Scientific Name Likely Use

FLORA

blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima

boxthorn Lycium andersonhi

bunchgrass Stipa speciosa Edible seeds.

creosote bush Larrea divaricata Fuel, medicinal and/or beverage

tea, ceremonial incense, and sap

glue. Also, natural forage for

domestic cattle.

desert ground-cherry Physalis crassifolia Edible fruit (when ripe).

desert saltbush A triplex polycarpa Edible leaf extract.

desert saltgrass Distichlis spicata

desert sand grass (Indian rice) Oryzopsis hymenoides Edible seeds.

Devil's pin-cushion (barrel Echinocactus polycephalus Edible cactus, awls, and needles.'

cactus)

galleta grass Hilaria rigida Natural forage for domestic cattle.

greasewood Larrea tridentata Fuel, medicinal and/or beverage

tea, sap glue, and ceremonial

incense.

Hopi (or wild) rye grass Leymus triticoides Edible seeds.

hopsage Grayla spinosa

Joshua tree Yucca brevifolia - Edible buds, baskets, and sandals.

mariposa lily Calochowusflexuosus Edible bulbs.

Mojave yucca Yucca schidigera Edible cactus and baskets.

honey mesquite Prosopis glandulosa Edible'bean pods. Also, wood

used for dwelling construction,

fuel, and utilitarian items.

pifion pine Pinus monophylla Edible nuts, medicinal chew (sap),

-fuel, baskets, and pitch.

prickly pear cactus Opuntia sp. Edible fruit and stems (pads).

A-1
Common Name Scientific Name Likely Use

rabbit brush Chrysothamnus puberulus Medicinal and/or beverage tea,

and dwelling construction.

sagebrush Arremisia tridentata Medicinal and/or beverage tea,

and dwelling construction.

screw bean (or tornillo) Prosopis pubescens Edible pods, dwelling

construction, fuel, and utilitarian

items.

squaw cabbage beans Streptanthus inflatus Edible beans.

Utah juniper Juniperus osteoperma Edible berries, dwelling

construction, fuel, and ceremonial

incense.

velvet mesquite (bush) Prosopisluliflora Edible bean pods.

wild grapes Vitis arizonica Edible berries.

white bursage Ambrosia dumosa Natural forage for domestic cattle.

FAUNA

bobcat Lynx rufus

desert bighorn sheep Ovis nelsoni

desert tortoise Gopherus agassizii

duck Anatidae

jack rabbit Lepus californicus

kit fox Vulpes velox

mountain lion Felis concolor

mule deer Odocoileus hemionus eremicus

pack (wood) rat Neotoma lepida

pronghorn antelope Antilocapra americana

squirrel Citellius

References

Jaeger, E.C., The North American Deserts, Stanford,

Stanford University Press, 1957.

Stoffle, R.W., D.B. Halmo, J.E. Olmsted, and M.J.

Evans, 'Native American Cultural Resource Studies

at Yucca Mountain, Nevada," Ann Arbor, Institute

for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1990.

U.S. Department of Energy, "Final Environmental

Impact Statement for the Nevada Test Site and OffSite Locations in the State of Nevada," Las Vegas,

Nevada Operations Office, DOE/EIS-0243, Vol. 1,

August 1996.

U.S. Department of Energy, "Chapter 3, Affected

Environment," in "Final Environmental Impact

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of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive

Waste at Yucca Mountain, Nye County, Nevada.

Volume I - Impact Analyses," Office of Civilian

Radioactive Waste Management, DOE/EIS-0250,

February 2002.

A-2
APPENDIX B

EARLY SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY FOR MINING OR MINING-RELATED

OPERATIONS IN THE AMARGOSA DESERT AREA

In California (Inyo County) and Nevada (Clark, Esmeralda, Nye, and Pershing Counties), as reported by Lingenfelter (1986), unless

otherwise noted. - -

W

Location Year(s) Source Comments Page(s)

IVANPAH MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Unspecified 1851, mid- Salt Spring --- 55, 136

1870s

GOLD MOUNTAIN MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Magruder Mountain ca. 1872 Mammoth Springs (?) $30,000 pipeline. 109

Magruder Mountain _ 1880-. - Mammoth Springs 12-mi pipeline consisting of 6-in, spiral -riveted pipe. 149

(South side)

Unspecified 1902 Springs, stream, and Stinking Springs (later renamed Thorpe's Well). 345-347

ground water

PANAMINT MOUNTAIN MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Unspecified mid-1870s Man-made reservoir Spring-fed, using 1-mi pipeline. 123

Pleasant Canyon 1893 Stream Pumped water to Mineral Ranch from a steam 600 ft 195

below.

Ballarat Mine 1899 Undefined spring 5-mi pipeline. 198

Skidoo Mine ca. 1907 Undefined spring 23-mi pipeline. 287
Location Year(s) Source Comments Page(s)

RESTING SPRING MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Unspecified 1874 Resting Spring (?) Hills south-southeast of Resting Spring on the Old 137

Spanish Trail.

JOHNNIE MINING DISTRICT (Nye County)

Chispa Mine ca. 1891 Horseshutem Springs 6-mi pipeline. 190

Johnnie Mine 1905 Horseshutem Springs 5-mi pipeline, 2 in diameter. 353; Carlson

(1974, p. 146)

DEATH VALLEY MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Confidence Mill 1896 Ground water Well sunk in Death Valley; later moved mill to spring 193, 195

near the mouth of Pleasant Canyon.

Death Valley Junction 1916 Not specified Water hauled by railroad from undisclosed location. 391

GOLDFIELD MINING DISTRICT (Esmeralda and Nye Counties)

Columbia Mountain Mill ca. 1905 Ground water Pumped from 100-ft level of the Dewdrop shaft. Ransome (1907, p.

24)

Spokane Shaft ca. 1905 Ground water Pumped froml00-ft level of mine. Ransome (1907, p.

24)

January Mine ca. 1905 Alkali Spring 10-mi pipeline through which water is pumped for Ransome (1907, p.

milling. 23)

WAHMONIE MINING DISTRICT (Nye County)

Horn Silver Mine ca. 1905 Cane Spring Water hauled by wagon 4 mi. Kral (195 1); Brady

(1975, pp. 8-9)

to

tj

______________ I-:
Location Year(s) Source Comments Page(s)

BULLFROG-RHYOLITE MINING DISTRICT (Nye County)

Unspecified 1906 Beatty, Goss, Indian, and Water-supply companies using pipelines; II -mi 218, 222

Terry Springs pipeline from Goss Spring, before pipelines, water

hauled by burro at $5/barrel.

Lee Mine 1907 Rose Well Water hauled 13 mi by burro at $5/barrel. 280

ECHO MINING DISTRICT (Pershing County)

Unspecified 1906 Stream I-mi long spring-fed stream in Black Mountains. 329

GREENWATER MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Unspecified 1907 GreenswaterSprings Hauled water at $8/barrel. 335,460

FUNERAL MOUNTAINS MINING DISTRICT (Inyo County)

Keane Wonder (mine) 1911 Undefined spring Funeral Mountains. 306

BARE MOUNTAIN MINING DISTRICT (Nyc County)

American Carrara Marble 1913 Undefined spring 8-mi pipeline from Gold Center (Beatty area). Hattori 405

quarry and McLane (1982, p. 11) describe remnants of a

pumping station associated with this water supply

system.

Sterling Mine (Crater Flat) 1970s (?) Water trucked-in from 240,000 gpd. French and others

Beatty (1981, p. 28)

w
References

Brady, W.J., "The Early Days at NTS," NTS News/Bicentennial Issue 1975,

5(5):7-11 [1975].

Carlson, l.S., Nevada Place Names -A Geographical Dictionary, Reno,

University of Nevada Press, 1974.

French, RH., A. Elzeftawy, J. Bird, and B. Elliot, "Hydrology and Water

Resources Overview for the Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations,

Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nevada," Las Vegas, Descrt Research Institute,

NVO-284, June 1981. [Issued June 1984. Prepared for DOE/Nevada

Operations Office.]

Kral, V.E., "Mineral Resources of Nye County," University of Nevada

Bulletin, Vol. 45, No. 3, Geology and Mining Series, No. 50, January 1951.

Hattori, E.M., and A.R. McLane, "An Archeological Survey Between Beatty,

Nye County, and Indian Springs, Clark County, Nevada," Las Vegas, Desert

Research Institute, Social Sciences Center Technical Report 32, November

1982. [Prepared for the Bell Telephone Company of Nevada.]

Lingenfelter, RE., Death Valley & the Arnargosa: A Land of Illusion,

Berkeley, University of California Press, 1986.

Ransome, F.L., "PreliminaryAccountofGoldfield, Bullfrog, andothcrMining

Districts in Southern Nevada, with notes on the Manhattan District (by G.H.

Garrey and W.H. Emmons)," U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 303, 1907.
NRC FORM 335 U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION . REPORT NUMBER

(9-2004) (Assigned by NRC. Add Vol., Supp, Rev.,

NRCMD 3.7 and Addendum Numbers, N any.)

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

(See instructions on the reverse) NUREG-1710, Volume I

2. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 3. DATE REPORT PUBLISHED

History of Water Development in the Amargosa Desert Area: A Literature Review MONTH YEAR

February 2005

4. FIN OR GRANT NUMBER

5. AUTHOR(S) 6. TYPE OF REPORT

M.P. Lee*, N.M. Coleman*, and T.J. Nicholson* Technical

7. PERIOD COVERED (Indusive Dates)

B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION - NAME AND ADDRESS (IfNRC, provide DOklsion. Office orRegbn. US. NudearRegulatryCommissbn. and maling address; Iconflctr

provide name and maling address.)

* Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste Staff

Division of Systems Analysis and Regulatory Effectiveness, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C. 20555-0001

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION -NAME AND ADDRESS (f NRC, tpe Same as above' 1contractor, provide NRC Divisbn, Office orRegin, U.S. NudearRegufatoryCommission,

and maling address.)

Same as above.

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

I 1. ABSTRACT (200 words orless)

Historic accounts, geologic treatises, and other key literature sources were used to identify factors that contributed to the

development of local ground-water resources in the Amargosa Desert area during the past 150 years. The literature suggests

that the earliest sources of fresh water supply were the abundant, naturally occurring artesian springs in Ash Meadows. The

first hand-dug well in the area was the Franklin Well; It was dug in 1852 for workers performing a survey of the

Califomia-Nevada State line. The first mechanically bored wells were drilled in valley-fill (alluvial) deposits for local railroads,

along their respective alignments, sometime between 1905-07. About 1917, the first irrigation well was drilled for an

experimental farm - the T&T Ranch. In the late 1 940s-early 1950s, permanent interest in the area was established, in large

measure because of Federally-sponsored desert reclamation programs. However, designation of local aquifers as

.protected,' in 1979; limiting soil conditions; and other factors have curtailed local agricultural development. Because of

economic and technical factors, alluvial aquifers have historically been the most important sources of ground-water supply. In

general, drilling activity historically preceded geologic understanding of the ground-water resource.

This report Is the first volume in the NUREG-1710 series.

12. KEY WORDS/DESCRIPTORS (List words orptrases that wi assistresearcheirs hi lcatng the report) 13. AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Amargosa Valley water resources . unlimited

Ash Meadows well drilling 14. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

biosphere Yucca Mountain Pis Page)

farming unclassified

ground water (This Report

mining ucasfe

Native Americans unclassified

Nevada Test Site 15. NUMBER OF PAGES

railroads

springs 16. PRICE

NRC FORM 335 (9-2004) PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER
Federal Recycling Program
NUREG-1710, Vol. I HISTORY OF VATER DEVELOPMENT IN TIHE ANARGOSA DESERT AREA:: A

LITERATURE REVIEWV

FEBRUARY 2005

UNITED STATES

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, DC 20555-0001

OFFICIAL BUSINESS