LITHUANIA

Vilnius

LITHUANIA

• Kaunas

• Klaipeda

Expeditionary Culture 

Field Guide 
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental 

information contained within will help 

you understand the cultural dimension 

of your assigned location and gain 

skills necessary for success (Photo: 

Lithuanian folk dancers, photo 

courtesy of Culture Grams, 

ProQuest). 

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” provides the 

foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any 

global environment with a focus on the Baltic States.

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Lithuania society. It applies 

culture-general concepts to 

help increase your 

knowledge of your 

deployment location. This 

section is designed to 

complement other predeployment training

(Photo: Lithuanian and US 

Army colleagues interact 

during Exercise Flaming Thunder at Pabrade, Lithuania).

For further information, visit the Air Force Culture and Language 

Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the 

AFCLC Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG

Lithuania
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs and 

values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings to 

the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the story 

of George Washington admitting to having chopped down a 

cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the premium

Americans place on 

personal honesty and 

leadership integrity

(Photo: US and Latvian 

military personnel take a 

break during 

reconstruction of an 

orphanage in Latvia). 

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, 

today the US military is operating in what we classify as 

asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of crosscultural interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature 

in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
constructive change through peaceful means where possible. 

We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to 

focus on developing stable political, social, and economic 

institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence 

their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to 

our culture and 

encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future. 

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to 

as “cultural domains” –

in order to better understand the primary values and 

characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally competent military 

member can use these domains – which include kinship, 

language and communication, social and political systems, 

among others (see chart on next page) – as tools for 

understanding adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Trakai Castle in 

Lithuania). 

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

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CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for 

limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your 

worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good 

and bad, defines right and 

wrong behavior, and 

assigns a value of 

meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true,

regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed (Photo: Winter in Estonia). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends on 

our deeply-held beliefs we 

started developing early 

in life that have helped

shape our characters. 

Likewise, these values 

are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and 

our self-identities. Because cultural beliefs are intensely held, 

they are difficult, though not impossible, to change (Photo: US 

and Estonian soldiers).

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CULTURE
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above the 

waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your ability 

to suspend judgment in order to understand another perspective

is essential to establishing 

relationships with your hostnation counterparts. The

ability to withhold your 

opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a 

member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an alternate perspective when interpreting 

others’ behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: US and Lithuanian paratroopers prepare to 

parachute from a Black Hawk helicopter during a multinational 

exercise near Rukla, Lithuania).

As you travel through the Baltic States, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the region. 

What follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains 

which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the 

past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act 

as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain community origins or 

important events that 

are not verifiable or 

which occurred prior 

to written language

(Photo: A relief 

depicting Lithuanians 

battling Teutonic 

Knights). 

The Baltic States 

comprise 3 countries 

bordering the Baltic 

Sea on the northern edge of Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and 

Lithuania. While archaeological finds suggest people inhabited 

the region as early as 9000 BC, scientists believe that FinnoUgric tribes from the east settled in the region beginning around 

3000 BC. In present-day Lithuania, these tribes were later joined 

by Indo-Europeans around 2000 BC. As their populations 

increased, all groups erected permanent, loosely-allied 

settlements sustained by agricultural production. By the 1st 

century AD, inhabitants began participating in trade networks 

that extended as far as the Roman Empire. 

Beginning in the 9th century, Vikings from Scandinavia began 

raiding the Baltic coast, and by the 11th century, Russian armies 

made several fruitless invasions of the region. In the 12th 

century, German knights tasked by the Pope with Christianizing

the inhabitants of the Baltic region began to conquer parts of 

Estonia and Latvia, consolidating their rule over both by end of 

the 13th century. While they did not always retain political control 

in subsequent centuries, the Germans dominated commerce in

the region and significantly impacted Estonian and Latvian 

government, religion, and education as well as the social and 

justice systems. 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
By contrast, Lithuania successfully repelled the German 

invaders, forming a powerful independent state and later uniting 

with neighboring Poland to control large parts of the region 

through the 18th century. Unable to stave off persistent attacks 

from Russia, all 3 Baltic States fell to Russian rule by the late 

18th century. Over the next nearly 120 years, Russia quelled 

nationalist movements and imposed a series of measures 

intended to promote Russification, including suppressing the 

Estonian, Latvian, and

Lithuanian languages and 

increasing Russian 

immigration to the region. 

All 3 Baltic States 

experienced substantial 

conflict during World War 

I (WWI). Estonia and 

Latvia then engaged in 

wars of independence leading to several decades of peace. By 

contrast, as a diminished independent state Lithuania remained 

embroiled in territorial disputes through the onset of World War 

II (WWII). For that war’s duration, all 3 States became a 

battleground. During its wartime occupation of the region, Nazi 

Germany murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s 

sizeable Jewish population and other “undesirables.” The brunt 

of the regime’s atrocities occurred in Latvia and Lithuania

(Photo: German troops in Riga in 1916). 

At war’s end, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 

absorbed all 3 nations, imposing its communist system, 

nationalizing private companies, and seizing private property. 

During their almost 50 years of occupation, the Soviets deported 

thousands of ethnic Baltic residents to prison camps in Russia. 

Furthermore, it murdered those deemed a threat to the new 

system, and repressed national languages, religions, and 

cultures while rapidly expanding industrial development. 

Upon independence from the USSR in 1991, the 3 Baltic States 

transformed their governments into democracies. They adopted 

market capitalism and pivoted away from Russian influence to 

aggressively pursue political, military, and economic integration 

with the West. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

All 3 Baltic States are parliamentary republics led by an elected 

Prime Minister, President, and 1-chamber legislature. Executive 

power is vested in the Prime Minister, who leads the government 

together with the support of a Cabinet of Ministers. Presidential 

powers are largely ceremonial.

Within all 3 states, political parties typically form coalitions in 

order to attain and maintain power. The States have successfully 

created stable, well-run democracies, although they face several 

challenges to maintaining the democratic process. Weakened by 

overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, some 

ruling political coalitions dissolve shortly after consolidation, in 

some cases resulting in frequent changes of government. In 

addition, corruption is particularly pervasive in Latvia and 

Lithuania, permeating all levels of government. 

Following their independence from the USSR, the Baltic States 

formed strong regional and international alliances, such as 

joining the European Union (EU) and NATO. Today, the Baltic 

States are representative

examples of democracy and 

post-Soviet economic 

growth, serving as 

advocates of a democratic 

and pro-Western agenda in 

the region (Photo: Former 

US Defense Secretary 

Robert Gates meets with the 

3 Baltic State defense ministers in NATO headquarters in 

Brussels, Belgium). 

The Baltic States rely heavily on NATO, the EU, the US, and 

other international allies to augment their military capabilities 

and to defend against external, state-level threats. Recently, 

rising tensions with neighboring Russia dominate the Baltic 

States’ security environment. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
In 2015, the US supported the Baltic States with $100 million in 

aid to build defense capacity and improve border security as part 

of a $3.4 billion “European Reassurance Initiative” fund intended 

to bolster NATO readiness in Europe. Meanwhile, NATO agreed 

to increase the number of troops permanently stationed in the 

region, despite fears that the increase in military presence might

escalate tensions with 

Russia (Photo: City 

square in Riga, Latvia). 

The 3 states exhibit 

differing levels of ethnic 

diversity. In Lithuania, 

84% of the population are 

ethnic Lithuanians, while 

Poles are the largest 

minority group at just 7%. 

By contrast, the native populations of Estonia and Latvia are 

significantly lower, 69% and 61% respectively. In both countries, 

ethnic Russians comprise about 25% of the population. 

Relations between ethnic groups are somewhat strained in 

Estonia and Latvia where citizenship laws, language policies, 

and social divisions create some friction. Amid recently rising 

tensions with Russia, there is some concern that the Russian 

government may attempt to capitalize on the existing tension by 

provoking social unrest among those countries’ sizeable 

Russian-speaking populations. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also 

create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals 

peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society. 

Residents of the Baltic region were among Europe’s last to adopt 

Christianity. By the late 13th century, German knights had 

consolidated their rule over Estonia and Latvia and converted 

most residents to Christianity. By contrast, an independent 

Lithuanian state repelled the German crusaders, maintaining its 

pagan belief system as the state religion through the early 15th 

GENERAL

CULTURE
century, when it finally adopted Christianity. Of note, many 

residents of all 3 Baltic States were slow to embrace the new 

religion, continuing their pagan practices or incorporating them 

into Christian worship for centuries (Photo: A church in Vilnius, 

Lithuania). 

As the Protestant 

Reformation swept 

across Europe in the 

early 16th century, 

both Estonia and 

Latvia saw the 

Catholic Church 

supplanted by

Lutheranism. By 

contrast, a Catholic 

counter movement in Lithuania prevented Protestantism from 

taking root. Throughout the centuries, Russian Orthodoxy and 

Judaism also enjoyed some growth in the region. The Lithuanian 

Jewish community grew significantly, eventually becoming a 

regional center of learning that lasted until the annihilation of the 

community during WWII. 

During their years of occupation, the Soviets repressed all 

religious institutions and activities in the States. Further, the 

Soviets deported clergy while destroying or converting churches 

and synagogues for other uses. Over the years, membership in 

religious organizations decreased significantly. 

Today, some 60% of Estonians and 44% of Latvians remain 

religiously unaffiliated. Among Estonians who do claim an 

affiliation, about 14% are Orthodox Christian and about 8% are 

Lutheran. Observant Latvians are about evenly split among 

Lutherans, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox Christians. By 

contrast, the majority of Lithuanians claim some religious 

affiliation, with about 77% identifying as Roman Catholics. 

While Estonia and Latvia are home to small Muslim communities 

predominantly comprised of recent migrants, Lithuania’s Muslim 

population traces back to the early 14th century. In all 3 Baltic 

States, small Jewish communities are experiencing some 

growth. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional 

bonds that influence them to treat each other like family 

members (often called “fictive kin”). 

Family life and relationships are fundamental elements of the 

Baltic States’ societies. Baltic residents maintain strong 

connections with both immediate and extended family members, 

supporting them emotionally and financially while providing 

physical care for elderly or ailing kin if needed. Most households 

comprise 2 parents and their children, with many families 

choosing to have just 1 or 2 children. 

The urbanization of the Baltic States’ society has changed family 

life in recent years, as urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit 

(live in long-term, unmarried partnerships) and have fewer 

children. Consequently, while the traditional family structure 

remains common in rural areas, urban households are usually 

smaller and family 

structures more diverse

(Photo: US Air National 

Guard member shows 

her camera to a Latvian 

boy).

While historically 

marriage was an 

arranged union, today 

both genders choose 

their own partners. Generally, couples spend several years 

dating, with some living together and having children before 

choosing to marry. Divorce carries little social stigma and is 

increasingly prevalent among younger generations. In fact, in all 

3 Baltic States, divorce rates are among the highest in Europe 

and comparable to the US.

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept that 

refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The Baltic States’ historically patriarchal culture privileged men

as leaders and providers. While some of the region’s inhabitants 

continue to adhere to traditional values – men as breadwinners 

and heads of household and women as mothers and wives –

gender roles and responsibilities began to transform during the 

Soviet era and are changing more rapidly in some families, 

particularly among younger generations in the post-Soviet 

period (Photo: US 

Army soldier talks with 

Estonian counterparts

during a multinational 

military exercise). 

Although women hold

equal rights under the 

law, they continue to 

face barriers to their 

full participation in 

political, social, and 

economic spheres. 

For example, women often face discrimination in the hiring and 

promotion process, routinely receive lower wages than their 

male counterparts, and suffer from sexual harassment in the 

workplace. 

Notably, Baltic women 

suffer from one of 

Europe’s highest rates 

of gender based 

violence (GBV), both 

domestic abuse and 

rape. Considered 

private matters, many 

incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases 

are reported, the 

prosecution of perpetrators is rare. (Photo: US Marines perform 

for trainees at the Baltic Guard Youth Camp). 

Despite these social and cultural barriers, the number of women 

serving in elected, diplomatic, and judicial positions across the 

region has increased over the past few decades. Baltic women 

GENERAL

CULTURE
hold a significant proportion of national and sub-national 

government positions, maintaining similar participation rates in 

their national legislatures as women in the US. Additionally, in 

all 3 states women have held prominent leadership positions, 

including Prime Minister, President, and Speaker of Parliament. 

Although homosexuality is legal in all 3 Baltic States, many

residents consider homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender 

activity inappropriate.

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and non-verbally.

Following years of linguistic repression under Soviet rule, all 3 

Baltic States named their native languages as official languages 

following their 1991 independence. Notably, while Estonian is 

derived from the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language 

family, Latvian and Lithuanian belong to the Baltic branch of the 

Indo-European language 

family (Photo: Estonian 

street signs). 

In Estonia and Latvia, 

about 1/3 of the 

population speak 

Russian as their first 

language. Russian is also prominent in Lithuania, where over 

1/2 of residents speak it as a 2nd language. Russian was the 

predominant language in education, in media, and government 

proceedings during the Soviet era but no longer the region’s 

main language. The Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian 

languages have supplanted Russian in each Baltic State, though 

many residents continue to use it in business and everyday life. 

All 3 Baltic States are also home to native speakers of other

languages including Polish, Ukrainian, Finnish, Belarusian, 

German, and other regional languages. English has become 

increasingly popular over the last several decades and is spoken 

widely in business and by young and urban Baltic communities.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, Baltic residents demonstrate respect, privacy, and 

candor in their communication practices. They typically do not 

display strong emotions in public, tend to be reserved in all 

communications, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer direct 

speech. Residents usually share personal information only with 

family or close friends and rarely engage in small talk with 

strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health 

requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, 

and symbols that have meaning to the community). This 

knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized 

systems such as schools or through informal learning by 

watching adults or peers. 

Prior to the 16th century, most formal education in the Baltic 

States occurred in religious institutions, where clergymen taught 

religion and basic literacy. By the 17th century, all 3 states saw 

the founding of universities and other centers of academic 

learning. By the late 1800s, Estonia and Latvia had developed 

extensive public school 

networks and reported

some of the world’s 

highest literacy rates. 

The governments of all 3 

states established free 

and compulsory public 

education systems in the 

early 20th century. The 

subsequent Soviet occupation brought significant changes to 

schools and curricula. During that period, the education system 

promoted Soviet ideology and communist tenets and

emphasized Russian culture and language. It also prioritized 

vocational instruction, while simultaneously suppressing Baltic 

languages and culture (Photo: Lithuanian students).

Today, the Baltic States invest heavily in education, often at 

rates higher than in the US. School enrollment rates are high 

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CULTURE
and nearly 100% of Baltic residents are literate. Challenges to 

the education system include low teacher salaries, rural school 

closures, and disputes over the languages of instruction in 

Russian and other minority language schools. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are 

not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, 

people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, 

devoting less effort to relationship-building. Inhabitants of the

Baltic States generally adhere to these habits, valuing 

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and efficient and candid 

professional interactions. Within their personal lives, most Baltic 

residents invest significant time in establishing and maintaining 

relationships. 

In Estonia and Latvia business tends to move at about the same 

pace as in the US, although more slowly in Lithuania. Like 

Americans, Estonians and Latvians prefer to build some trust 

before doing business but may engage in business activities 

without cultivating deep professional relationships. By contrast, 

Lithuanians typically invest time in building relations before 

conducting business. In all 3 Baltic States, residents rarely 

discuss their personal lives in business settings. 

Concepts of personal 

space are similar to those 

in the US. For example, 

while conversing, Baltic 

residents stand at about 

the same distance as 

Americans, but may 

touch less often and 

display less affection 

when in public.

The Baltic States enjoy a number of public holidays. Besides the 

major Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter, residents 

typically celebrate their nation’s Independence Day. Further, all 

3 states mark mid-summer with a public holiday and various 

festivities (Photo: US Marines enjoy a cookout with members of 

the Baltic Guard Youth Camp in Latvia).

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of the Baltic States’ forms of artistic expression, 

including their art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, 

reflect the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign 

occupations, and modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in the Baltic States typically explore 

topics like nature, the seasons, rural life, and love. Folk songs 

usually include multiple melodic verses, while dances are slow 

and intricate. Under Russian and Soviet influence, classical

ballet became a common form of dance across the region. The 

Baltic States’ commitment to and enjoyment of song and dance 

are expressed every 4-5 years in national choir and dance 

festivals – a tradition that dates to the late 19th century. Rock, 

jazz, and classical music are popular contemporary genres

(Photo: Latvian song 

and dance festival). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in 

visual arts. Baltic

residents also practice 

a variety of traditional 

handicrafts and folk art which reflect the region’s rich peasant 

history, while incorporating Christian or ancient pagan motifs. 

Soccer and basketball are the most widely followed sports in the 

region. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey, crosscountry skiing, ice skating, bobsledding, and luge. 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Baltic dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly seasoned. 

Most meals are based on a staple – often potatoes, buckwheat, 

oats, or barley. Dark bread is particularly popular across the 

region and accompanies almost every meal. Although beer is 

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CULTURE
the most popular alcoholic beverage, Baltic residents also enjoy 

unique herbal liquors and vodka. 

Health in the Baltic States has improved significantly in recent 

decades, as evidenced by decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents have 

access to free, state-funded healthcare. 

The region’s healthcare systems face several challenges such 

as rapidly growing 

healthcare expenditures 

associated with a shrinking 

yet aging population. 

Further, although residents 

generally have access to 

modern healthcare, the 

quality of care varies 

between urban and rural 

areas. Rural clinics are often 

burdened with heavy 

workloads, equipped with outdated medical equipment, and 

understaffed (Photo: Latvian rye bread). 

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases account for the majority 

of all deaths in the region. In all 3 Baltic States, cardiovascular 

diseases are overwhelmingly the leading causes of death, 

followed by cancers and respiratory diseases. In addition, Baltic 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol poisoning. 

Notably, Baltic men experience significantly higher mortality 

rates than Baltic women primarily because they are more likely 

to smoke, abuse alcohol, and follow unhealthy diets. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services.

Prior to the 19th century, the states maintained largely agrarian 

economies, with many residents engaged in subsistence 

agriculture or laboring as serfs on German-owned holdings. 

During the 1800s, Russian occupiers began to industrialize the 

region. These efforts intensified during the Soviet era, when the 

government implemented a centrally-controlled economic 

GENERAL

CULTURE
system, established large collective farms, and developed 

various heavy industries. 

Following their independence from the USSR in 1991, all 3 Baltic 

States immediately sought to de-centralize their economies and

adopt liberal, free market systems. The transition initially caused 

their economies to contract, but by the mid-2000s, all 3 nations 

experienced significant growth. While the Baltic States’ 2004 

accession to the EU spurred further economic expansion, the 

2008 global financial crisis slowed investment in the region and 

reduced demand for exports. As a result, the Baltic economies 

experienced severe contraction.

Reacting quickly, all 3 Baltic States enacted strict internal 

reforms, allowing their economies to recover within just a few 

years. Today, the Baltic States maintain stable, diversified 

economies, characterized by large, successful service industries 

and modernized industrial sectors. In fact, experts predict that 

each state will maintain 

current economic 

growth rates, which 

exceed the EU 

average, through 2020. 

Despite these positive 

trends, the Baltic 

States’ economies face

some challenges, 

including increasing 

income inequality, 

relatively low wages and productivity, corruption, outward 

migration of skilled workers, and ongoing unemployment (Photo: 

Skyline of Tallinn, Estonia).

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. While all 3 Baltic States have invested heavily into 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, Lithuania maintains the best roads. While only about 

1/5 of roads are paved in Estonia and Latvia, over 4/5 of 

Lithuanian roads are paved. Railways connect major cities 

throughout the region, and a planned high-speed train will soon 

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CULTURE
connect the Baltic States with Europe. Because Latvia and 

Lithuania geographically separate Russia from Western Europe, 

both nations serve as important regional transit and trade hubs. 

Modern information technology is widely available throughout 

the Baltic States. Cell phones are extremely popular while about

80% of residents regularly use the Internet. Estonia enjoys the 

region’s highest rates of Internet connectivity and usage, 

especially among the younger generations.

Estonia is a net energy exporter, producing most of its energy 

from its large shale oil industry. By contrast, both Latvia and 

Lithuania heavily rely on oil and natural gas imports from Russia 

to meet domestic demand. Looking to decrease their 

dependence on Russia, both nations are actively diversifying 

their energy sources 

with the goal of 

reducing Russian 

imports in coming 

years. 

Renewable energy is 

an important resource 

in Latvia and 

Lithuania, where it 

comprises about 39% 

and 20% of energy consumption respectively. Although Estonia 

is currently generating the least amount of renewable energy in 

the region, it plans to increase renewable consumption by 2020 

(Photo: US Army and Lithuanian Land Forces personnel 

participate in airborne exercises near Rukla, Lithuania).

The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner. As EU 

members, the Baltic States enjoy a stable currency, a secure 

business environment, and free movement of goods and 

services. In addition, the Baltic States maintain important trade 

relationships with Russia. Regional trade among the Baltic 

States is also strong. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that characterize 

the Baltic States’ society at large, we will focus on specific 

features of society in Lithuania. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

The largest and most populous of the 3 Baltic States, Lithuania 

has a history that is markedly different from that of Estonia and 

Latvia. Unlike them, Lithuania successfully repelled medieval 

German invaders, and together with Poland, established a 

powerful independent state for centuries. After losing its 

independence to Russia in the late 18th century, Lithuania 

briefly regained it between the 2 World Wars before being 

incorporated by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

(USSR). Since attaining its independence again in 1991, 

Lithuania has transformed its government into a democracy, 

adopted market capitalism, and joined the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU).

Early History

Archaeological finds

indicate people inhabited 

permanent settlements in

Lithuania as early as 

9000 BC. Scientists 

believe Finno-Ugric tribes 

moved into the area from 

the east between 3000 and 2000 BC and were joined by IndoEuropeans. Over the centuries, the 2 groups mixed, eventually 

creating the Baltic peoples, ancestors of modern-day 

Lithuanians and Latvians. As the population increased, these 

groups constructed fortified settlements on hills or mounds that 

were sustained by agricultural production (Photo: 

Archaeologists have reconstructed an ancient Lithuanian 

observatory in Šventoji).

By the 1st century AD, Lithuania’s Baltic tribes were making

iron knives, scissors, scythes, and other tools. Around this 

time, the tribes began participating in profitable trade networks 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

that extended from Scandinavia through Lithuania as far as the 

Roman Empire. An important export was amber, a fossilized 

tree resin commonly used to make jewelry today (see p. 1 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation). 

Between the 5th and 8th centuries, Lithuania’s Baltic tribes

interacted with Slavs who had settled in regions to the south 

and east. In the 9th century, Vikings from Scandinavia began

raiding Lithuania’s Baltic coast. While these other regional 

groups adopted Christianity over time, Lithuania’s Baltic tribes 

retained their pagan traditions several centuries longer (see p. 

1-2 of Religion and Spirituality).

Early Medieval Period

Over the centuries, the Baltic tribes became accomplished 

farmers who settled in hamlets. Regional groupings, including 

the Aukštaitijans (or Highlanders) and the Samogitians (or 

Lowlanders), began to intermingle (see p. 2 of Language and 

Communication). The name 

“Lithuania” appeared for the first 

time in a 1099 German account 

of an unsuccessful attempt to 

convert residents to Christianity. 

During the 11th and 12th

centuries, Scandinavians 

continued their raids of the 

Lithuanian coast, where German

merchants also set up trading 

bases. In neighboring Latvia, a 

German Catholic bishop 

established the Order of the 

Brothers of the Sword, an organization of German knights with 

the mission of Christianizing all the Baltic tribes, by sword if 

necessary. A few years later, a duke in neighboring Poland 

invited another group of German warrior monks, the Knights of 

the Teutonic Order, to subdue Lithuania’s Baltic tribes

(Illustration: An 1870 depiction of German knights). 

The Creation of the Lithuanian State

The pressure from these foreign forces was great. By 1236, the 

Brothers of the Sword had conquered most of modern-day 

Latvia and Estonia then turned their attention to Lithuania. 
HI

MYTH

STORY &

Unlike the Baltic tribes in those regions, Lithuania’s tribes 

united in their opposition to the foreign invaders. Led by Prince 

Vykintas, the Lithuanians engaged the Germans in 1236 at the 

Battle of Saulé where they trapped the knights in marshland 

and delivered them a crushing defeat. 

Their loss compelled the Brothers of the Sword to dissolve and 

merge with the Teutonic Order. Nevertheless, the knights 

viewed these events as a temporary setback and continued 

their aggressions. With the continuing German threat from the 

west as well as an 

emerging Mongol 

threat from the east, 

the Lithuanian tribes 

realized they must 

strengthen their

unity.

King Mindaugas:

By the 1240s, 

Lithuanian leader 

Mindaugas had 

emerged as the first, and only, king of a unified Lithuania.

(Subsequent monarchs preferred the title of “Grand Duke.”) In 

preparation for total war, Mindaugas introduced conscription 

then equipped his mounted warriors and infantry with chain 

mail, swords, spears, pikes, axes, and crossbows. Soon, he 

was expanding Lithuanian lands to the east (Photo: Lithuanians 

re-enact medieval battles).

Mindaugas realized that the security of the Lithuanian people 

depended on external acknowledgement of the nation. 

Consequently, he converted to Christianity in 1251 and 

petitioned the Pope, leader of the Catholic Church in Rome, for 

official recognition of his kingship. Two years later, the Pope 

officially recognized Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, granting 

him rank equal to all other European monarchs.

Nevertheless, Mindaugas’ conversion was likely simply 

opportunistic. When official papal recognition of the Kingdom of 

Lithuania did not halt the German knights’ aggressive activities, 

Mindaugas renounced Christianity a decade later. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Consolidation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Having conquered the Prussians to the west and the Latvians 

and Estonians to the east, the German knights renewed their 

campaign against the Lithuanians. Ostensibly seeking to 

convert the population to Christianity, the Germans were also

interested in acquiring Lithuanian territory so they could link 

their Baltic holdings and monopolize the region’s highly 

profitable trade routes. 

Grand Duke Gediminas: For 

the Germans, Lithuania’s Grand 

Duke Gediminas (r. 1316-41), 

became a powerful foe. Through 

alliances and conquest, 

Gediminas (pictured) extended 

his Grand Duchy over a vast 

area: at its height, the Grand 

Duchy included most of modernday Belarus and Ukraine as well 

as parts of Russia and stretched from the Baltic Sea to the 

Black Sea. Gediminas aimed to improve the Duchy’s economy 

and further bolster its standing among other nations by

promoting Lithuania as an open and tolerant society. To do so, 

Gediminas invited merchants, craftsmen, and peasants, some 

Jewish, from across Europe to settle in Lithuania. According to 

myth, Gediminas also founded Vilnius, the capital of presentday Lithuania, at the site where he dreamed of an iron wolf 

howling at the moon (see “Myth” below). 

Civil War

Gediminas’ dynasty would last for the next 250 years. While his

brother, Grand Duke Algirdas, continued the eastward 

expansion, another brother, Kestutis, responded to some 100 

attacks by the Teutonic Knights. In 1377, Algirdas’ son Jogaila 

became Grand Duke. Seeking peace, Jogaila signed a secret 

treaty with the Teutonic Knights in 1381. Upon discovering this 

act, Jogaila’s uncle Kestutis deposed Jogaila and assumed the 

title of Grand Duke. Then, while Kestutis was away quelling a 

rebellion, Jogaila retook control and arrested Kestutis and his 

son, Vytautus. Kestutis soon died under suspicious

circumstances while Vytautus managed to survive. As the 

cousins Jogaila and Vytautus vied for control of the Duchy, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

German attacks continued. Meanwhile, the Duchy’s eastern 

territories suffered massive invasions by Mongols.

Union with Poland

Jogaila and Vytautus eventually reconciled. To better respond 

to continuing foreign threats, Lithuania and Poland sought 

alliance in the late 14th century. To facilitate the union with 

Roman Catholic Poland, both Jogaila and Vytautus (pictured) 

were baptized as Catholics in 1386 (see p. 3 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Then, Jogaila married 

Polish Princess Jadwiga and became 

King of Poland, uniting it with the Grand 

Duchy of Lithuania. His Jagiellonian 

Dynasty would rule Poland for almost 

200 years. 

Polish quickly became the dominant 

language within the Polish-Lithuanian 

union (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). Although the Polish 

nobility tried to abolish the Grand Duchy, 

the Lithuanian aristocracy successfully 

resisted these efforts. In 1392, Vytautus, 

eventually known as “the Great,” 

became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, 

technically subservient to the Polish King

but still the powerful ruler of one of Europe’s largest states. Of 

note, some 50,000-100,000 Muslim Tatars as well as many 

additional Jews settled in Lithuania at Vytautus’ invitation 

during this period (see p. 5 and 8 of Religion and Spirituality).

Battle of Žalgiris: In 1398, the Teutonic Knights acquired 

control of a northwestern Lithuanian province, though it took 

several years to subdue its residents. When the residents

rebelled against the Germans again in 1409, Vytautus and 

Jogaila decided to support them by raising an army of 150,000

against the Germans’ force of 80,000. The armies met at 

Tannenberg (in present-day Poland, also known as Grünwald 

or Žalgiris) in 1410. The ensuing day-long conflict resulted in a 

crushing defeat for the knights, with 18,000 German fatalities. 

Although the Teutonic Order continued to exist for another 100 

years, it never again posed a serious challenge to Lithuania. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Following this victory, the Polish-Lithuanian union enjoyed a 

long period of prosperity and growth. Under Vytautus the 

Great, the Grand Duchy reached its largest extent: by 1430 its 

territories came within 60 mi of Moscow. Several years 

following Vytautus’ death, Lithuania’s Grand Duke also became 

King of Poland. Thereafter, 1 monarch assumed both titles. 

Threat from the East: During the 16th century, the Baltic 

region faced a renewed Russian threat. In 1512, the Russians

captured the Lithuanian city of Smolensk (in present-day 

Russia). In 1558, Russian Tsar (leader) Ivan IV (“the Terrible”)

invaded neighboring Latvia and Estonia. The Polish-Lithuanian 

union soon joined the fray, acquiring the Duchy of Courland in 

present-day Latvia, which would remain an autonomous region 

of Poland-Lithuania for the next 200 years.

Generally, the 16th century represented a golden era for upper 

class Vilnius: artists and architects from Renaissance Italy 

introduced new forms and styles while Jesuit monks founded 

Vilnius University (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). By 

contrast, the region’s peasants saw their plight worsen. 

Gradually, small landowners lost control of their lands and were 

forced to become serfs, semi-free peasants who were legally 

bound to the land they worked for wealthy landowners.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Weakened by ongoing conflicts with Russia, Lithuania agreed 

to a change in the Polish-Lithuanian relationship in 1569. The

resulting Republic of the Two Nations or Polish-Lithuanian 

Commonwealth was a 

joint state with a single

ruler and legislative 

assembly and a common 

currency. While Poland 

was clearly the dominant 

partner, Lithuania

remained a Grand Duchy 

and retained administrative control of its territory, treasury, and 

army. To mark the new relationship, the Commonwealth chose 

Warsaw (capital of present-day Poland) as its new capital. The 

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would last for over 200 years 

(Photo: Coins from 1616 depicting Lithuania’s Grand Duke).
HISTORY &

MYTH

As a republic, the Commonwealth retained the combined office 

of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, while making it

an elected one. Electors comprised the Polish and Lithuanian 

nobility – about 10% of the population. While candidates for 

office had to be Roman Catholics, there were few other 

requirements. Consequently, Commonwealth heads were not 

necessarily Lithuanian or Polish. Instead, the nobility often 

elected leaders from other countries, including a Frenchman, a 

Transylvanian prince, and a series of Swedish nobles. 

The Commonwealth initially was relatively successful. In the 

late 16th century, it recaptured territories from the Russians, 

forcing them to sign a peace treaty, then briefly occupied 

Moscow in the early 17th century. Over the years, Polish 

culture and language came to dominate. So many Poles settled 

in and around Vilnius that Lithuanians became a small minority.

Within a few decades, it became apparent that the 

Commonwealth’s governing structure was unsound. Because 

its leaders often had conflicts of interest or were beholden to 

other foreign powers, the Commonwealth had periods of 

inconsistent governance. 

Further, legislative efforts 

were paralyzed by the 

assembly’s rule that only 1 

member’s veto was 

required to stop legislation 

(Illustration: The 1764 

election of the 

Commonwealth leader).

Concurrently, other 

challenges arose. In 1648, Ukrainians in the Commonwealth

rebelled, seeking their own state. In 1654, Russians occupied 

the Commonwealth’s east and devastated Vilnius, then the 

plague killing 1/2 the city’s population. Soon, Sweden launched 

its own invasion. Although the Commonwealth repelled the

invaders, the effort depleted the state’s coffers and caused the 

deaths of 1/4 of the population. When Poland played a pivotal 

role in repelling Turkish invaders in Ukraine in 1673 and in 

Austria a decade later, Lithuania declined to participate, a clear 

indication of the Commonwealth’s growing fragility.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Decline and Partition

In the early 18th century, the Commonwealth attacked Sweden 

in an effort to regain parts of Latvia and Estonia. Following the 

Commonwealth’s defeat, the Swedes deposed its ruler and, in 

collusion with Russian Tsar Peter I (“the Great”), handpicked a 

new leader. Over the next 50 years, Russia continued to 

interfere with Commonwealth elections, working to ensure its 

preferred leaders took office.

Significantly weakened, the Commonwealth was largely unable 

to resist when its foreign rivals moved to divide the 

Commonwealth among themselves beginning in 1772. That 

year, the Commonwealth 

lost about 30% of its 

territory to Prussia, 

Austria, and Russia. In 

an effort to avoid further 

partition, the 

Commonwealth initiated 

several reforms, 

including emancipating 

the Commonwealth’s 

serfs and ending the parliament’s paralyzing veto rule. In 1791, 

the Commonwealth adopted Europe’s first constitution (only the 

2nd in the world, after the US constitution) (Illustration: An 

18th- century depiction of Polish and Lithuanian nobles).

In the end, these reform efforts were unable to stave off the 

inevitable. In 1792, Russia invaded. Despite vigorous 

resistance, the Commonwealth underwent a 2nd partition in 

1793, then a 3rd and final partition in 1795. Russia, Prussia, 

and Austria divided up all the remaining Commonwealth lands 

among themselves. While Russia absorbed all of central and 

eastern Lithuania as well as the former Lithuanian lands in 

Belarus and Ukraine, Prussia gained control of territory in 

Lithuania’s west. 

Russian Rule

Hoping to regain their independence, many Lithuanians in the 

early 19th century looked to revolutionary France for 

inspiration. Hopes increased in 1812, when French leader 

Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Lithuania during his invasion of 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Russia. As the Russian troops retreated, Napoleon occupied 

Vilnius where he supported the formation of a provisional 

independent Lithuanian government before marching on to 

occupy Moscow. Unable to secure victory against the Russians 

and with his troops dying of starvation and hypothermia, 

Napoleon retreated, pausing in Vilnius on his way back to 

France only long enough to bury some 30,000 soldiers in mass 

graves. 

Lithuanian Resistance: Poles and Lithuanians rose up in 

1831 to rebel against Russian rule. In the crackdown that 

followed, Russian Tsar Nicholas I introduced a series of 

repressive measures intended to promote the country’s 

Russification. Key measures included confiscating land and 

limiting landholding rights to 

Orthodox Christians, who were 

primarily ethnic Russians (see p. 

4-5 of Religion and Spirituality) 

(Illustration: A 1875 painting of 

Lithuanian peasants).

Following another revolt in 1863, 

the Russians stepped up their 

repression, including banning the 

construction of new Catholic 

churches and forbidding the use 

of Lithuanian in schools in all but 

the elementary level. Further, the 

state mandated the use of 

Russian over Lithuanian in most contexts, while allowing the 

printing of Lithuanian materials only in the Cyrillic (Russian) 

alphabet. 

In the 1880s, a Lithuanian nationalist movement began to 

organize, supported by the foundation of the first Lithuanianlanguage newspaper in 1883. This national revival experienced 

a setback when Russians further restricted the use of the 

Lithuanian language. To keep both the language and the 

nationalist movement alive, publishers in the Prussiancontrolled part of Lithuania printed and smuggled Lithuanianlanguage books across the border. It was 1904 before the ban 

against the Lithuanian language was lifted.
HISTORY &

MYTH

World War I (WWI) and the Re-Emergence of Lithuania

As part of their strategy against Russia in WWI, German forces

entered Lithuania in August 1915. In fall 1917, the German 

occupiers allowed the Lithuanians to assemble a congress, 

chaired by Antanas Smetona, 

Lithuania’s future President, which

formally demanded the resurrection 

of the Lithuanian state with Vilnius 

as its capital. Lithuania formally 

declared independence on 

February 16, 1918. A month later, 

Russia and Germany ended their 

WWI hostilities with the Treaty of 

Brest-Litovsk, which transferred 

sovereignty over Lithuania to 

Germany. With the Germans still 

occupying the country and offering 

support, the Council of Lithuania 

established a national government (Illustration: A Lithuanian 

newspaper announces independence in 1918).

Meanwhile, Józef Pilsudski, a resident of Vilnius who had 

assumed leadership of a revived Polish state, strongly opposed 

Lithuanian independence. Instead, he preferred a renewed

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a bulwark against Russia, 

now known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Soon, the USSR, Poland, and Lithuania were disputing their 

national boundaries, and in December 1918, the USSR

invaded Lithuania. Throughout 1919, Lithuanian and German 

forces battled the Soviets. Meanwhile, Polish troops also 

engaged Lithuanian troops as the Poles advanced through 

southern Lithuania in their own war against the Soviets. 

The Loss of Vilnius: In July 1920, Lithuania and the USSR 

signed a treaty that recognized an independent Lithuania with 

Vilnius as its capital. Objecting to the treaty, Polish troops 

seized Vilnius and southern Lithuania in October. The 

Lithuanians retreated northwest to the city of Kaunas, where 

they established a temporary capital. 

While widely recognized as Lithuania’s historic capital, Vilnius’

population was diverse: about 40% of the population was 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Jewish (see p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality) and most of the 

rest Polish, with only a small Lithuanian minority. Convinced 

that Vilnius must be incorporated into Poland, Polish leader 

Pilsudski called an international conference, which agreed that 

the Poles had the right to occupy Vilnius and the surrounding 

territory. Consequently, Lithuania broke off all diplomatic ties 

with Poland. 

Lithuania between the Wars

From 1920-1939, Poland 

occupied Vilnius and its

surrounding territory. 

Meanwhile, the independent 

Lithuanian government 

refused to accept the loss of 

Vilnius and continued to refer 

to refer to its capital in Kaunas 

as “temporary.” Nationalist 

Party leader Antanas Smetona became independent 

Lithuania’s first President in 1920. Following elections in 1922, 

the government instituted land reform and adopted a new 

constitution (Photo: Lithuanian troops in 1938).

The Annexation of Klaipéda: In 1923, Lithuania acquired the 

port city of Klaipéda, formerly a Prussian territory and source of 

Lithuanian publications during the 19th-century Russian ban. 

Its French occupiers transferred the city to Lithuania following 

an uprising by the local population.

A military coup overthrew Lithuania’s democratically-elected 

government in 1926, re-installing Smetona as President. 

Smetona proceeded to dissolve the Parliament and introduce a 

new constitution which granted the Presidency greatly 

enhanced power. In this way, Smetona secured authoritarian 

control until the events of World War II intervened. 

World War II (WWII)

In March 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Klaipéda and

incorporated it into Germany. In August, Germany and the 

USSR signed the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, a secret 

nonaggression pact which essentially divided Eastern Europe 

into Soviet and German spheres of influence, with Lithuania

falling into the German sphere.
HISTORY &

MYTH

WWII officially began a month later, with Hitler’s invasion of 

Poland. Following negotiations between the USSR and 

Germany, Lithuania was transferred to the Soviet sphere. In 

October, the Soviet government imposed on Lithuania a treaty 

of mutual assistance that returned Vilnius and surrounding 

areas to Lithuania but in 

exchange allowed the 

Soviets to establish

military bases on 

Lithuanian territory

(Photo: Soviet troops 

enter Vilnius in 1939). 

The Soviet Occupation: 

In June 1940, President Smetona fled the country. In July 

elections, only Communist-backed candidates were permitted 

to run. The new Parliament announced Lithuania’s desire to 

join the Soviet Union, and in August the USSR formally 

incorporated Lithuania as one of its constituent republics.

The Soviets moved quickly to impose their communist social 

and economic system, nationalizing private companies, 

appropriating private property, and replacing the Lithuanian 

currency with their own. Further, over the next year, the Soviets 

executed or deported to work camps around 35,000 

Lithuanians, primarily intellectuals, farmers, and leaders.

The Nazi Occupation: In June 1941, Germany turned on its 

former ally and attacked the USSR. Within a week, the 

Germans entered Lithuania. For the next 3 years, Germany 

occupied the country, making it part of its Ostland province 

along with Estonia, Latvia, and Belarus. The Germans 

conscripted some Lithuanians, while others volunteered to 

serve. The Germans had hoped, but were unable, to find 

enough Lithuanian volunteers to form a local unit of the 

infamous Waffen-SS troops.

With its sizeable Jewish population (see p. 5-6 of Religion and 

Spirituality), Lithuania became a target of and location for some 

of the Nazi regime’s most horrific activities. Shortly following 

the German invasion, some Lithuanian non-Jews rose up 

against their Jewish neighbors, carrying out massacres and 

gaining a reputation for brutality. Scholars today contest the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

reasons for these actions. Some believe that these Lithuanians 

acted independently. Others believe that Lithuanians were 

responding to the Nazis’ propaganda against the Jews, which 

labeled them communists and Soviet 

collaborators. Still others suggest the 

Lithuanians acted on German orders.

Within weeks of the Germans’ arrival, 

special Nazi units began to conduct

mass executions of Jews at the Ninth 

Fort at Kaunas Fortress and in the 

forest of Paneriai, near Vilnius. They 

also confined Jews to ghettos

enclosed by barbed wire in Vilnius, 

Kaunas, Šiauliai, and Švenčionys. In 

sum, the Nazi occupation was 

devastating to Lithuania’s Jewish 

population (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality). In total, the Nazis murdered some 190,000-

220,000 Jews in Lithuania, including Jews from other countries. 

Besides targeting Jews, the Nazis also executed or deported 

other “undesirables,” as well as Lithuanians who resisted 

cooperation. While some Lithuanians supported the Nazis, 

many others participated in resistance activities or risked their 

lives to save Jews (Photo: A monument commemorates 30,000 

Jews massacred at Kaunas Fortress).

By 1944, the Soviets were advancing against the Germans. In 

July, they recaptured Vilnius and by January 1945 controlled 

the entire country again. In addition to the tremendous loss of 

life, Lithuania suffered substantial destruction during the war. 

Major cities were left largely in ruins and many smaller towns

completely destroyed. As the war neared its end, about 

200,000 Poles fled southern Lithuania back to Polish territory 

while 10s of 1000s of Lithuanians escaped to Germany. 

The Soviet Era

Following Germany’s surrender in May 1945, the USSR 

immediately reincorporated Lithuania, a move never 

recognized by Western nations. In order to eradicate 

Lithuanian national consciousness and restructure Lithuania in 

the Soviet Socialist model, the Soviets introduced repressive 
HISTORY &

MYTH

measures aligned with Russification policies. Between 1946 

and 1949, the Soviets deported around 300,000 Lithuanians in 

several waves to prison camps in northern Russia and Siberia. 

Further, the Soviets 

initiated a military draft, 

forcing thousands of 

young men into the 

services (Photo: Soviet 

soldiers in Vilnius in 

1944).

Besides implementing 

agricultural

collectivization programs, 

the Soviets introduced industrial development. The primary 

focus was energy production, such as constructing a nuclear 

power plant, an oil refinery, and a hydro-electric plant. To 

provide the workforce required by such projects, the Soviets 

encouraged ethnic Russians to move to Lithuania, although not 

on the same scale as in neighboring Estonia and Latvia. 

Starting in the mid-1950s, there was a slight relaxation of the 

Soviet grip: governmental positions opened to Lithuanians, and 

the state demonstrated more tolerance for Lithuanian language 

and culture. Despite Soviet repression of organized religion 

(see p. 6-7 of Religion and Spirituality), many Lithuanians 

remained members of the Catholic Church, which became 

somewhat of a center of opposition to the USSR.

The Forest Brothers: Between 1944 and 1951, as many as 

100,000 Lithuanians joined an anti-Soviet partisan movement 

known as the Forest Brothers. Until disbanded by USSR 

security forces in 1953, the Forest Brothers carried out various 

acts of armed opposition against the Soviets.

An Opening

Beginning in 1985, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced 

a series of reforms that would eventually result in the 

unintended dissolution of the USSR. These reforms – most 

notably perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) – 

introduced market forces into the struggling Soviet economy 

and increased individuals’ freedom of expression. Although the 

attempted reforms were largely unsuccessful, deteriorating 
HISTORY &

MYTH

economic conditions sparked a wave of democratic movements 

in the Soviet republics, including Lithuania. 

In an act many observers called the first protest movement, 

Lithuanian journalists called for the return of pre-Soviet street 

names in 1986. A year later, demonstrators protested against 

the 1939 USSR-Nazi Germany non-aggression pact during a 

commemoration and against construction at the nuclear power 

plant. In 1988, a group of 

intellectuals including

future President Vytautas 

Landsbergis formed 

Sajūdis, Lithuania’s first 

official pro-independence 

movement. In 1989,

Sajūdis was instrumental 

in organizing some 2 

million residents from the 

3 Baltic States to join hands and form a human chain stretching 

from Tallinn (Estonia) to Vilnius to mark the 50th anniversary of 

the USSR-Germany pact (Photo: US Army Gen Marchi 

presents an award to Landsbergis in 2013).

In 1990 elections, Sajūdis won a large majority. On March 11, 

the Parliament proclaimed independence, demanding the 

withdrawal of Soviet troops as Vytautas Landsbergis became 

President. The USSR voiced its disapproval, announcing an 

economic embargo and sending tanks to Vilnius. Confronted

with international criticism, the USSR agreed to negotiations. 

Deadly Demonstrations: Over the next months, the 

negotiations showed little progress. The economic blockade 

affected residents deeply, causing tensions to mount. In 

January 1991, Gorbachev sought to send a signal to all 

potential break-away Soviet republics by ordering troops to 

seize installations in Vilnius. In their own defense, Lithuanians

erected and manned barriers outside governmental buildings. 

Then, Soviet tanks and soldiers opened fire on demonstrators 

outside the Vilnius TV tower, resulting in the deaths of 14 

Lithuanians. Following international outrage, the Soviet troops 

retreated. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Lithuania’s status remained unresolved until August 1991 when 

a coup attempt against Gorbachev in Moscow failed. Within 

days, the international community and then the USSR 

recognized Lithuania’s independence. In September, Lithuania 

was admitted to the United Nations.

Independence Restored

Newly-independent Lithuania 

moved quickly to restructure its 

economy, including adopting its 

own currency. In 1992 voters 

rejected Landsbergis’ plan for a 

strongly presidential system of 

government, supporting instead a

division of power between a 

President and Parliament. Dogged 

by charges of authoritarianism, 

Landsbergis did not stand in the 

1992 presidential election. Instead, the former Secretary of the 

Communist Party and early supporter of Lithuanian 

independence, Algirdas Brazauskas (pictured while visiting the 

Pentagon), won an easy victory, remaining in office until 1998.

Transition from a Soviet state to independence was not always 

smooth. The uncertainties of the market economy, including 

inflation, high unemployment, and business bankruptcies 

caused substantial economic suffering. Further, Lithuanians 

were forced to endure significant food and fuel shortages. 

Consequently, some Lithuanians chose to express their 

dissatisfaction with the loss of the Soviet social safety net by 

electing former Communist Party leaders. The majority

welcomed the transition, though, and the population was 

supportive when Lithuania took the first steps toward 

membership in the EU in 1995.

Modern Lithuania

In subsequent years, Lithuania was rocked by political and 

financial scandals. After consistently supporting independent

and left-wing parties, voters performed an about-face and gave 

right-wing parties the majority in Parliament during the 1996 

elections, resulting in conservative control of the Prime Minister 

(PM) office until 2000.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Following a tight race, an independent candidate, Valdas 

Adamkus (pictured in 2007 with then US President Bush), won 

the 1998 presidential 

election. Adamkus was born 

in Lithuania in 1926, 

immigrated to the US in 1944 

during WWII, returning to 

Lithuania in 1997. Except for

a small gap in 2003-04 when 

a newly-elected President 

was impeached and removed 

from office, Adamkus served 

as Lithuania’s President from 

1998 until 2009.

Because Lithuania lacked the 

industrial foundation that the other Baltic republics relied on, its 

economy struggled to emerge from Soviet central control. 

Gradually, foreign investment began to flow into the country to 

take advantage of Lithuania’s well-educated and inexpensive 

workforce. Lithuania experienced an economic boom following 

its 2004 accession to the EU and membership in NATO. Only 4 

years later, the 2008-09 European financial crisis profoundly 

affected the country, resulting in significant economic 

contraction. In response, Lithuania instituted strict austerity 

measures that were met with some opposition but proved to be 

very effective, resulting in relatively swift economic recovery.

Meanwhile, many political parties continue to struggle for

control of Parliament. Since 2012, the center-left Social 

Democratic Party has controlled the PM office (see p. 4-5 of 

Social and Political Relations). Of note, Lithuania’s first female 

President, Dalia Grybauskaité, took office in 2009 and was reelected in 2014. Lithuania became the last of the Baltic States 

to adopt the EU’s euro as its currency in 2015.

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

For Lithuanians, myth and folklore played an important role in 

maintaining pagan beliefs in the face of pressures to convert to

Christianity during the medieval period (see p. 1-2 of Religion 

and Spirituality). A well-known story with distinctive preChristian themes tells of Egle, a young woman who is tricked 

by a grass snake into marrying him. When she appears for the 

wedding, the snake has turned into a young man, Zilvinas. The 

couple marry and live in a palace at the bottom of the sea. 

Egle has 3 sons, Oak, Ash, and Birch, as well as a daughter, 

Aspen. Because she misses her family on land, Egle asks her 

husband’s permission to visit them. He refuses until she 

successfully completes 3 impossible-sounding tasks. Once she 

has proven herself, he allows her to leave with the children, 

giving her a password that will allow her to return to the bottom 

of the sea. Egle’s parents and brothers rejoice upon seeing her 

and her children. To keep her from leaving again, Egle’s 

brother tricks Aspen into revealing the password. The brothers 

then use the 

password to descend 

into the sea where 

they murder Zilvinas. 

In her grief and

despair, Egle turns

her children into the 

trees indicated by 

their names and 

herself into a fir tree.

Other myths helped 

to bolster Lithuanian 

identity through its early history of Polonization and the 18thcentury Russification. For example, Vilnius’ origin story is 

closely connected to the unification of Lithuania’s Baltic tribes. 

Another well-known tale was recently made into a rock opera. 

The story recounts how a mermaid named Jūraté fell in love 

with Kastytis, a fisherman, and transported him to her castle 

under the sea. In punishment for their forbidden love, Perkūnas 

(pre-Christian god of thunder –see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality) sent a storm to demolish her castle. Today, pieces 

of the structure – Lithuanian amber – continue to wash up on 

the Lithuanian shore (pictured).
Official Name

Republic of Lithuania

Lietuvos Respublika

Political Borders

Latvia: 338 mi

Belarus: 398 mi

Poland: 65 mi

Russia: 162 mi

Coastline: 56 mi

Capital

Vilnius 

Demographics

With a population of about 

2.9 million, Lithuania is the most populous Baltic State yet

remains one of Europe’s smallest nations. Significantly, 

Lithuania’s population is declining at an annual rate of -1.0%, in 

part due to Lithuania’s low birth rate (see p. 4 of Sex and 

Gender) and the emigration of Lithuanians in search of

employment abroad. Nearly 67% of the population lives in 

metropolitan areas, primarily 

in the capital city of Vilnius 

and surrounding suburbs.

Flag

The Lithuanian flag consists 

of 3 equal horizontal yellow, 

green, and red stripes. The 

top yellow band symbolizes 

the sun, light, and goodness while also representing Lithuania’s 

golden fields. The green band denotes nature, hope, and 

freedom, as well as Lithuanian forests. Lastly, the red band 

represents courage and the blood spilled in defending 

Lithuania. First adopted in 1918, the flag was banned during 

the Soviet and Nazi Germany occupations (see p. 11-13 of 

History and Myth). Lithuanian officially re-adopted the flag in 

1989. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, 

Lithuania shares a border with Latvia to the north, Belarus to 

the east and south, Poland to the southwest, and Russia (the 

enclave of Kaliningrad) to the southwest. Lithuania’s short 

western coastline faces the Baltic Sea, about half of which

forms the Curonian Spit – a narrow strip of land separating the 

Baltic Sea from the Curonian Lagoon. Lithuania’s total land 

area is about 39,000 sq mi, making it slightly larger than West 

Virginia and about the same size as Ireland. 

Lithuania has a low, mostly flat terrain characterized by coastal 

lowlands along the Baltic shoreline in the West, gently rolling 

plains in the center, 

and hilly uplands in 

the East. Lithuania’s 

highest point, 

Aukštojas Hill, rises 

about 964 ft and is 

located near the 

capital city of Vilnius 

in the Southeast. 

Forests cover about 

35% of the country. 

Lithuania is also 

home to thousands of small lakes and rivers, the longest of 

which are the Nemunas (pictured) and the Neris, which passes 

directly through Vilnius. 

Climate

Lithuania experiences a temperate, mixed continental and 

maritime climate with 4 distinct seasons. Summers tend to be 

short and cool, while winters are long and wet. Temperatures in 

the summer month of July average 63°F. By contrast, in the 

winter month of January, temperatures average 23°F. 

Generally, coastal regions and western lowlands experience 

warmer temperatures than Lithuania’s east due to the warm 

Gulf Stream. Snowfall typically occurs November-March, while 

rainfall is heaviest May-August. Of note, the number of daylight 

hours varies dramatically throughout the year. For example, 

there are over 18 hours of daylight in June, and no more than 6 

hours in December. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Lithuania is vulnerable to relatively few types of natural 

hazards, the most significant being heavy winter snowfall and 

cold temperatures. The country also occasionally experiences 

droughts, the severest resulting in a number of forest and bog 

fires in 2002. 

Environmental Issues

Lithuania’s environmental issues stem from damaging activities 

performed by the Soviets during their occupation (see p. 13-14

of History and Myth). Significant water and air pollution resulted 

from the improper disposal of industrial waste, hazardous 

chemicals at military 

bases, and untreated 

sewage released into 

groundwater reservoirs 

(Photo: The historic 

island town of Trakai). 

Following independence, 

the Lithuanian 

government took

measures to counteract 

the environmental 

degradation. These included the cleanup of coastal and inland 

waters, the management of agricultural runoff, and the 

regulation of industrial waste. While most inland lakes and 

rivers are generally free of pollution today, parts of the Baltic 

Sea and the Curonian Lagoon remain heavily polluted. In 

addition, air pollution from automobile emissions is a concern in 

Vilnius. 

Government

Lithuania is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 10 counties (apskritis),

administered by governors who are appointed by the 

Parliament (see “Legislative Branch” below). The counties 

further subdivide into 60 regions (rajonas) governed by mayors 

and elected local councils. Adopted in 1992 (see p. 16 of 

History and Myth), Lithuania’s constitution separates power 

among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and 

outlines the fundamental rights of Lithuanian citizens. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

Elected by popular vote, 

the President is head-ofstate and commanderin-chief of Lithuania’s 

Armed Forces and may

serve up to 2 

consecutive 5-year 

terms. Presidential

powers are largely 

ceremonial. The current President, Dalia Grybauskaitė

(pictured, with US Secretary of State Kerry), took office in 2009 

as Lithuania’s first female President and was reelected in 2014. 

By contrast, executive power is vested in the Prime Minister 

(PM), who is head-of-government. With the support of a 14-

member Council of Ministers, the PM oversees the country’s 

day-to-day affairs. Named by the President and approved by 

the Parliament, the PM is traditionally the leader of the political 

party that holds the most seats in the Parliament. Lithuania’s 

current PM, Algirdas Butkevičius, took office in 2012. 

Legislative Branch

Lithuania’s legislature is a 1-chamber Parliament (Seimas), 

composed of 141 members elected to serve 4-year terms. Of 

those, 70 are elected through a nationwide vote based on 

proportional representation. The remaining 71 seats are 

elected in single constituencies by an absolute majority vote. 

The Parliament controls all federal legislative powers, including 

amending the constitution, appointing positions in government, 

approving declarations of war, and passing the national budget.

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court, 

Court of Appeals, and system of lower courts. As the highest 

court, the Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for both 

civil and criminal cases. The President nominates and 

Parliament approves the 37 Supreme Court justices to serve 5-

year, renewable terms. The Constitutional Court consists of 9 

judges nominated by the President, Speaker of the Parliament, 

and Supreme Court chairperson, and approved by the 

Parliament. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Political Climate

Lithuania’s political landscape includes a multi-party system in 

which political parties or coalitions of parties compete for 

power. Generally, those parties and coalitions which hold the 

majority of seats in the Parliament also hold the bulk of 

government leadership positions. While the government allows 

most political parties to 

operate without restriction, it 

does prohibit those 

advocating communism 

(Photo: The Parliament 

building in Vilnius).

As of the 2016 elections, the 

agrarian Lithuanian Peasant 

and Greens Union (LVZS) led by Ramunas Karbauskis 

became Parliament’s largest party (54 seats). Two candidates 

elected as independents were included as LVZS on the list of

multi-mandate constituencies, bringing the actual LVZS total to

56 mandates. The center-right Homeland Union – Lithuanian 

Christian Democrats (TS-LKD) led by Gabrielius Landsbergis is 

the 2nd largest party (31), while the Social Democratic Party 

(SDP) headed by current Lithuanian Prime Minister Algirdas 

Butkevicius the 3rd (17). Other active parties currently holding 

seats include the Liberal Movement (14), the Electoral Action of 

Lithuanian Poles (8), the party Order and Justice (8), 

independent candidates (4), and the Labour Party (2). 

Additionally, the Lithuanian Green Party (LZP), the political 

party List of Lithuania, and the Anti-Corruption Coalition of 

Kristupas Krivickas and Naglis Puteikis each hold 1 seat. 

The government faces challenges to maintaining the 

democratic process. Due to many years of occupation (see 

History and Myth), many Lithuanians are skeptical of the 

political process. In addition, corruption permeates all levels of 

government, further engendering public distrust of officials. 

Defense

The Lithuanian Armed Forces (LAF) are a unified military force 

consisting of primarily ground forces with smaller maritime and 

air branches. They are charged with defending against foreign 

and domestic threats, performing search and rescue 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
operations, and protecting critical infrastructure. As of 2015, at 

least 1 year of military service is mandatory for both men and 

women aged 19-45. Lithuanians may voluntarily enlist at 18.

With a joint strength of 10,950 active duty troops, 6,700 reserve 

personnel, and 11,000 paramilitary troops, Lithuania has the 

largest military of the 3 Baltic States. Nevertheless, Lithuania 

heavily relies on the support of its allies to respond to large, 

state-level threats. Currently, it receives the majority of support 

from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – a political 

and military alliance among 28 nations (including the US) that 

promotes its members’ security through collective defense. 

Joint: Comprised of 2,050 active-duty personnel, the joint 

forces divide into Joint Logistics Support and Joint Training and 

Doctrine Commands as well as 1 combat support battalion. 

Army: The Lithuanian Army is a well-equipped, well-trained 

force of 7,500 active-duty troops, consisting of 4 maneuver 

brigades (including mechanized and light), 6 maneuver 

territorial defense units, 1 

combat support brigade, 

and 1 combat service 

support regiment.

Navy: Consisting of 500 

active-duty personnel, the 

Lithuanian Navy is the 

smallest of the branches, 

with 4 patrol and coastal 

combatants, 4 mine warfare and countermeasures vessels, 

and 4 logistics and support vessels. Of note, the 3 Baltic States 

share the joint naval unit “Baltron” with bases in Latvia, 

Estonia, and Lithuania (Klaipéda) (Photo: Lithuanian forces 

during joint exercises with US marines).

Air Force: The Lithuanian Air Force consists of 950 active-duty 

personnel and has 1 air defense battalion with 14 fighter 

aircraft.

Paramilitary: The Lithuanian Paramilitary forces consist of 

7,000 Riflemen Union members and 4,000 State Border Guard 

servicemen. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations 

After gaining independence from the USSR, Lithuania 

rigorously pursued political, economic, and military integration 

with its Baltic, Nordic, and Western European neighbors. With 

its accession to NATO and the EU in 2004, Lithuania continued 

its divergence from Russian influence. 

In 2013-2014, Lithuania assumed the Presidency of the 

Council of the European Union, becoming the 1st Baltic nation 

to hold this rotating leadership position. Lithuania served as a 

non-permanent member of the 

United Nations Security Council 

(UNSC) in 2014-15. In addition, 

Lithuania has contributed to 

multiple UN peacekeeping 

missions and regularly participates 

in and hosts NATO military 

exercises (Photo: Multinational 

troops salute national flags during 

exercises hosted by Lithuania). 

Regional Cooperation: Lithuania 

joined with Estonia and Latvia in 

1991 to form the Baltic Assembly, 

established to address common 

political, economic, and social 

issues. Lithuania is also active in 

the Nordic-Baltic Cooperation 

(NB8) along with Finland, Sweden, 

Norway, Iceland, Denmark, 

Estonia, and Latvia. Formed in 1992, the NB8 promotes 

members’ coordination on economic policy, foreign and 

national security, energy and transportation infrastructure, civil 

protection, and cultural matters.

Relations with the EU: The EU is a political and economic 

partnership among 28 European nations. Lithuania relies on 

the EU as a political, military, and economic buffer against 

neighboring Russia. Of note, Lithuania adopted the EU’s euro 

as its own currency in 2015 (see p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources), further solidifying its economic integration with 

European nations.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the US: The US and Lithuania have strong 

political, economic, and military ties dating to 1922 (see p. 11

of History and Myth). Fully supporting the restoration of 

Lithuanian independence in 1991, the US never formally 

recognized the USSR’s occupation during World War II (see p. 

13 of History and Myth). Accordingly, the US views the current 

Lithuanian government as a legal continuation of the 

independent republic that existed between the 2 World Wars. 

Following Lithuania’s independence, the US advocated for 

Lithuania’s accession into various international organizations, 

such as NATO and the EU. Further, it worked closely with the 

Lithuanian 

government to help 

rebuild its free- market 

economy and 

democratic 

institutions. Today, 

Lithuania is an 

important advocate for 

promoting the US’s

democratic and proWestern agenda in 

the region (Photo: Former Lithuanian Defense Minister Rasa 

Jukneviciene visits the Pentagon in 2012). 

The US provides substantial defense assistance to Lithuania,

both financially and through military training and equipment 

designed to bolster Lithuanian military capability. Further, the 

US and Lithuania have signed several bilateral trade and 

investment agreements, which protect intellectual property and 

allow goods, services, and capital to move freely between the 2 

nations. Finally, Lithuania is one of 38 nations participating in 

the “Visa Waiver” program, which allows Lithuanians to travel 

to the US visa-free for up to 90 days.

Security Issues

Lithuania’s security environment is dominated by its historically 

volatile relationship with neighboring Russia (see p. 11-16 of 

History and Myth). As noted earlier, Lithuania heavily relies on 

military and economic support from NATO, the UN, and the EU 

to help insulate it from large, external threats.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with Russia: Following Russia’s 2014 annexation of 

Crimea, tensions between Lithuania and Russia intensified.

Lithuania was also concerned by the resulting unrest in Eastern 

Ukraine, Russia’s 

continued support of 

Ukrainian separatist 

forces, and the bolstering 

of Russian military 

capacity in neighboring 

Kaliningrad. With the goal 

of deterring further 

aggression, NATO 

responded in early 2016 

to Lithuania’s request for increased troop strength along its 

Russian borders. The move concerns some NATO members 

who believe that this increase will exacerbate tensions between 

Lithuania and Russia (Photo: US Airmen board a C-130 

traveling to Šiauliai Air Base in Lithuania). 

Amid these tensions, the West shares some apprehension that 

the Russian government may attempt to provoke social unrest

among Lithuania’s Russianspeaking population. 

However, because ethnic 

Russians constitute a small 

minority of the Lithuanian 

population (see “Social 

Relations” below), the 

Lithuanian government has 

not taken measures to 

counteract any such moves. 

Finally, Lithuania’s significant 

reliance on trade with Russia 

(see p. 5 of Economics and 

Resources) leaves Lithuania 

particularly vulnerable to 

potential economic disruptions 

from Russia, including trade and energy sanctions. 

Consequently, the 2 nations maintain a dialogue despite the 

heightened political tensions (Photo: Lithuanian Airmen 

prepare for a simulated fire during a NATO military exercise).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Lithuania’s historic diversity was bolstered by certain policies 

during the Soviet occupation that encouraged workers from 

Russia and other Soviet states to resettle in Lithuania while 

simultaneously deporting Lithuanians. Nevertheless, these

policies did not cause the Lithuanian proportion of the 

population to decline as significantly as in the other Baltic 

States. According to the 2011 census, 84% of the population is

ethnically Lithuanian. 

Related to Lithuania’s long-term alliance with Poland (see p. 5-

8 of History and Myth), Poles comprise Lithuania’s largest 

minority group at about 7% of the population. Most Poles live in 

southeast Lithuania and in Vilnius. Russians comprise the 2nd

largest group (6%) and live predominantly in Vilnius, Klaipėda, 

and Visaginas. Other minority groups include Belarusians (1%) 

and Ukrainians (1%). While many minority members have fully 

integrated into Lithuanian society, some Polish and Russian 

communities remain somewhat socially segregated. 

Historically, Lithuanians subdivided into different tribes or 

ethnic groups (see p. 2 of History and Myth). Today, these 

differences remain in some linguistic and cultural variations 

across Lithuania’s 5 ethnographic regions (see “Social 

Relations” below). While most Lithuanians speak a dialect from 

Aukštaitija, some residents of Žemaitija speak the Samogitian 

dialect (see p. 2 of Language and Communication) (Photo: 

Lithuanians pose 

with US Army 

paratroopers). 

Lithuania is home 

to about 3,200 

Tatars of Turkic 

origins who are 

primarily Muslim 

(see p. 8 of 

Religion and 

Spirituality) 

Russian-speakers. Finally, about 2,100 residents identify as 

Roma or “Gypsy” who live primarily in small, secluded 

communities on urban peripheries. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Lithuanians generally identify with 1 of 5 ethnographic regions 

(Aukštaitija, Dzūkija, Suvalkija, Mažoji Lietuva – also known as 

Lithuania Minor – and Žemaitija), delineated by cultural and

some dialectal variation. While the cultural differences were 

more pronounced in the past, Lithuanians continue to associate

particular characteristics with the residents of each region. For

example, Lithuanians may stereotype residents of Aukštaitija 

as cheerful, those of Suvalkija as thrifty and hardworking, and 

Žemaitijans as stubborn 

but faithful. 

Lithuanian society divides

along rural-urban, malefemale, and rich-poor 

lines. Generally, urban 

dwellers, males, and the 

wealthy enjoy greater 

access to educational 

and economic opportunities and hold the most social prestige. 

Women tend to experience high levels of domestic violence 

and face discrimination in the workplace (see p. 1-3 of Sex and 

Gender). Further, some ethnic minorities face discrimination 

and socio-economic exclusion. For example, the Roma suffer 

from negative social stereotypes, employment discrimination, 

and increased school drop-out rates (Photo: Vilnius).

Some social divisions exist among Lithuanians and minorities. 

For example, a territorial dispute between Poland and Lithuania 

at the end of World War I (see p. 10-11 of History and Myth) 

resulted in strained relations between Poles and Lithuanians. 

Similarly, some friction exists between Russians and 

Lithuanians, evident primarily among older Lithuanians who 

experienced the Soviet occupation and as a result hold antiRussian sentiment. In recent years, discord among the 3 

groups has centered on legislation concerning language use in 

education (see p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge). While the 3 

groups coexist harmoniously today, they may not always mix. 

Proud of their cultural differences, Poles and Russians tend to 

socialize among themselves, follow different faiths (see p. 8 of 

Religion and Spirituality), and attend Russian or Polish 

language schools.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview 

With the vast majority of its inhabitants claiming a Roman 

Catholic affiliation, Lithuania is the only Baltic country where

religion is central to national identity. According to the 2011 

census, 77% of Lithuania’s population is Roman Catholic. A 

2015 study found that about 5% of the population are Russian 

Orthodox and 1.4% Protestants, while about 10% claim no 

religious affiliation. There are other Christian, as well as Islamic 

and Jewish groups collectively comprising less than 1% of the 

population. Other Christian groups include Old Believers, 

Greek Catholics, Evangelical Lutherans, Baptists, Jehovah’s 

Witnesses, Methodists, 

and Pentecostals

(Photo: The Hill of 

Crosses in Šiauliai 

includes over 100,000 

crosses).

Lithuania’s constitution 

protects the freedom of 

religion and recognizes 

no state religion. By law, 

9 “traditional” religious groups – including Roman Catholics, 

Greek Catholics, Evangelical Lutherans, Evangelical 

Reformed, Russian Orthodox, Old Believers, Jews, Sunni 

Muslims, and Karaites (a Turkic Jewish sect) – retain some 

rights and privileges not granted other religious groups. These 

include the right to teach religion in public schools, officiate at 

marriages, and receive government subsidies.

Lithuania’s Early Spiritual Landscape

While there was likely some regional variation, early 

Lithuanians practiced animism, the belief that the spirit of life or 

consciousness resides in natural objects, including trees, 

rocks, hills, fields, and animals. Trees, in particular, held great 

significance, as did places, such as forests, fields, and springs, 

and certain animals (including the grass snake – see p. 18 of 

History and Myth).

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
While there was no organized priesthood, a spiritual leader 

(krivis) performed ceremonies at an outdoor place of worship 

(alkas), such as a shrine or altar usually located on a hill near 

a stream or river. One aim of the ceremonies was to 

communicate with gods and spirits who, early Lithuanians

believed, could guide or obstruct human behavior. Ceremonies 

could include offerings before an eternal sacred flame and 

animal sacrifice. While the Lithuanians worshipped many 

different deities, some of the most important included Dievas

(the God of the Sky), Perkünas (the God of thunder, lightning, 

and the atmosphere), and Laima (the Goddess of Fate). 

Early Lithuanians’ belief in an afterlife is indicated by their 

funeral traditions. For example, deceased rulers were often 

cremated, then buried with household goods, food, and even 

companion animals. Following his death in the late 14th

century, Grand Duke Algirdas (see p. 4 of History and Myth), 

was cremated with horses, falcons, and dogs.

The Arrival of Christianity 

Lithuanians maintained their pagan beliefs and practices well 

into the medieval period. Further, this belief system was closely

linked to the unification and growth of the early Lithuanian 

state, which consolidated to repel German crusaders seeking

to Christianize the Lithuanian people (see p. 2-4 of History and 

Myth). Despite some early success against the crusaders, King 

Mindaugas sought 

external recognition 

of his right to rule

(see p. 3 of History 

and Myth) and 

thereby converted to 

Christianity in 1251. 

After receiving

acknowledgement of 

the Kingdom of 

Lithuania from the 

Catholic Pope in Rome, Mindaugas renounced Christianity and 

returned to his pagan ways. This act was timely considering 

few Lithuanians followed Mindaugas’ lead in converting nor did 

German aggressions lessen. (Photo: Lithuanian soldiers in 

medieval armament).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Beginning in the 14th century (see History and Myth), Lithuania 

acquired new territory and its population became more diverse 

as it attracted settlers from across Europe. Both Jews and 

Muslims arrived at the invitation of Lithuanian monarchs, while 

most of the inhabitants of the newly-conquered eastern lands 

were members of the Russian Orthodox Church. During this 

period, the early Lithuanian state demonstrated significant 

religious tolerance. Although officially pagan, the state allowed 

Catholic and Orthodox monasteries to exist side-by-side with 

pagan shrines.

In 1386, Lithuania sought union with Poland to better respond 

to continuing foreign threats (see p. 5 of History and Myth). 

Because Poland was a Roman Catholic state, a condition of 

the union was the conversion of Lithuania’s leaders (see p. 5 of 

History and Myth). A year later, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania 

officially adopted Roman Catholicism as its official religion. The 

last remaining pagan territory in the region, the lowland district 

of Žemaitija, adopted Christianity in 1413. Despite the state’s

official adoption, Lithuanians were slow to embrace 

Christianity. Most continued their pagan practices for decades 

or even centuries longer. For example, as late as the 18th

century, Catholic Church officials were destroying “sacred” 

groves in the attempt to stamp out these beliefs.

The Crosses of Lithuania

Crosses are a common site across Lithuania. They 

are seen along roads and rivers, on homes and

hilltops, and in yards, forests, and town squares. 

Crosses serve to remember the dead, encourage a 

good harvest, keep away bad fortune, bless a new 

home, or mark a birth or marriage. Some crosses 

incorporate pre-Christian elements, such as the sun, 

moon, or serpents. Catholic pilgrims have been 

erecting crosses at the Hill of Crosses near Šiauliai 

since the 19th century. Although the Soviets bulldozed

the site twice, Lithuanians always returned to erect 

more crosses to demonstrate their allegiance to their 

Lithuanian and Catholic heritage.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Protestant Reformation began in the early 16th century to 

answer a call for change in the Roman Catholic Church. A key 

event in the movement occurred when Martin Luther nailed his 

95 theses to a church door in Germany in 1517. Critical of 

several Catholic Church teachings and the authority of the 

pope, Luther’s ideas spread quickly, especially through the use 

of the newly-invented printing press.

Within Lithuania, Protestantism, especially the branch known 

as Calvinism, found significant support among many noble 

families. In response, the Catholic Church soon mounted its 

own “Counter-Reformation,” initiating reforms to priestly 

training and religious life in an effort to re-convert areas 

influenced by the Protestants. In Lithuania, CounterReformation efforts 

included the publication of 

the first Bible in Lithuanian 

in 1547, the adoption of 

Lithuanian for some 

Catholic Church services, 

and the 1579 founding of 

Vilnius University by 

Jesuit monks (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth). Due to such successful CounterReformation efforts, Protestantism did not take root. Through 

the 17th and 18th centuries, many new Catholic churches and 

monasteries were built as Catholicism flourished (Photo: 16th

century Polish-Lithuanian Catholic clergy).

Religion under Russian Rule

By the end of the 18th century, Russia had acquired control of 

all of modern-day Lithuania (see p. 8 of History and Myth), 

soon proclaiming Russian Orthodoxy the state religion. Over 

the next 115 years, the Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed 

growth due to state support, suppression of other churches and 

religions, and a small influx of Russians. 

Following rebellions against Russian rule in 1831 and 1863, the 

Russian state implemented several repressive measures 

intended to promote the country’s Russification (see p. 9 of 

History and Myth). Among these measures were a ban on the 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
new construction of Catholic churches, the conversion of

Lutheran and Catholic churches for Orthodox worship, and the 

closing of Catholic monasteries. Despite this repression, most 

Lithuanians remained faithful Catholics. During the late 19thcentury national revival (see p. 9 of History and Myth), 

Catholicism became an important marker of Lithuanian identity. 

Jerusalem of the North: Since its origins in the medieval 

period (see p. 4 of History and Myth), Lithuania’s Jewish 

community had continued to grow. By the 18th century, Jews 

made up 7.6% of Lithuania’s population and 30% of Vilnius’. 

With its vibrant Jewish culture and tradition of rabbinical 

scholarship, Vilnius became known as the “Jerusalem of the 

North” during this period. Although the Jewish community also 

suffered under 19th century Russian repression, Jews made up 

nearly 56% of the population of Vilnius by 1860. The population 

declined somewhat in the late 19th century when famine, 

disease, and pogroms in southern Russia compelled many 

Jews to emigrate. Despite this population contraction, Lithuania 

remained a center of Yiddish culture. 

Religion during Inter-War Independence

After regaining independence following World War I (see p. 10-

11 of History and Myth), Lithuania named Roman Catholicism 

as the official state 

religion. Due to ongoing 

territorial disputes with 

Poland, reorganization of 

the Lithuanian Catholic 

Church was contentious 

but completed by 1926. 

Generally, Catholicism 

flourished during the interwar period. It was taught in the public schools; many monastic 

communities were revived; nearly 1/3 of the population was

actively involved in some type of Catholic organization; and 28 

Catholic periodicals enjoyed wide readership. Following the 

return of Vilnius and surrounding territory to Lithuania in 1939, 

the Lithuanian Catholic Church counted 4 seminaries, over 

1200 priests, 73 monasteries with 580 monks, as well as 85 

convents with 950 nuns (Photo: The Roman Catholic Cathedral 

of Vilnius).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
World War II (WWII)

Lithuania’s Christian churches experienced significant losses 

during WWII, when many clergy fled as refugees or were 

deported to Soviet labor camps (see p. 12 of History and Myth). 

While significant, these losses paled in comparison to the 

trauma experienced by Lithuania’s Jewish community under 

the Nazi regime (see p. 12-13 of History and Myth). 

Just before WWII, Jews comprised about 7% of Lithuania’s 

population, or about 160,000 people. When WWII began with 

Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939, many Jews in 

Poland fled to Vilnius. By 1941, Lithuania’s Jewish population 

had swollen to about 250,000. Over the course of the 3-year 

Nazi occupation, Jews were confined to ghettos, shipped to 

labor camps, exterminated 

in concentration camps, 

and murdered outright in 

mass shootings. Although 

exact numbers are 

unknown, historians 

estimate that at least 85% 

and perhaps more than

90% of Lithuania’s Jews 

were dead by war’s end in 1945. Few displaced survivors 

chose to return to Lithuania. As a result, the country’s Jewish 

community was all but eliminated and Vilnius’ rich Jewish 

culture was erased (Photo: Šiauliai’s Choral Synagogue was 

destroyed in WWII).

Religion during the Soviet Period

The Soviet Union’s 1940 invasion and annexation of Lithuania 

also brought significant changes to the country’s religious 

landscape. Besides attempting to eradicate Lithuanian national 

consciousness and restructure Lithuania to fit their socialist 

order (see p. 12 of History and Myth), the Soviets imposed their 

communist worldview. A key component of this view was

atheism or the disbelief in deities and the rejection of religion.

The Soviets’ brutal repression of the Lithuanian population in 

general (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth) also included the 

execution, deportation, or banning of about 1/3 of the Catholic 

clergy. The Soviets dissolved all monasteries and convents

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
and drastically restricted the activities of all religious 

organizations. In addition, the state also banned religious 

literature and excluded religion from educational policy and 

curriculum. While Orthodox priestly candidates could attend a 

seminary in Russia, the Catholic Church was allowed to 

maintain just 1 seminary that was restricted to 10 new 

candidates per year. Further, the 

state destroyed many churches, 

mosques, and synagogues and 

confiscated others, converting them 

for alternative uses (Photo: St. 

Casimir Church in Vilnius became a 

Museum of Atheism during the 

Soviet period). 

Despite this repression, many 

Lithuanians continued their 

religious practices in secret while 

maintaining a strong connection to 

the Catholic Church. In the 1970s, 

an underground network of Catholic 

activists published a journal documenting the state’s religious 

repression and human rights violations. With Soviet leader 

Mikhail Gorbachev’s social and economic reforms in the 1980s 

(see p. 14 of History and Myth) came the lifting of religious 

repression. As the Soviet hold on Lithuania weakened, the 

Catholic Church enjoyed a surge of interest and became allied 

with the independence movement (see p. 15 of History and 

Myth). Then, as Lithuania moved to full independence, Catholic 

organizations resumed their range of educational and 

charitable activities. With the 1990 Act of Restitution of the 

Catholic Church, freedom of religion was restored to Lithuania.

Religion Today

While almost 90% of Lithuanians claimed a Christian affiliation 

in a 2015 survey, far fewer reported that religion was significant

in their everyday lives. In fact, only 19% of those surveyed 

agreed that religion was very important in their lives, while just 

12% reported they attended weekly religious services. 

Research also revealed a significant age gap: while 48% of 

Lithuanians aged 65+ claimed religion was very important, just 

8% of those aged 18-29 did. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Roman Catholicism: Most of Lithuania’s Roman Catholics are 

ethnic Lithuanians or ethnic Poles (see p. 11 of Political and 

Social Relations). Currently, 3 seminaries offer priestly training. 

Russian Orthodoxy: Most members of Russian Orthodox 

churches are ethnic Russians. The community also includes 

the Old Believers, members of an offshoot of the Russian 

Orthodox Church formed following a 17th century schism.

Judaism: Following WWII, some Jews from other Soviet 

republics moved to Lithuania. According to a 1959 census, the 

country was home to about 25,000 Jews. Beginning in the 

1970s, the population began to decline significantly as many 

Jews emigrated to Israel. By 1989, they numbered about 

12,000. Today, about 5000 Jews live in Lithuania, primarily in 

Vilnius, Klaipéda, and Šiauliai. Beginning in the 2000s, several 

Jewish cultural and educational institutions became active in 

Vilnius. For example, Vilnius University’s Yiddish Institute 

opened in 2001 to support the study of Yiddish and East 

European Jewish culture.

Islam: Between 50,000-

100,000 Muslim Tatars settled 

in Lithuania during the 14th

century reign of Vytautas the 

Great (see p. 5 of History and 

Myth). Although they also

suffered under Soviet religious 

repression, many have retained 

their ethnic and religious 

identity. Today about 3,200 

Tatars live in Lithuania, primarily in Vilnius and Kaunas, where 

the government built a mosque in 1930 to commemorate 500 

years of their presence. Besides the Tatars, Lithuania’s Muslim 

community also includes some migrants and temporary 

workers from the Middle East and Africa (Illustration: A 19th

century depiction of a Lithuanian mosque).

Romuva: About 5000 Lithuanians follow Romuva, a religion 

first founded in the 1920s that sought to reestablish Lithuania’s 

pagan spirituality. Today, practitioners hold worship services at 

various shrines, including a pilgrimages site in the neighboring 

Russian enclave of Kaliningrad. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

While some Lithuanians have moved to urban areas in search 

of employment and education opportunities, they often return to 

their rural birthplace to spend time with family. Lithuanians 

maintain strong relationships with both immediate and 

extended family, 

sharing good fortune 

with their relations 

and involving them 

in all important life 

decisions. 

Residence

Over 2/3 of 

Lithuanians live in 

urban areas, where 

housing structures 

vary by income level. Rural residences tend to be larger than 

their urban counterparts. Generally, Lithuanians take pride in 

furnishing their homes, spending large portions of their income 

to decorate living spaces and make their homes comfortable 

(Photo: A wooden home in rural Lithuania). 

Rural: Following independence in 1991 (see p. 16 of History 

and Myth), the Lithuanian government converted many Sovietera state-run collective farms into small, single-family 

farmsteads. Most rural residences today comprise multiple 

structures, including a main house, a separate storehouse, and 

a sauna – a single, well insulated room heated by a woodburning stove. Larger farms may have additional barns to 

house livestock and store grain. Many farmhouses feature 

sloping, tiled roofs and 2nd-story attics for storage.

Traditionally constructed of wood, many rural homes today are

built of bricks and cement. Homes typically have extensive 

gardens containing fruit trees, vegetables, flowers, and herbs.

Urban: Housing in Lithuania’s urban areas is varied. Lowerincome Lithuanians typically live in basic, high-rise apartment 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
complexes built during the Soviet occupation (see p. 13-14 of 

History and Myth). Situated on the outskirts of cities, these 

tenement blocks served to accommodate the influx of workers 

seeking jobs in Soviet industries. Today, many of these 

buildings remain in poor condition, with unreliable water and 

electricity. 

Although the government has renovated some Soviet-era 

buildings, many families continue to live in small, outdated 

apartments comprised of 1-3 bedrooms, a kitchen, living room, 

and bathroom. If needed, the living room doubles as an extra 

bedroom. By contrast, wealthier urban dwellers live in singlefamily homes on the outskirts of cities or in newly-built, modern 

apartments near city centers. 

Of note, Lithuanians mostly prefer to own rather than rent their 

homes. Some newly-married young couples live with family 

members (see “Children” below) or rent modest, temporary 

apartments to save money toward buying a home.

Family Structure

Even if both parents work outside the home (see p. 1 of Sex 

and Gender), the father is traditionally the head of the 

household and primary breadwinner. The mother holds 

responsibility for most household chores, including cleaning 

and cooking. Most Lithuanians live as nuclear families (2 

parents and their children), though extended families play a

The Lithuanian Summer Cottage

Besides their primary homes in the city, many 

Lithuanians also own holiday cottages in the 

countryside--a tradition started in the Soviet era. During 

that period, many urban residents maintained modest 

rural homes and gardens where they grew fruits and 

vegetables to supplement the food supplies provided 

by the state. Today, these country homes serve as 

summer and weekend retreats for Lithuanians looking

to escape busy city life.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
significant role in daily life. For example, relatives typically 

support one another financially and emotionally, gathering

frequently for meals, birthdays, and other special occasions. 

Lithuanians revere their elderly family members for their 

wisdom and experience, often choosing to provide physical and 

financial care for their aging parents. Nursing homes generally 

house only elderly who are without close kin or have serious 

medical conditions. 

Children

Most Lithuanian families choose to have 1-2 children. While 

other extended family members may help raise children, 

grandparents are highly influential since they often care for 

children while both parents work. Parents generally do not 

encourage their children to work outside the home before they 

reach age 18, though they expect children to assist in 

household chores. Lithuanian parents tend to give their 

children a high degree of 

autonomy, allowing them to 

venture outside the home 

unattended from a young age. 

Children usually live with their 

parents until they marry, 

although some rural young 

adults move to urban areas 

before marriage in search of 

education or employment 

opportunities. Once married, young couples often continue to 

live with their parents until able to purchase their own homes 

(Photo: A US paratrooper poses with a young Lithuanian girl in 

Rukla). 

Birth: Lithuanians tend to be highly protective of pregnant 

women. After the birth, relatives and friends typically visit, 

bringing gifts for both the mother and child. Later, the child’s 

parents appoint godparents, who promise to help raise the 

child. Since Lithuanians believe the child emulates the 

godparents’ temperaments and habits, new parents take 

particular care to make the proper selections for these roles. 

Christian Lithuanians may baptize their child, usually within 

about 1 month of birth.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically interact from a young age, socializing at 

school and sports events, and begin dating around age 15. 

Popular activities among young couples include going to clubs, 

attending parties, and traveling together. Couples typically 

spend several years dating and may live together before 

deciding to marry. 

While Lithuanians usually marry in their early or mid-20s, more 

couples are postponing or foregoing marriage altogether. 

Nearly 1/3 of all 

Lithuanian children are 

born to unwed, 

cohabitating couples or 

single mothers – a rate 

lower than the EU 

average of 40% and 

substantially lower than 

the rates of neighboring 

Estonia (58%) and Latvia 

(45%) (Photo: A bride poses in a US military vehicle during a 

community event in Vilnius).

Weddings: Lithuanians may marry in either a civil ceremony 

held at a local government marriage bureau or in a church 

wedding. During civil ceremonies, which are particularly 

popular in urban areas, the bride and groom recite vows, 

exchange rings, and sign a marriage contract. By contrast, 

rural weddings tend to be large, lavish church ceremonies that

incorporate traditional practices. 

While arranged marriages are no longer customary among 

Lithuanians, the traditional matchmaker continues to hold an 

important, honorary position in modern Lithuanian weddings. 

Today, the matchmaker is usually a close friend or family 

member who helps the couple plan the wedding and assumes 

several responsibilities during wedding festivities.

Celebrations generally last 2-3 days and include a series of 

parties held at the family home, restaurant, or a rented hall. 

During the celebrations, friends and family gather for elaborate 

meals, dances, and practical jokes. In one tradition, access to

the newlywed couple’s home is symbolically blocked with ropes 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
of flowers or branches that are placed by the bride’s family. Led 

by the matchmaker, friends of the groom must then “buy” the 

couple’s passage 

through the barriers with 

candy, alcohol, and 

other presents. When 

the couple has reached 

their home, their parents 

greet them with fresh 

bread (representing life), 

salt (representing tears), 

honey liquor 

(representing wealth), and an evergreen wreath (representing 

longevity) (Photo: A couple marries in a church in Vilnius). 

Divorce: Divorce is increasingly common and carries little 

social stigma, especially among younger Lithuanians. At 3.5

per 1,000 people, Lithuania’s divorce rate is among Europe’s 

higher rates and similar to the US and Latvian rate of 3.6.

Death

Following a loved one’s passing, mourners gather for a casket 

viewing at the deceased’s family home, a church, or in a 

funeral parlor. Viewings may last 2-3 days, allowing friends and 

family time to offer prayers and 

give condolences. While the 

deceased may be left alone at 

night, at least 1 family member 

remains with the body at all times

during the day. After the viewing,

mourners gather at a church for a 

funeral service then burial in a 

cemetery. Some Lithuanians, 

particularly in urban areas, 

increasingly choose cremation 

over a casketed burial. Following 

the burial, family and close 

friends gather for a quiet meal to 

honor the deceased. On All Souls 

Day, celebrated in November of each year, family members 

visit the grave to light candles and offer prayers (Photo: 

Kaunas Street cemetery in Kėdainiai).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

While Lithuanians’ outlook on gender roles is changing, 

Lithuanian society is traditionally patriarchal, meaning that men 

hold most power and authority. Although women and men have 

equal rights before the law, women continue to face barriers to 

their full participation in economic and political spheres. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Lithuanian women traditionally hold 

responsibility for all household chores and childcare. Women 

who work outside the home still perform the majority of 

domestic tasks. Some women find it difficult to balance both 

work and family life and elect to 

forfeit employment, reentering 

the labor force only several 

years after having a child. 

Labor Force: In 2014, about 

56% of Lithuanian women 

worked outside the home,

roughly the same as the US 

rate. Even though some women

hold high level positions in 

government and business, they

are more likely to experience

workplace discrimination and 

receive lower wages than men 

with comparable education 

levels and work experience. Women generally attain higher 

education levels than men and demonstrate greater academic 

achievement. Nevertheless, Lithuanian women earn an 

average of 15% less than their male counterparts. Of note, this 

pay gap is significantly smaller than in Estonia where women 

earn 31% less than men, but is about the same as the EU

average and that of neighboring Latvia. About 15% of 

Lithuanian firms employ a female top manager, lower than the 

regional average of 21% (Photo: Lithuanian President Dalia 

Grybauskaitė during a multinational military exercise).

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

When Lithuania established its legal code in the early 16th 

century, it became one of the first European nations to grant 

women social and economic equality, regardless of marital 

status or religious affiliation. Today, the 1992 Lithuanian 

constitution continues to 

guarantee equal rights to women 

in social welfare, education, 

healthcare, and employment. 

Women and men enjoy equal 

rights within marriage, divorce, 

and authority over their children. In 

addition, the constitution

recognizes a female head of 

household and guarantees special 

protections to single mothers and 

pregnant women. The law also 

protects women from differential 

treatment based on gender in the 

workplace (Photo: The First Lithuanian Statute, drafted in 

1522).

Despite this supporting legal framework, some laws are not

always enforced. For example, Lithuanian women generally 

experience discrimination in hiring and promotion by both 

public and private employers. Further, while the law 

criminalizes sexual harassment in the workplace, the burden of 

proof falls entirely on the victim. In addition, many women are 

unaware of the law and of incident reporting mechanisms. As a 

result, very few of the 20% 

of women suffering sexual 

harassment in 2010 

reported it (Photo: 

Lithuanian President Dalia 

Grybauskaitė addresses a 

crowd). 

Further, some women are 

unaware of their equal 

rights to property and do 

not acquire a fair share of their marital assets following divorce. 

Finally, there is currently no law requiring absent fathers to pay 

SEX &

GENDER
child support following a divorce, placing the financial burden of 

child-rearing entirely on the mother in cases of sole custody. 

Gender and Politics

Lithuanian women hold several national and sub-national 

government positions even though the government does not 

rely on quotas to promote female 

participation in the political process. 

In 2016, 30 women (21.3% of total 

seats) were elected to Parliament. 

The percentage is a slight 

decreased from 23.4% in 2014 (see 

p. 4 of Political and Social 

Relations). These rates are similar 

to rates in Estonia and Latvia and 

slightly higher than that of the US, 

where women comprise 20% of all 

Congress members. Further, both

the Lithuanian President, Dalia 

Grybauskaitė, and the Speaker of 

Parliament, Loreta Grauziniene (pictured), are women. Locally, 

women accounted for 10% of mayors and 22% of regional 

council appointments in 2014. 

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Lithuanian women face a significant level of violence, mostly

related to domestic disturbances. Amidst mounting pressure 

from international human rights organizations, Lithuania 

criminalized domestic violence in 2011. Unlawful activities 

include any physical, mental, sexual, or economic damage to 

married, divorced, or cohabitating men and women or samesex partners. Rape is also a criminal offense, punishable by up 

to 15 years imprisonment. 

While Lithuania’s GBV-related legislation today aligns with the 

highest international standards, support services overall are 

inadequate. Likewise, some women are reluctant to seek help 

from authorities because they consider domestic violence a 

private matter. Further, police and prosecutors often lack the 

training to properly handle victims of sexual violence. Even if 

GBV cases are reported, indictment and prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare.

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

During the Soviet era (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), public 

displays of affection and sexuality were largely uncommon. 

Although attitudes have liberalized in recent years, older 

Lithuanian couples typically do not discuss sex openly nor 

express affection in public. By 

contrast, younger, urban couples 

are more likely to show affection 

(Photo: Lithuanian children play 

musical instruments).

At 1.6 births per woman, 

Lithuania’s birthrate is well below 

the rate required to maintain the 

population. Concerned about this 

low rate, the government has 

instituted programs intended to 

encourage women to have 

children. For example, pregnant 

women receive paid leave for 70 

days prior to and following birth. Either parent may also take an

additional 2-year leave from work, during which the 

government pays a portion of that parent’s salary.

Abortion is legal in Lithuania and carries relatively little social 

stigma. With some opponents objecting to the practice on 

philosophical grounds, the government has occasionally

considered proposals restricting the procedure to cases of 

rape, incest, health risk to the mother, or malformation of the 

fetus. As of early 2016, abortion remains legally available 

through the 12th week of pregnancy.

Homosexuality

While Lithuania decriminalized homosexual activity in 1993, 

lawmakers have not yet legalized same-sex marriage and do 

not recognize civil unions of same-sex couples. Studies reveal 

that Lithuania is among the most homophobic (fearful of 

homosexuals) countries in the EU – a fact recently highlighted 

by lawmakers’ attempts to pass legislation prohibiting 

homosexual activity in public spaces. Generally, homosexuals 

experience significant social stigmatization and public displays 

of affection between homosexuals may incur harassment.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Lithuanian is the official language of Lithuania. While about

96% of the population have some knowledge of the language,

about 85% speak it as a 

first language (Photo: A 

stamp honors AmericanLithuanian Feliksas 

Vaitkus who piloted a 

plane across the Atlantic 

in 1935).

Over centuries of political 

union with Poland, the 

Lithuanian elite adopted 

Polish as their primary language – only rural residents and 

peasants spoke Lithuanian (see p. 5-7 of History and Myth). 

When Lithuania lost its sovereignty to Russia in 1795 (see p. 8

of History and Myth), the occupiers encouraged Lithuanians to 

speak Russian. First formalized in the 18th century, the 

Lithuanian language and literature enjoyed a resurgence during 

the 19th-century national revival, despite the Russian rulers’

ban on the printing of Lithuanian books in the Latin alphabet 

(see p. 9 of History and Myth). 

While Lithuanian was used for official purposes during the 

inter-war republic (see p. 10-11 of History and Myth), it lost its 

official status following incorporation into the Soviet Union in 

1940. For the next 50 years, the Soviet state compelled 

Lithuanians to use Russian in many contexts, while many 

institutions functioned primarily or even exclusively in Russian. 

The status of Lithuanian as the official language was restored 

in 1989. Notably, the decades of Russian and Soviet rule left a 

lasting mark on Lithuanian society, as about 63% of the 

population today speak Russian.

Lithuanian

Lithuanian belongs to the Baltic branch of the Indo-European 

language family. While Lithuanian exhibits many archaic

features also present in ancient Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, it is 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
most similar to Latvian. Some Slavic, Polish, German, and 

English loanwords make up modern Lithuanian vocabulary. 

Spoken Lithuanian is soft and melodic, with typically long vowel 

sounds. Stress may occur on any syllable of a word, and each 

letter is spoken exactly as written. A number of sounds and 

grammatical constructions in Lithuanian do not exist in English.

Modern Lithuanian utilizes a 32-letter Latin alphabet that relies

on diacritics to indicate pronunciation. For example, diacritics 

placed over vowels indicate length, while those placed over or 

under consonants indicate a pronunciation change. Thus, the 

Lithuanian “s” is identical to the

English “s,” but “š” sounds like “sh” 

and “č” is pronounced like “ch.”

While each region has its own 

vernacular, Standard Lithuanian is 

based on the Aukštaitian (highland) 

dialect, native to northeast 

Lithuania and spoken by more than 

2 million people. Nearly 500,000 

people speak the Samogitian 

(lowland) dialect of the western

Žemaitija region. Some scholars 

even consider it a separate 

language due to its significant 

differences from Aukstaitian and 

other regional dialects. Although 

some local signs and a quarterly magazine utilize Samogitian, 

it is not a language of instruction in public schools, and its daily 

use is declining (Photo: Žemaitija court book from 1592).

Russian 

Just over 8% of the Lithuanian population speaks Russian as a 

first language today, although as noted earlier, many

Lithuanians speak it as a 2nd language. Native Russian 

speakers, including many ethnic Ukrainians and Belarusians,

primarily live in urban areas. 

Other Languages

Some Lithuanians speak languages other than Lithuanian or 

Russian. Almost 9% of residents speaks Polish, while just over

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
8% speaks German. Other commonly-spoken languages

include Belarusian, Ukrainian, Tatar, and Latvian. English, 

German, and Russian are popular as 2nd or 3rd languages. 

English: Since independence, English has become 

increasingly popular, and most students now take English 

beginning in 2nd grade (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

While Russian remains the dominant 2nd language of the older 

generations and rural residents, young and urban Lithuanians 

are more likely to speak English. For example, although just

30% of all Lithuanians speak English, around 72% of 15-29 

year-olds have some knowledge of the language.

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Lithuania requires not only 

knowledge of Lithuanian 

but also the ability to 

interact effectively using 

language. This broad 

notion of competence 

includes paralanguage 

(rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal 

space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction management (conversation initiation, turntaking, and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends (Photo: US Secretary of State Kerry 

with Lithuanian Foreign Minister Linkevicius at a NATO 

meeting).

Communication Style

Lithuanian communication patterns reflect the value 

Lithuanians place on privacy, candor, and modesty. Compared 

to Americans, Lithuanians may seem reserved or somber, 

often preferring to keep their feelings private. Most Lithuanians 

favor direct speech and an even tone of voice. They consider

small talk excessive and tend to avoid using it, which foreign 

nationals may find unusual. Comfortable with silence and

typically unemotional around strangers, Lithuanians generally 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
are more open with family and friends, who tend to be loyal and 

lifelong. 

Hierarchy is important in Lithuanian communications. 

Formality, respect, and deference to authority figures are 

crucial parts of successful communication, especially during 

initial meetings. Lithuanians typically try to avoid public 

conflicts, instead preferring to deal with issues in private (see p. 

3 of Time and Space). While displaying social status is

important in certain situations, Lithuanians generally tend to 

appreciate modesty. 

Lithuanian humor tends to be dry, dark, and even absurd. 

Jokes that exaggerate, underestimate others, or allude to

foreign occupations are popular. Common comedic themes 

include poking fun at Estonians, as well as the misfortunes and 

travails of ežiukas (a little hedgehog). In these well-known 

sayings and jokes, the little hedgehog typically meets his 

demise in unfortunate ways, such 

as by falling in a hole and 

encountering Germans.

Greetings

Lithuanian greetings are typically 

simple and direct, consisting of a 

firm handshake with constant eye 

contact, a smile, and a verbal

Sveiki (hello). Labas (hi) and 

Labas, kur eini? (roughly “How 

are you doing?”) are less formal 

and do not always require a 

response. Handshakes are more 

common among men than women, 

and close friends often hug and 

kiss cheeks. Of note, most Lithuanians never greet in 

entranceways, as they believe it causes bad luck (Photo: 

Former US President George W. Bush and former Lithuanian 

President Valdas Adamkus).

Forms of Address

Lithuanians use different forms of address to demonstrate

respect and the nature of the relationship. For example, 

Lithuanians typically address new acquaintances with Ponas

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
(Mr.), Ponia (Mrs.), Panelė (Miss), or other appropriate title 

followed by their last names. Family, friends, and close 

colleagues typically call each other by first name. 

Lithuanian has distinct “you” pronouns that reflect different 

levels of formality and respect. Lithuanians typically use the 

formal “you,” or jūs, when meeting for the first time, with elders, 

or with authority figures. They tend to reserve the informal tu

for friends, relatives, or close colleagues. Foreign nationals 

should use formal forms of address unless directed otherwise. 

Names

Lithuanian names reflect gender and marital status. Most male 

names end in –as, –is or –us, while female names end in –a or 

–ė. Unmarried females take their father’s surname with –aitė, –

utė, –ūtė, or –ytė as an 

ending, while married 

women take their husband’s 

surname with the suffix –

ienė. 

Lithuanians also use

diminutive endings on

names to convey affection, 

adding –ukas or –utis for 

males and –ėlė or –ytė for 

females. For example, 

Jonas may be called 

Jonukas. Of note, Lithuanians often modify foreign names to fit 

Lithuanian pronunciation: for example, Brad Pitt may become 

Bradas Pitas and George Bush is Džordžas Bušas (Photo: 

Former US President George W. Bush with former Lithuanian 

President Adamkus).

Conversational Topics 

Common conversation topics include family, work, hobbies, 

history, culture, and sports. Many Lithuanians particularly enjoy 

discussing the country’s basketball team (see p. 3-4 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation). Lithuanians typically appreciate 

any attempt to speak even just a few words in Lithuanian.

Potentially offensive topics include the country’s history of 

occupation, comparisons with Poland or Estonia, and 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Lithuania’s place in the global political-economic order. While 

Lithuanians often discuss politics among themselves, foreign 

nationals should avoid this sensitive topic. Although profanity

and vulgarity are common in some circles, foreign nationals 

should avoid all language that could be considered vulgar or illmannered (Photo: 

Lithuanian briefs US 

and Lithuanian Navy 

officers). 

Gestures

Lithuanians tend to 

avoid excessive use of

gestures and facial 

expressions, though 

they may use them to 

augment informal conversation. Lithuanians frequently nod to 

show agreement and may use the “thumbs up” gesture to 

indicate a positive occurrence. To explain individual steps in a 

procedure, they outstretch a hand with the palm up, then use

the other hand’s index 

finger to bring the 

pinky into the palm to 

indicate the 1st step, 

the ring finger to the 

palm for the 2nd step, 

and so on. 

Lithuanians consider 

pointing with the index 

finger to be impolite. 

Instead, they indicate 

direction with the entire hand. They may also flick the index 

finger with the thumb against the throat to indicate that 

someone is intoxicated (Photo: A Lithuanian soldier directs his 

team to advance during Exercise Saber Strike in 2015).

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. 

Click on Menu tab in upper right then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Lithuanian

Hi / Hello

Labas / Sveikas (m), Sveika (f), 

sveiki (plural)

Good morning Labas rytas

Good afternoon Labas diena

Good evening Labas vakaras

My name is ____ Mano vardas ____

What is your name? Koks tavo vardas?

How are you? Kaip sekasi?

I'm well, thank you. And you? Ačiū, gerai. O Jums?

Please Prašau

Thank you Labai ačiū

You're welcome Prašom

Yes / No Taip / Ne

Goodbye Viso gero

Good night Labos nakties

See you later Susimatysime vėliau

I am American

Aš esu amerikietis (m) 

amerikietė (f)

Do you speak English? Ar kalbate agliškai?

I don't understand Aš nesuprantu

Sorry Atsiprašau

I don't know Aš nežinau

I'm lost Aš pasiklydau

Help! Padėkite! 

Cheers! ļ sveikatą!

What? Kas?

Where? Kur?

Who? Kas?

How? Kaip?

When? Kada?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 99.8% 

• Male: 99.8% 

• Female: 99.8% (2015 estimate)

Early History of Education

Before the introduction of formal education, regional inhabitants 

informally transmitted values, skills, and historical knowledge to 

younger generations. Following the late 14th-century arrival of 

Christianity (see p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality), Lithuanian 

elites established the first formal schools to educate their 

children in Catholicism and basic literacy. 

During the 16th-century Reformation and Counter-Reformation 

(see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality), Catholics and Protestants 

competed to expand their influence in Lithuania by founding

primary and secondary schools. The Catholics, and in 

particular the Jesuit order, were the most successful, 

establishing around 300 primary schools and the precursor to 

the University of Vilnius in 1579. Despite this increase in 

educational opportunities, 

relatively few Lithuanians 

attended these schools since 

most were serfs bound to the 

land (see p. 6 of History and 

Myth). 

By the 17th century, every 

parish church had a primary 

school that taught religion 

and basic Latin literacy skills

to the Lithuanian and Polish 

elite. While Lithuanianlanguage primary schools 

became more common in the 

18th century, Polish was the 

principal language of 

instruction in most educational institutions (Illustration: Vilnius 

University at the end of the 18th century).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
During much of the 18th century, war and disease caused 

stagnation in the number and quality of educational offerings. 

The situation initially improved following Russia’s acquisition of 

Lithuania in 1795, although the mid-19th century Lithuanian 

rebellions against Russian 

rule resulted in repressive 

measures that negatively 

impacted education (see p. 

9 of History and Myth). In 

1832, the authorities 

closed Vilnius University, 

allowing only Russians to 

attend school beyond the 

elementary level. From 

1864-1904, the state

restricted the use of Lithuanian, allowing the publication of 

Lithuanian materials only if they were written in the Cyrillic 

(Russian) alphabet. Lithuanians responded by opening some

secret schools and smuggling Lithuanian books printed in the 

Latin alphabet into the country (see p. 9 of History and Myth) 

(Photo: A physics classroom in 1892 Vilnius).

Early 20th Century Education 

While these restrictions were lifted in the early 20th century, 

their effects were long-lasting. Specifically, Lithuania’s literacy 

rate remained significantly lower than those of its Baltic 

neighbors for many years: in 1923 just 67% of Lithuanians 

were literate, compared to 86% in Latvia and 94% in Estonia.

During Lithuania’s inter-war independence (1918-40), the state

used public education to foster Lithuanian national identity, 

emphasizing lessons in Catholicism and the Lithuanian 

language. While minority-language schools (primarily Polish 

and Russian but also Yiddish – see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality) operated legally, the 1936 Education Act required

them to teach Lithuanian history and patriotism.

Massive investments in education during this period resulted in

a rapid increase in the literacy rate, which reached over 90% 

by 1940. At that time, 6 years of primary school was 

compulsory while secondary schooling became more widely 

available. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education under the Soviet Occupation

The Soviet occupation (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth) 

brought significant changes to Lithuanian education. Notable 

improvements included increasing compulsory education to 8 

years by the late 1950s and opening many new technical 

schools and academies. 

Nevertheless, the Soviets primarily used the education system 

to implement their socialist agenda (see p. 12 of History and 

Myth and p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality). Emphasis was 

placed on Soviet patriotism and communist tenets of

collectivism, Marxist-Leninist philosophy, and proletarian 

internationalism. Overall, the Soviets sought to suppress

Lithuanian ethnic, linguistic, and religious consciousness. Many 

Lithuanians who objected to this imposition of Soviet doctrine 

were either executed or deported to Soviet labor camps. Still 

others fled, further 

facilitating the

dominance of Soviet 

educational ideals 

(Photo: A Soviet 

government building 

in Vilnius).

Highly centralized, 

the Soviet 

educational system 

was designed to 

produce graduates with the requisite skills to meet the needs of 

the USSR’s military-industrial economy (see p. 1 of Economics 

and Resources). Consequently, the Soviets prioritized 

vocational education in Lithuania. While the curriculum 

emphasized Soviet ideology as well as Russian culture, 

language, and history, textbooks and most instruction remained 

primarily in Lithuanian. 

In the late-1960s, the USSR established Russian-language 

schools to serve the ethnic Russian population and to develop 

Lithuanians’ Russian-language skills. The Soviets required 

nearly all Lithuanians to learn Russian, while few ethnic 

Russians learned Lithuanian.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
By 1975, the Soviets had implemented universal secondary 

education, and literacy rates reached almost 99%. While 

vocational education remained the priority, many Lithuanians

pursued a university education. Along with calls for 

independence in the late 1980s (see p. 15 of History and 

Myth), Lithuanians began to protest education’s focus on 

Russian culture and language, publicly debating ways to alter

educational policies to incorporate Lithuanian national identity, 

democracy, and humanism. Following independence in 1991

(see p. 16 of History and Myth), the new government’s General 

Concept of Education laid the foundation for the current

curriculum. The primary emphasis became youth development, 

Lithuanian national identity, civic engagement, and lifelong 

learning traditions. 

Modern Education System

Following significant reform, the scholastic achievement of 

Lithuanian students on international math, reading, and science

exams is comparable to that of US students. Notably, school 

enrollment rates are higher than in the US. In 2013, the 

government spent almost 16% of its budget on education, 

down from 27% in 2002, but higher than government (local, 

state, and national) spending on education in the US (13%).

Today, Lithuania’s education system reflects features of both 

the inter-war independence and Soviet eras, as well as recent

trends. Lithuanian is the primary language of instruction in most 

schools. By law, 

minority language 

schools that offer 

instruction in

English, Russian, 

Polish, Yiddish, or 

other languages 

must provide at 

least 50% of 

coursework in

Lithuanian. While disputes over the language of education are 

less intense than in other post-Soviet countries, some Polish 

and Russian language schools have protested the Lithuanian

language requirements (Photo: The Francysk Skaryna

Belarusian School in Vilnius).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Although the public school system is officially secular, the

government curriculum requires “moral education,” either ethics 

or religious instruction in any of the 9 religions recognized as 

“traditional” (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). The 

curriculum also emphasizes math, science, and technology; 

vocational studies; and positive lifelong learning experiences. 

Lithuania is on track to achieve the majority of the Europe 2020 

education goals of developing standardized competence 

criteria for students and improving professional support and 

training for teachers. Nevertheless, the education system still 

faces challenges, notably gaps in education quality and access 

between rural and urban communities. Other concerns include

an aging teacher population, low teacher salaries, minimal

adult participation in education, and a misalignment between

acquired skills and labor market needs. Lithuania has 

attempted to address these and other issues in its National 

Education Strategy 2013-22. 

Pre-Primary: Lithuania subsidizes fee-based, non-compulsory 

pre-primary education for children aged 1-5. In 2013, 87% of 4-

year-olds were enrolled in such programs. Since 2006, 6-yearolds have received free, compulsory pre-primary education. 

This program will 

expand to include 

5-year-olds by 

2017. 

Basic: 

Consisting of 10

grades starting at 

age 7, basic 

school is 

compulsory and

consists of primary school (grades 1-4) and lower secondary 

school (grades 5-10). The curriculum includes moral studies, 

math, Lithuanian, 2 foreign languages (usually English 

beginning in the 2nd grade and German, French, or Russian

beginning in the 6th grade), natural and social sciences, 

information technology, art, and physical education. In 2013, 

95% of children of the appropriate age were enrolled in basic 

schools (Photo: Vilnius’ Žygimantas Augustas Primary School).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The objectives of basic schooling are to provide students with 

civic and moral education and to promote literacy in language, 

mathematics, and technology. In grades 9-10, students may 

choose to attend a 2-year basic vocational program.

Secondary: While secondary school (grades 11-12) is not 

compulsory, over 90% of Lithuanians complete academic or 

vocational secondary education. Academic “gymnasiums” offer 

courses in Lithuanian, foreign languages, social and natural 

sciences, history, math, and information technology. Students 

typically create their own education plans, which may include 

electives such as technology, art, and music. To graduate and 

qualify for university, all students must pass final exams in 

Lithuanian and a subject of their choice. 

Vocational schools remain an important part of the Lithuanian 

education system. About 28% of secondary school students 

attend vocational schools to learn specific trades such as art 

and design, textiles, business and management, construction, 

mechanics, and tourism, among others. While some vocational 

programs include academic coursework, many provide only 

industry-specific training. Programs usually last from 1-3 years. 

Post-Secondary: The government heavily subsidizes public 

post-secondary institutions, making higher education free or 

available at a very low cost for Lithuanians. Some 53% of 

Lithuanians hold post-secondary 

qualifications, significantly higher 

than both the US rate of 42% and 

the EU’s 38% average. The Baltic 

States’ oldest institution of higher 

learning, Vilnius University

(pictured, The Grand Courtyard of 

Vilnius University and the Church of 

St. John) remains Lithuania’s most 

prestigious post-secondary 

institution. Other notable 

universities include the Lithuanian 

Academy of Science, Vilnius 

Technical University, and Vytautas 

Magnus University. While some courses are in English or other 

foreign languages, most programs of study are in Lithuanian. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Lithuanians value straightforward and professional interactions 

in the workplace, are usually punctual, and consider significant 

tardiness to be rude. Further, they tend to maintain boundaries 

between their personal and professional lives.

Time and Work

Lithuania’s work week runs from Monday-Friday with most 

business hours from 8:00am-5:00pm. While hours vary by 

store size and location, most shops are open weekdays from 

10:00am-7:00pm and Saturdays from 10:00am-4:00pm. Many 

stores close on Sundays, although major shopping centers are 

typically open every 

day, often for longer 

hours (Photo: Kiosk in 

Vilnius).

Most banks open 

Monday-Friday from 

8:00am-5:00pm with

shorter hours on 

Saturdays. Post offices 

typically open Monday-Friday from 7:00am-7:00pm and from 

9:00am-4:00pm on Saturdays. Some banks, post offices, and 

shops stay open later in urban centers than in rural areas and 

usually close for an hour during lunch. While most businesses 

close on public holidays, large food stores and supermarkets in 

urban areas typically remain open. 

Working Conditions: The standard work week is 40 hours 

with up to 8 hours of paid overtime, although many Lithuanians 

who work in the private sector often work longer hours.

Lithuanian labor laws provide comprehensive regulations to 

protect workers, particularly children and mothers. While the 

government generally enforces the labor laws, some violations 

do occur. In addition to paid public holidays, Lithuanian workers

receive at least 28 days of annual paid leave.

Time Zone: Lithuania adheres to Eastern European Time 

(EET), which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
and 7 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Lithuania 

observes daylight savings from the end of March-October, 

when Lithuania is 3 hours ahead of GMT. 

Date Notation: Like the US, Lithuania uses the Western

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Lithuanians write 

either the year first, followed by the month and day, or the day

first, followed by the month and year. 

Time and Business

Business tends to move somewhat slower in Lithuania than in 

the US. Most Lithuanians prefer to build personal relations 

before doing business, which often requires several meetings, 

phone calls, and frequent communication. While Lithuanians 

appreciate punctuality, arriving up to 10 minutes late is typically 

acceptable given prior notification. Most business discussions 

occur during scheduled office meetings, though informal 

meetings in other locations or during meals are also common. 

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• February 16: Independence Day

• March 11: Independence Restoration Day

• March / April: Easter Sunday and Monday 

(dates vary each year)

• May 1: Labor Day

• June 24: St. John’s Day / Midsummer’s Day

• July 6: Statehood Day / King Mindaugas 

Coronation Day

• August 15: Assumption Day 

• November 1: All Saint’s Day / All Soul’s Day

• December 24: Christmas Eve

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

Of note, for any holiday that falls on a weekend, 

the holiday is observed on the following Monday. 

SPACE

TIME &
When meeting for the first time, Lithuanian businessmen greet 

and shake hands (see p. 3 of Language and Communication). 

Potential business partners typically exchange gifts such as

wine, chocolates, or flowers to help establish rapport. Most 

business meetings may begin and end with talk on other topics, 

though Lithuanians rarely discuss their personal lives in 

business settings. Since Lithuanians value hierarchy (see p. 3-

4 of Language and Communication), foreign nationals should 

introduce themselves to new acquaintances using their rank 

and title. 

Lithuanians value both competence and flexibility in their 

business relations, while maintaining formality, respect and 

deference to authority (see p. 3-4 of Language and 

Communication). Typically candid and direct, Lithuanians 

consider interruptions to be rude and inappropriate. 

Even though the Lithuanian workplace is typically hierarchical, 

some businesses have begun to follow a more consultative and 

democratic decisionmaking process. 

Nevertheless, senior 

officials or upper 

management tend to 

run meetings and 

make most decisions; 

subordinate staff 

rarely make business 

decisions or reach an 

agreement without management’s approval. Managers 

generally prefer to deliver feedback and criticism to employees 

in private (Photo: Former US Secretary of Defense Gates 

attends a NATO meeting in Vilnius).

Personal Space

As in most societies, the use of personal space depends on the 

nature of the relationship. Generally, Lithuanians tend to value 

their personal space, maintaining an arm’s length of distance 

when conversing with strangers. With family and friends, the 

distance is often smaller. Of note, while waiting in lines or on 

public transportation, Lithuanians tend to stand close together.

SPACE

TIME &
Touch

Aside from an initial handshake, Lithuanians typically engage in 

less conversational touching than Americans. Strangers and 

members of the opposite sex rarely touch during 

conversations. By contrast, close friends and family members 

may touch to convey affection.

Eye Contact

Direct eye contact is important during any greeting (see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication) or business meeting to convey 

interest, respect, and transparency. Lithuanians typically 

consider reluctance to make periodic eye contact during 

conversation a sign of dishonesty or an attempt to conceal

information.

Photographs

Banks, churches, museums, secured areas, and similar places 

may prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should always 

acquire a Lithuanian’s permission before taking his photo.

Driving

Some drivers have aggressive habits, often violating traffic 

rules and passing other vehicles at high speeds. Nevertheless, 

Lithuania recorded just 8.3 traffic-related deaths per 100,000 

people in 2015, lower than the US rate of 11.9. Traffic law 

enforcement and monitoring have recently improved, 

particularly regarding

drunk driving, which 

results in severe 

penalties.

Most city roads and 

major highways are 

paved and wellmaintained, while many 

rural roads lack lighting, 

pavement, and proper 

maintenance (see p. 1 of Technology and Material). Driving in 

rural areas at night can be hazardous when agricultural 

vehicles are operating on roadways. Extreme winter weather 

conditions also pose a threat. Like Americans, Lithuanians 

drive on the right side of the road (Photo: The Constitution 

Avenue in Vilnius).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Lithuanian traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect 

the country’s rural peasant history, past foreign occupations, 

20th-century nationalist movement, and 

modern global trends.

Dress and Appearance 

Traditional: Traditional dress has 

become a visible expression of 

Lithuanian national culture. Lithuanians 

often wear traditional wool or linen 

costumes during festivals, national 

holidays, or special events. While styles 

are similar across the country, the 

colors and patterns of women’s attire

reflect distinctive regional variations. 

For example, the aprons of Aukštaitija are typically checkered 

in white or light colors with a horizontal red stripe at the bottom. 

By contrast, aprons from Žemaitija tend to have highlycontrasted bright colors, vertical stripes, and horizontal 

patterned bands (Photo: A Lithuanian girl in traditional attire).

Women’s wear typically includes a long skirt paired with an 

apron and a juosta (sash), each reflecting specific regional 

colors and patterns, topped by a blouse and a bodice. Married 

women often cover their hair with scarves or other headwear, 

while single girls wear beads or ribbons in their hair. Sheepskin 

coats, shawls, and scarves provide extra warmth during winter. 

Necklaces made from beads, silver, or gintaras (amber) are 

common accessories.

Men’s traditional attire usually includes dark gray or white 

trousers worn with a sash. Over a long-sleeved linen shirt, men 

often wear a vest and lightweight coat. In winter, heavier 

sheepskin coats, wool clothing – including mittens, socks, and 

jackets – and sturdy hats are common. Straw hats are typical 

during the summer. Both men and women wear klumpės (solid 

wooden shoes). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION
Modern: For everyday dress, most Lithuanians wear clothing 

that reflects the latest European fashion trends. Lithuanians 

typically are attentive to their clothing’s appearance and quality, 

often preferring more formal attire than most Americans. While 

Lithuanian fashion tends to be colorful and unique in its design, 

individual styles may depend on age and geographic location. 

Generally, older Lithuanians dress more conservatively than 

younger generations, and most urban Lithuanians dress more 

formally than rural dwellers. Men typically wear collared longsleeved shirts and pants, while women tend to wear blouses 

with pants or dresses. 

Recreation and Leisure 

Lithuanians typically spend their leisure time with close friends 

and family (see p. 1-2 of Family and Kinship). Perhaps the 

most popular leisurely activity is taking walks, either through 

city streets or rural forests. Other activities demonstrate 

Lithuanians’ close connection to nature and traditional life, 

including relaxing in a pirtis (sauna), folk dancing and singing, 

craft-making, and fishing. During the cold, dark winter months, 

Lithuanians enjoy visits to the theater, cinema, and opera, as 

well as storytelling, playing instruments, singing, and engaging 

in winter sports. Many 

Lithuanians also vacation 

in warmer destinations 

during the winter. 

During the long, 

temperate summer days, 

many Lithuanians spend 

their extended vacation 

time in the countryside, 

along rivers and lakes, or by the sea. Popular activities in these 

destinations include swimming, gardening, barbecuing, birdwatching, berry- and mushroom-picking, and cycling (Photo: A 

lake by Šiauliai).

Festivals: The Dainų Šventė (Song and Dance Festival) is 

one of Lithuania’s most significant cultural and historical 

events. Held every 4-5 years, it began in 1924 during the

period of inter-war independence (see p. 11 of History and 

Myth). In addition to the main choral performances, thousands 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
of participants exhibit traditional arts and crafts, folk dances, 

and theater acts. In 

2014, more than 

50,000 spectators 

attended the festival. 

Typically held in July, 

the next Dainų Šventė

in 2018 will be

dedicated to the 100th 

anniversary of the first 

declaration of Lithuanian independence (Photo: The Dainų

Šventė stage in the Vilnius Vingis Park).

Other popular festivals mark the changing seasons or celebrate

traditional pagan or Christian holidays. Perhaps the most 

important annual festival, Rasos (Midsummer’s Day), 

celebrates the summer equinox. As part of the festivities, 

Lithuanians decorate their homes and make traditional food 

and beer. They celebrate by singing, dancing, playing games,

and jumping over bonfires. Other popular festivals include

Kaziukas (St. Casimir’s Day), Užgavėnės (Shrovetide or 

Carnival), the Kaunas International Jazz Festival, the Pažaislis 

Music Festival, and the Klaipėda Festival of the Sea.

Sports and Games

Sports: Lithuanians enjoy many winter sports, including ice 

hockey, bobsledding, luge, and cross-country skiing, as well as 

outdoor summer activities like fishing, swimming, and biking. 

Spectator sports such as football (soccer), volleyball, tennis, 

and Formula One racing are also popular. Lithuanians have 

been successful at the Olympics, winning medals in rowing, 

kayaking, and weightlifting in 2016. 

Basketball: Basketball is the country’s favorite sport and the 

national pastime. Lithuanian-American Steponas Darius 

introduced the sport around 1920 then became a champion 

player and national hero. The Lithuanian team went on to win

gold at the European Championships in 1937 and 1939. Since 

regaining independence in 1991, the men’s national team won 

the gold again in 2003 and silver in 1995, 2013, and 2015. The 

men’s national team also won Olympic bronze medals in 1992, 

1996, and 2000. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Besides the national team, Lithuania has a professional league: 

the 2 most popular teams are Žalgiris and Lietuvos Rytas. 

Meanwhile, several Lithuanians have 

had success in the American NBA. For 

example, former players Arvydas 

Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis

were inducted into the NBA Hall of 

Fame in 2011 and 2014 respectively

(Photo: Sabonis and the Soviet team 

face the US in the 1988 Olympics).

Traditional Games: Lithuanians play 

many traditional games, especially on 

holidays. Well-known children’s games 

include šarka and žvirblis which 

involve imitating a bird’s movement 

while quietly singing. Other games include ripkos (similar to

baseball, but played with a wooden disc) and Jurgelis (similar 

to Simon Says). Various traditional games played with props 

like balls, ropes, and 

sticks are also common 

(Photo: US soldiers play a 

traditional Lithuanian bag 

game in Anyksciai).

Music

Traditional: Lithuania 

has a long history of folk 

music. The earliest songs likely accompanied work or religious 

rituals. Usually performed by women, the most common

traditional form is the daina, a short melodic song typically

consisting of 2 rhyming couplets. While dainas may evoke any 

emotion or theme, common subjects include youth, love, fate, 

and sorrows. Lithuanians traditionally sing dainas at weddings, 

while raudos are a type of daina sung at funerals.

Sutartinės are elaborate folksongs that consist of 2 

symmetrical melodies performed by 2 or more people. Native 

to Aukštaitija, sutartinės exhibit similar themes as dainas and 

often accompany traditional dances. Traditionally, only women

sang sutartinės, although men sometimes accompanied them 

with instrumental music.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Lithuanian music utilizes many traditional instruments, the most 

notable of which is the kanklės, an ancient harp-like zither. 

Often used to accompany dainas and sutartinės, the kanklės is 

traditionally made from 

limewood, has a trapezoid 

shape with 4-7 strings, and 

is played on a table or 

while held on the knees. 

Other traditional

instruments include the 

birbynė (a wooden flutelike instrument with a 

cowbell), daudytė and 

ragas (wooden trumpets),

kelmas (a type of drum), skrabalai (wooden bells), and

skudučiai (panpipes) (Photo: Lithuanians playing the kanklės). 

Beginning in the 16th century, the Lithuanian state’s 

connections with other countries and traditions (see p. 6-8 of 

History and Myth) brought new instruments, including organs, 

violins, accordions, mandolins, and guitars. German and 

Swedish choral music became popular in the 19th and 20th 

centuries. 

Modern: Lithuania has produced several notable musicians, 

including the composer Mikalojus Čiurlionis and violinist Jascha 

Heifetz. Rock and jazz are widely-popular genres that are now 

staples of Lithuanian musical culture and festivals. Popular 

artists include Jurgas and Vytautas Labutis. Foje and Jonis are 

notable bands. International pop music is also widespread.

Dance

Traditional: Like other Baltic dances, Lithuanian folk dances 

are typically slow and intricate, often depicting the seasons, 

nature, routine work, and rural life. Traditionally performed by 

women, the šokiai (dances) featured simple movements of 

dancers in rows or circles. Rateliai (game dances) began with 

simple movements but gradually became more complex, 

sometimes including theatrical plots. After the 18th-century 

introduction of the German waltz, polka, and square dance, 

some folk dances adopted male leads and more formalized 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
choreography. Today, Lithuanians perform many dances with 

partners or in other non-traditional formations. 

Modern: Classical ballet flourished under the Russian and 

Soviet 19th- and 20th-century occupations (see p. 8-14 of 

History and Myth). Today, Lithuanian ballet has a reputation for 

high quality, producing world-class dancers who compete and 

perform around the world. Ballroom dancing also became 

common in the 20th century and continues to be popular.

Theater

Due to the Russian state’s restrictions on Lithuanian language 

use from 1864-1904 (see p. 9 of History and Myth), Lithuania 

did not establish a national theater until the early 20th century.

Theater played an important role during Lithuania’s 20th

century national revival and period of inter-war independence 

(see p. 11 of History and Myth). While resources and talent 

were plentiful during the Soviet era, censorship limited the 

content of theater productions. Today, the country’s active 

theater scene offers a 

wide array of Lithuanianlanguage productions. 

Literature 

The earliest written 

accounts of life in 

Lithuania include 

descriptions of attempts to 

Christianize the region and 

chronicles of the Grand 

Duchy rulers (see p. 2-5 of 

History and Myth). The 

first Lithuanian language literature includes 16th-century 

catechisms and other religious documents (see p. 4 of Religion 

and Spirituality). In the late 18th century, Kristijonas Donelaitis

penned The Seasons, an epic poem depicting Lithuanians’

everyday life, connection to nature, and struggle under 

serfdom. First published in its entirety in the late 19th century, 

the poem became a Lithuanian literature classic (Photo: 

Donelaitis depicted on a 1994 stamp).

During the Russian state’s 19th-century restrictions on the use 

of Lithuanian, readers relied on smuggled Lithuanian-language 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
books (see p. 9 of History and Myth). Founded in 1883, Aušra, 

a Lithuanian-language literary magazine, helped foster the

country’s national revival (see p. 9 of History and Myth). Due 

to these and other efforts, Lithuanian literature flourished in the 

early 20th century. Common themes included rural life, foreign 

occupation, and the struggle for independence. 

During the Soviet era (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), 

literature stagnated more than the other arts. Many authors 

went into exile (see p. 3 of Learning and Knowledge), while 

those remaining were subject to censorship. Writing from 

Chicago, Czesław Miłosz, a Lithuanian-born Pole, won the 

1980 Nobel Prize for Literature for his work critiquing artists 

who accommodated communism. 

Folk Art and Handicrafts

Lithuania has a rich folk art tradition, including textiles, 

ceramics, metalwork, leatherwork, decorated Easter eggs, 

straw mobiles, amber and other jewelry, and woodcarving. 

These works often demonstrate a unique combination of 

Christian symbols and ancient 

pagan motifs, particularly 

serpents, the sun, the moon, 

and other celestial bodies

(see p. 1-2 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Particularly 

predominant in artistic works, 

the Christian cross is a 

favorite motif of both 

metalworkers and 

woodcarvers (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Lithuania’s crosses include 2 

broad types: the traditional 

cross-shaped type and the 

pillar type, with a concealed 

cross beam. Besides a highly 

stylized sun, many crosses incorporate depictions of flowers, 

plants, and various geometric shapes in addition to Christian 

motifs (Photo: Carved wooden cross in memory of the victims 

of Soviet deportations, located in Vilnius’ St. Casimir Church –

see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Lithuanians enjoy socializing with family and friends over 

lengthy meals. While friends often gather at bars and 

restaurants, families typically get together at home. During the 

summer months, Lithuanians enjoy picnicking and grilling 

outside. Lithuanian dishes are hearty, characterized by fresh, 

local ingredients prepared with relatively few seasonings. 

Dining Customs

Most Lithuanians supplement 3 daily meals with snacks 

throughout the day. Although lunch is typically the largest and 

main meal, dinner also tends to be substantial. While some 

rural residents eat meals earlier, breakfast is generally served 

between 7:00-9:00am, 

lunch 12:00-2:00pm, 

and dinner 6:00-

8:00pm (Photo: A 

café-lined street in 

Vilnius). 

When invited to a 

Lithuanian home for a 

meal, guests usually 

arrive a few minutes

late, bringing gifts of

cakes, chocolate, alcohol, or flowers. Upon entering a home, 

guests may remove their shoes and replace them with slippers. 

In formal settings, guests wait to take their seats until the host 

indicates it is time do so. Meals typically consist of a series of

courses served at a leisurely pace, often over several hours. 

After guests finish their food, they may request additional 

servings. Of note, Lithuanians consider it impolite to leave 

unfinished food on a plate. Most social visits include alcoholic 

beverages, typically accompanied by several toasts made 

throughout the meal. At the end of a meal, hosts rarely ask 

their guests to leave and instead allow them to determine the 

end of an evening.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet 

Potatoes are a main staple and prepared in a variety of ways, 

including boiled, fried, incorporated into salads, or transformed 

into dumplings and pancakes. Bread is another staple

accompanying almost every meal. The most popular type is a 

traditional dark rye bread. Besides potatoes and bread, grains 

such as barley, oats, and buckwheat are common. Most 

Lithuanian dishes also incorporate 

assorted dairy products, such as 

cheese, yogurt, milk, sour cream, and 

cottage cheese. Dill, sorrel and other 

fresh herbs accent many dishes.

The most popular forms of protein are 

pork, lamb, beef, wild boar, chicken, 

and sausage. Lithuanians also enjoy 

several varieties of fish, including 

carp, salmon, pike, herring, and eel, 

all of which may be served smoked, 

salted, or incorporated into soups or 

salads. Common vegetables include 

cabbage, beets, carrots, and peas. 

Particularly popular, mushrooms are fried, boiled, pickled, or 

made into a sauce. Locally grown fruits – apples, pears, plums, 

strawberries, and currants (pictured) – are especially popular in 

the spring and summer. 

Popular Dishes and Meals

Breakfast typically includes a variety of bread, cheese, curd 

cheese, eggs, cured meats, smoked fish, sausages, porridge, 

and pancakes. As the day’s largest meal, lunch often 

comprises 3 courses. Typical fare includes a soup, followed by 

a meat or fish dish served with potatoes and seasonal 

vegetables, and a dessert. Similar to lunch, dinner may also 

comprise several courses. 

Popular Lithuanian dishes include cepelinai (a ball of potato 

dough stuffed with meat and served with a hearty sauce); 

vėdarai (potatoes and sausage cooked in pig intestines); 

kugelis (potato pudding served with a sour cream sauce); 

rūgštynių sriuba (a soup of beef broth, sorrel, and 

vegetables); and skilandis (spiced ground pork inserted in a 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
pork stomach or bladder and smoked – pictured). Lithuanians 

also enjoy salads ranging from lightly-dressed greens to hearty 

mixtures of eggs, potatoes, meats, fish, and/or vegetables 

dressed in mayonnaise or sour 

cream. A popular variety is the 

pikantiškos salotos, a blend of 

cheese, eggs, garlic, and 

mayonnaise.

Lithuanians commonly eat a 

variety of dishes adopted from 

Russia, Poland, and other 

regions. These include blynai

(pancakes, served with sour 

cream, jam, and butter or rolled with cheese, meat, cabbage, 

mushrooms, or potatoes); barščiai (a tart beet soup served 

either hot and cold); and balandėliai (baked or stewed 

cabbage leaves stuffed with meat, rice, and spices). For 

dessert, Lithuanians enjoy pyragas (cakes), pyragėliai (buns), 

and spurgos (donuts). Spanguolių kisielius, a sweet and 

tangy cranberry pudding, is popular at Christmas. 

Beverages 

Tea, coffee, and milk are the most popular beverages, 

consumed throughout the day. Popular in the summer, gira is a 

refreshing non-alcoholic drink made from fermented rye bread 

or caraway seeds. Common alcoholic beverages include 

vodka, cognac, Medžiotojų (an herb-based liquor), Dainava

and Palanga (mixed berry liquors), and beer, including local 

brews such as Horn, Kalnapilis, Utenos, Tauras, Švyturys. 

Eating Out

Many Lithuanians dine out regularly. Restaurants range from 

upscale establishments serving regional and international 

foods to small casual eateries (valgyklas) and cafes. Specialty 

pieno baras (milk bars) serve coffee, tea, and sweet pastries. 

Besides serving full menus, bars often offer salty snacks such 

as kepta duona (fried pieces of rye bread topped with garlic or 

cheese), smoked pig ears, peanuts, and cured meats. Although 

some restaurants automatically add a service fee of 5% to the 

bill, wait staff may expect an additional tip of about 10% for 

good service. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Lithuanians’ overall health has improved in recent decades, 

primarily due to specific government efforts. Between 1991 and 

2015, infant mortality (the proportion of infants who die before 

age 1) decreased dramatically from 15 to 3 deaths per 1,000 

live births. Meanwhile, maternal mortality was reduced from 29 

to 10 deaths per 100,000 live births. While life expectancy at 

birth also increased from 

about 70 to 75 years, it 

remains lower than the 

US and EU averages of 

80.

While Lithuanians 

generally have access to 

modern healthcare, the 

quality of care diminishes 

significantly in rural areas. Further, like other nations with a 

shrinking and aging population, Lithuania’s demographic trends 

seem poised to burden the healthcare system with increasing 

demand amid rising costs (Photo: US Secretary of State Kerry 

visits Vilnius). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Lithuanian medicine uses herbal, 

mineral, and animal-based remedies, not surgical methods, to 

identify and treat the basic causes of illness. 

Knowledge of natural remedies is widespread. Many 

Lithuanians grow or gather their own medicinal herbs and 

plants. In addition, merchants in both urban and rural areas 

commonly sell a variety of herbal remedies. Besides herbal 

treatments, homeopathy (a form of alternative medicine 

developed in 18th-century Germany prescribing a patient to 

ingest diluted plant, mineral, and animal substances to trigger 

the body’s natural system of healing) is popular. Generally, 

traditional medicine is particularly widespread among patients 

who face high out-of-pocket expenses (see “Lithuania’s 

Healthcare System” below). These patients may supplement or

entirely replace modern therapies with traditional treatments. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

Lithuania’s healthcare system operates at both the national and 

regional levels. Providing regulation and oversight at the 

national level, the Ministry of Health is responsible for setting 

industrywide requirements and standards, provisioning 

licenses, approving capital investments, and managing central 

hospitals. Meanwhile, 

regional authorities 

oversee the provision 

of primary care in

municipal clinics and 

smaller hospitals. The 

healthcare system is 

predominantly funded 

by the National Health 

Insurance Fund 

(NHIF), a compulsory 

national health 

insurance scheme that is supplemented by local and state 

budgets (Photo: US Sailors demonstrate proper push-ups to 

Lithuanian children). 

In 2011, Lithuania had 66 general hospitals, 49 nursing 

facilities, 29 specialized hospitals, and 4 rehabilitation centers. 

General practitioners (GPs) provide primary care and act as 

their patients’ gatekeepers to secondary hospital services. Of 

note, the privatization of the Lithuanian health sector has 

generally been limited to specialist services. Consequently, 

while public facilities provide most of the primary and inpatient 

care, private facilities provide the majority of dental care, 

cosmetic surgery, psychotherapy, and some specialist 

outpatient care. 

Healthcare System Challenges: Although the NHIF provides 

free, basic medical coverage to all Lithuanian residents, high 

out-of-pocket expenses for medication, diagnostic tests, and 

special medical procedures, including dental work, force many 

Lithuanians to forgo treatment. Of note, Lithuania’s traditionally 

poor dental health is indicative of the ill-effects of high out-ofpocket medical expenses: a 2006 study revealed that 1 in 3 

Lithuanian residents over age 65 have no teeth, while 2/3 of 

adults age 25-34 are missing 1 or more teeth. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Further, Lithuania’s hospitals and clinics are concentrated in 

cities and underserve rural dwellers. As a result, high demand 

in rural areas forces clinicians to work long hours and creates 

long waiting periods for patients to receive care. Finally, some 

of Lithuania’s finest physicians and nurses choose to practice 

outside the country, attracted by better pay and advancement 

opportunities in neighboring countries.

Health Challenges

As in most countries with aging populations, the rate of chronic 

and non-communicable diseases has increased: they now 

account for almost 90% of all deaths. In 2014 the top causes of 

death were cardiovascular diseases (40%), cancer (19%), and 

cerebrovascular diseases (15%), followed by digestive and 

respiratory diseases, and diabetes. Preventable “external 

causes,” such as car accidents, suicides, drownings, falls, and

drug use resulted in about 8% of deaths. Notably, Lithuanians 

suffer from one of the 

world’s highest rates of 

alcohol-related deaths. 

Further, Lithuania has the 

EU’s highest suicide rate

of 30 deaths per 100,000 

people. Communicable 

diseases, like tuberculosis 

and hepatitis, infectious 

and parasitic diseases, 

and HIV/AIDS account for about 3% of deaths (Photo: Children 

at a rehabilitation hospital in Palanga).

Non-fatal yet common health issues afflicting Lithuanians 

include arterial hypertension, arthritis, migraines, stomach 

ulcers, anxiety, and depression. In addition, about 28% of 

Lithuanian adults are obese, a slightly higher rate than that of 

its Baltic neighbors Latvia (26%) and Estonia (25%), but lower 

than the US rate of 35%. Of note, Lithuanian men experience a 

significantly shorter life expectancy (68 years) than Lithuanian 

women, who live on average 11 years longer than men. In fact, 

Lithuanian male life expectancy is the lowest in the EU. Experts 

link this gap to the prevalence of unhealthy behaviors among 

men, including alcohol abuse, excessive smoking, and an 

unhealthy diet.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most Lithuanians subsisted as peasants in an 

agrarian and trade-based economy (see History and Myth). 

While Russian occupiers began to industrialize the other Baltic 

States in the late 19th century, Lithuania’s economy remained 

mostly agrarian until the USSR initiated rapid industrialization 

in the 1950s. In addition to large collective farms, the USSR 

developed timber, machinery, nuclear, electronics, processing, 

and other industries until the Soviet collapse and Lithuanian 

independence in 1991 

(Photo: Town Hall Square 

in Vilnius).

Lithuania’s transition from 

a centrally-planned Soviet 

system to a liberal freemarket economy was 

arduous. Using the West 

as an economic model, 

Lithuania sought to reform its economy by privatizing stateowned companies, adopting its own currency, curbing price 

controls, and developing a stock exchange to entice foreign 

direct investment (FDI). Despite the intent, the economy 

actually took a turn for the worse, shrinking by almost 1/2 as 

inflation peaked at over 700% and unemployment surged.

Following political and financial crises in the mid-1990s, 

Lithuania’s economy began to recover by the early 2000s. 

Employment increased, there was almost no inflation, and most 

enterprises were privatized. Despite persistent corruption and 

other structural issues, the Lithuanian economy recorded 

average annual growth of about 7.6% from 2000-07, a rate 

greater than most other European countries.

With its modernized industrial sector, rapidly expanding 

services sector, and newly-privatized farms, Lithuania gained 

accession to the European Union (EU) in 2004, further 

facilitating economic expansion. EU membership, substantial 

growth, relatively low public debt, and high-quality, low-cost 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES
production made Lithuania an attractive candidate for FDI. To 

further entice investors, Lithuania created tax-free trade zones 

in 7 cities – notably Vilnius, Kaunas, and Klaipėda.

The 2008-09 global financial crisis hit Lithuania hard, largely 

due to its trade-dependent economy. In 2009, the economy 

shrank by almost 15% and unemployment rose to nearly 18% 

by 2010. Through fiscal austerity measures, tax reforms, an 

internal currency devaluation, and EU-funded infrastructure 

investment, Lithuania was able to recover quickly, seeing 1.6% 

growth in 2010. Average annual growth from 2011-15 was 

almost 4%, one of the EU’s highest rates. Partially due to its 

prudent reaction to the financial crisis, the EU approved 

Lithuania’s application to join 

the Eurozone and to adopt the 

EU’s euro as its currency in 

2015 (Photo: Euro coin 

depicting a Lithuanian knight).

Lithuania’s current economic 

outlook is largely positive. 

Experts predict an average 

economic growth rate of 3.5% 

from 2016-20, which should 

outpace most other EU 

countries. Lithuania currently 

has low inflation, a declining unemployment rate below 9%, 

and rising wages. Due to recent reforms that increased the 

efficiency and flexibility of the labor market, tax code, and 

business procedures, Lithuania is considered one of the 

easiest places to conduct business in the EU.

Although Lithuania has successfully transitioned to a modern 

free-market economy, it has a lower per-capita income than 

most EU members. Other economic issues include persistent 

corruption; low productivity, wages, and tax compliance rates; 

inadequate vocational education; net emigration; and 

dependence on trade with Russia’s stagnant economy. Despite 

Russia’s recent negative effect on the Lithuanian economy, 

which limited growth to 1.6% in 2015, experts expect growth to 

improve as Lithuania pursues further economic diversification 

and reform.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Services

Accounting for about 66% of GDP and 73% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Lithuania’s economy. Key services industries include wholesale 

and retail trade, transportation and storage, banking and 

financial services, telecommunications, and tourism.

Tourism: Despite steady growth, Lithuania’s tourism market 

remains the smallest of 

the Baltic States. In 2014, 

about 1.3 million foreign 

tourists visited attractions 

including the historic 

centers in Vilnius and 

Kaunas, the beaches in 

Palanga, and the Trakai 

Historical National Park, 

among others. Most 

tourists were from Russia 

and other neighboring countries (Photo: The Kaunas Castle 

dates to the mid-14th century).

Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for about 31% of GDP and 20% of the labor 

force. The most significant sub-sectors include manufacturing, 

oil refining, construction, and biotechnology. 

Manufacturing: Accounting for nearly 16% of GDP, Lithuania’s 

manufacturing sector includes metalworking, electronics, and 

textiles, as well as chemical and food processing. Just over 1/2 

of the manufactured goods produced in Lithuania are exported.

Oil Refining: While Lithuania has limited proven oil reserves 

(see p. 2-3 of Technology and Material), oil refining is one of its 

largest industries. In 1980, the USSR built a massive refinery in 

Mažeikiai to process Soviet oil. Today, the modernized Polishowned Mažeikių Nafta refinery processes crude oil from Russia 

and other countries to produce refined oil and petroleum 

products. Primarily shipped from a sea terminal in Būtingė, the 

refinery’s output accounts for about 30% of all exports, making 

it a vital component of Lithuania’s industrial sector. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Construction: Construction accounts for nearly 7% of GDP 

and provides about 93,000 jobs. The $3 billion industry has 

been a key driver in Lithuania’s transition to an open-market 

economy. Several Lithuanian construction companies compete 

for projects mainly in the Baltic States and in Scandinavia.

Agriculture

Consisting of farming, livestock, fishing, and forestry, 

agriculture is the smallest component of the Lithuanian 

economy, accounting for just over 3% of GDP and 7% of the 

labor force.

Farming and Livestock: About 46% of Lithuania’s land area is 

dedicated to cultivation. In recent years, traditional family 

farming has declined as the typical farm size has significantly 

increased. Cows, pigs, and poultry are the most common 

livestock, comprising about 2/3 of the agricultural sector. Dairy 

production is a significant enterprise. Major crops include 

grains, potatoes, sugar beets, flax, and vegetables. Even 

though it exports many of these products, Lithuania fulfills most 

of its own agricultural needs.

Fishing: In 2014, the relatively large Lithuanian fishing industry 

consisted of about 140 vessels that harvested over 150,000 

tons of sprat, herring, cod, and others. An important part of the 

food production sector, the fish processing industry employs 

about 6,000 people. Much of the catch is consumed locally, 

although some fish are 

exported primarily to 

Germany, France, 

Latvia, and Estonia. 

Forestry: With over 

35% of its territory 

covered by woodlands, 

Lithuania has a highlydeveloped forestry industry. Timber, paper, and other wood 

products account for around 5% of Lithuania’s exports. While 

about 50% of Lithuanian forests remain under state protection, 

commercial harvests primarily include pine, spruce, birch, and 

alder trees (Photo: Forests and lakes in Lithuania’s 

countryside).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

The euro (€), the EU’s common currency, is issued in 7 

banknote values (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) and 2 coin 

values (1, 2). A euro subdivides into centų (cents), issued in 6 

coin values (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50). With the variance in exchange 

rates, $1 has been valued from 67-95 centų in recent years. 

Most businesses accept credit cards, although some smaller 

vendors may only accept cash in small denominations. 

Foreign Trade

Totaling $31 billion in 2014, Lithuania’s exports included 

refined fuel, machinery and equipment, chemicals, textiles, 

foodstuffs, and plastics. Major export partners were Russia 

(21%), Latvia (9%), Poland (8%), Germany (7%), Belarus (5%), 

Netherlands (5%), and Estonia (4%). In the same year, 

Lithuania imported $34 billion in oil, natural gas, machinery and 

transport equipment, chemicals, textiles, and metals from 

Russia (22%), Germany (11%), Poland (10%), Latvia (7%), 

Italy (5%), Netherlands (5%), and the UK (4%).

European Union

Membership in the EU (see p. 8 of Political and Social 

Relations) provides a large common market for exports, a 

stable currency, a secure business environment, and easier 

access to FDI. In 2015, about 61% of Lithuanian trade was with 

EU countries. Disadvantages to EU membership include 

restrictions in the flow of 

some goods and services 

and easier emigration of 

Lithuanians to other EU 

countries, thereby 

reducing Lithuania’s labor 

force (Photo: US vehicles

cross Lithuania’s border). 

Foreign Aid

For 2014-20, the EU has granted Lithuania €7.9 billion for 

structural assistance and regional development. In early 2016, 

the US pledged $3.4 billion in military support for Europe as a 

whole in response to recent Russian military aggression (see p. 

10 of Political and Social Relations). As a result, US aid to 

Lithuania should significantly increase in the near future.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Lithuania has a modern physical infrastructure with wellmaintained roads and efficient public transportation systems. 

Lithuanians enjoy free speech and press, unrestricted Internet 

access, and an advanced telecommunications network.

Transportation

While most Lithuanian families use privately-owned vehicles 

(POV), many people also travel by bus, train, taxi, bicycle, or 

foot. Vilnius and Kaunas have efficient and reliable mass transit 

systems to include buses, trolleys, vans, and trains that run 

from around 5:30am-11:30pm. The most efficient way to travel 

within and between cities is by POV or bus. Vilnius and Kaunas 

feature well-marked bike lanes in some areas. 

Some of Europe’s most important trade routes traverse 

Lithuania. Consequently, 

recent investments have

focused on improving

Lithuania’s transportation

system in order to 

secure the country’s 

position as a regional 

hub for trade and 

transport. While its

railway system is 

antiquated, Lithuania’s advanced air, road, and sea transport 

networks now connect major global markets (Photo: Vilnius).

Roadways: In 2014, Lithuania had over 52,300 mi of roads, 

with 82% paved. Due to heavy national and EU road 

infrastructure investment, Lithuania has the best roads of any 

former Soviet republic. While most roadways are wellmaintained, some rural roads may be unpaved or in poor

condition. Although most roads are 1 lane in each direction, 4-

lane highways connect Lithuania’s large urban areas. Routes

A5, A8, A10, and A17 comprise the Via Baltica (EU route E67), 

which runs from Estonia to Poland.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Lithuania has just over 1,100 mi of railways that 

connect major cities and towns with Belarus, Latvia, Poland, 

and Russia. State-owned Lietuvos Geležinkeliai (Lithuanian 

Railways) has decreased its passenger routes in recent years 

largely due to a lack of investment. The government plans to 

increase spending on railways, including an electric high-speed 

Rail Baltica train that

is set to connect 

Lithuania to the EU 

Railroad Network by 

2025.

Ports and Waterways: 

Lithuania has over 500 

mi of sea and inland 

waterways that are navigable year-round. As Lithuania’s and 

the Baltic States’ largest port, Klaipėda (pictured) has been a 

special economic zone since 1996 (see p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources). Regular ferry services connect Klaipėda to ports in 

Germany and Sweden. The government recently approved 

funds for a new sea port in Šventoji and a new pier for the 

Kaunas river port.

Airways: Lithuania has 61 airports, 22 with paved runways. 

The largest, Vilnius International Airport, served nearly 3.5 

million passengers in 2015. Although Lithuania presently has 

no national carrier, several global carriers connect Lithuania to 

many European destinations.

Energy

During the Soviet era, Lithuania generated almost all of its 

energy through nuclear power. As part of its EU accession 

agreement, Lithuania decommissioned the Ignalina nuclear 

power plant in 2009, even though it still provided about 70% of 

the country’s energy at the time. Today, oil and natural gas

imported mainly from Russia account for about 72% of total 

energy consumption. While renewable resources like biomass 

and hydropower account for about 22% of consumption, an

additional 6% comes from solid fuels like coal and peat. 

Lithuania currently follows several strategies to reduce its 

dependence on Russian imports. First, it has recently sought to 

integrate its power infrastructure with the EU by consolidating

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
electricity connections with Poland and Sweden; it has 

constructed its own liquefied natural gas terminal; and it plans 

to increase its share of renewables to 23% by 2020. Finally,

together with Latvia and Estonia, Lithuania is working with a 

Japanese firm to explore construction of a new nuclear facility. 

Media

The Lithuanian constitution protects freedom of speech and 

press, while specific laws regulate public information access 

and protect the rights of journalists. Although there have been 

some reports of state interference, censorship is rare.

Print Media: The Lithuanian press includes hundreds of local 

and national periodicals, comprising the Baltics States’ most 

vibrant media market. Publications in Lithuanian, English, 

Polish, Russian, and other languages are common. Lietuvos 

rytas and Respublika are the most popular national 

newspapers. Lithuania’s main English-language newspaper, 

The Baltic Times, is published in Latvia.

Radio and TV: The public Lithuanian National Radio and 

Television (LRT) network broadcasts many of Lithuania’s most 

popular radio and TV programs. Other stations offer programs

in Lithuanian, English, and other languages. Most households 

subscribe to cable, satellite, or Internet services that provide 

international content (Photo: Fireworks 

at the Vilnius TV tower on Christmas).

Telecommunications

Lithuania has an extensive and 

advanced telecommunications network. 

In 2014, Lithuania had about 20 landline 

and 150 mobile phone subscriptions per 

100 people. 

Internet: Lithuania has the EU’s most 

affordable Internet services. Its highspeed broadband is available to over 

98% of households, organizations, and businesses and has 

some of the world’s fastest download speeds. Despite this high 

rate of connectivity, just 72% of Lithuanians regularly used the 

Internet in 2015, a significantly lower rate than Baltic neighbors 

Latvia (82%) and Estonia (85%). 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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October 2016

CULTURE GUIDE