Last updated: 2010 www.ojjdp.gov/mpg

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 1

Suggested Reference: Development Services Group, Inc. 2010. “Parent Training.” Literature review. Washington, D.C.: Office of 

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https://www.ojjdp.gov/mpg/litreviews/Parent%20_Training.pdf

Prepared by Development Services Group, Inc., under cooperative agreement number 2013–JF–FX–K002.

Parent Training

Parents are a critical factor in the social development of children (Alvarado and Kumpfer 2000; Conger 

and Simons 1997). A plethora of studies have produced empirical findings that indicate parental 

behavior can either increase or decrease an adolescent’s risk for delinquency and other problem 

behaviors (Elliot, Huizinga, and Menard 1989; Loeber and Stouthamer–Loeber 1986; Patterson et al. 

1992; Sampson and Laub 1993; Simons et al. 1998; Simons, Chao, and Conger 2001). For instance, 

volumes of research indicate that supportive parent–child relationships, positive discipline methods, 

close monitoring and supervision, parental advocacy for their children, and parental pursuit of needed 

information and support (Huizinga, Loeber, and Thornberry 1995; Bry 1996; Alvarado and Kumpfer 

2000) consistently buffer youth against problem behaviors. In addition, research has also revealed that 

children are at risk of developing antisocial behaviors when they are exposed to ineffective parenting 

behaviors such as poor supervision, rejection, or harsh and inconsistent discipline. Specifically, research 

indicates that antisocial behavior of parents (Slavin and Rainer 1990); unsupportive parents (Conger 

and Simons 1997; Sampson and Laub 1993; Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990); physical and emotional 

abuse (Doerner 1987); parent–child involvement, parental supervision, and parental rejection (Loeber 

and Stouthamer–Loeber 1986; Cernkovich and Giordano 1987); and parental monitoring, parenting 

techniques, and caretaker discipline toward children (Steinberg 1990; Snyder and Patterson 1987) have 

all been found to influence delinquent behavior. 

This research suggests that improving fundamental parenting practices should reduce problem 

behaviors. Today there are several major categories of interventions designed to improve parenting 

practices and thus prevent future problem behaviors. These programs include behavioral parent 

training, parent education, parent support groups, in-home parent education or parent aid, and parent 

involvement in youth groups. This section generically labels all of these “parent-training programs.” 

Theoretical Foundation

Parents can increase the probability of delinquency and other problem behaviors among their children 

because they serve as the primary socialization context for children (Simons et al. 1998; Patterson, Reid, 

and Dishion 1992). The theoretical foundation for this relationship is generally grounded in theories of 

social control positing that delinquent acts are more likely to occur when an individual’s bond to society 

is weak or broken (Hirschi 1969). Under this perspective, the family acts as a socializing agent by 

introducing and endearing children to conventional norms and values. The theory argues that a strong 
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 2

affectionate tie between child and parent is one of the fundamental means for establishing this societal 

bond and thus insulating adolescents from delinquency and other problem behaviors (Brook, 

Whiteman, Finch, and Cohen 1998). 

Unfortunately, poor family functioning or nontraditional family structures can inhibit the development 

of or decrease parental attachment and thus break the bond with society, separating individuals from 

the internal controls that discourage criminal behavior. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) argue that as a 

result of inept parenting, some adolescents tend to be impulsive, defiant, physical, and risk-taking 

(Stewart et al. 2002; Conger, Patterson, and Ge 1995). Such youth are attracted more strongly to 

delinquent acts than those who have been socialized to possess strong internal controls. However, 

ineffective parenting is seen as a result of two factors (Thornberry 1987; Simons, Chao, and Conger 

2001). First, parents and children tend to be similar in their temperament, personality, and cognitive 

abilities (Plomin, Chipuer, Loehlin 1990). Thus, there is a tendency for impulsive, aggressive children 

to have parents who also possess these characteristics, and these characteristics tend to interfere with 

effective parenting. Second, research indicates that parent–child interaction is a reciprocal process. In 

other words, not only does ineffective parenting increase the probability of child conduct disorders, but 

also hostile, obstinate child behavior often elicits negative parenting behavior—resulting in a reduction 

in effective parenting (Patterson, Reid, and Dishion 1992). Thus the personal characteristics of the 

parents combine with the difficult behavior of the child to create a volatile mix of antagonistic 

relationships. 

Consequently, it is imperative that delinquency prevention programs reinforce the parent– child bond 

as a means of preventing delinquent behavior. One way of reinforcing the parent–child relationship is 

to decrease risk factors and increase protective factors for delinquent behavior through parent training 

and family strengthening programs. These programs address important family protective factors such 

as parental supervision, attachment to parents, and consistency of discipline (Huizinga, Loeber, and 

Thornberry 1995). They also address some of the most important family risk factors such as poor 

supervision, excessive family conflict, family isolation, sibling drug use, and poor socialization 

(Kumpfer and Alvarado 1995). 

Types of Parenting Training

Parent-training programs concentrate on teaching parents and prospective parents the use of effective 

management skills. This highly structured approach generally includes parents only, in small groups 

led by a skilled trainer or clinician. Programs are designed to help parents learn to recognize both 

prosocial and antisocial behaviors, employ social learning techniques (e.g., positive reinforcement, 

ignoring, distraction, punishment), and improve family problem-solving skills. Parent training can be 

beneficial even during pregnancy and early childhood, since parenting skills learned early can have 

positive effects as the child matures (Howell 1995). 

Parent-training sessions can occur in diverse settings (e.g., schools, community centers, churches, the 

workplace, or even at home with self-instructional programs) and under various types of approaches. 

Kumpfer (1999) outlines several of these approaches, including the following: 

 Behavioral parenting training is structured, delivered by a trained professional, and lasts for 8 

to 14 sessions of 1 to 2 hours each. A curriculum and instructional aids (e.g., manuals, 

guidebooks, handouts, videotapes) are used. Positive reinforcement skills are taught and 

parents learn to decrease inappropriate punitive behaviors and chastisements. 
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 3

 Parent education programs are usually designed to reach a broader audience of families who 

are not necessarily severely dysfunctional, but who may be at risk. Parent education programs 

raise awareness of good parenting practices and better ways to discipline children. They also 

help parents learn how to determine if a child is abusing drugs or alcohol and to recognize other 

warning signs of delinquent behavior. Parent education materials may include videotapes, 

television programs, and brochures, feature articles in newspapers and magazines, and other 

written information. In addition to general media information, schools, workplaces, churches, 

and community organizations can offer parent education information. 

 Parent action/parent support groups are grassroots organizations that have gained in 

popularity in the past 2 decades. Some are national organizations with local chapters; others are 

ad hoc groups of neighborhood parents. 

Outcome Evidence

There has been a great amount of evaluation research that has examined the effectiveness of different 

types of parent-training programs on numerous parent- and child-related behavioral outcomes.

Nurse Family Partnership (NFP) provides low-income, first-time mothers of any age with homevisitation services from public health nurses. The nurses work intensively with the mothers to improve 

maternal, prenatal, and early childhood health and well-being, with the expectation that this 

intervention will help achieve long-term improvements in the lives of at-risk families. A 12-year followup evaluation found that children whose parents had participated in NFP were significantly less likely 

to have used cigarettes, alcohol, or marijuana; reported fewer internalizing problems; and had better 

reading and math achievement tests scores in grades 1 through 6 compared with children in the control 

group (Kitzman et al. 2010). At the 15-year follow-up, there were significantly fewer child maltreatment 

reports involving the mother as the perpetrator, but there was no significant impact on the incidences 

of domestic violence (Eckenrode et al. 2000).

The Triple P–Positive Parenting Program is a community-based comprehensive parent-training 

program with the purpose of reducing child maltreatment and children’s behavioral problems. It is 

built upon a public health approach and as such was designed to treat large populations. The five core 

principles taught to parents are: 1) ensure a safe and engaging environment; 2) promote a positive 

learning environment; 3) use assertive discipline; 4) maintain reasonable expectations; and 5) take care 

of oneself as a parent. An evaluation by Prinz and colleagues (2009) found that counties which had 

receive the Triple P System had a large reductions in child maltreatment, including substantiated child 

maltreatment, out-of-home child placements, and hospitalizations or emergency room visits for child 

maltreatment injuries.

Another parent-directed program is The Incredible Years Training Series, which includes the SchoolAge BASIC Training Program and ADVANCE Parent Training Program. The Incredible Years Training 

Series consists of programs that address family management problems, lack of commitment to school, 

early and persistent antisocial behavior, and family conflict. There are three separate Basic programs 

for parents of toddlers (1–3 years), preschoolers (3–5 years), and school-age children (6–12 years) 

focused on developmentally appropriate parenting strategies known to promote children’s social and 

academic competence and emotional regulation, and also to reduce behavior problems. Core topic areas 

include parents learning effective play interaction skills and ways to strengthen their relationship with 

children; academic, persistence, social, and emotion coaching skills; using praise and incentives 
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 4

effectively; setting up predictable routines and schedules; providing adequate monitoring and safetyproofing children’s homes; using limit-setting and proactive discipline strategies effectively to handle 

misbehavior; and teaching children to solve problems. The Advanced program emphasizes parent 

interpersonal skills such as effective communication skills, anger management, solving problems 

between adults, ways to give and get support, and family meetings. This is offered to groups of parents 

who have completed the Basic program. Evaluations of The Incredible Years found significant 

reductions in mothers’ negative parenting and children’s negative behavior (Webster–Stratton, Reid, 

and Hammond 2004); significant improvements in children’s social competence (Webster–Stratton, 

Reid, and Hammond 2004; Miller Brotman et al. 2005); and significant improvement in school readiness 

(Webster–Stratton, Reid, and Stoolmiller 2008).

In addition to the program evaluations, there have been several meta-analyses that have synthesized 

the results across numerous individual studies of parent-training programs (Piquero et al. 2009; 

Lundahl, Nimer, and Parson 2006). The meta-analyses generally found moderate effect sizes when 

looking at outcomes such as abuse, childrearing skills, and problem behaviors. Overall, there is strong 

support in the research literature for the effectiveness of parent-training programs.

References

Alexander, J.F.; C. Barton; D. Gordon; J. Grotpeter; K. Hansson; R. Harrison; S. Mears; S. Mihalic; B. 

Parsons; C. Pugh; S. Schulman; H. Waldron; and T. Sexton. 1998. Blueprints for Violence 

Prevention, Book Three: Functional Family Therapy. Boulder, Colo.: Center for the Study and 

Prevention of Violence.

Alexander, J.F., and B.V. Parsons. 1973. “Short-Term Behavioral Intervention With Delinquent 

Families: Impact on Family Process and Recidivism.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 81:219–25.

Alexander, J.F., and B.V. Parsons. 1982. Functional Family Therapy: Principles and Procedures. Carmel, 

Calif.: Brooks/Cole.

Alvarado, R., and K. Kumpfer. 2000. Strengthening America’s Families. Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention.

Bridgeman, Brent, Janet B. Blumental, and Susan R. Andrews. 1981. Parent Child Development Center: 

Final Evaluation Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Office of Human Development Services.

Brook, J.S.; M. Whiteman; S. Finch; and P. Cohen. 1998. “Mutual Attachment, Personality, and Drug 

Use: Pathways From Childhood to Young Adulthood.” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology 

Monographs 124(4):492–510.

Bry, B.H. 1996. “Psychological Approaches to Prevention.” In W.K. Bickel and R.J. DeGrandpre (eds.). 

Drug Policy and Human Nature: Psychological Perspectives on the Prevention, Management, and 

Treatment of Illicit Drug Abuse. New York: Plenum Press, 55–76.

Cates, K.K. 1995. Early Intervention of at-Risk Children: Effects on Academic Performance. (Dissertation). 

Little Rock, Ark.: University of Arkansas. 

Cernkovich, S.A., and P.C. Giordano. 1987. “Family Relationships and Delinquency.” Criminology

25(2):295–321.

Child Trends. 2000. Preventing Problems Versus Promoting the Positive: What Do We Want for Our 

Children? Research Brief. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.

Conger, R.D.; G.R. Patterson; and X. Ge. 1995. “It Takes Two to Replicate: A Mediational Model for 

the Impact of Parents’ Stress on Adolescent Adjustment.” Child Development 66:80–97.

Conger, R.D., and S.L. Simons. 1997. “Life-Course Contingencies in the Development of Adolescent 

Antisocial Behavior: A Matching Law Approach.” In T.P. Thornberry (ed.). Development 
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 5

Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 7. New Brunswick, 

N.J.: Transaction, 55–99.

Coombs, R.H.; M.J. Paulson; and M.A. Richardson. 1991. “Peer Versus Parental Influence in Substance 

Use Among Hispanic and Anglo Children and Adolescents.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 

20:73–88.

Developmental Research and Programs, Inc. 1996. Prevention Strategies: A Research Guide to What 

Works. Seattle, Wash.: Developmental Research and Programs, Inc.

Dishion, T.J.; K. Kavanagh; and J. Kiesner. 1998. “Prevention of Early Substance Use Among HighRisk Youth: A Multiple Gating Approach to Parent Interventions.” In: National Conference on 

Drug Abuse Prevention Research: Presentations, Papers, and Recommendations. Washington, 

D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 87–100.

Doerner, W.G. 1987. “Child Maltreatment Seriousness and Juvenile Delinquency.” Youth and Society

19(2):197–224.

Dumas, J.E. 1989. “Treating Antisocial Behavior in Children: Child and Family Approaches.” Clinical 

Psychology Review 9:197–222.

Eckenrode, John, Mary Campa, Dennis W. Luckey, Charles R. Henderson Jr., Robert E. Cole, Harriet J. 

Kitzman, Elizabeth A. Anson, Kimberly J. Sidora–Arcoleo, Jane Powers, and David L. Olds. 

2000. “Long-Term Effects of Prenatal and Infancy Nurse Home Visitation on the Life Course of 

Youths, 19-Year Follow-Up of a Randomized Trial.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 

164(1):9–15.

Gottfredson, Michael, and Travis Hirschi. 1990. A General Theory of Crime. Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford 

University Press.

Government Accounting Office. 1997. Child Welfare, States’ Progress in Implementing Family Preservation 

and Support Services. GAO/HEHS–97–34.Washington, D.C.: Government Accounting Office.

Hirschi, Travis. 1969. Causes of Delinquency. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Hirschi, Travis. 1995. “The Family.” In James Q. Wilson and Joan Petersilia (eds.). Crime. San 

Francisco, Calif.: ICS Press.

Howell, James, C. 1995. Guide for Implementing the Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and 

Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice 

Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Huizinga, D.; R. Loeber; and T.P. Thornberry. 1995. Recent Findings From the Program of Research on the 

Causes and Correlates of Delinquency. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of 

Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Johnson, Dale L. 1991. “Primary Prevention of Behavior Problems in Young Children: The Houston 

Parent–Child Development Center.” In R. Price, E.L. Cohen, R.P. Lorion, and J. Ramoa–McKay 

(eds.). Fourteen Ounces of Prevention. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 

44–52.

Johnson, Dale L., and James N. Breckenridge. 1982. “The Houston Parent–Child Development Center 

and the Primary Prevention of Behavior Problems in Young Children.” American Journal of 

Community Psychology 10:305–316.

Johnson, Dale L., and Todd Walker. 1987. “Primary Prevention of Behavior Problems in Mexican–

American Children.” American Journal of Community Psychology 15:375–85. 

Kazdin, A.E.; T.C. Siegel; and D. Bass. 1992. “Cognitive Problem-Solving Skills Training and Parent 

Management Training in the Treatment of Antisocial Behavior in Children.” Journal of 

Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60:733–47.

Kitzman, Harriet J., David L. Olds, Robert E. Cole, Carole A. Hanks, Elizabeth A. Anson, Kimberly J. 

Sidora–Arcoleo, Dennis W. Luckey, Michael D. Knudtson, Charles R. Henderson, and John R. 

Holmberg. 2010. “Enduring Effects of Prenatal and Infancy Home Visiting by Nurses on 

Children.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 164(5):412–18.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 6

Kumpfer, K.L. 1999. Strengthening America’s Families: Exemplary Parenting and Family Strategies for 

Delinquency Prevention. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice 

Programs, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Kumpfer, K.L., and R. Alvarado. 1995. “Strengthening Families to Prevent Drug Use in Multiethnic 

Youth.” In G. Botvin, S. Schinke, and M. Orlandi (eds.). Drug Abuse Prevention With Multiethnic 

Youth. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 253–92.

Kumpfer, K.L., and R. Alvarado.. 1997. Effective Family Strengthening Interventions. Bulletin. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Justice 

Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Loeber, R., and M. Stouthamer–Loeber. 1986. “Family Factors as Correlates and Predictors of Juvenile 

Conduct Problems and Delinquency.” In M. Tonry and N. Morris (eds.). Crime and Justice: An 

Annual Review of Research, Vol. 7. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 29–149.

Lundal, Brad W., Janelle Nimer, and Bruce Parson. 2006. “Preventing Child Abuse: A Meta-Analysis 

of Parent Training Programs.” Research on Social Work Practice 16:251–62.

Miller Brotman, Laurie, Kathleen Kiely Gouley, Daniel Chesir–Teran, Tracy A. Dennis, Rachel G. 

Klein, and Patrick Shrout. 2005. “Prevention for Preschoolers at High Risk for Conduct 

Problems: Immediate Outcomes on Parenting Practices and Child Social Competence.” Journal 

of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34:724–34.

Patterson, G.R.; J.B. Reid; and T.J. Dishion. 1992. Antisocial Boys: A Social Interactional Approach, Vol. 4. 

Eugene, Ore.: Castalia.

Piquero, Alex R., David P. Farrington, Brandon C. Welsh, Richard Tremblay, and Wesley C. Jennings. 

2009. “Effects of Early Family/Parent Training Programs on Antisocial Behavior and 

Delinquency.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 5:83–120.

Plomin, R.; H.M. Chipuer; and J.C. Loehlin. 1990. “Behavioral Genetics and Personality.” In L.A. 

Pervin (ed.). Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research. New York: The Guilford Press, 225–

43.

Prinz, Ronald J., Matthew R. Sanders, Cheri J. Shapiro, Daniel J. Whitaker, John R. Lutzker. 2009. 

“Population-Based Prevention of Child Maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P System Population 

Trial.” Prevention Science 10:1–12.

Sampson, Robert J., and John H. Laub. 1993. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through 

Life. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Satterfield, J.H.; B.T. Satterfield; and A.M. Schell. 1987. “Therapeutic Interventions to Prevent 

Delinquency in Hyperactive Boys.” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent 

Psychiatry 26:56–64.

Simons, R.L.; W. Chao; and R.D. Conger. 2001. “Quality of Parenting as Mediator of the Effect of 

Childhood Defiance on Adolescent Friendship Choices and Delinquency: A Growth Curve 

Analysis.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 63:63–79.

Simons, R.L.; C.A. Johnson; R.D. Conger; and G.H. Elder, Jr. 1998. “A Test of Latent Trait Versus Life 

Course Perspective on the Stability of Adolescent Antisocial Behavior.” Criminology 36: 217–44.

Simons, R.L.; C. Wu; C.A. Johnson; and R.D. Conger. 1994. “A Test of Family and Social Deviance: 

Explanations for the Intergenerational Transmission of Domestic Violence.” Criminology

33:141–72.

Slavin, L., and K. Rainer. 1990. “Gender Differences in Emotional Support and Depressive Symptoms 

Among Adolescents: A Prospective Analysis.” American Journal of Community Psychology 

18(3):407–21.

Snyder, J., and G. Patterson. 1987. “Family Interactions and Delinquent Behavior.” In H.C. Quay (ed.). 

Handbook of Juvenile Delinquency. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 216–43.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention www.ojjdp.gov 7

Stanton, M.D., and T. Todd. 1982. “Principles and Techniques for Getting Resistant Families Into 

Treatment.” In M.D. Stanton and T. Todd (eds.). The Family Therapy of Drug Abuse and 

Addiction. New York: Guilford.

Steinberg, Laurence. 1990. Authoritative Parenting and Adolescent Adjustment Across Varied Ecological 

Niches. Madison, Wis.: National Center of Effective Secondary Schools.

Steinberg, Laurence. 2000. “Youth Violence: Do Parents and Families Really Make a Difference?” 

National Institute of Justice Journal (April).

Stewart, E.; R.L. Simons; R.D. Conger; and L. Scaramella. 2002. “Beyond the Interactional Relationship 

Between Delinquency and Parenting Practices: The Contribution of Legal Sanctions.” Journal of 

Research in Crime and Delinquency 39(1):36–59.

Thornberry, Terence P. 1994. Violent Families and Youth Violence. Fact Sheet. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile 

Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Thornberry, Terence P. 1987. “Toward an Interactional Theory of Delinquency.” Criminology 25:863–

91.

Tremblay, R.E.; J. McCord; H. Boileau; P. Charlebois; C. Gagnon; M. LeBlanc; and S. Larivee. 1991. 

“Can Disruptive Boys Be Helped to Become Competent?” Psychiatry 54:148–61.

Tremblay, R.E.; F. Vitaro; L. Bertrand; H., LeBlanc; H., Beauchesne; H., Boileau; and L. David. 1992. 

“Parent and Child Training to Prevent Early Onset of Delinquency: The Montreal 

Longitudinal-Experimental Study.” In J. McCord and R.E. Tremblay (eds.). Preventing 

Antisocial Behavior: Interventions From Birth Through Adolescence. New York: Guilford Press.

Webster–Stratton. 2000. The Incredible Years Training Series. Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile 

Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Webster–Stratton, Carolyn, M. Jamila Reid, and Mary A. Hammond. 2004. “Treating Children With 

Early-Onset Conduct Problems: Intervention Outcomes for Parent, Child, and Teacher 

Training.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology 33:105–24.

Webster–Stratton, Carolyn H., M. Jamila Reid, and Mike Stoolmiller. 2008. “Preventing Conduct 

Problems and Improving School Readiness: Evaluation of the Incredible Years Teacher and 

Child Training Programs in High-Risk Schools.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry

49:471–88.

Welsh, Brandon C. and David P. Farrington. 2006. “Effectiveness of Family-Based Programs to 

Prevent Delinquency and Later Offending.”Psicothema 18(3):598–602.

Westat, Inc., in Association with James Bell Associates, Inc., and the Chapin Hall Center for Children. 

1995. A Review of Family Preservation and Family Reunification Programs. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and 

Evaluation.