Copyright © 2000 National Skill Standards Board

All Rights Reserved

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition

Individuals are free to use Built to Work: A Common Framework for Skill Standards and the Skill Scales

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Built to Work: A Common Framework for Skill Standards; National Skill Standards Board

ISBN 0-9700518-0-8

Published by National Skill Standards Board

1441 L Street, N.W., Suite 9000 

Washington, DC 20005-3512

202/254-8628

www.nssb.org

Cover design and layout Carol Hardy
About This Guidebook...

Built to Work provides an overview of the Common

Framework for Skill Standards developed by the

National Skill Standards Board (NSSB). The

guidebook is designed for Voluntary Partnerships,

convening groups, and anyone else interested in

learning more about how skill standards can

increase the skills and productivity of U.S. workers.

Who We Are...

The NSSB is a coalition of leaders from business,

labor, employee, education, and community and

civil rights organizations created in 1994 to build

a voluntary national system of skill standards,

assessment, and certification. The goal of this

effort is to enhance U.S. global competitiveness

and raise the living standard of all Americans.

NSSB skill standards, which form the foundation

of this new system, are being identified by

Voluntary Partnerships, industry coalitions working in full partnership with labor, civil rights, and

community-based organizations. Additional information about the NSSB and the Voluntary

Partnerships can be found in Appendix A and B.

To Find Out More, Contact Us...

On the Web at www.nssb.org

By e-mail at information@nssb.org

By phone at (202) 254-8628 or (877) THE-NSSB

By fax at (202) 254-8646

By mail at NSSB

1441 L Street, NW, Suite 9000

Washington, DC 20005-3512

National Skill Standards Board

Setting the Standard for Workforce Excellence

Preface

Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction...........................................................................................................................1

What Are Skill Standards? ..................................................................................................................1

Everyone Stands to Gain .....................................................................................................................2

The Importance of Assessment and Certification...............................................................................3

The Key Is Coordination .....................................................................................................................3

The Role of Voluntary Partnerships.....................................................................................................4

The Need for a Common Framework ..................................................................................................4

Chapter 2: An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards ......................7

Industry Sectors Strike a Balance ........................................................................................................8

Core, Concentration, and Specialty Standards ...................................................................................8

Promoting Portability...........................................................................................................................9

Meeting the Needs of High Performance ..........................................................................................10

Concentration Standards...................................................................................................................10

Core Standards...................................................................................................................................12

Core and Concentration: A Powerful Combination.........................................................................13

Specialty Standards ............................................................................................................................13

A Word About Certification .............................................................................................................14

A Quick Review.................................................................................................................................14

Chapter 3: A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards..............................................17

The Work-Oriented Component .......................................................................................................17

Example of the Work-Oriented Component .....................................................................................18

The Worker-Oriented Component ....................................................................................................20

A Common Language for Knowledge and Skills...............................................................................20

Academic Knowledge and Skills...............................................................................................20

Employability Knowledge and Skills.........................................................................................21

Occupational and Technical Knowledge and Skills .................................................................22

Linking the Knowledge and Skills to Critical Work Functions ........................................................23

Rating Complexity Levels..................................................................................................................23

Skill Standards: A Total Package.......................................................................................................25

Chapter 4: General Guidance for Developing Skill Standards.....................................................27

Creating Tools for Progress ................................................................................................................27

Making Standards Useful for Many Different Purposes.....................................................................28

The Need for Credibility....................................................................................................................28

Developing a Sound Research Plan ...................................................................................................28

Moving Forward .................................................................................................................................29

Appendixes

A. More About the National Skill Standards Board.........................................................................33

B. More About the Voluntary Partnerships.......................................................................................35

Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................................41

1

Walk into the offices, factories, and shops of

America’s leading companies and you will find a

very different workplace from the past...

▲ Administrative assistants, who once answered

the phone and took messages, are at ground

zero of the communications revolution. They

are selecting complex and expensive equipment, helping tailor these new systems to the

needs of the office, and training colleagues on

how to get the greatest benefit. 

▲ Autoworkers, who once spent almost all

their time on the assembly line making

products, are now working in teams to speed

production and improve quality.

▲ Shop clerks, who once sold a handful of

easy-to-understand appliances, must now

explain the features of dozens of computers

with an endless array of applications.

New technologies, global competition, and market demands for better, faster, more customized

products and services require an increasingly

skilled and productive workforce. Top companies

know that to achieve their business goals, they

need a new level of skill, flexibility, and professionalism from all workers.

But how can we develop a workforce capable of

meeting these challenges? It requires a new

approach by employers, workers, trainers, educators, unions, parents, and students. At the foundation of this new approach are skill standards.

What Are Skill Standards?

Imagine trying to build a house without a blueprint.

You might have a general idea of where you want

the kitchen or how many bedrooms you need. But

to get it right, you need a detailed picture of what

you’re working toward and a plan to get there.

Building a highly skilled workforce is similar. We

know work is changing, but how? We know workers

need new skills, but which skills? We need an accurate picture of what we are working toward in order

to prepare workers for this new world of work. We

need a blueprint. We need skill standards.

Introduction

CHAPTER 1

BY AND FOR FRONTLINE WORKERS

The initial focus of this project is on developing skill standards for frontline workers. By frontline, we mean positions up to and including what is typically thought of as

the first level of supervision. 

To develop these skill standards, we are going directly to

the experts—thousands of competent frontline workers

and supervisors in high-performance companies. Who better to describe what today’s workplace requires than the

very people succeeding within it?
Skill standards—as defined by the NSSB—

answer two major questions:

1. What does someone need to do on the job

to perform competently?

and

2. What knowledge and skills will enable them

to carry out these responsibilities?

By answering these questions, skill standards will

give us a vivid portrait of the knowledge, skills, and

performance needed to succeed in today’s workplace.

Skill standards will offer a new vision for organizing work—one that calls on frontline workers to

assume greater responsibility; use advanced skills

and technologies; and play a larger role in meeting customer needs. This is a sharp change from

the past when workers were mostly expected to

follow orders, use a narrow set of skills, and leave

issues, such as improving quality or cutting costs,

to management. By describing a new role for

frontline workers, skill standards will help

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

2

employers and workers make the transition to the

new world of high-performance work.

What does on-the-job excellence require and

what does it take to get there? That’s exactly

what skill standards will tell us.

Everyone Stands to Gain

Skill standards will have many uses to many different stakeholders:

▲ Workers can use skill standards to find out

how to improve their performance, select

the right training and education, and

advance in their careers.

▲ Employers can use skill standards to improve

training and development, reduce the costs

of hiring, and make the transition to highperformance.

▲ Employers and educators can use skill standards to increase opportunities for minorities and women, including removing barriers

to the entry of women into non-traditional

employment.

▲ Educators can use skill standards to create curriculum that better prepares students for work.

▲ Students, unemployed workers, and others

can use skill standards to identify the skills

they need to prepare for high-wage jobs.

HIGH PERFORMANCE DEFINED

Throughout this guidebook, you will see the term “high-performance”—a catch phrase describing those companies that place

a premium on quality and customer service, and believe that a

highly skilled frontline workforce, capable of handling new

technologies and taking on broader responsibilities than in the

past, is critical to achieving these goals. Skill standards are

being developed to reflect the needs of the high-performance

organization—the direction we believe more and more

employers are heading as they respond to growing global competition. By capturing the needs of the high-performance organization, standards will help move the country forward,

preparing individuals for the new challenges of work.

What does on-the-job excellence

require and what does it take to

get there? That’s exactly what

skill standards will tell us.
▲ Industries can use skill standards to inform

potential employees, educators, and trainers

of the skills needed for employment.

▲ Government can use skill standards to evaluate the effectiveness of publicly funded

training programs.

One way to think about skill standards is as a tool

Introduction: CHAPTER 1

3

for improving the workforce; how people use this

tool will be up to them.

The Importance of Assessment 

and Certification

Skill standards on their own are useful, but they

are just one part of the equation. After all, skill

standards may tell us what to work toward, but

they don’t tell us whether we have succeeded. 

That’s why, in addition to developing skill standards, the NSSB and its partners are working to

build a voluntary system of assessment and certification based on those standards. 

In today’s knowledge-based economy, the need for

such a system of assessment and certification is critical. The skills required for work are increasingly

complex, making decisions about who to hire and

what kinds of training they might need a lot more

challenging. Individuals moving between jobs and

industries need a way to communicate their qualifications to potential employers. To keep pace with

fast-changing technologies and business strategies,

people need a clear roadmap of what they need to

learn and a way to demonstrate those achievements over time. 

Assessment and certification based on standards

will give individuals an opportunity to earn certificates so that they can demonstrate their mastery of

the standards to employers and others. The system

will also give people a way to compare their skills

to the standards—vital information they can use

when selecting training, education, and other kinds

of experiences to improve their performance.

The Key Is Coordination

Recent years have seen a proliferation of skill

standards—a positive sign that so many organizations are taking seriously the need for a highly

skilled workforce. But with so many different

kinds of standards has come considerable confuOPENING UP OPPORTUNITIES 

One of the key goals of developing skill standards is to open

up career opportunities for all Americans. Skill standards will

help remove barriers to employment in several different ways: 

• By spelling out the knowledge, skills, and performance

needed for success in today’s job market, skill standards

will make information that is vital to career success more

accessible to larger numbers of individuals. 

• When standards are used to develop assessments and certifications, employers can replace subjective measures with

more objective measurements based on skill standards.

This move toward more objective measurements will help

eliminate bias in important employment decisions.

Skill standards endorsed by the NSSB will be developed using

rigorous research methods, including industry-wide validation. In addition, the NSSB intends to develop tools to help

employers quickly and cost-effectively validate the standards

for their specific employment environments. 

To ensure the use of standards and their related assessments

and certifications comply with U.S. employment law and civil

rights law, employers are legally required to conduct an internal validation of the standards before using them to make hiring and promotion decisions, just as they do today for any

new standards or tests they use. The purpose of employer validation is to ensure that the knowledge, skills, and performance described by the standards are necessary for the job. 
sion among employers, policymakers, workers, students, educators, and others about which standards they should use and trust. 

By working together, we avoid duplication, save

money, and send a clear message to all Americans

about the demands of today’s workplace.

Coordination is also needed to create a certification system that has national recognition and is

portable across industries. 

For a certification system to work well, it must be

relevant from company to company, industry to

industry, and state to state. Individuals who earn

certifications based on standards must be able to

use those credentials to get jobs anywhere in the

country. Employers must know that a certificate

earned on the East Coast means the same as one

earned in the Midwest. Without coordination, we

risk ending up with a hodgepodge of skill standards and certifications that will be relevant only

to one narrow segment of the economy or to one

small region of the country. This lack of communication severely limits workforce mobility.

The Role of Voluntary Partnerships

That’s where Voluntary Partnerships enter the

picture. In each industry sector, the NSSB is helping establish Voluntary Partnerships—industry-led

coalitions made up of thousands of employers,

employees, unions, educators, and community

organizations. These Voluntary Partnerships are

working to develop a voluntary system of skill

standards, assessment, and certification.

What makes the Voluntary Partnerships so powerful—and what will ultimately help ensure the success

of the skill standards and certifications they develop—is the diversity and size of their membership.

At work now developing skill standards are three

Voluntary Partnerships representing approximately:

▲ 3.2 million employers;

▲ 56 million workers or 43 percent of the

workforce; and

▲ Over 300 organizations, including civil

rights groups, community-based organizations, labor unions, and education and training organizations.

With this level of support and coordination, the

goal of building a voluntary national system of

skill standards, assessment, and certification is

within reach.

The Need for a Common Framework

To help guide the Voluntary Partnerships, the

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

4

A VOLUNTARY SYSTEM

This project is voluntary, meaning that employers, educators,

trainers, workers, and others will decide whether to use the

skill standards and the assessment and certification systems

being developed. That means that the work we do must

stand on its own merits—that the only way we will succeed is

if the system we develop benefits all stakeholders. In the

next few chapters, you will see how the NSSB Common

Framework will help us do just that. 

By working together, we avoid

duplication, save money, and

send a clear message to all

Americans about the demands 

of today’s workplace. 
NSSB has developed a Common Framework for

Skill Standards.

What should standards look like? How should

they be developed across different industries and

jobs within the economy? How can we ensure

they reflect the needs of today’s high-performance

organizations? The NSSB’s Common Framework

for Skill Standards—the focus of the rest of this

guidebook—helps answer these questions.

The challenge of building a voluntary national

system of skill standards, assessment, and certification is huge, but so are the payoffs. At stake are

the future competitiveness of U.S. companies, the

wages and job security of U.S. workers, and the

overall health of the economy. Everyone stands to

gain. So, let’s begin.

5

Introduction: CHAPTER 1

In the United States, there are more than 130

million workers doing thousands of different jobs

in hundreds of different industries. So, where do

we start?

The NSSB Common Framework for Skill

Standards begins by dividing the U.S. economy

into 15 “industry sectors”—segments of the economy that share similar skill requirements. For

each of these sectors, skill standards will be developed that apply across the entire sector.* 

The industry sectors are:

▲ Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

▲ Business and Administrative Services

▲ Construction 

▲ Education and Training

▲ Finance and Insurance

▲ Health and Human Services

▲ Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair

▲ Mining

▲ Public Administration, Legal, and Protective

Services 

▲ Restaurants, Lodging, Hospitality and

Tourism, and Amusement and Recreation

▲ Retail Trade, Wholesale Trade, Real Estate,

and Personal Services

▲ Scientific and Technical Services

▲ Telecommunications, Computers, Arts and

Entertainment, and Information

▲ Transportation

▲ Utilities, Environmental, and Waste

Management

Why develop skill standards around industry sectors? One of the goals of building a voluntary

national skill standards system is to equip workers

with “portable” skills and certifications they can

use to get as many different jobs in as many different industries as possible. 

Providing workers with portable skills and certifications opens up career opportunities and protects

people against dislocation resulting from changes

in the economy. For example, a laid off worker with

the skills to work in six different industries would

likely be able to find a new job more easily than an

individual qualified to work in just one industry. 

To promote portability of skills and certifications,

skill standards need to equip individuals with

broad sets of skills that will enable them to work

in as many different industries as possible. One

way to achieve this goal would be to identify skill

7

CHAPTER 2

An Overview of the NSSB Common 

Framework for Skill Standards

* Voluntary Partnerships, industry-led coalitions that the NSSB helped to establish, have already begun developing skill standards in several of these sectors. 
standards that would apply to every industry from

farming to manufacturing to hospitality. The

problem with this approach is that the standards

developed would either be so voluminous that

they would be impossible to master or so broad

that they would not enable individuals to do any

specific job well in any specific industry. 

At the same time, developing skill standards for

each narrow industry (e.g., one set for automobile

manufacturing, another for airplane manufacturing, and yet another for furniture manufacturing)

would equip workers with such specific skills that

it would be difficult for them to transfer those

skills beyond that industry. 

Industry Sectors Strike a Balance

Industry sectors strike a balance, grouping industries with similar skill requirements for the purposes of developing skill standards. In this way,

individuals who acquire these skills will be

equipped to work in many different industries.

And mastery of those skills will be within reach

because the industries share so many of the same

skill needs. 

For example, automobile manufacturing, airplane

manufacturing, food manufacturing, and more

than half a dozen other manufacturing industries

are all part of the same industry sector, known as

the Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair industry

sector. While there are some differences between

what employees making automobiles need to

know and what employees making airplanes need

to know, there are many similarities. This makes

it possible to develop standards that would give

individuals many of the skills needed to work in

both of these manufacturing settings. 

Developing skill standards that will help prepare

people for work across an entire industry sector

opens job possibilities for individuals. For example, an individual who masters skill standards for

CHAPTER 2: An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards

8

the manufacturing industry sector would have

many of the skills needed to work in an auto

plant, a chemical plant, and the many other manufacturing industries that make up the sector. 

In addition to giving individuals portable skills

and certifications, developing standards that apply

across an industry sector also gives employers a

large pool of broadly trained workers from which

to choose.

To promote this kind of portability across industries, Voluntary Partnerships are being established

to develop skill standards for the industry sectors

listed earlier.

Core, Concentration, and 

Specialty Standards 

The next major challenge is organizing skill standards around the many different frontline jobs

within each industry sector. For any given industry

sector, there are dozens of different frontline jobs. 

In manufacturing, for example, some people work

as assemblers, while others work as test technicians and still others as health and safety inspectors. Should one set of standards be developed

that covers all these jobs? Or should separate standards be developed for each of these jobs? 

Again, the Common Framework strikes a balance,

calling for the development of three types of skill

standards within an industry sector: 

▲ Core standards The knowledge, skills, and

performance that are common and critical to

all frontline jobs within an industry sector.

By mastering the core standards, individuals

will gain a broad base introduction to work

across the sector. 

▲ Concentration standards The knowledge,

skills, and performance that are needed for
Core skill standards, which give individuals a broad base introduction to

the skills needed to work across an industry sector, are represented by the trunk

of the tree. Concentration skill standards, which focus on a particular area of work

and cover families of related jobs, are represented by each branch. Specialty skill

standards, which center on the skills that are unique to a particular job, occupation, industry, or company, are represented by the leaves. 

major areas of frontline responsibility, typically covering families of related jobs and

occupations. By mastering standards for a

concentration, individuals will gain expertise in particular areas of frontline work carried out across the sector.

▲ Specialty standards The knowledge, skills,

and performance, which are unique to a particular job or occupation, to an individual

industry, or to a specific company. By identifying the skills that are unique to a single

job, occupation, industry, or company, specialty standards help fill some of the gap left

by core and concentration standards. That’s

because core and concentration standards

will focus on the skills that are common

across different industries and jobs, but will

not cover skills that are relevant to only a

single job, occupation, industry, or company.

That’s the job of specialty skill standards.

An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 2

9

A VARIETY OF CAREER PATHWAYS

The knowledge and skills of most American workers fall

into one or all of the three tiers of skill standards. By developing core, concentration, and specialty skill standards, we

can give an individual in any tier the flexibility to either

gain broader knowledge and skills or get more specific.

Such a system can work wherever the individual is within

the system.

The development of core, concentration, and specialty skill standards for each industry sector will

help us build a system that achieves several different goals, from enabling workforce mobility to

meeting the needs of today’s high-performance

organizations. Let’s look at how.

Promoting Portability 

One of the major challenges of developing

portable skills and certifications is finding the

right balance between providing individuals with

both breadth and depth. On the one hand, to

enable individuals to move between jobs and

industries more easily, we need to equip workers

with the broad skills required for work in as many

different settings as possible. On the other hand,

to do any given job today often requires a high

level of specialized knowledge and skill. 

The three types of skill standards seek to strike

the right balance. The core standards give individuals a large degree of breadth so that they can

do many different kinds of work across an industry

SPECIALTY 

SKILL STANDARDS

CORE SKILL

STANDARDS

CONCENTRATION 

SKILL 

STANDARDS
sector. The concentration standards aim to provide individuals with depth so that they can handle particular kinds of work across an industry sector. The specialty standards provide even more

depth in a particular job, occupation, industry, or

company practice. 

We envision a system in which individuals do not

just focus on mastering one type of standard, but

master a mix of the different types of standards

throughout their career. In this way, individuals

can gain the broad skills that will enable them to

move more easily between jobs and industries and

the more specialized skills that they will often

need to advance in their careers. 

Meeting the Needs of 

High Performance

The development of core, concentration, and specialty skill standards also reflects the needs of

today’s high-performance work organizations.

These organizations require an increasing degree

of flexibility within the workforce. 

By flexibility, we mean the ability of frontline

workers to carry out a broad range of responsibilities in order to help their organizations respond

faster and more effectively to changing market conditions and customer needs. For example, frontline

workers have traditionally focused almost exclusively on making a product or delivering a service.

In today’s high-performance organizations, individuals are working to improve quality and reduce

costs as part of their efforts to make a product or

deliver a service. They are also dealing directly

with customers and often working as part of teams

that share a range of roles and responsibilities. 

The development of core, concentration, and specialty standards will help build this kind of flexibility within the workforce a couple of different

ways. First, core standards identify the skills that

are common and critical to all frontline jobs

across an industry sector. This will give individuals a base of skills to perform a wide range of tasks,

helping to build a more flexible workforce. 

Second, the concentration standards will give

individuals a greater depth of skills in a particular

area of work, which also promotes flexibility.

Instead of covering the skills required for one narrow job, the concentrations cover the skills

required for broad areas of work, typically covering related jobs and occupations. Again, this will

help build a more flexible workforce.

To gain a better understanding of how skill standards promote portability and support the needs of

today’s high-performance organizations, let’s take

a closer look at each type of standard. We will

begin by looking at concentration skill standards–

the first type of skill standards that will be developed by the Voluntary Partnerships.

Concentration Standards 

One of the first steps in the standards development process is the identification of concentrations. Instead of developing standards for individual jobs, concentrations focus the development of

standards around major areas of work responsibility, typically covering families of related jobs and

occupations. 

The Common Framework calls for the identification of up to six concentrations within each

industry sector. 

Here are some draft sample concentrations identified by the Manufacturing Skill Standards

Council, the NSSB Voluntary Partnership developing standards for the Manufacturing, Installation,

and Repair industry sector. The following draft

concentrations will serve as an organizing mechanism for the development of skill standards (more

detailed information about what a standard actually looks like is provided in the next chapter).

CHAPTER 2: An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards

10
DRAFT SAMPLE

Manufacturing production process development

Develop, implement, and improve the manufacturing process through early production and process changes. Assess product and process design for manufacturability.

(Manufacturing technician, process improvement technician, manufacturing engineering technician, jig and fixture designer, tool and die maker.)

Logistics and inventory control 

Plan and control the movement and storage of materials and products in the

manufacturing system.

(Material handler, material mover, material associate, inventory specialist,

material analyst, shipping and receiving associate, store keeper, crib tender, production planner and scheduler.)

Production 

Set up, operate, monitor, control, and improve manufacturing processes and

schedules to meet customer and business requirements.

(Operator, production associate, assembler, set-up operator, fabricator, systems operation, production lead, process control operator.)

Production quality assurance

Ensure the manufacturing system meets quality system requirements as defined

by business and its customers.

(Lab technician, SPC coordinator, inspector, quality control technician.)

Health, safety, and environmental assurance

Ensure that the manufacturing system meets health, safety, and environmental

requirements.

(Health and safety representative, safety coordinator, safety team leader,

environmental compliance, waste disposer.)

Maintenance, installation, and repair

Ensure the maintenance of the manufacturing system fulfills customer and business requirements. Install and repair equipment on the manufacturing floor.

(Industrial maintenance mechanic, industrial maintenance electrician,

millwright, maintenance worker, network technician, mechanic.)

An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 2

11

CONCENTRATION CATEGORY

CONCENTRATION 

DEFINITION

SAMPLE JOB 

CLASSIFICATIONS

CONCENTRATION CATEGORY

CONCENTRATION 

DEFINITION

SAMPLE JOB 

CLASSIFICATIONS

CONCENTRATION CATEGORY

CONCENTRATION 

DEFINITION

SAMPLE JOB 

CLASSIFICATIONS

CONCENTRATION CATEGORY

CONCENTRATION 

DEFINITION

SAMPLE JOB 

CLASSIFICATIONS

CONCENTRATION CATEGORY

CONCENTRATION 

DEFINITION

SAMPLE JOB 

CLASSIFICATIONS

CONCENTRATION CATEGORY

CONCENTRATION 

DEFINITION

SAMPLE JOB 

CLASSIFICATIONS

DRAFT SAMPLE MANUFACTURING CONCENTRATIONS
A few things to note about concentration standards:

▲ Concentration standards are designed to

promote portability of skills and certifications because they apply to all industries

within an industry sector. For example, if

an individual mastered the standards for the

Production concentration listed above, he or

she would have many of the skills needed to

perform production work in a furniture

manufacturing plant, a chemical manufacturing plant, and more than a half dozen

other manufacturing industries that are part

of the Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair

industry sector. 

▲ Concentration standards are designed to

build flexibility in the workforce, a key

requirement of today’s high-performance

organizations. Instead of identifying skills for

one narrow job, concentration standards

identify the skills needed for the major areas

of work that get done across an industry sector. That means an individual who masters

one concentration will likely be prepared to

do the work of what might have traditionally been thought of as several different jobs.

This definition of work reflects the structure

of many of today’s high-performance organizations, where individuals are typically

responsible for broad areas of work. The

sample job classifications provided with

these manufacturing concentrations suggest

the many different job titles covered by each

concentration.

Core Standards

Once standards have been identified for each concentration, the Voluntary Partnerships will be

able to see what knowledge, skills, and performance are common and critical across all the concentrations. This information will form what are

called core skill standards, which will give individuals a broad base introduction to many kinds

of work across the industry sector. 

For example, working to improve quality will likely be reflected in the standards developed for every

manufacturing concentration listed above from

the Production concentration to the Logistics and

Inventory Control concentration. If this is identified in the research, then the core standards for

manufacturing will likely reflect this.

A few things to note about core standards:

▲ Core skill standards will help increase the

portability of skills and certifications by giving individuals a broad base of skills that

apply to all frontline jobs in all industries

within an industry sector. This same broad

base of skills will also help build a more flexible workforce, capable of carrying out a

broad range of responsibilities.

▲ The core skill standards will help educators

prioritize curriculum because they identify

what is essential for success across an industry sector. 

▲ The identification of core skill standards may

even help increase the portability of skills

and certifications from one industry sector to

another industry sector (until now, this

guidebook has mainly focused on portability

of skills and certifications within an industry

sector). For example, we may find that 25

percent of the core standards required for the

Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair industry sector are exactly the same as those

required for the Utilities, Environmental, and

Waste Management industry sector. This kind

of overlap, which will be easier to identify

with core standards, would help workers certified in skill standards for one industry sector

prepare for work and possibly find jobs in

another industry sector.

CHAPTER 2: An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards

12
An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 2

13

Core and Concentration: 

A Powerful Combination

To obtain certification within the NSSB voluntary national skill standards system, individuals

will be required to demonstrate mastery of the

core skill standards plus standards for at least one

concentration in an industry sector (this is called

a Core Plus Certificate). Some individuals may

choose to pursue certification in more than one

concentration or in all of them.

Even if an individual masters standards for only

one concentration, he or she will still have to

demonstrate mastery of the core standards to

obtain certification. With mastery of core standards as a requirement, individuals will have a base

of skills to handle a broad range of responsibilities

and the necessary foundation to one day learn,

perform, and be certified in the other concentrations within an industry sector. This will make the

mastery of additional concentrations easier, helping to both promote flexibility in the workforce

and prepare individuals for future challenges.

At the same time, by requiring mastery of standards for a concentration in order to get a Core

Plus Certificate, individuals will be able to attain

many of the more in-depth skills and knowledge

they will need to walk into a job and begin performing competently. 

Specialty Standards

We have spoken a lot about portability and flexibility and how important it is to develop standards

that apply across different industries and jobs in

order to achieve these two goals. Both concentration and core skill standards promote portability

and flexibility by focusing on what is common and

critical across related industries and jobs. 

While core and concentration skill standards will

cover a large part of what an individual needs to

know and be able to do to succeed at work, they

will not cover everything. For example, sales assistants working for a clothing store and a computer

wholesaler will need many of the same skills (e.g.,

the ability to work with customers to identify their

needs, the ability to sell a particular product, etc.)

But there are differences between what someone

selling computers needs to know and what someone selling clothing needs to know (e.g., knowledge of the different products, customers, etc.)

Specialty skill standards help fill this gap by identifying the knowledge, skills, and performance that

are unique to each of these industries. 

Specialty skill standards might cover the knowledge, skills, and performance unique to:

▲ A specific job or occupation. For example,

the specific skills needed to work as a legal

secretary versus the general skills needed to

work as a secretary, which may be covered

by core and concentration standards for

the Business and Administration Services

industry sector.

▲ A specific industry. For example, the specific skills needed for computer chip production versus the general skills needed for any

manufacturing production work, which will

be covered by core and concentration skill

standards for the Manufacturing, Installation,

and Repair industry sector. 

▲ A specific company. For example, the skills

and knowledge needed to carry out a company’s unique approach to quality versus quality techniques used across the industry sector,

which will be covered by the core and concentration skill standards.

Whereas the Voluntary Partnerships will develop

concentration and core standards, the development of specialty skill standards will be left to the

many organizations now doing this work (e.g.,

trade associations, education and training institu-
tions, unions, and companies). The NSSB is

working with these groups to link existing specialty standards to the emerging national system.

A Word About Certification

In the NSSB voluntary skill standards system two

major types of certifications will be issued:

1. Core Plus Certificates: Certification for

mastery of core plus at least one concentration. The standards, assessments, and certifications for each NSSB industry sector will be

developed by the Voluntary Partnerships and

submitted to the NSSB for endorsement. 

2. Specialty Certificates: Certification for mastery of specialty standards developed for specific jobs, occupations, industries, or companies within an industry

sector. Certifications

would continue to be

developed by outside

groups, but to be part

of the NSSB national

system, specialty standards, assessments, and

certifications must be

reviewed for endorsement by the Voluntary

Partnerships. The

Voluntary Partnerships

will act on behalf of the

NSSB and use NSSB guidelines to endorse

the certifications that conform. 

Core Plus Certificates and Specialty Certificates give

individuals a powerful package of complementary

qualifications. A Core Plus Certificate gives individuals a broad base of skills necessary to perform a

variety of jobs in a variety of industries, while

Specialty Certificates give individuals the specialized

skills and knowledge needed for a particular type of

job, occupation, industry, or company. 

CHAPTER 2: An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards

14

A Quick Review

This chapter contains a lot of details about the organization of skill standards. Let’s look at an example from an

individual’s perspective that brings it all together.

About four years ago, Johnny Ramos earned a Core Plus

Certificate in the Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair

industry sector. To get the certificate, he demonstrated mastery

in the core standards as well as standards for two concentrations—Production and Production Quality Assurance.

Johnny got a job with a company that makes small airplanes.

While with the new company, he earned a Specialty

Certificate in aerospace safety and health regulations. 

A year ago, Johnny and his family moved from Seattle to New

York. Johnny applied for a job with a large aircraft producer.

He was concerned about how to demonstrate his qualifications

to his new employer, but included information about his Core

Plus and Specialty certificates in his resume. His new

employer, who recently reorganized the frontline workforce

into teams with expanded responsibilities, was impressed with

Johnny’s experience, credentials, and the fact that Johnny had

continued to gain new skills.

In his new job, Johnny found that he was using many of the

skills for which he was certified. One day, he noticed a problem

in the cockpit production process. He used his knowledge of

production quality assurance, one of several concentrations in

which he is certified, to analyze the problem. Another day, he

was asked to help train his team in health and safety regulations

for aerospace. The fact that he has a Specialty Certificate in

aerospace health and safety issues was a big help.

Several months ago, the company decided that Johnny’s team

needed to take on some additional responsibilities, including

helping with logistics and inventory control. Johnny did not

have training in this area, but still had an advantage. He had

demonstrated mastery of the core standards for manufacturing

as part of his earlier Core Plus certification. The core standards for manufacturing include some of the skills and knowlCORE PLUS 

CERTIFICATES

SPECIALTY 

CERTIFICATES
An Overview of the NSSB Common Framework for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 2

15

edge needed for logistics and inventory control, which gave

Johnny a head start in learning the ins and outs of this new

activity. In fact, instead of taking the full three-month training

course, Johnny was able to bypass some of the coursework and

completed the training in just one month.

A few weeks ago, Johnny learned that demand for the aircraft

his company was manufacturing was way down and that the

company may need to lay off a large percentage of the workforce. He thought about applying for other jobs in the aerospace industry, but quickly found out that almost everyone

was laying off staff. 

Johnny’s friend, Ann, told Johnny that her company was experiencing a huge demand for its new economy car. Although

Johnny had never worked in an automobile factory, his Core

Plus Certificate in the manufacturing industry sector was

designed to prepare him for work in a wide range of related

manufacturing industries, including automobile manufacturing. 

Unfortunately, Johnny was laid off from his job at the aerospace company. He quickly applied to the auto plant, listing his

Core Plus Certificate in manufacturing in his resume. The

auto company was impressed by all of Johnny’s qualifications

and believed that Johnny’s NSSB Core Plus Certificate* combined with a short training course focusing on some unique

aspects of automobile manufacturing and the company’s unique

techniques would allow him to begin work soon. 

*Before using the Core Plus certification as one of several factors in

making its decision, the automobile company conducted an internal

validation to ensure the Core Plus standards, assessments, and certifications for the manufacturing industry sector were necessary for the

job for which Johnny had applied.

In this case example, we begin to see how a voluntary national system of skill standards, assessment and certification will...

▲ Reduce costs for employee recruitment and

hiring. Because Johnny has a Core Plus

Certificate and several Specialty Certificates, the

auto company can get a quick overview of his

skills. This overview speeds up the hiring

process and saves the company resources for

conducting its own assessments of Johnny’s

skills. It also helps the employer quickly

locate the right people for the right jobs. 

▲ Build a more flexible workforce. Johnny’s

certification in core standards gives him a

head start in learning about logistics and

inventory control. In addition, his mastery

of several concentration and specialty standards enables him to handle many different

kinds of challenges that arise on the job. 

▲ Promote long-term employment security.

Johnny is able to recover fairly quickly from

the sudden downturn in the aerospace industry because he has a broad range of skills that

prepare him for work in many different manufacturing industries—and a means to

demonstrate this to potential employers.

We have identified an organizational framework

for the development of a skill standards system.

Now, let’s look at what makes up a skill standard.

Skill standards—as defined by the NSSB—are

made up of two parts:

1. The work-oriented component: This aspect

of the skill standards describes what needs to

be done on the job and how well. It’s called

the work-oriented component of the standards because it focuses on the requirements

of work. 

2. The worker-oriented component: This

aspect of the skill standards describes the

knowledge and skills an individual needs to

possess in order to perform in this way. It’s

called the worker-oriented component

because it focuses on the knowledge and

skills a worker needs to perform competently.

Together, the work-oriented and worker-oriented

components of the skill standards provide individuals with a comprehensive picture of the knowledge, skills, and performance required for success

in today’s workplace.

Let’s look more closely at each of these components.

The Work-Oriented Component

Standards begin by describing what workers need to

be able to do on the job to perform competently. Do

individuals need to be able to identify customer

needs? Do they need to set up machinery? Do they

need to comply with state health regulations? And

what does it look like when these activities are being

performed well? The work-oriented component of

the skill standards answers these types of questions. 

Three elements make up the work-oriented component of a skill standard:

1. Critical work functions—The major

responsibilities of work covered by a concentration.

• Most concentrations can be characterized

by fewer than 15 critical work functions. 

17

A Common Format and Language 

for Skill Standards

CHAPTER 3

A NOTE ABOUT THIS CHAPTER

This chapter focuses mainly on what concentration skill

standards will look like. Core skill standards will be

expressed in a similar format. The NSSB and the Voluntary

Partnerships are working with specialty skill standards

developers to link their standards with this common format and language. 
• The critical work functions serve as the 

building blocks for the development of all

other aspects of the standards.

2. Key activities—The major duties or tasks

involved in carrying out a critical work

function. 

• Most critical work functions can be 

described by three to six key activities.

3. Performance indicators—Information on

how to determine when someone is performing each key activity competently. 

• Three to six performance indicators 

typically describe effective performance 

of key activities. 

• The performance indicators paint a more 

complete picture of what competent 

performance looks like, and they provide 

an important starting place for measuring 

performance.

Taken as a whole, critical work functions, along

with the key activities and performance indicators, tell us what workers need to do on the job to

perform competently.

CHAPTER 3: A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards

18

Keep in mind that this example shows just one of about a half

dozen critical work functions, identified for this concentration. In addition, critical work functions, key activities, and

performance indicators are just one-half of what makes up a

skill standard. The other half—known as the worker-oriented

component—is described later in this chapter. 

Draft Example of the Manufacturing

Work-Oriented Component

Key activities are the

duties and tasks involved

in carrying out a critical

work function.

Key Activity: Establish and

verify that resources, such as

materials, tools and equipment, are available for the

production process

Key Activity: Identify 

customer needs

Key Activity: Set up equipment for the production

process 

Key Activity: Inspect and

test the product to make

sure it meets specifications 

Key Activity: Document

product and process compliance with customer requirements

Critical Work

Function: 

Produce product to 

meet customer needs

Critical work functions describe the

major responsibilities that must be

carried out in order to achieve the

work covered by a concentration.

This critical work function is one of

about a half dozen critical work

functions identified for the manufacturing “Production” concentration. Here are some of the key

activities that have been

drafted for this critical work

function.
A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 3

19

The following partial example is in draft form. It is shown here to illustrate what we mean by 

a critical work function, key activity, and performance indicator. It was developed for the

Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair industry sector.

DRAFT SAMPLE

Raw materials are checked against work order. 

Tools and equipment are checked against work order.

Inventory discrepancies are communicated to the proper parties.

Necessary resources are at workstation when required.

Workers with appropriate skills are scheduled according to production needs. 

The needs of internal and external customers are recognized.

Customer contact about product aspects and printed specifications is maintained to ensure understanding of needs.

Customer needs are reviewed on a regular basis.

Customer specifications are up-to-date. 

Customer needs are communicated effectively to others including shift-to-shift, co-workers, and managers.

Issues preventing customer needs from being met are addressed proactively.

Proper repairs and adjustments are made to production equipment prior to putting into service. 

Set-up meets process specifications of internal and external customers.

First piece or production run meets specifications. 

Set-up procedures are documented for repeatability and stored appropriately.

Set-up meets ergonomic and other relevant health, safety, and environmental standards.

Set-up meets equipment specifications and is checked against documentation.

The calibration of the testing equipment is verified.

Established sampling plan and inspection policies and procedures are followed.

Product and production processes that do not meet specifications are identified promptly.

Inspection documentation is completed accurately and forwarded to the correct parties.

Appropriate testing and inspection tools and procedures are selected and followed.

Adjustments needed to bring the production process back into specification are identified, communicated, and performed in a timely manner.

Documentation of compliance is legible and clear. 

Documentation of compliance is written in the appropriate format and correctly stored.

Documentation of compliance is forwarded to the proper parties.

Documentation is complete and “sign off” is obtained.

Products are labeled appropriately for compliance or non-compliance.

Here are the performance indicators which correlate to the key activities on the previous page. The performance

indicators provide information on how to determine when someone is performing each key activity competently.
The Worker-Oriented Component 

Once each Voluntary Partnership has identified

what someone needs to be able to do on the job to

perform competently, the next step is to identify the

knowledge and skills an individual needs to possess

to perform in that way. This is called the worker-oriented component of the standards.

The NSSB Common Framework divides knowledge and skills into three categories:

1. Academic knowledge and skills—

Knowledge and skills associated with the

academic disciplines of reading, writing,

mathematics, and science.

2. Employability knowledge and skills—

Applied knowledge and skills used to perform effectively across a broad range of

occupations, such as teamwork, decision

making, and problem solving. 

3. Occupational and technical knowledge and

skills—The specific technical and occupational knowledge and skills needed for work,

such as engine repair, knowledge of sales

methods, or database programming. 

Rather than each Voluntary Partnership starting

from scratch to identify knowledge and skills

classifications, the NSSB convened an expert

panel to identify a common language for describing the academic and employability knowledge

and skills that are used at work. The use of this

common language for describing knowledge and

skills will foster the portability of skill standards

and certificates.

The NSSB did not develop a common language

for the occupational and technical knowledge and

skills because this category of knowledge and

skills is largely specific to each industry sector.

Instead, the NSSB has developed a common format and guidelines to help the Voluntary

CHAPTER 3: A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards

20

Partnerships describe occupational and technical

knowledge and skills that are specific to their

industry sectors.

A Common Language for

Knowledge and Skills

Let’s take a more in-depth look at the common

language and format developed for the academic

and employability knowledge and skills.

Academic Knowledge and Skills

The following is a list of the categories of academic knowledge and skills that are part of the NSSB

Common Framework:

▲ Reading: Understand and use written information that may be presented in a variety of

formats, such as text, tables, lists, figures,

and diagrams; select reading strategies appropriate to the purpose, such as skimming for

highlights, reading for detail, reading for

meaning, and critical analysis.

▲ Writing: Express ideas and information in

written form clearly, succinctly, accurately,

and in an organized manner; use English language conventions of spelling, punctuation,

grammar, and sentence and paragraph structure; and tailor written communication to

the intended purpose and audience.

▲ Mathematics: Understand, interpret, and

manipulate numeric or symbolic information; solve problems by selecting and applying appropriate quantitative methods such as

arithmetic, quantitative reasoning, estimation, measurement, probability, statistics,

algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

▲ Science: Understand and apply the basic

principles of the physical, chemical, biological, and earth sciences; understand and apply

the scientific method, including formulating
A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 3

21

and stating hypotheses and evaluating them

by experimentation or observation.

Employability Knowledge and Skills

The following is a list of the categories of employability knowledge and skills that are part of the

NSSB Common Framework:

▲ Listening: Attend to, receive, and correctly

interpret verbal communications and directions through cues such as the content and

context of the message and the tone, gestures, and facial expressions of the speaker.

▲ Speaking: Express ideas and facts orally in a

clear and understandable manner that sustains listener attention and interest; tailor

oral communication to the intended purpose

and audience.

▲ Using information and communications

technology: Select, access, and use necessary information, data, and communications-related technologies, such as basic personal computer applications, telecommunications equipment, Internet, electronic 

calculators, voice mail, email, facsimile

machines, and copying equipment to accomplish work activities.

▲ Gathering and analyzing information:

Obtain facts, information, or data relevant

to a particular problem, question, or issue

through observation of events or situations,

discussion with others, research, or retrieval

from written or electronic sources; organize,

integrate, analyze, and evaluate information.

▲ Analyzing and solving problems:

Anticipate or identify problems and their

causes; develop and analyze potential solutions or improvements using rational and

logical processes or innovative and creative

approaches when needed.

▲ Making decisions and judgments: Make

decisions that consider relevant facts and

information, potential risks and benefits,

and short- and long-term consequences or

alternatives.

▲ Organizing and planning: Organize and

structure work for effective performance

and goal attainment; set and balance priorities; anticipate obstacles; formulate plans

consistent with available human, financial,

and physical resources; modify plans or

adjust priorities given changing goals or

conditions.

▲ Using social skills: Interact with others in

ways that are friendly, courteous, and tactful

and that demonstrate respect for individual

and cultural differences and for the attitudes

and feelings of others.

▲ Adaptability: Change one’s own behavior or

work methods to adjust to other people or to

changing situations or work demands; be

receptive to new information, ideas, or

strategies to achieve goals.

▲ Working in teams: Work cooperatively and

collaboratively with others to achieve goals

by sharing or integrating ideas, knowledge,

skills, information, support, resources,

responsibility, and recognition.

MORE IN-DEPTH DEFINITIONS

These are only brief definitions of the academic and employability knowledge and skills. The NSSB has also developed

skill scales for each of these categories, an example of which

is described later in this chapter. These skill scales provide

more in-depth definitions for each of the academic and

employability knowledge and skills. 
CHAPTER 3: A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards

22

▲ Leading others: Motivate, inspire, and

influence others toward effective individual

or team work performance, goal attainment,

and personal learning and development by

serving as a mentor, coach, and role model

and by providing feedback and recognition

or rewards.

▲ Building consensus: Build consensus among

individuals or groups by facilitating agreements that involve sharing or exchanging

resources or resolving differences in such a

way as to promote mutual goals and interests;

by persuading others to change their point of

view or behavior without losing their future

support; and by resolving conflicts, confrontations, and disagreements while maintaining productive working relationships.

▲ Self and career development: Identify own

work and career interests, strengths, and

limitations; pursue education, training, feedback, or other opportunities for learning and

development; manage, direct, and monitor

one’s own learning and development.

Occupational and Technical 

Knowledge and Skills

Occupational and technical skills include such

things as the use or operation of tools, machines,

and equipment. Occupational and technical

knowledge encompasses knowledge of methods or

theories; particular products or services; and languages other than English. Occupational and

technical knowledge may also include other elements, such as knowledge of computer software

programs and applications, general business and

industry knowledge, and an understanding of

workplace systems, culture, and policies.

Unlike the academic and employability knowledge and skills that apply to work carried out

across different industry sectors, the occupational

and technical knowledge and skills will typically

only apply to one industry sector. That’s why it

will be up to the Voluntary Partnerships to identify the occupational and technical knowledge and

skills that apply to their industry sectors.

The following are examples of different types of

occupational and technical knowledge and skills

that may be identified:

▲ Welding

▲ Use of bookkeeping software

▲ Knowledge of quality assurance techniques,

safety regulations, sales and marketing techniques.

Keep in mind that occupational and technical

knowledge and skills identified for core and concentration skill standards should apply across all

the industries that make up an industry sector.

For example, knowledge of safety regulations for

the manufacturing industry sector should only

cover knowledge of safety regulations that are

relevant to all industries within the sector (e.g.,

safety rules that would apply to food manufacturing, automobile manufacturing, and the other

manufacturing industries that make up the sector). Knowledge of safety regulations that are

unique to food manufacturing, for example,

might be covered by the occupational and technical knowledge and skills developed for the specialty skill standards. 

ADDING NEW CATEGORIES 

OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

The NSSB recognizes that as the Voluntary Partnerships

develop standards, they may identify academic and employability knowledge and skills that were not included in the

Common Framework. The NSSB encourages the Voluntary

Partnerships to submit these findings for possible inclusion in

future versions of the common language for academic and

employability knowledge and skills.
Linking the Knowledge and Skills 

to Critical Work Functions

Using these descriptions of the academic, employability, and occupational and technical knowledge

and skills, the Voluntary Partnerships will identify

the knowledge and skills needed to perform each

critical work function (along with its key activities

and performance indicators) in a concentration. 

That means for each critical function, the

Voluntary Partnerships will need to answer the

following questions:

▲ Which of the academic knowledge and

skills are needed to perform this critical

work function?

▲ Which of the employability knowledge and

skills are needed to perform this critical

work function?

▲ Which of the occupational and technical

knowledge and skills are needed to perform

this critical work function?

By answering these questions, the skill standards will

provide information on the specific knowledge and

skills needed to perform each critical work function,

along with its key activities and performance indicators. This linkage of knowledge and skills at the critical work function level is meant to help users of the

skill standards, such as educators, trainers, and those

developing assessments based on the standards. 

Imagine that you are a trainer developing an

exercise aimed at helping individuals perform a

critical work function, along with its key activities. You would be able to find out exactly which

knowledge and skills an individual needs in order

to perform a particular critical work function. For

example, mathematics, writing, and teamwork

might be required to perform one critical work

function, whereas reading, listening and welding

might be required for another. Knowledge of the

A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 3

23

SEEING THE SKILL SCALES

The full set of academic and employability skill scales are

available in the Skill Scales Companion Guide. If you have

not already received this publication along with this

guidebook, please contact the NSSB to order one. 

link between critical work functions, key activities, and skills required is very helpful. It will

enable you to create far more effective training.

But as any educator or trainer will tell you, this

kind of information just skims the surface. It’s

helpful knowing that workers need to know

mathematics to perform a particular critical work

function, but do they need to know averages or

simple addition? It’s useful knowing they need to

write, but do they need to be able to write a highly technical report or a quick memo? 

The worker-oriented component of the standards

will address these questions by providing information on the level of complexity required for each

knowledge or skill, along with examples of work

that illustrate the different levels. 

Rating Complexity Levels

Once the knowledge and skills have been identified for each critical work function, the Voluntary

Partnerships will determine the complexity level

required for the knowledge and skill identified. 

For example, let’s say that a standards development panel has determined that reading is

required to achieve a particular critical work function. That panel would then determine what level

of reading was required on a scale of one to five. 

To help the Voluntary Partnerships do that, the

NSSB has developed a common set of complexity

rating scales for each of the 17 academic and
CHAPTER 3: A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards

24

READING

Understand and use written information that may be presented in a variety of formats, such as text, tables, lists, figures, and

diagrams; select reading strategies appropriate to the purpose, such as skimming for highlights, reading for detail, reading for

meaning, and critical analysis.

• Highly complex or technical materials are read

(e.g., technical manuals,

reports, proposals, procedures, written commentaries, formal email, substantially visual material

such as flowcharts); material contains high density

of information and a substantial proportion of

highly technical terms or

unfamiliar vocabulary.

• Reading skills used are

highly complex, including

evaluation of the effectiveness of the text (i.e.,

its relevance, accuracy,

efficiency, and appropriateness) and analysis of

arguments and positions

advanced to determine

validity, sufficiency, and

evidence of bias.

• Reading purpose is highly

complex; text is analyzed

and evaluated, and information is applied to a

new situation or task.

• Moderately complex or

technical materials are

read (e.g., letters,

memos, email, multistep

directions and instructions, reference materials, books on particular

topics, visuals that support meaning such as

charts, graphs, figures,

diagrams, and maps).

• Reading skills used are

moderately complex,

including interpretation

of information from multiple sources; integration

of information with prior

knowledge and experiences; and identification

of complexities and discrepancies in the presented information.

• Reading purpose is moderately complex; text is

read to obtain information that is then communicated to others or used

to perform a multistep

task.

• Simple, familiar, or nontechnical materials are

read (e.g., labels, telephone messages, routine

forms, lists, simple notes,

signs, informal email).

• Reading skills used are

minimally complex,

including comprehension

of simple written information to solve basic

problems; literal understanding of text; and

application of basic features of reading such as

phonics, syllabication,

and word parts.

• Reading purpose is minimally complex; text is

read to obtain general

information or follow

simple instructions to

perform a task.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL SCALE

HIGH MODERATE LOW

COMPLEXITY 

DIMENSION

TYPE OF TEXT

How complex is the type

of material to be read

when performing this

critical work function?

COMPLEXITY OF

READING SKILLS

How complex are the

reading skills used to 

perform this critical 

work function?

COMPLEXITY OF 

READING PURPOSE

How complex is the

reading purpose in 

performing this critical

work function?

This is an example of a skill scale, which will be used to rate the complexity level required for a given knowledge or skill.
A Common Format and Language for Skill Standards: CHAPTER 3

25

employability knowledge and skills. Let’s look at

the skill scale for reading, opposite.

Skill Standards: A Total Package

National voluntary skill standards offer a rare and

powerful combination of information. They

describe what someone needs to do on the job (the

work-oriented component) and they describe the

knowledge and skills he or she needs to perform in

this way (the worker-oriented component). 

What’s the best way to use all this information? It

may be tempting to use just one aspect of the skill

standards in your efforts to improve workforce

performance. For example, trainers and educators

might gravitate to the knowledge and skills for

developing curricula. Employers, in contrast,

might focus on the critical work functions, key

activities, and performance indicators to improve

employee skills or to seek new ideas for how to

organize their frontline workforce. 

That’s not a bad thing. Skill standards include

both kinds of information to enable different

groups to use the standards for different purposes. 

But the real power of skill standards—and the way

to use them to truly increase workforce skills and

productivity—is to take full advantage of both the

work-oriented and worker-oriented components. 

Let’s look at a few examples:

▲ One of the challenges facing educators is

developing programs that prepare students

for the real challenges of work. By using

both components of the skill standards, educators and trainers can achieve this goal. 

Imagine you are a community college educator

developing a Communications in Business

course. You might start with the academic and

employability knowledge and skills to find out

more information about what kinds of skills are

required (e.g., writing and listening). Instead of

teaching listening and writing skills that have

little to do with the workplace, however, you

could look up how the knowledge and skills

link to different critical work functions in different industry sectors. You might find that listening skills are used to evaluate customer

needs. You could then develop an exercise that

simulates this real workplace activity to help

improve your students’ listening skills. 

▲ With work changing so rapidly, employers

often need a way to communicate fastchanging business goals and objectives to

employees in a way that will result in better

performance. Although many companies can

clearly articulate their business goals and

strategies, they rarely have the tools they

need to explain exactly what workers need

to be able to do to achieve these goals.

Skill standards provide employers with a

powerful tool for communicating what they

expect workers to be able to do on the job

(i.e., the work-oriented component—the

critical functions, key activities, and performance indicators) and to link those expectations with the knowledge and skills an individual needs to meet those expectations

(i.e., the worker-oriented component—academic, employability, and occupational and

technical knowledge and skills).

▲ Assessing whether someone is qualified for a

given job is extremely challenging. An individual might know how to write well, but can

he or she write a good business memo?

Someone might know exactly how a computer software program works, but can he or she

use it to solve a real workplace problem? The

standards give assessment developers information on the knowledge and skills individuals

need to possess as well as the context in

which they need to use their know-ledge and

skills. This will lead to the development of

assessments that truly measure whether someone is prepared for real workplace demands.

In this chapter, we’ll look at several important goals

to keep in mind when developing skill standards.

Creating Tools for Progress

One of the key goals for the NSSB in developing

skill standards is to help build a frontline workforce

capable of taking on the new roles and responsibilities needed to compete in today’s economy. To

achieve this goal, skill standards must reflect the

needs of high-performance work organizations within an industry sector.

High-performance, as defined by the NSSB, does

not necessarily mean high-tech or large organizations. Instead, it refers to organizations that are:

▲ Quality-driven and customer-oriented.

These organizations focus on error-free output, high productivity, and meeting customers’ needs.

▲ Highly flexible and agile. These organizations are readily able to customize products

and services; continuously improve products,

services, and processes; and adapt quickly to

changing customer requirements.

▲ Supportive of decentralized decision-making and employee participation. These organizations give considerable scope to skilled

workers to make the decisions, to respond to

customers, to deal with the unexpected, and

to contribute to improving quality. Such

workers typically have responsibility for a

broader range of activities than workers in

more traditional organizations and they are

often required to work in groups or teams in

which members are expected to be able to

do one another’s work and occasionally take

responsibility for leading the group.

▲ Making effective use of resources, including leading-edge technologies and a welleducated, well-trained workforce, to

achieve their business goals. These organizations tend to provide a large amount of formal and informal education and training to

employees to enable them to add as much

value as possible to the organization’s products and services.

▲ Providing a positive incentive structure.

These organizations reward employees for

their contributions to the organization’s goals.

The NSSB believes more and more companies are

moving in this direction as they respond to growing competition, new technologies, and changing

customer demands. To ensure the needs of the

high-performance organization are reflected in

the standards, the NSSB encourages Voluntary

27

General Guidance for 

Developing Skill Standards

CHAPTER 4
Partnerships to recruit as many members of their

standards development panels as possible from

high-performance companies. By reflecting the

needs of the “high-performance” organization,

skill standards can become a tool for progress

rather than an anchor for outmoded performance. 

It should be noted that it is the legal responsibility

of all employers—even those employers who might

categorize their organizations as high-performance

or who believe that these characteristics reflect

their organization’s approach to work—to conduct

an internal validation study before using NSSB

endorsed standards and related assessments and certifications to make hiring and promotion decisions. 

Making Standards Useful for 

Many Different Purposes

Skill standards will be used by many different people to achieve many different goals—from the

community college instructor trying to develop

curricula to a student learning about jobs in an

industry. To ensure this diverse audience understands the standards and uses them properly, it is

essential to communicate standards clearly using

the NSSB common format and language. 

The Need for Credibility

Standards must portray the true requirements of

today’s workplace. This goal may seem obvious,

but it’s an easy one to forget in the rush to develop and begin using skill standards. 

Standards may be used as a tool for making critical decisions about education, training, hiring,

promotions, and the way that work is organized.

This will have far-reaching implications for individuals, companies, and the economy. It is essential that the best methods be used to develop and

communicate standards; that the right people be

involved; and that the accuracy of the work be

ensured every step of the way.

Developing a Sound Research Plan

A few experts in a room cannot develop skill standards. No matter how qualified these individuals

might be, their own unique experiences and background would limit their knowledge about the

requirements of work across huge segments of the

economy. In addition, the standards developed

from such a process would not be defensible for

use in assessment and certification.

CHAPTER 4: General Guidance for Developing Skill Standards

28

ENDORSEMENT – A SNAP SHOT

To ensure quality, the NSSB has established a rigorous

endorsement process, which calls for the creation of skill

standards that are:

• Written in the common language and format described 

by the NSSB Common Framework

• Consistent with civil rights laws

• Nationally and internationally benchmarked

• Forward looking

• Continuously improved and updated

For more detailed information on NSSB endorsement criteria, contact the NSSB. 

By reflecting the needs of 

the “high-performance” 

organization, skill standards can

become a tool for progress 

rather than an anchor for 

outmoded performance. 
Skill standards must be developed by using rigorous research methods that systematically analyze

workplace performance. That’s the only way to

produce reliable results that are consistent with

civil rights laws and NSSB criteria, which seek to

ensure equal access to the new world of work.

What determines the success of the research

method?

▲ The quality of the participants: Frontline

workers and supervisors in high-performance

organizations are some of the best sources of

information about the requirements of work.

Because they are the ones performing and

supervising the work, these individuals are in

an ideal position to describe how work is

changing and what is needed for success. In

addition, Voluntary Partnerships may find it

helpful to consult:

• Managers

• Trainers

• Educators

• Recruiters

• Human resources personnel

• Professional work and job analysts

▲ The number of participants: To describe work

across broad segments of the economy requires

the input of many people. The number of participants required will reflect the geographic

and demographic diversity of the standards

that are being developed. This diversity, which

is necessary for compliance with civil rights

laws, adds to the quality of the analysis and the

applicability of the results.

▲ The industry-wide survey: Once the skill

standards have been developed, it is important to find out if the standards are relevant

across an industry sector. Not only is the

survey a way to double-check the quality of

the work, it is an essential step for using the

standards for such high-stakes applications

as assessment and certification. The survey,

which will likely involve thousands of workers, needs to adhere to rigorous technical

requirements regarding the number and

demographic diversity of those surveyed.

Moving Forward

We have reached an exciting moment in the history of this project. At the time of this publication, several Voluntary Partnerships have begun

developing skill standards based on the Common

Framework. Others are preparing to start. 

Soon, the NSSB will be releasing a series of publications describing a common approach to assessment and certification based on skill standards.

Moment by moment, we are watching as the system unfolds. 

As we begin to put theory into practice, we can

refine and improve the framework, updating this

publication as the system unfolds. 

General Guidance for Developing Skill Standards: CHAPTER 4

29

KEEPING CURRENT

To ensure that core and concentration standards truly reflect

the requirements of the workplace, they will need to be

updated at least every five years. Specialty standards, which

focus on faster changing skills, will need to be updated at

least every three years. 

In the next decade, the demand

for skilled workers is expected to

grow in every industry...
Moving forward, we must remember that the

issues that fueled the creation of this project have

not gone away. In the next decade, the demand

for skilled workers is expected to grow in every

industry...

▲ The Big Three automakers will need over

250,000 new workers.

▲ The information technology industry will

need over 1,000,000 new workers.

▲ The health services industry will need over

750,000 new workers.

Global competition is expected to intensify. New

technologies will continue to change the way

each one of us does our job. The demand for quality and cost savings will be as critical as ever.

The NSSB and its partners are working hard to

get out in front of these changes through the

development of skill standards. The Common

Framework is critical to the success of this effort.

If we want to provide individuals with portable

skills and certifications they can use to get jobs in

different industries across the country, industries

and states need to work together. If we want to

create clear paths for learning and career development, we need to avoid overlap among different

types of skill standards. All this requires coordination, which the Common Framework is designed

to foster.

The Common Framework also will help ensure

the quality of the skill standards we develop. The

result of years of research, the Common

Framework draws on lessons from previous skill

standards development work in the United States

and abroad and on insights of the country’s most

respected workforce experts. Most importantly, it

reflects a clear consensus, among the many stakeholders involved in this effort, about what skill

standards need to achieve.

With the Common Framework to guide us, and

the hard work of the Voluntary Partnerships, we

can create a new approach to workforce issues.

Yes, it takes time. Yes, it takes hard work. But

weigh these challenges against the benefits and

there’s no question that it’s worth the effort.

CHAPTER 4: General Guidance for Developing Skill Standards

30

GETTING INVOLVED

For more information about standards being developed for a

specific industry sector or to get involved in the standards

development process, contact the Voluntary Partnerships listed in Appendix A or contact the NSSB directly. In addition to

this and other publications, the NSSB offers direct technical

assistance and advice through its team of standards development experts. For more information, contact the NSSB at 

202-254-8628 (phone); information@nssb.org (email); or

www.nssb.org (web site).


The following is an excerpt from the act of Congress

that established the NSSB:

Congress established the National Skill Standards

Board in 1994. According to the 1994 National

Skill Standards Act, the purpose of the board is:

To serve as a catalyst in stimulating the development and adoption of a voluntary national system of skill standards and of assessment and certification of attainment of skill standards—

(1) that will serve as a cornerstone of the national strategy to enhance workforce skills;

(2) that will result in increased productivity, economic growth, and American economic competitiveness; and

(3) that can be used, consistent with civil rights

laws—

(A) by the Nation, to ensure the development

of a high skills, high quality, high performance workforce, including the most skilled

frontline workforce in the world;

(B) by industries, as a vehicle for informing

training providers and prospective employees

of skills necessary for employment;

(C) by employers, to assist in evaluating the

skill levels of prospective employees and to

assist in the training of current employees;

(D) by labor organizations, to enhance the

employment security of workers by providing

portable credentials and skills;

(E) by workers, to—

(i) obtain certifications of their skills to

protect against dislocation;

(ii) pursue career advancement; and

(iii) enhance their ability to reenter the

workforce;

(F) by students and entry level workers; to

determine the skill levels and competencies

needed to be obtained in order to compete

effectively for high wage jobs;

(G) by training providers and educators, to

determine appropriate training services to

offer;

(H) by government, to evaluate whether publicly funded training assists participates to

meet skill standards where such standards

exist and thereby protect the integrity of public expenditures;

(I) to facilitate the transition to high performance work organizations;

(J) to increase opportunities for minorities

and women, including removing barriers to

the entry of women into nontraditional

employment; and

(K) to facilitate linkages between other components of the national strategy to enhance

workforce skills, including school-to-work

transition, secondary and postsecondary vocational-technical education, and job training

programs...

33

More About the National 

Skill Standards Board

APPENDIX A

The Voluntary Partnerships are coalitions of

employers, employees, educators, and community

and civil rights organizations that will be developing core and concentration skill standards for different industry sectors. Already, Voluntary

Partnerships have begun developing skill standards

for several of the following 15 industry sectors:

▲ Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

▲ Business and Administrative Services

▲ Construction

▲ Education and Training

▲ Finance and Insurance

▲ Health and Human Services

▲ Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair

▲ Mining

▲ Public Administration, Legal, and Protective

Services

▲ Restaurants, Lodging, Hospitality and

Tourism, and Amusement and Recreation

▲ Retail Trade, Wholesale Trade, Real Estate,

and Personal Services

▲ Scientific and Technical Services

▲ Telecommunications, Computers, Arts and

Entertainment, and Information

▲ Transportation

▲ Utilities, Environmental, and Waste

Management

The following charts provide information on the

Voluntary Partnerships that have been established

at the time of publication. For more information

about work taking place in other industry sectors,

contact the NSSB.

35

More About the Voluntary Partnerships

APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B: More About the Voluntary Partnerships

36

KEY NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Employer representatives:*

National Association of Manufacturers,

National Alliance of Business, National

Coalition for Advanced Manufacturing,

National Institute for Metalworking Skills,

General Motors, General Electric, Boeing,

IBM, Chrysler, Merck, Johnson & Johnson,

Rockwell, Compaq, Digital, Lockheed

Martin, Motorola, Dow Chemical, Exxon,

Eastman Kodak, Qualcomm Inc., R.J.

Reynolds Co., Intel, Siemens, Corning,

Texas Instruments, Procter & Gamble,

United Technologies Corp., Whirlpool,

Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers

Employee representatives:*

Industrial Union Department/AFL-CIO,

United Auto Workers, United Steel

Workers, UFCW Chemical Workers

Division, PACE International Union

Public interest/education representatives:*

American Association of Community

Colleges, American Vocational Association,

American Society for Training and

Development, National Urban League,

Vocational-Technical Education

Consortium of States, Georgia Department

of Technical and Adult Education, National

Center on Adult Literacy

COALITION REPRESENTS

Percent of GDP** represented: 17%

Percent of U.S. workforce represented: 14%

CONTACT INFORMATION

MSSC Project Co-Director

National Coalition for Advanced

Manufacturing-(NACFAM)

1201 New York Avenue, NW

Suite 725

Washington, DC 20005-3917

Phone: (202) 216-2746

Fax: (202) 289-7642

or

MSSC Project Co-Director

Working for America

AFL-CIO

1101 14th Street, NW 

Suite 320

Washington, DC 20005

Phone: (202) 331-0081

Fax: (202) 331-5869

* As of March 2000

** GDP, Gross Domestic Product, as of March 2000

Manufacturing Skill Standards Council (MSSC) Voluntary Partnership, 

representing the Manufacturing, Installation, and Repair Industry Sector
More About the Voluntary Partnerships: APPENDIX B

37

KEY NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Employer representatives:*

National Retail Federation, Sears Roebuck

and Co., Kmart Corporation, Federated

Department Stores, J.C. Penney Company,

Inc., American Express Company,

Nordstrom, General Motors, National

Federation of Independent Businesses, Long

& Foster Realtors, Circuit City Stores,

Office Depot, McDonald’s, Winn-Dixie

Stores, Inc., Aramark, Wal-Mart, Target,

Home Depot, Blockbuster, Frito-Lay, Eddie

Bauer, Hair Cuttery, Food Marketing

International, National Association of

Realtors, Proctor & Gamble, Jewelers of

America, Crate and Barrel, Claires

Accessories, NAPA, National Grocers

Association

Employee representatives:*

United Food and Commercial Workers,

AFL-CIO

Public interest/education representatives:*

AARP, Academy for Educational

Development, Ohio Department of

Education, Goodwill Industries, National

Urban League, American Association of

Community Colleges, National Institute for

Literacy, Distributive Education Clubs of

America, Youth Opportunities in Retailing

COALITION REPRESENTS

Percent of GDP** represented: 27%

Percent of U.S. workforce represented: 18.4%

CONTACT INFORMATION

S&SVP, Inc. Project Coordinator

National Retail Institute, Liberty Place

325 7th Street, NW 

Suite 1100

Washington, DC 20004

Phone: (202) 626-8100

Fax: (202) 737-2849

* As of March 2000

** GDP, Gross Domestic Product, as of March 2000

Sales & Service Voluntary Partnership (S&SVP Inc.) representing the Retail Trade,

Wholesale Trade, Real Estate, and Personal Services Industry Sector
KEY NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Employer representatives:*

National School Boards Association,

American Association of School

Administrators, American Association of

Community Colleges, American Society for

Training and Development, National Child

Care Association, Forum Corporation,

Deloitte & Touche Consulting Group,

General Motors, Marriott Corporation,

National Association of Private Industry

Councils, State Directors of Vocational

Education, National Alliance of Business,

Career Colleges Association

Employee representatives:*

American Federation of Teachers,

AFSCME, American Association of

Classified School Employees, Colorado

Education Association, National Center for

the Early Childhood Work Force, American

Association of University Professionals,

National Education Association, Public

School Employees of Washington State,

United Guilford Federation of Teachers

(NC)

Public interest/education representatives:*

National Urban League, National

Association for Bilingual Education,

American Association of Colleges for

Teacher Education, National Resource

Center for Paraprofessionals on Education

and Related Services, National Board for

Professional Teaching Standards, Wider

Opportunities for Women, National Urban

Coalition, Jobs for the Future, Council of

Chief State School Officers

COALITION REPRESENTS

Percent of GDP** represented: 1%

Percent of U.S. workforce represented: 8.7%

CONTACT INFORMATION

E&T Voluntary Partnership Project

Coordinator

American Federation of Teachers

555 New Jersey Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20001

Phone: (202) 879-4520

Fax: (202) 879-4597

* As of March 2000

** GDP, Gross Domestic Product, as of March 2000

APPENDIX B: More About the Voluntary Partnerships

38

Education and Training (E&T) Voluntary Partnership, 

representing the Education and Training Industry Sector


The NSSB members and staff would like to thank

the NSSB Voluntary Partnerships and others who

have contributed to the building of the Common

Framework for the NSSB voluntary national system of skill standards, assessment and certification. So lengthy is the list of individuals who have

made significant contributions to this effort during the past four years that it is not possible to list

them all here. To each of these many contributors, the NSSB expresses its sincere gratitude.

Regarding this first in a series of publications,

Built to Work, the NSSB extends a special thanks

to Eileen Antonucci, Ph.D, who has taken on the

role of NSSB Technical Lead for the development

of standards and assessment. Eileen was assisted

in this work by Eve Rose, principal writer; Elaine

Biech, production manager; Amy Marks and

Betsy Delaney, copyeditors; and Carol Hardy,

graphic designer. 

The NSSB also acknowledges the individuals who

contributed their thoughtful advice and suggestions while reviewing this publication, including

Sally Allan, NSSB consultant; Leslie Annexstein,

Esq., senior counsel, National Women’s Law

Center; Allison Black, JD, NSSB Civil Rights

Policy Advisor; Leaetta Hough, Ph.D,

Endorsement Review Panel, NSSB; Tina Kelley,

Director of Communications, NSSB; Ken

Pearlman, Ph.D, Member, Endorsement Review

Panel, NSSB; Betsy Brown Ruzzi, Director,

Development and National Affairs, National

Center on Education and the Economy; Judy

Seabridge, NSSB Technical Team; and Cheryl

Fields Tyler, NSSB Technical Team.

41

Acknowledgments

Edie West

NSSB Executive Director
NSSB Chairman:

James R. Houghton

Chairman of the Board, Emeritus

Corning, Incorporated

NSSB Vice Chairs:

James Burge

Former Corporate Vice President & 

Director of Governmental Affairs

Motorola, Inc.

Paul F. Cole

Secretary Treasurer 

New York State AFL-CIO

Vice President

American Federation of Teachers

William E. Weisgerber

Former State Director

Michigan Department of Education’s Office of

Career and Technical Education

NSSB Members:

Earline Ashley

Executive Director

Rankin County Human Resource Agency

Susan Auld

President

Auld, Bishop and Adams

George Becker

President

United Steelworkers of America

George Bliss

Director of Training

United Association of Journeymen and

Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting

Industry of the United States and Canada

Terrance Craney

President

Wisconsin Education Association Council

Kenneth Edwards

Former Director of Research and Technical

Services

International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers

Tim C. Flynn

Chairman

Lodge Net Entertainment

Barbara Kairson

Administrator

District Council 37 Education Fund

American Federation of State, County, and

Municipal Employees

Ray Marshall 

Audre & Bernard Rapopore Centennial Chair,

Emeritus in Economics and Public Affairs

University of Texas

LBJ School of Public Affairs

Jon A. Reeves

Partner

Reeves and Williams Builders

Ronald K. Robinson

President

International Longshoremen’s Association

Marc S. Tucker

President

National Center on Education & the Economy

Jerald Tunheim

President

Dakota State University

42

Board Members
Anne-Lee Verville

Former General Manager of Worldwide Education

Industry

IBM Corporation

Carolyn Warner

President

Corporate Education Consulting, Inc.

Alan L. Wurtzel

Vice Chairman of the Board

Circuit City Stores, Inc.

Ex Officio Members:

The Honorable Alexis M. Herman

Secretary

U.S. Department of Labor

The Honorable William M. Daley

Secretary

U.S. Department of Commerce

The Honorable Richard W. Riley

Secretary

U.S. Department of Education

Former NSSB Members:

Bruce Carswell

Former Sr. Vice President, Human Resources &

Administration

GTE

William Crotty (Deceased) 

Former Senior Partner 

Black, Crotty, Sims, Hubka, Burnett, 

Birch & Samuels 

Marcia Greenberger

Founder and Co-President

The National Women’s Law Center

Dr. Herbert J. Grover 

Former Superintendent of Public Instruction

State of Wisconsin 

Yvette Herrera

Administrative Assistant to the President

Director of Education

Communications Workers of America 

Mayor Vera Katz 

City of Portland 

Hugh B. Price

President & Chief Operating Officer

National Urban League, Inc.

Michael Riccards

President

Fitchburg State College

Raymond J. Robertson

General Vice President & Executive Director of

Apprenticeship Training

International Association of Bridge, Structural,

Ornamental and Reinforcing Iron Workers

Stephen Sayler

Human Resource Manager

Toys R Us

Katherine Schrier 

Former Administrator 

District Council 37 Education Fund 

American Federation of State, County, and

Municipal Employees 

Dr. Esteban Soriano 

Vice President for University Advancement 

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona 

John T. Smith

Administrative Assistant to the International

President & Director United Steelworkers of

America, AFL-CIO-CLC and the Director of

the USWA Dislocated Workers Program

(Retired)

BOARD MEMBERS

43