I 

The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, 

Before Geothermal Development 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1998 
AVAILABILITY OF BOOKS AND MAPS OF THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Instructions on ordering publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, along with the last offerings, are given in the current-year issues 

of the monthly catalog "New Publications ofthe U.S. Geological Survey." Prices of available U.S. Geological Survey publications released 

prior to the current year are listed in the most recent annual "Price and Availability List." Publications that are listed in various U.S. 

Geological Survey catalogs (see back inside cover) but not listed in the most recent annual "Price and Availability List" are no longer 

available. 

Prices of reports released to the open files are given in the listing "U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Reports," updated monthly, which 

is for sale in microfiche from the U.S. Geological Survey Books and Open-File Reports Sales, Box 25286, Denver, CO 80225. 

Order U.S. Geological Survey publications by mail or over the counter from the offices given below. 

BY MAIL 

Books 

Professional Papers, Bulletins, Water-Supply Papers, Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Circulars, publications 

of general interest (such as leaflets, pamphlets, booklets), single 

copies of periodicals (Earthquakes & Volcanoes, Preliminary Determination of Epicenters), and some miscellaneous reports, including some of the foregoing series that have gone out of print at 

the Superintendent of Documents, are obtainable by mail from 

U.S. Geological Survey, Books and Open-File Reports Sales 

Box 25286 

Denver, CO 80225 

Subscriptions to periodicals (Earthquakes & Volcanoes and 

Preliminary Determination of Epicenters) can be obtained ONLY 

from 

Superintendent of Documents 

U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, DC 20402 

(Check or money order must be payable to Superintendent of 

Documents.) 

Maps 

For maps, address mail orders to 

U.S. Geological Survey, Map Sales 

Box 25286 

Denver, CO 80225 

Residents of Alaska may order maps from 

U.S. Geological Survey, Map Sales 

101 Twelfth Ave., Box 12 

Fairbanks, AK 99701 

OVER THE COUNTER 

Books 

Books of the U.S. Geological Survey are available over the 

counter at the following U.S. Geological Survey offices, all of which 

are authorized agents of the Superintendent of Documents. 

• ANCHORAGE, Alaska-4230 University Dr., Rm. 101 

• LAKEWOOD, Colorado-Federal Center, Bldg. 810 

• MENLO PARK, California-Bldg. 3, Rm. 3128, 345 

Middlefield Rd. 

• RESTON, Virginia-National Center, Rm. IC402, 12201 

Sunrise Valley Dr. 

• SALT LAKE CITY, Utah-Federal Bldg., Rm. 8105, 125 

South State St. 

• SPOKANE, Washington-Rm. 135, U.S. Post Office Bldg., 

W. 904 Riverside Ave. 

• WASHINGTON,D.C.-U.S.DepartmentoftheinteriorBldg., 

Rm. 2650, 1849 C St., NW. 

Maps 

Maps may be purchased over the counter at the U.S. Geological Survey offices where books are sold (all addresses in above 

list) and at the following Geological Survey offices: 

• ROLLA, Missouri-1400 Independence Rd. 

• FAIRBANKS, Alaska-New Federal Building, 101 Twelfth 

Ave. 
The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, 

Before Geothermal Development 

By DONALD E. WHITE 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1998 
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

MANUEL LUJAN, JR., Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names 

in this publication is for descriptive purposes only 

and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government 

Text and illustrations edited by George A. Havach 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1992 

For sale by 

Book and Open-File Report Sales 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Federal Center, Box 25286 

Denver, CO 80225 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

White, Donald Edward, 1914-

The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, before geothermal development I by 

Donald E. White. 

p. em.- (U.S. Geological Survey bulletin; 1998) 

Includes bibliographical references. 

1. Geysers-Nevada-Beowawe Region. 2. Geothermal power plantsNevada-Beowawe Region. I. Title. II. Series. 

QE75.B9 no. 1998 

[QE528] 

557.3 s-dc20 91-30029 

[551.2'3'09793 CIP 
CONTENTS 

Abstract 1 

Introduction 1 

History 1 

Summary of geology 2 

The Beowawe Geysers system in its undisturbed state before 1959 2 

Individual natural thermal features, 1945-57 3 

"Teakettle" Geyser 3 

"Spitfire" Geyser 4 

Unnamed geyser 4 

"White Flame" Geyser 4 

"Orange Spouter" Geyser 5 

Unnamed geyser 5 

"Pincushion" Geyser 5 

"Beowawe" Geyser 5 

Miscellaneous features on the terrace 7 

"Frying Pan" Geyser 7 

Chemical analyses of natural thermal waters from Beowawe Geysers 7 

Thermal waters of the Horseshoe Ranch 9 

Discharge and source of thermal water 10 

Source of heat 11 

Summary of geothermal drilling and development, 1959 to present 12 

Summary and conclusions 13 

References cited 13 

FIGURES 

1. Index map of Beowawe Geysers area, north-cen1ral Nevada, showing 

locations of selected geologic features 2 

2. Simplified geologic map of Beowawe Geysers area, north-central Nevada 3 

3. Cross section through Beowawe Geysers terrace 5 

4. Aerial photograph of Beowawe Geysers terrace 16 

5. Photograph of "Beowawe" Geyser erupting from vent 29 16 

6. Map of Beowawe Geysers terrace area, largely before 1959 6 

7. Detailed map of crest of Beowawe Geysers terrace area, largely before 1959 8 

8-20. Photographs of: 

8. ''Teakettle" Geyser erupting from its double vent 17 

9. "Spitfire" Geyser near northwest edge of terrace 17 

10. Unnamed geyser near centerline of terrace 18 

11. "Pincushion" Geyser erupting from many vents through a pile of 

sinter-covered basalt boulders 18 

12. "Pincushion" Geyser between eruptions, showing some of the 8 to 

10 vents nested among basalt boulders 191 

13. "Pincushion" Geyser, showing "sugary" opaline sinter 19 

14. Opaline sinter texturally zoned around main vent of "Beowawe" Geyser 

between eruptions 20 

15. Subsidiary pool of "Beowawe" Geyser, showing white-fringed sinter 

above a nearly constant sill level 20 

Contents Ill 
IV Contents 

16. Unnamed small geyser erupting in foreground while "Colorful Spouter" 

is spouting in background 21 

17. Closeup view of "Colorful Spouter" 21 

18. "Frying Pan" Geyser, looking nearly down its throat before eruption 22 

19. "Frying Pan" Geyser in eruption, September 22, 1945 22 

20. "Frying Pan" Geyser pool after eruption 23 

21. Plot of water level of "Frying Pan" Geyser and its related nondischarging 

vent 51w 10 

22. Photograph of sinter terrace of Beowawe Geysers, overlooking reactivated 

area 23 

23. Sketch map of Beowawe Geysers area, showing altitude of potentiometric 

surface in shallow part of ground-water system in 1973 11 

TABLES 

1. Stratigraphy of the Beowawe area, north-central Nevada 4 

2. Selected characteristics of hot-spring activity observed in the Beowawe 

Geysers area, Nevada, 1945-57 24 

3. Water analyses from Beowawe Geysers compared with analyses from 

"volcanic centered" waters of Steamboat Springs, Nevada, and Roosevelt 

Springs, Utah 12 
The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, 

Before Geothermal Developmer1t 

By Donald E. White 

ABSTRACT 

The history of natural activity of the Beowawe Geysers in 

north-central Nevada is documented before geothermal drilling and production, which started in 1959. Previously, the 

Beowawe Geysers area was second only to Yellowstone National Park in North America for its number of active geysers. 

As a basis for this study, 8 reconnaissance visits were 

made between 1945 and 1957; the number of geysers that 

were active during the various visits ranged from 12 to 27, 

erupting to heights of YJ to 8 m. Geothermal drilling started 

in 1959, and subsequent discharge from wells ended the 

time when completely natural geysers could be observed. 

Most geothermal areas are considered "volcanic centered" if the immediate source of heat is a young intrusion 

(less than approx 3 m.y.). The Beowawe Geysers area is unusual in that no exposed volcanic rocks are younger than 

about 10 m.y. Its high rate of heat supply is probably 

through a thinned, stretched crust approximately 30 km 

thick (the Battle Mountain heat-flow high), in contrast to 

normal continental crust about 40 km thick. The chemistry 

of thermal water from Beowawe supports this conclusion. 

All discharged water is generally dilute and low in chloride 

(approx 40-69 ppm Cl) and contains less than 1 ,000 ppm 

dissolved solids, excluding Si02, which depends on temperature and the presence of quartz in the reservoir rocks to 

equilibrate at reservoir temperatures. Boron content is also 

low (approx 8 ppm) in comparison with that of waters associated with young silicic volcanic centers, but total 

combined C02 content (as carbonate and bicarbonate) is 

relatively high. Derivation of heat by thermal conduction 

through a thin crust is supported by low 3He/4He ratios, 

which suggests derivation largely from the Earth's crust with 

little mantle influence. 

Natural upflow in the Beowawe system may have been 

near 18 L/s, too high to be explained by present recharge 

from the drainage area alone. Much of the water may be 

"fossil" meteoric water supplied to a regional aquifer such 

as the Roberts Mountains thrust fault, possibly 10 ka ago or 

earlier, when precipitation was higher than at the present 

time. The stable isotopes of oxygen and deuterium provide 

some support for this explanation. 

Manuscript approved for publication, May 28, 1991. 

INTR10DUCTION 

History 

The Beowawe Geysers in north-central Nevada (fig. 1) 

have drawn little attention over the years, in spite of the fact 

that the Beowawe sinter terrace is one of the most imposing 

in North America. Furthermore, Beowawe's active geysers 

before geothermal exploitation were second in North 

Ameri1~a only to those of Yellowstone National Park. 

Beowawe was mentioned in popular railroad guides 

soon after construction of the Central Pacific Railroad (for 

example, Evans, 1869) and briefly in a Federal survey 

(Hague and Emmons, 1877, p. 618). The area was then 

largely ignored in geologic accounts until Nolan and 

Anderson ( 1934) published the earliest modern study, 

based on mapping in 1932. Several other popular articles 

(for example, Murbarger, 1956) were written subsequently, 

but no detailed descriptions were presented. 

Nolan and Anderson (1934) described the sinter 

terract! as hot-spring deposits of Si02 along the front of 

a southeast-tilted fault block bounded by the Malpais 

fault zone. Their map of the geyser area shows "old sinter" on both ends of the most conspicuous line of terrace 

hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles (see White, 1967, for 

definiltions of "geyser," "fumarole," and other terms). 

Nolan and Anderson (1934) included analyses of the 

thermal waters and specified that five small natural geysers were then active (excluding a possible sixth at the 

base of the terrace that had some, but not all, of the 

chara,:teristics they had expected of a geyser). The volume of sinter in the Beowawe Geysers terrace was estimated by Zoback (1979) at 18x1Q6 m3. 

:Many changes have resulted from the drilling and 

discharge from geothermal wells starting in autumn 1959. 

Because wells were tested intermittently and later vandalized, <:onditions were always changing. A single producing 

well can temporarily form new geysers or terminate others, 

depending on where and how the interference occurs. 

The purpose of this report is to document the undisturbed Beowawe Geysers system as it existed during 

the few years after Nolan and Anderson's ( 1934) report 

Introduction 
but before the terrace was disturbed by discharge of geothermal wells early in autumn 1959. 

Summary of Geology 

The geology of the study area (fig. 1) was mapped 

by Stewart and Carlson (1974, 1976), and the geology, 

geophysics, and hydrology were studied by Hose and 

Taylor (1974), Zoback (1979), and Olmsted and Rush 

(1987). The relative ages of faults on range-front scarps 

were mapped by Wallace (1979). The generalized geology is shown in figure 2, and rock units are summarized 

in table 1. A cross section through the terrace and the 

Malpais fault zone is shown in figure 3. 

Cenozoic igneous activity was intermittent from 

about 44 to 10 Ma (Stewart and others, 1977). Volcanic 

and intrusive rocks were intermediate to silicic until 

about 17 Ma, when bimodal basalt and rhyolite became 

increasingly abundant. Diabase dike swarms striking 

0 

I 

0 

120° 

r-----

1 Battle 1 Mountai~ 

I 

1 Beowawe~ I 

1 

Geysers are . 

1 Reno 

I • 

l 

' '" 

CAUFORNIA '" 

IDAHO 

UTAH 

NEVADA 

' 

'"', Las Vegas r--1 -

100 KILOMETERS " . ('\} ', \ 

"' ~ARIZONA ' I 

I 

100 MILES 

Figure 1. Index map of Beowawe Geysers area, northcentral Nevada, showing locations of selected geologic fealures {modified from Olmsted and Rush, 1987). 

2 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 

generally north-northwest to north were probably feeders 

for basaltic andesite flows that cap the surrounding 

ranges. These dike swarms (Zoback and Thompson, 

1978) are the probable cause of a magnetic anomaly, 

called the Oregon-Nevada lineament (Stewart and others, 

1975) or the Idaho-Nevada lineament (fig. 1), that is 

nearly centered beneath the geyser terrace and strikes 

north-northwest to the western Snake River Plain and the 

Columbia River basalt flows. The lineament is well defined in north-central Nevada but becomes diffuse near 

the Oregon-Idaho State line. 

Extensional tectonism in the Basin and Range began in mid-Tertiary time and continues to the present. 

Most ranges of the Great Basin are aligned north-south, 

but the pattern east of Battle Mountain (fig. 1) is more 

complex, involving north-northwest-, north-, and eastnortheast-striking elements that tilt the fault blocks generally eastward. The ranges near Beowawe mainly strike 

north to east-northeast, but a subdued, generally older, 

north-northwest-striking set of faults is clearly evident. 

The Malpais fault zone at Beowawe (figs. 2, 4) that 

controls the thermal activity may have considerable antiquity, possibly more than 100 ka. Faults that separate sinter 

of two ages are exposed near the east and west ends of the 

sinter terrace. Old iron-stained opaline and chalcedonic 

sinter is upfaulted south of the main line of active terrace 

springs. Two blocks of partially chalcedonized opaline sinter are downdropped north of the eastern springs and rotated, dipping about 70° into the hill. The hillslope above 

(south of) and adjacent to the line of active springs near 

the Malpais fault contains some float of chalcedonic sinter, 

probably indicating an age older than 20 ka if temperatures 

and pressures increased normally for a near-boiling geothermal system. The most recent sinter is white; older sinter is buff colored. 

THE BEOWAWE GEYSERS SYSTEM IN ITS 

UNDISTURBED STATE BEFORE 1959 

On September 22, 1945, P.F. Fix and I made a first 

inspection of Beowawe and observed eight small geysers 

actually in eruption, several others that provided positive 

evidence for recent eruption, a few uncertain ones that 

could have been categorized with a longer time for observation, and "Beowawe" Geyser, a beautiful geyser 

with maximum water spurts 8 to 10m high (fig. 5). The 

Beowawe geothermal system clearly had the greatest 

concentration of generally active natural geysers in 

North America, next to Yell ow stone National Park. 

Steamboat Springs south of Reno, Nev., had fewer active 

geysers than Beowawe during the 7 years of my continuous monitoring from 1945 to 1952 (White, 1968). 
From 1945 to 1957, I made brief inspections of 

Beowawe, generally once or twice a year. The whole terrace (fig. 6) was mapped at a scale of 1:3,000 (20-ft contour 

interval), and the crest of the terrace (fig. 7) at a scale of 

1:600 (5-ft contour interval) to replace dependence on sketch 

maps as features and maximum activity changed from place 

to place. Topographic control for figures 6 and 7 was essentially complete by 1948, and Ozalid copies were available 

by 1949 for recording activity and observed changes. 

Close observation of the active features ended in October 1951; a final check was made in September 1957. 

When I revisited Beowawe in September 1960, drastic 

changes had already resulted from discharge of geothermal 

wells, the drilling of which started in 1959. The geysers at 

Beowawe were discussed in general terms in some post1959 reports (Rinehart, 1968, 1980; Zoback, 1979). 

Tba 

Qal 

Individual Natural Thermal features, 1945-5 7 

The locations of individual springs, geysers, fumaroles, and inactive vents are shown in figures 6 and 7 and 

listed with brief observations in table 2. Detailed descriptions of most of the larger and more active features are 

given below. The general locations of a few numbered 

springs and geysers shown in figure 6 are for orientation 

purposes only; similar locations shown in figure 7 are 

more precisely controlled. 

"Teakettle" Geyser (Vent 6) 

"Teakettle" geyser (fig. 8) erupted from two related 

vents approximately 1 m apart; the eruption plume from 

the western vent was inclined about 40° from vertical to 

Qal Horseshoe Ranch 

Valley 

Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of Beowawe Geysers area, north-central Nevada (modified from Zoback, 1979). 

The Beowawe Geysers System in its Undisturbed State Before 1959 3 
Table 1. Stratigraphy of the Beowawe area, north-central Nevada 

[Modified from Zoback (1979) and Olmsted and Rush (1987)] 

Age Unit Thickness 

(m) 

Sinter deposits 60± 

Younger alluvium 0-50+ 

and 

stream deposits 

QUATERNARY 

Older alluvium Unknown 

and 

fan deposits 

Landslide deposits Unknown 

QUATERNARY Old gravel deposits 0-5 

AND 

TERTIARY 

Volcanic rocks ? 

TERTIARY 

Tuff and tuffaceous 0-75 

sedimentary rocks 

PALEOZOIC Valmy Formation >1,700 

(ORDOVICIAN) 

the west. It erupted to a height of about 4 to 5 m; its duration in 1948 was about 1 minute, and its interval about 6 

minutes. The eruption plume from the weaker eastern vent 

(generally containing water droplets dispersed in steam) 

erupted to the northeast to a height of about 2 m, nearly 

always simultaneously with the western vent. 

11Spitfire" Geyser (Vent 7) 

"Spitfire" geyser (fig. 9; also called "Sputter Pot" 

geyser) was observed erupting during most, but not all, 

visits, generally 3 to 5 m high from near the northwest 

edge of the terrace. Its duration was about 15 minutes, and 

its interval about 30 minutes. 

4 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 

Description 

Mostly opal, but includes some carbonates, suifates, and silicate minerals. Generally white to 

light-tan on surface; generally cemented fragments of primary opaline sinter. Forms cones 

and a terrace, being actively built downslope 

from and in spring areas 

Mostly tan silt and sand at land surface; 

increasing gravel content at depth; underlies 

nearly horizontal areas of the valley floor. 

Mostly poorly sorted gravel, sand, and silt 

derived from local rocks. Underlies areas of 

intermediate slope. 

Rubble, largely from Valmy Formation, tuffaceous sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks 

that crop out on the scarp of the Malpais fault. 

Forms hummocky topography; relations to 

older alluvium unknown. 

Mostly gravel and sand derived from and 

underlain by lava flows; underlies part of 

valley apron. 

Lava flows ranging in composition from basalt 

to dacite; includes small outcrops of other 

rock types. Forms mountains. 

White to pale-gray, well bedded volcanic ash, 

interbedded with tuffaceous conglomerate and 

tuff. 

Mostly siliceous siltstone and quartzite; 

commonJy pale-gray. 

Unnamed Geyser (Vent 13) 

Another major unnamed geyser (fig. 10) commonly 

had a preliminary overflow and erupted to a maximum 

height near 5 m. Its possible interconnection to vent 12 

and others nearby may have contributed to its irregularity. 

11White Flame" Geyser (Vent 17) 

A typical eruption of "White Flame" Geyser started 

with preliminary overflow, at first without gas bubbles 

breaking the pool's surface. As the rate of upflow and 

temperature increased, steam bubbles became visible in the 

bottom of the pool, collapsing almost immediately in the 
cooler pool with an audible thump. As the pool filled and 

then overflowed, the bubbles soon became more vigorous, 

breaking the pool's surface with little noise and erupting 

about 1 YJ m high as the thumping became much less pronounced. After about 2 minutes of eruption, the thumping 

ceased, and the pool drained. Water reappeared within 

about 7 minutes to repeat the cycle. 

110range Spouter" Geyser (Vent 23) 

The vent of "Orange Spouter" was perched 5 to 7 m 

above the general terrace level, evidently on a southern 

strand of the Malpais fault. It was frequently inactive, and 

its color changed to white as the thermophylic organisms 

dried. 

Unnamed Geyser (Vent 25) 

This geyser was active during each visit, typically 

erupting for at least 10 minutes to a height of about 3 m 

after a short preliminary overflow. Its interval was generally long, at times more than 30 minutes. 

NW 

FEET A 

6000 

4000 

Tba 

2000 Ts 

SEA 

LEVEL 

2000 Ov 

4000 

6000 

8000 

10000 

11Pincushion" Geyser (Vent Complex 27) 

"Pincushion" Geyser (fig. 11) erupted simultaneously from multiple vents through a pile of sintercovered basalt boulders, possibly emplaced by Indians. 

Figure 12 shows at least six vents that are not obviously 

erupting in figure 11. Figure 13 illustrates the "sugary" 

opaline sinter zoned in grain size, probably from rapid 

evaporation of monomeric silica (H4Si04). 

118eowawe" Geyser (Vent 29) 

lFigure 5 shows "Beowawe" Geyser near its maximum observed eruption height of about 8 m, and figure 14 

shows the vent between eruptions. The inner zone of finegrained "sugary" sinter probably was deposited rapidly as 

monomeric silica (initially, H4Si04) surrounded by an outer 

zone of spherulitic or "knobby" sinter, commonly dried, 

largely or entirely polymerized, that was deposited rapidly 

as the water films evaporated. Figure 15 shows a subsidiary 

pool of the same geyser, with white-fringed sinter (when 

dried) that was deposited above a nearly constant sill level, 

and darker sinter, presumably from silica polymers that 

MALPAIS 

FAULT ZONE 

Tg 

Ov 

SE 

A' 

ROBERTS MOUNTAINS TH ... ~ ? -- --... RUS~ 

Carbonate assemblage 

EXPlANATION 

Oal Alluvium (Quaternary) 

Os Siliceous sinter (Quaternary) 

Tb Basalt (Tertiary) 

Tg Gravel (Miocene or Pliocene) 

Tba Basaltic andesite (Mioc4me) 

Ts Tuffaceous sedimentary rocks (Oligocene) 

Ov Valmy Formation (Ordovician) 

Contact 

..::e.? Fault - Queried where~ uncertain; arrow 

shows relative movement 

Figure 3. Cross section through Beowawe Geysers terrace (modified from Zoback, 1979). See figure 2 for location. 

The BeowawE~ Geysers System in its Undisturbed State Before 1959 5 
0'1 

-1 

:r 

I'D 

Cl:l 

I'D 

= 

~ Ill 

~ I'D 

C) 

I'D 

"< 

Ill 

~ 

~ 

z 

I'D 

< Ill 

Cl. 

,!J 

Cl:l 

I'D 

I'D 

~ 

C) 

I'D 

g, 

::r 

I'D 

3 

!!... 

0 

I'D 

< I'D 

Q 

-= 3 

I'D 

a 

40° 

33' 

45" 

~0 

b s 

s 

s~ 

Jo 

( 

I 

f 

I 

/I 

I 

o ~~"Frying 51w 51 Pan" 

116°35'30" 

0 200 

Qsi 

400 

Qal 

Qsi 

Qso 

Tba 

So 

So...,. 

Go 

Go... __ 

Spo 

==:::::::::::::::::::: 

EXPLANATION 

Alluvium (Quaternary) 

Siliceous sinter, young, opaline (Quaternary) 

Siliceous sinter, old, partially chalcedonized (Quaternary) 

Basaltic andesite (Miocene); talus-covered on steep slopes 

Contact, dashed where approximately located 

Normal fault, dashed where approximately located 

Thermal feature- Numbers referred to in text and table 2 

Vent with no discharge 

Hot spring 

Hot spring with discharge channel 

Geyser 

Geyser with intermittent-discharge channel 

Spouter 

Road, approximately located 

Coordinates approximately located 

Figure 6. Beowawe Geysers terrace area, largely before 1959. Mapped by R.G. Reeves, Doug Baker, D.E. White, G.A. Thompson, and others, 1948, with later 

changes (approximate) by D.E. White. 
deposited more slowly below water level, probably incorporating some iron oxide as the pool cooled and oxidized 

between eruptions. This geyser's duration was 1 to 2 minutes, and its interval was half an hour or longer. 

Miscellaneous Features on the Terrace 

Unnamed vents 33 and 33e are probably interconnected because one tended to be dormant while the other 

was active. Vent 34 was a mildly acidic spring ranging in 

pH from 6.0 to 6.4, in contrast to the common 9.0 to 9.5 

for erupting geysers and 8 to 9 for discharging springs that 

retained most of their C02 content. Small springs and 

seeps (vents 40, 41) were the most consistently acidic. The 

pH of vent 40 ranged from 3.28 to 6.61, whereas the pH 

of vent 41 was 2.33 to 3.40; Cl content was always lower 

than in the alkaline springs, most commonly ranging from 

about 5 to 25 ppm. Discharge was commonly absent but at 

times was seeping. 

A small, unnamed geyser (vent 48) is shown erupting about 13 m high in the foreground of figure 16, while 

"Colorful Spouter" (vent 49) to the southeast is spouting in 

the background. A closeup view of this spouter is shown 

in figure 17. The color zonation pattern consists of elemental sulfur in the conspicuous inner ring and different 

varieties of thermophylic organisms in the outer rings. 

These organisms show intense colors when the spouter is 

active but are glaring white when inactive, demonstrating 

the absence of colored inorganic precipitates. 

11 Frying Pan" Geyser (Vent 51) 

"Frying Pan" Geyser (fig. 18) at the base of the terrace was photographed while looking nearly down its 

throat. Water is rising into the pool as gas bubbles (largely 

steam) condense in the cooler water of the pool, already 

exposed to the atmosphere. As discharge continues and the 

pool is heated closer to boiling, steam bubbles no longer 

collapse but surge into mild eruption. Figure 19 shows the 

same geyser pool in eruption, now boiling in its turbulent 

center but cooled slightly around the borders of the pool 

and where discharging (near photographer). Gas bubbles, 

here mostly steam, break the surface and cause turbulence, 

which distinguishes a geyser from a spring with intermittent quiet discharge. Figure 20 shows "Frying Pan" Geyser 

after an eruption (actually photographed in 1962, when its 

activity was still nearly the same as in 1945; note, however, the aged appearance of vent 51 w in the middistance 

and the great increase in activity in the far distance as 

compared with figure 19). 

A complete eruption of "Frying Pan" Geyser is illustrated by plots of data (fig. 21) for vents 51 and 51 w on 

May 14, 1948; almost identical data were also collected on 

May 26 and October 15, 1951. Although these 1951 plots 

are omitted, all show only small· differences in duration of 

the main eruptions and intervals between eruptions, and 

each plot also shows three preliminary spurts or "false 

starts" between the main eruptions. These preliminary 

spurts, like preliminary spurts or overflows of some of 

Yellowstone's geysers, tend to delay the final eruption 

time because each expends some stored energy (as steam~, 

with negligible results on discharge. Several workers (for 

example, Nolan and Anderson, 1934) have described intervals of about 20 minutes for this geyser, but my data show 

that a full cycle (approx 40 minutes) rather than a halfcycle (approx 20 minutes) was necessary, at least from 

1945 to 1957. 

Figure 22 shows the geyser terrace from its northwest base, looking southeastward over a local area that 

was inactive from 1945 to 1957, when the access road to 

the drilling pad of Sierra Pacific well No. 3 had been constructed more than halfway up the crest of the terrace. 

Chemical Analyses of Natural Thermal Waters 

from Beowawe Geysers 

Two chemical analyses of waters from Beowawe 

Geysers are listed in table 3 for comparison -with "voleanic 

centered" geothermal waters from the west and east edges 

of the Great Basin, respectively. Steamboat Springs, about 

15 km south of Reno, Nev., is associated with rhyolite 

domes dated at 1.1 and 3.0 Ma (Silberman and others, 

1979) and is characterized by boiling springs and small 

geysers; its maximum recorded subsurface temperature 

was near 230°C. Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah, is also associated with young rhyolite domes a few kilometers east 

of the geothermal field, and its reservoir has a temperature 

close to 265°C. The area also has an inactive sinter terrace 

west of the range front and a single hot spring just within 

the front to the northeast that was rapidly bein-g self-sealed 

by opaline silica in the 1950's. The temperature of this hot 

spring was only 85°C in 1950 (H.E. Thomas, written commun., 1955) and had decreased to 55°C at a fraction of its 

former discharge when I collected this water sample in 

1957. When I revisited the area a few years later, the vent 

was completely self-sealed by glassy opaline sinter. 

Most Beowawe geysers were relatively rich in Si02 

(approx 400-450 ppm), as illustrated by analysis 2 in table 

3. "Frying Pan" Geyser (vent 51) at the base of the sinter 

terrace was an exception (analysis 3, table 3), best 

explained as a mixture of hot deep water rising along a 

western strand of the Malpais fault that mixed with nearsurface downslope drainage of cooled water from the terrace geysers nearly 350 m to the south. This explanation is 

supported by the fact that runoff from the terrace partly 

evaporated as the rest sank below ground along various 

terrace channels. None of this runoff continued down to 

The Beowawe Geysers System in its Undisturbed State Before 1959 7 
the lower line of springs (fig. 6). Much silica was precipitated as the water cooled, thus explaining why "Frying 

Pan" lacked major eruptions because of insufficient temperature and excess energy. Its Si02 content was relatively 

low, but its Cl content was the highest of the area (69 

ppm), owing to partial surface evaporation before sinking 

underground. 

Most of Beowawe's springs and geysers had salinities similar to that of the small terrace geyser analyzed by 

E.T. Allen (spring 2 of Nolan and Anderson, 1934). Most 

Cl contents at Beowawe were near 50 to 55 ppm, but a 

few were enriched slightly by boiling and evaporation; pH 

was generally near 8 if the waters were unboiled but as 

high as 9.7 after extensive boiling and consequent escape 

of C02• 

Several terrace springs that include vents 40 and 41 

had Cl contents at least as low as 16 ppm and pH's that 

were strongly to slightly acidic (pH=2.3-6.4). Dissolved 

gases contain some H2S and C02 that boil off below 

ground level; these gases then escape and may redissolve 

in lower-temperature condensates of steam. Altitudes of 

vents ranged from slightly lower to higher than the surrounding ground, and gas pressure was high enough for 

liquid water to be largely excluded. 

0 1 0 0 2 0 0 300 400 FEET 

E===~==~==~~==~ 

0 2 5 5 0 7 5 1 00 METERS 

E=:::::::::::r::===:E~3::=:==J CONTOUR INTERVAL 5 FEET 

Figure 7. Detailed map of crest of Beowawe Geysers terrace as it appeared before 1959, when many vents were destroyed. 

Doug Baker, Hale Tognoni, D.E. White, G.A. Thompson, and others, largely in 1948, with a few later additions by D.E. White. 

8 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
Thermal Waters of the Horseshoe Ranch 

Mildly thermal waters discharge near the Horseshoe 

Ranch, 8 km east-northeast of the geyser terrace and north 

of Beowawe Station (sec. 32, near northeast comer of fig. 2). 

Three water samples were collected from the Horseshoe 

Ranch for analysis of Cl content and pH on September 30, 

1950. The first sample ( 48.2°C) was from an old shallow 

well that was discharging directly into a pool southeast of 

the ranch buildings; a second sample (51.4°C) was from a 

warm spring north of the bunkhouse; the third sample was 

from a cool well about 1 km east of the ranch. 

Water from the old well (48.2°C) contained 30 ppm 

Cl and had a pH of 7.0. Water from the nearby warm 

spring (51.4°C) was nearly identical, containing 28 ppm of 

Cl and having a pH of 7.4. The chemistry of the water 

from the cool well sample was somewhat surprising-57 

ppm Cl and a pH of 7. 7. The two thermal waters had more 

than half the Cl content of typical Beowawe Geysers 

water, but the temperature of the cool well was too low to 

record with a maximum-registering thermometer. Total 

discharge from all three springs was about 200 kg/s. The 

significant Cl contents of these samples indicate that the 

use of Cl content for monitoring the total discharge from 

EXPLANATION 

Qal 

Qsi 

Qso 

Tha 

Alluvium (Quaternary) 

Siliceous sinter, young, opaline (Quaternary) 

Siliceous sinter, old, partially chalcedonized (Quaternary) 

Basaltic andesite (Miocene); talus-covered on steep slopes 

Contact 

Vent with no discharge 

Hot spring 

Hot spring with discharge channel 

Geyser 

Geyser with intermittent-discharge channel 

Subsurface geyser 

Sinter cone 

, Area of hydrothermal alteration; boundaries are gradational 

Most thermal features are numbered to correspond to table 2, and some are informally named. Mapped by R.G. Reeves, 

The Beowawe Geysers System in its Undisturbed State Before 1959 9 
the Beowawe Geysers system is clearly unwarranted (compare White, 1968). 

Discharge and Source of Thermal Water 

Waring (1965) estimated the natural discharge of the 

Beowawe Geysers system at 6 L/s, twice his earlier estimate of 3 L/s (Steams and others, 1937). This uncertainty 

is understandable because physical measurement of discharge rates is particularly difficult when geysers are present. Either of Waring's estimates, however, is certainly far 

less than the deep upflow of thermal water, because much 

thermal water is discharged laterally into near-surface 

aquifers and cannot be measured at the surface. 

This lateral escape of upflowing thermal water is 

illustrated by the potentiometric surface in the shallow 

part of the ground-water system of Whirlwind Valley 

(fig. 23; modified from Olmsted and Rush, 1987). The 

topographic surface slopes east and then slightly northeast from the terrace to within 4 km of the Humboldt 

River at a gradient that averages about 5 m/km. However, in the tightly packed contours just north of the 

Beowawe Geysers terrace (fig. 23), the gradient is 

greater than 30 m/km (although the 5-m contours are not 

well constrained because of the absence of detailed 

data). This gradient is surprisingly high in view of the 

porous, open-textured sinter debris characteristic of 

springs on range fronts and of near-surface clastic sinter 

deposits. The explanation is that the sinter fragments beneath the surface of the Beowawe terrace have been 

partially cemented and self-sealed by high-silica waters 

escaping downslope from the main upflow channels. As 

these waters cool, monomeric silica (H4Si04) polymerizes, cementing any loose fragments and filling most 

open spaces in opaline sinter with opal or cristobalite 

(White and others, 1956; Fournier, 1973). Self-sealing is 

seldom complete; highly permeable rocks become less 

permeable over time, but even slightly permeable sinter 

still has some interconnected open spaces. 

Measurement of the deep upflow by the chlorideinventory method is inapplicable to such areas as Beowawe 

that lack a permanent throughflowing stream with low and 

nearly constant contents of such conservative constituents 

as Cl or B. Olmsted and Rush ( 1987), however, developed a 

hydrologic model that estimates a total deep upflow of 18 

TIME, IN MINUTES 

6:00pm 10 

0.0 

' • • 

0.2 

• • 

0.4 

• 

0.6 

1-

w n w 0.8 LL •• ~ • 

_j 

w 1.0 

> w 

_I 

a: 

w 1.2 1-

<( 

s 

1.4 

1.6 

1.8 

2.0 

20 30 40 

• I , i 

I • r 

50 7:00pm 10 

• 

20 

• 

30 

"Frying Pan" 

Geyser 

Vent 51 

Figure 21. Relative water-level measurements on May 14, 1948, at "Frying Pan" Geyser (vent 51) and related nondischarging 

vent Slw, less than 5 m to the west. 

1 0 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
L/s, with two-thirds of the ascending water leaking laterally 

from the conduit system before it reaches the surface. This 

estimate contrasts with the 70 L/s upflow estimated by the 

Cl-inventory method for Steamboat Springs, Nev., a nearly 

ideal situation for using the method (White, 1968, p. 82-84, 

table 40). The terrace area of Steamboat Springs is about 3 

times larger than that of Beowawe, but its measured discharge is only approximately 4 L/s, or 6 percent of the total 

computed upflow, of which geyser discharge is no more 

than a few percent of the total. The geysers at Beowawe, 

however, probably account for nearly 50 percent of the total 

visible discharge, and therefore heat is being conserved to 

an unusual degree. 

The 6- and 3-L/s discharge estimates of Waring 

(1965) and Stearns and others (1937) are equivalent, respectively, to about 9 and 4.5 percent of the present recharge into the Whirlwind Valley drainage basin (Olmsted 

and Rush, 1987). More importantly, the upflow estimate of 

Olmsted and Rush (18 L/s) is 26 percent of the present 

116"40' 40"37' 

40"30' 

4 KILOMETERS 

I 

I 

4 MILES 

EXPlANATION 

[ZJ Landslide 

D Unconsolidated sedimentary deposits 

l iJIJj!j!lliJlii J iJiiil Consolidated rocks 

116"30' 

-1450- Potentiometric contour- Contour interval, 5 m 

• Wells * Beowawe Geysers terrace 

Figure 23. Sketch map of Beowawe Geysers area, showing 

altitude of potentiometric surface in shallow part of 

Beowawe ground-water system, as measured in 1973 (modified from Olmsted and Rush, 1987). 

recharge into Whirlwind Valley. This proportion seems 

high, given the gentle local topography and the slight precipitation. Indeed, there is no need to assume that the 

water supply of the Beowawe Geysers comes entirely from 

the local basin. Evidence from hydrogen/deuterium ratios 

indicates that much or most of Beowawe's water is 

probably "fossil" water from an earlier period of higher 

precipitation, requiring a recharge area far larger than 

Whirlwind Valley. This interpretation is supported by the 

fact that present-day meteoric waters of central Nevada all 

seem to have higher 6D values than the hot springs, in 

opposition to expected results. A glacial period of higher 

precipitation, lower atmospheric temperature, and lower 

6D values would cause this difference (J .R. O'Neil, written commun., 1980; Mariner and others, 1983). 

Source of Heat 

Most high-temperature hot-spring systems are "volcanic centered" and are enriched in 3He from the mantle 

(Craig and others, 1975; Jenkins and others, 1978) relative 

to the dominant 4He of the atmosphere and crustal rocks. 

3He is much enriched in "primitive" gases from basalts, 

the oceanic-ridge systems, and young hotspots, such as the 

Hawaiian volcanoes and Yell ow stone National Park. Such 

relations support the hypothesis that mantle and core outgassing is still continuing and best accounts for those 

gases strongly enriched in 3He. 

High-temperature hydrothermal-convection systems 

that owe their heat primarily to young volcanic rocks generally are enriched in 3He. Conduction of heat through a 

stretched thin crust may also result in diffusive enrichment of mantle 3He, according to Oxburgh and O'Nions 

(1987). Beowawe is situated on the Battle Mountain heatflow high that extends from near Steamboat Springs, close 

to the California-Nevada State line, northeastward to the 

Snake River Plain in Idaho. Its average width is about 

200 km, and its average heat flow is about 50 percent 

above the crustal average (Lachenbruch and Sass, 1977). 

Surficial volcanic rocks younger than 1 0 Ma are not known 

within about 50 km of Beowawe. 

The sparse 3He/4He data available for Beowawe indicate that the fluids are deficient in mantle 3He relative 

to most other high-temperature systems that have abundant geysers and unusually high heat flow. Welhan and 

others (1988, p. 187) determined an RIR A ratio (ratio of 

unknown to atmospheric) of 0.46 for a mixture of liquid 

and vapor collected from a well erupting freely near the 

crest of the Beowawe terrace. W.A. Jenkins of the 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) obtained 

similar results for both water and gas from Beowawe 

during the early 1980's (Peggy O'Brien, oral commun., 

1986). 

The Beowawe Geysers System in its Undisturbed State Before 1959 11 
Table 3. Water analyses from Beowawe Geysers in comparison with analyses from "volcanic 

centered" waters of Steamboat Springs, Nevada, and Roosevelt Springs, Utah 

[All analyses in parts per million; Tr, trace. References: 1, White and others ( 1963, p. 40); 2, Nolan and Anderson 

(1934); 3, Mariner and others (1983); 4, White and others (1963, p. 42)] 

Ana I ys is ------------------ 2 3 4 

Steamboat Springs 

No.8, 

Washoe County, 

Nev. 

Small geyser, "Frying Pan" geyser, Roosevelt Springs, Beowawe Terrace, vent 51, Beowawe, Beaver County, Eureka County, Eureka County, Utah 

NH4 -------------------- <1 

7.6 

653 

71 

Nev. 

4? 

239 

33 

Nev. 

0.5 0.0 

27 

230 2,500 

16 488 

<1 .0 

Li -----------------------

Na ----------------------

K -----------------------

Mg ---------------------

Ca ----------------------

Fe-----------------------

AI-----------------------

As ----------------------

Sb ----------------------

C03 --------------------

.8 

5.0 

.05 

.5 

2.7 

.4 

0 

305 

100 

4.7 

2.0 1 22 

HC03 ------------------

S04 ---------------------

H2S ---------------------

Cl-----------------------

F ------------------------

Br -----------------------

1 -------------------------

8 ------------------------

N03 --------------------

865 

1.8 

.2 

.1 

49 

Si02 -------------------- 293 

Tr 

0 

173 } 129 

97 

5 

47 

11 

8 

1449 

<.02 <.04 

.08 <.04 

.03 2.0 

383 { 0 

156 

130 73 

69 4,240 

17 7.5 

.2 3.5 

.02 .3 

38 

11 

320 313 -------------------------------------------------------- Total, as reported-- 2,360 

Temperature CC) ----

pH ----------------------

96 

7.9 

1,196 

-95 

1,165.85 7,880 

98 55 

8.98 7.9 

1

Probably total gravimetric Si02; the colorimetric method had not yet been developed. 

The source water of the Beowawe system has a maximum recorded temperature of 230°C at depths of about 

3,000 m (Hoang and others, 1987). This temperature is exceeded in the Great Basin only by Roosevelt Hot Springs of 

western Utah, with a maximum recorded temperature near 

265°C (Brook and others, 1979). Both Roosevelt Hot Springs 

on the east and Steamboat Springs near the west margin of 

the Great Basin, with a maximum recorded temperature 

near 230°C (Phillips Petroleum Co., oral commun., 1982), 

are typical "volcanic centered" geothermal systems. The 

Beowawe system differs from the other two in its absence 

of recent associated volcanism, its high regional heat flow, 

and its low content of dissolved solids (excluding Si02> 

which mainly depends on temperature). 

I conclude that the Beowawe system differs from most 

other high-temperature geothermal systems of the world in 

its absence of young volcanic heat sources, its absence of 

clearly adequate young meteoric water, and the low salinity 

of its circulating water (table 3). No explanation is evident 

12 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 

for its unusually great abundance of geysers, other than the 

system's high temperature and the adequate flow rate of its 

feeding water. 

SUMMARY OF GEOTHERMAL DRILLING AND 

DEVELOPMENT, 1959 TO PRESENT 

Four geothermal wells were drilled along the terrace 

crest by a subsidiary of the Magma Power Co. in late 1959; 

many more were drilled subsequently. Typically, these wells 

had very high initial productivity that declined relatively 

rapidly over time. Three of the four wells were later vandalized by blasting off the wellhead gear, thereby permitting 

the wells to discharge freely, but no flow data were obtained. Most water and steam from natural springs and geysers on the terrace crest were diverted into uncapped flowing wells, causing the observed decline of 65 to more than 

130 m in water levels and cessation of discharge from former 
springs and geysers. A photograph of the terrace taken about 

1963 showed many steam plumes over the upper half of the 

terrace in places of former discharge of water, indicating 

general lowering of water levels. The fault zone evidently 

was penetrated at depths ranging from about -65 to -130 

m, where self-sealing had formerly deposited abundant quartz 

and chalcedony from the high content of dissolved Si02 

(350-450 ppm at temperatures near 200-220°C). The natural vents had already adjusted to partial self-sealing and 

reduced permeability; the wells provided a "short circuit" 

through this zone. Water diverted to the wells could not 

also supply the springs and geysers. Reduced fluid pressures in former water-saturated sinter then permitted only 

steam to escape through hot-spring and geyser channels previously filled with water. 

Intermittent study of Beowawe as a natural undisturbed system thus ended with my 1957 observations (table 

2). Sinter and other debris were bulldozed into former spring 

and geyser vents as activity declined, under the mistaken 

notion that declining well productivity was caused by a loss 

of steam rather than a declining water table. Essenthtlly all 

natural spring and geyser activity on the terrace had ceased 

by September 1960. Water levels in the four repaired wells 

were measured on March 31, 1962, when nonerupting depths 

to water ranged from about 87 m to 93 m below local land 

surface, in comparison with former geysers and springs that 

had discharged at the surface. All natural vents near the 

terrace crest were drained of their water supply. Many new 

steam vents, however, became temporarily active near the 

terrace crest and were generally more prominent in cold 

weather. 

After drilling by several private interests, Chevron 

Resources, a subsidiary of the Chevron Oil Co., became 

interested in the area (Hoang and others, 1987); by January 

1986, electricity was being produced from a dual-flash electric powerplant designed to generate 16 MW from two wells, 

Ginn 2-13 (1,733 m deep) and Ginn 1-13 (2,915 m deep; 

Hoang and others, 1987). The powerplant is located about 

1 Y2 km southwest of the sinter terrace (not visible from the 

terrace). Its rated capacity was attained by October 1986. 

The minimum electric-power potential of the Malpais fault 

zone was considered to be 200 MW. The two producing 

wells were located in different strands of the Malpais fault 

zone, and fluids from each strand were interpreted to be 

independent. According to Hoang and others (1987}, neither well has shown any change in temperature (approx 

220°C) or pressure with production. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The Beowawe Geysers was a spectacular but littleknown area of small geysers in north-central Nevada, second only to Yellowstone on the North American Continent. 

During my 8 visits to Beowawe between 1945 and 1957, 

the total number of observed geysers ranged from 12 to 27; 

at least 28 features had been geysers at one time or another 

during the 12 years of sporadic observation. The maximum 

observed height was almost 8 m. For its small area, this 

may have been the largest natural concentration of geysers 

in North America. Subsurface eruptions, aquifer eruptions, 

variable-discharge springs, perpetua] spouters, and drilled 

wells are excluded. 

Many manmade changes to the Beowawe system resulted from the geothermal drilling and production that extended from 1959 to the present. Depending on details of 

subsurface plumbing and localized pressure release, discharge 

of geothermal wells can cause vents to change temporarily 

into geysers or geysers to cease erupting. Over an extended 

period of time, cessation of eruption is much more likely to 

occur than eruption of a previously non-geysering vent. 

The rate of upflow of thermal water from Beowawe's 

reservoir was estimated by Olmsted and Rush ( 1987) at 18 

Us, much of which may be "fossil" water from an earlier 

period of higher precipitation. 

Although the source of heat at Beowawe geysers is 

not yet certain, high regional heat conduction to a deep 

aquifer, such as the Roberts Mountains thrust fault, is favored in the absence of adequate "volcanic centered" heat 

sources. Although the age of the Beowawe system is not yet 

known, fault displacement of older sinter suggests that the 

system may have been active for at least 100 ka. 

REFERENCES CITED 

Brook, C.A., Mariner, R.H., Mabey, D.R., Swanson, J.R., 

Guffanti, Marianne, and Muffler, L.J.P., 1979, Hydrothermal convection systems with reservoir temperatures :i!:90°C, 

in Muffler, L.J.P., ed., Assessment of geothermal resources 

of the United States-1979: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 790, p. 18-85. 

Craig, Harmon, Clarke, W.B., and Beg, M.A., 1975, Excess 3He 

in deep water on the East Pacific Rise: Earth and Planetary 

Science Letters, v. 26, no. 2, p. 125-132. 

Evans, A.S., 1869, In Whirlwind Valley: Overland Monthly, 

v. 2, p. 64-70. 

Fournier, R.O., 1973, Silica in thermal waters: Laboratory and 

field investigations: International Symposium on Hydrogeochemistry and Biogeochemistry, Tokyo, 1970, Proceedings, 

v. 1, Hydrogeochemistry: Washington, Clark, p. 122-129. 

Hague, Arnold, and Emmons, S.F., 1877, Descriptive geology, 

v. 2 of King, Clarence, Report of the geological exploration 

of the Fortieth Parallel: U.S. Army, Engineer Department 

Professional Paper 18, 890 p. 

Hoang, V.T., James, E.D., and Epperson, I.J., 1987, Development drilling, testing and initial production of the Beowawe 

geothermal field: Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, 12th, Stanford, Calif., 1987, Proceedings, v. 12, 

p. 159-162. 

References Cited 13 
Hose, R.K., and Taylor, B.E., 1974, Geothermal systems of 

northern Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

74-271, 27 p. 

Jenkins, W.J., Edmond, J.M., and Corliss, J.B., 1978, Excess 

3He and 4He in Galapagos submarine hydrothermal waters: 

Nature, v. 272, no. 5649, p. 156-158. 

Lachenbruch, A.H., and Sass, J.H., 1977, Heat flow in the 

United States and the thermal regime of the crust, in 

Heacock, J.G., The Earth's crust: Its nature and physical 

properties: American Geophysical Union Geophysical 

Monograph 20, p. 626-675. 

Mariner, R.H., Presser, T.S., and Evans, W.C., 1983, Geochemistry of active geothermal systems in the northern Basin 

and Range Province, in The role of heat in the development 

of energy and mineral resources in the northern Basin and 

Range Province: Geothermal Resources Council Special 

Report 13, p. 95-119. 

Murbarger, Nell, 1956, Geysers of Whirlwind Valley: Desert 

Magazine, v. 19, no. 1, p. 17-20. 

Nolan, T.B., and Anderson, G.H., 1934, The geyser area near 

Beowawe, Eureka County, Nevada: American Journal of 

Science, ser. 5, v. 27, no. 159, p. 215-229. 

Olmsted, F.H., and Rush, F.E., 1987, Hydrogeologic reconnaissance of the Beowawe Geysers geothermal area, Nevada: 

Geothermics, v. 16, no. 1, p. 1-18. 

Oxburgh, E.R., and O'Nions, R.K., 1987, Helium loss, tectonics, 

and the terrestrial heat budget: Science, v. 237, no. 4822, 

p. 1583-1588. 

Rinehart, J.S., 1968, Geyser activity near Beowawe, Eureka 

County, Nevada: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 73, 

no. 24,p. 7703-7706. 

---1980, Geysers and geothermal energy: New York, 

Springer-Verlag, 223 p. 

Silberman, M.L., White, D.E., Keith, T.E.C., and Dockter, A.D., 

1979, Duration of hydrothermal activity at Steamboat Springs, 

Nevada, from ages of spatially associated volcanic rocks: 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 458-D, 14 p. 

Steams, N.D., Steams, H.T., and Waring, G.A., 1937, Thermal 

springs in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 679-B, 206 p. 

Stewart, J.H., and Carlson, J.E., compilers, 1974, Preliminary 

geologic map of Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-609, scales 1:500,000, 

1: 1 ,000,000, 4 sheets. 

---1976, Cenozoic rocks of Nevada: Nevada Bureau of 

Mines and Geology Map 52, scale 1:1,000,000. 

Stewart, J .H., McKee, E.H., and Stager, H.K., 1977, Geology 

and mineral deposits of Lander County, Nevada: Nevada 

Bureau of Mines and Geology Bulletin 88, 106 p. 

Stewart, J.H., Walker, G.W., and Kleinhampl, F.J., 1975, Oregon-Nevada lineament: Geology, v. 3, no. 5, p. 265-268. 

Wallace, R.E., 1979, Map of young fault scarps related to earthquakes in north-central Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 79-1554, scale 1:125,000. 

Waring, G.A., 1965, Thermal springs of the United States and 

other countries of the world-a summary, revised by R.R. 

Blankenship and Ray Bentall: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 492, 383 p. 

Welhan, J.A., Poreda, R.J., Rison, W., and Craig, H., 1988, Helium isotopes in geothermal and volcanic gases of the 

Western United States. 1. Regional variability and magmatic origin: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 34, no. 3-4, p. 185-199. 

White, D.E., 1967, Some principles of geyser activity, mainly 

from Steamboat Springs, Nevada: American Journal of Science, v. 265,no. 8,p.641-684. 

White, D.E., 1968, Hydrology, activity, and heat flow of the 

Steamboat Springs thermal system, Washoe County, 

Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 458-C, 

p. C1-C109. 

White, D.E., Brannock, W.W., and Murata, K.J., 1956, Silica in 

hot-spring waters: Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta, 

v. 10, no. 1-2,p.27-59. 

White, D.E., Hem, J.D., and Waring, G.A., 1963, Chemical 

composition of subsurface waters: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 440-F, p. F1-F67 

Zoback, M.L., 1979, Geologic and geophysical investigation of 

the Beowawe geothermal area, north-central Nevada: 

Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Publications in the 

Geological Sciences, v. 16, 79 p. 

Zoback, M.L., and Thompson, G.A., 1978, Basin and range 

rifting in northern Nevada: Clues from a mid-Miocene rift 

and its subsequent offsets: Geology, v. 6, no. 2, p. 111-

116. 

14 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
FIGURES 4, 5, 8-20, 22; TABLE 2 
Figure 4. Malpais fault zone and Beowawe Geysers terrace. View eastward; photograph by 

G.A. Thompson, taken October 18, 1951. 

Figure 5. "Beowawe" Geyser erupting from vent 29 to a 

height of about 8 m on September 22, 1945. 

16 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
Figure 8. "Teakettle" Geyser (vent 6) erupting from its double vent, October 1, 1950. Stronger plume, 

3 to 4112 m high, is inclined about 40° from vertical to the southwest. Weaker plume, largely of mist, is 

about 2 to 3112 m high and inclined about 50° from vertical to the northeast. 

Figure 9. "Spitfire" Geyser (vent 7; also called "Sputter Pot" Geyser), near northwest edge of Beowawe 

terrace. Eruption plume is nearly vertical to a height of about 4 m. View northward. 

Figures 4, 5, 8-20, 22; Table 2 17 
Figure 10. Unnamed geyser (vent 13) near centerline of Beowawe terrace erupting nearly vertically to 

about 5 m on October 1, 1950. Regular pattern of boulder distribution may be due to early settlers or 

Indians. View northward. 

Figure 11. "Pincushion" Geyser (vent complex 27) erupting in August 1945 from many vents through a 

pile of sinter-covered basalt boulders, possibly emplaced by early settlers or Indians. Plumes from only 

two or three vents are distinguishable in this photograph. More distinct plume on left is dispersed and 

about 1 m high; second, less conspicuous plume is inclined to right and about 11

h m high. 

18 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
Figure 12. "Pincushion" Geyser (vent complex 27) on September 20, 1950, between eruptions, showing some of 8 to 10 vents nested among basalt boulders that may have been emplaced by early settlers 

or Indians. Geyser is steaming slightly, but no water is visible. 

Figure 13. "Pincushion" Geyser (vent complex 27), showing "sugary" opaline sinter zoned in grain size 

from direct evaporation of silica (initially, monomeric H4Si04). 

Figures 4, 5, 8-20, 22; Table 2 19 
Figure 14. Opaline sinter texturally zoned around main vent of "Beowawe" Geyser (vent 29) between 

eruptions (center) on October 1, 1950. Inner zone of fine-grained "sugar" is nearly always wet, probably deposited as monomeric silica; outer zone of spherulitic sinter is commonly dry and results from 

complete rapid evaporation of polymerized silica. Vent of this geyser was photographed by Nolan and 

Anderson (1934, pl. 6, right center). 

Figure 15. Subsidiary pool of "Beowawe" Geyser, probably in 1947, showing white-fringed sinter 

deposited above a nearly constant sill level and dark, more slowly deposited sinter as small polymeric 

molecules of silica (with Fe?) precipitating as water cools between eruptions. 

20 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
Figure 16. Unnamed small geyser (vent 48) erupting about 1

h m high in foreground on October 1, 

1950, while "Colorful Spouter" (vent 49 to the east) is spouting in background. 

Figure 17. Closeup view of "Colorful Spouter" (vent 49) on September 2, 1947. This spouter was active 

during all visits except September 9, 1949, when it was dormant. When active, color zonation seems 

constant; inner yellowish-white zone is elemental sulfur; darker outer zones when wet are 

thermophylic algae and bacteria. View westward. 

Figures 4, 5, 8-20, 22; Table 2 21 
Figure 18. "Frying Pan" Geyser (vent 51), looking nearly down its throat on October 1, 1950, before 

eruption, in flat area north of base of terrace. Water is rising in the throat as gas bubbles (largely 

steam) become more prominent and, at first, condense in cooler water of pool. As pool heats up, 

bubbles no longer condense but break the surface. Nail at near left was used as reference for measuring depth to water. 

Figure 19. "Frying Pan" Geyser in eruption on September 22, 1945. Water rises until it fills pool and 

discharges through old constructed channel next to photographer, who is facing west (for view northeastward, see Nolan and Anderson, 1934, pl. 8). 

22 The Beowawe Geysers, Nevada, Before Geothermal Development 
Figure 20. "Frying Pan" Geyser pool after eruption. View 

west-southwestward; photograph taken in 1962 after reactivation of northwestern group of springs steaming in background. 

Figure 22. Sinter terrace of Beowawe Geysers on April 5, 

1965, overlooking reactivated area in foreground. View 

southeastward. 

Figures 4, 5, 8-20, 22; Table 2 23 
~ Table 2. Selected characteristics of hot-spring activity observed in the Beowawe Geysers area, Nevada, 1945-57 ol:o 

-1 [See figures 6 and 7 for locations. G, geyser observed or considered definitely active; G?, geyser, probably active during observation period; Gs, geyser, subterranean; S, active hot spring; Si, vent, =r 

tD showing varying water level. S?, spring, probably active; Sp, perpetual spouter; Sv, spring, showing varying discharge rate; dashes, no data.] 

= tD 

0 Map Date :; 

Ill No. Name Sept. 22, Sept. 1-2, May 14, Sept. 8-9 Sept. 30-0ct. 1 , May 25, Oct. 15, Sept. 1, Summary :; 

tD (vent) 1945 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1951 1957 

~ 

tD 

-< 1 Hot spring s s S? S? S? s, 5s·c. -1s urn S, 57.5"C, --- s 

"' 

~ -40Um ~ 2 Hot spring s s S? S? S? S, 57"C S, -12 Urn s 

z 3 Hot spring s s S? S? S? S, 9S"C, 30 Urn S, 9S.1"C, s s tD 

< SUm Ill 

Q. 4 Hot spring s s S,6Um S? S? s S, 90.S"C s s ~ 

= 

5 Hot spring s s S? S? G, small s S, 90"C, G, small G, small. tD or geyser. SUm 

~ 6 "Tea Kettle" G, 2 vents G G, 1-min G G, 2 vents G, 6-min interval G, 6-min interval G,>2m G, 2m, 3- tD Geyser. eruption. to 5 m. min. eruption, ~ 

tD -60-min 0 

;. interval. tD 7 "Spitfire" G? G? G, 40-min G G, steam G, long G, long G G, -40-min. 3 Geyser. eruption. phase. interval. interval. eruption. Ill 

- s Unnamed geyser G? G? G G? G G? Inactive? S? Gat times. 

c 

tD 9 Variable spring --- Sv No recent --- --- Sv, variable Sv, variable --- Sv < 

tD eruption. Q 10 Unnamed geyser --- G, -0.3 m G, -0.5 m G, -O.S m G G G G, <1m G, 0.3 m for "'CC 

3 1 min, 30- tD 

a min interval. 

11 Unnamed geyser G G? G? G Sv? --- Surging to surface, --- G 

no discharge. 

12 Vent --- --- Inactive Si --- --- Si, no discharge --- Si 

13 Unnamed geyser G? G? G G, erupting G, to 5 m G Gs? --- G, at times to 

-5 m 

14 Unnamed geyser --- G, 2 vents Inactive? G G, to 2m Surging, no net G,-6Um --- G, active to-2m. 

discharge. 

15 Vent, subsurface --- Gs? Gs Gs --- Gs? Inactive? Inactive? Gs 

geyser. 

16 Intermittent spring Si Si --- --- S, seeping S, seeping Si 

17 "White Flame" G G G G G, mild G, 2-min duration, G, bubbles G G, >1m. 

Geyser. -10-min interval. collapsing. 

1S Unnamed geyser G? G? G, active G G, >1m G G G G 

19 Unnamed geyser --- G? G?, no very G G Active S, cooled by S, cooled Gat times. 

recent eruption. vent 23 discharge. by vent 23. 

20 Subsurface geyser --- Gs --- --- --- Inactive Gs Gs 

21 Hot spring s --- --- s --- --- S,3Um Inactive s 

22 Hot spring --- --- S,-1 Urn s --- --- S, 20Um Inactive s 

23 "Orange Spouter" Sp No activity --- --- Inactive Sp, 97.6"C, Inactive Sp 

-10Um 

24 Small geyser --- Sp? G, small G G G G G G, small, 1m 

or less. 

25 Unnamed geyser, G G, to 3m G, to 3m G, preliminary G G, -30-min G, >12-min G G, erupting, 

disintegrating. discharge. discharge. eruption. 3-min 

overflow, 

erupts 3m 

for -13 min. 
* 26 Subsurface --- Gs G? --- --- Inactive Gs Si Gs, commonly c 

(;) geyser. subterranean. 

G! 27 "Pincushion" G G? G G, multiple G Inactive(?), no G, multiple G G, multiple 

0 Geyser. vents. recent eruptions. vents to 2m. vents to 2m. ~ 28 Small geyser --- G? G, surging to G --- S? Sv, variable, G G z Y3m. -2Um 5: 

~ 29 "Beowawe" G, to 8 m G G G G G, 2-min duration, G, 2-min G G, to 7-9 m. 

Geyser. interval -150 min. duration. --o 

7Q 30 Unnamed geyser G G --- --- 2 bubbling pools, S, seeping G, inactive G ~ no discharge. discharge. z 

G! 31 Unnamed geyser --- --- G --- --- Sp, !13 to >1m Sp, 12-20 Urn G, inactive Small G or 

9 spouter at 

times. ~ 32 Unnamed small s --- G, small s --- S, -10 Urn S, variable G, inactive Small Gat 

:0 geyser. discharge. times. -a 

w 33, Geyser, G? --- G --- G Inactive G G G, one of two ~ 33e alternating. vents, alter- co 

,. nating. co 

w 34 Spring, slightly --- --- Acidic pH6.4 pH 6.1, Seeping pH 6.03, Active S, commonly co 

acidic. seeping. seeping. slightly 

acidic. 

35 Variable spring --- --- --- s Sv s Sv, -2 Urn Sv Variable spring. 

36 Unnamed geyser G, to 2m Sv G,40-100Um s Sv Sv,-50Um G,-30Um G G, high discharge to 

2m or more. 

37 Unnamed small --- s G, small --- --- Inactive Inactive G, small G, small. 

geyser. 

38 Unnamed --- G G, 2 vents --- --- G, small G G, small G, small. 

geyser-spouter. 

39 Unnamed geyser G, to 1Y3 m G? G, splashing? G --- Inactive Inactive G, >1Yl m G, >lYl m 

40 Acidic spring pH 3.40 pH 6.61 pH 5.85 pH 3.28 --- No discharge Seeping, variable S, acidic Acidic spring. 

41 Acidic spring pH 3.40 pH 2.61 pH 2.59 pH 2.33 pH 2.84 No discharge(?) pH 2.59, seeping S, acidic, Acidic spring. 

3-5Um 

42 Small spring --- --- Inactive --- --- Inactive Inactive S, -3 Urn s 

43 Small geyser --- --- Inactive G? G Inactive Inactive Inactive G, at times G, active at 

active. times. 

44 Small spring s s S,2Um s s Inactive Inactive S, discharging S, generally 

active. 

45 Small geyser(?) s G? G?, not recently G? G?, recent Inactive Inactive G? Small G? 

active. "TT 

a'Q" 46 Small spring s s S,6Um s --- Inactive Inactive S? Spring. 

~ 47 Vent, inactive --- --- Inactive for -1 yr --- --- Inactive Inactive Not seen active Dormant II) 48 Unnamed geyser --- Inactive G,-YJUm G G Inactive Inactive Gs G,-!!Jm. "' 

~ 49 "Colorful Spouter" Sp Sp Sp Inactive Sp Sp, 20-36 Urn Sp, -24-36 Urn Sp Spouter. 

,?1 50 Small spring s S? Inactive S? s S, Y2 Lim Sv, 1--4 Urn S? S, generally 

co discharging. I 

~ 51 "Frying Pan" G G G G G G, -1 0-min eruption, G, normal G G,-!!Jm. ~ Geyser. 40-min interval. ~ 51w Vent, varying --- Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si !': 

-1 water level. Ill 

c:r Total number of 14 19 27 20 18 12 14 19 28 ii" 

~ geysers, active and 

probably active 

~ (G and G?). 

VI 



SELECTED SERIES OF U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PUBLICATIONS 

Periodicals 

Earthquakes & Volcanoes (issued bimonthly). 

Preliminary Determination of Epicenters (issued monthly). 

Technical Books and Reports 

Professional Papers are mainly comprehensive scientific reports of wide and lasting interest and importance to professional 

scientists and engineers. Included are reports on the results of 

resource studies and of topographic, hydrologic, and geologic 

investigations. They also include collections of related papers 

addressing different aspects of a single scientific topic. 

Bulletins contain significant data and interpretations that are of 

lasting scientific interest but are generally more limited in scope or 

geographic coverage than Professional Papers. They include the 

results of resource studies and of geologic and topographic investigations, as well as collections of short papers related to a specific 

topic. 

Water-Supply Papers are comprehensive reports that present 

significant interpretive results of hydrologic investigations of wide 

interest to professional geologists, hydrologists, and engineers. The 

series covers investigations in all phases of hydrology, including 

hydrogeology, availability of water, quality of water, and use of 

water. 

Circulars present administrative information or important scientific information of wide popular interest in a format designed for 

distribution at no cost to the public. Information is usually of shortterm interest. 

Water-Resource Investigations Reports are papers of an inter-

·pretive nature made available to the public outside the formal USGS 

publications series. Copies are reproduced on request unlike formal 

USGS publications, and they are also available for public inspection 

at depositories indicated in USGS catalogs. 

Open-File Reports include unpublished manuscript reports, 

maps, and other material that are made available for public consultation at depositories. They are a nonpermanent form of publication 

that may be cited in other publications as sources of information. 

Maps 

Geologic Quadrangle Maps are multicolor geologic maps on 

topographic bases in 7 112- or 15-minute quadrangle formats (scales 

mainly 1:24,000 or 1 :62,500) showing bedrock, surficial, or engineering geology. Maps genera1ly include brief texts; some maps 

include structure and columnar sections only. 

Geophysical Investigations Maps are on topographic or planimetric bases at various scales; they show results of surveys using 

geophysical techniques, such as gravity, magnetic, seismic, or 

radioactivity, which reflect subsurface structures that are of economic or geologic significance. Many maps include correlations 

with the geology. 

Miscellaneous Investigations Series Maps are on planimetric 

or topographic bases of regular and irregular areas at various scales; 

they present a wide variety of format and subject matter. The series 

also includes 7 112-minute quadrangle photogeologic maps on 

planimetric bases that show geology as interpreted from aerial 

photographs. Series also includes maps of Mars and the Moon. 

Coal Investigations Maps are geologic maps on topographic or 

planimetric bases at various scales showing bedrock or surficial 

geology, stratigraphy, and structural relations in certain coal-resource areas. 

Oil and Gas Investigations Charts show stratigraphic information for certain oil and gas fields and other areas having petroleum 

potential. 

Miscellaneous Field Studies Maps are multicolor or black -andwhite maps on topographic or planimetric bases on quadrangle or 

irregular areas at various scales. Pre-1971 maps show bedrock 

geology in relation to specific mining or mineral-deposit problems; 

post-1971 maps are primarily black-and-white maps on various 

subjects, such as environmental studies or wilderness mineral investigations. 

Hydrologic Investigations Atlases are multicolor or black -andwhite maps on topographic or planimetric bases presenting a wide 

range of geohydrologic data of both regular and irregular areas; 

principal scale is 1 :24,000, and regional studies are at 1 :250,000 

scale or smaller. 

Catalogs 

Permanent catalogs, as well as some others, giving comprehensive listings of U.S. Geological Survey publications are available 

under the conditions indicated below from the U.S. Geological 

Survey, Books and Open File Reports Sales, Federal Center, Box 

25286, Denver, CO 80225. (See latest Price and Availability List.) 

"Publications of the Geological Survey, 1879-1961" may be 

purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form and 

as a set of microfiche. 

"Publications of the Geological Survey, 1962-1970" may be 

purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form and 

as a set of microfiche. 

"Publications of the Geological Survey, 1971-1981" may be 

purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form (two 

volumes, publications listing and index) and as a set of microfiche. 

Supplements for 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, and for subsequent years since the last permanent catalog may be purchased by 

mail and over the counter in paperback book form. 

State catalogs, "List of U.S. Geological Survey Geologic and 

Water-Supply Reports and Maps For (State)," may be purchased by 

mail and over the counter in paperback booklet form only. 

"Price and Availability List of U.S. Geological Survey Publications," issued annually, is available free of charge in paperback 

booklet form only. 

Selected copies of a monthly catalog "New Publications of the 

U.S. Geological Survey" are available free of charge by mail or may 

be obtained over the counter in paperback booklet form only. Those 

wishing a free subscription to the monthly catalog "New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey" should write to the U.S. 

Geological Survey, 582 National Center, Reston, VA 22092. 

Note.--Prices of Government publications listed in older catalogs, announcements, and publications may be incorrect. Therefore, 

the prices charged may differ from the prices in catalogs, announcements, and publications.