The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S. 

Department of Justice and prepared the following final report: 

Document Title: Disproportionate Minority Contact in the 

Juvenile Justice System: A Study of Differential 

Minority Arrest/Referral to Court in Three Cities 

Author(s): David Huizinga ; Terence Thornberry ; Kelly 

Knight ; Peter Lovegrove 

Document No.: 219743 

Date Received: September 2007 

Award Number: 1996-MU-FX-0012 ; 2005-JK-FX-0001 ; 1996-MUFX-0017 ; 2005-JK-FX-0023 ; 1996-MU-FX-0014 ; 

2004-MU-FX-0062 

This report has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice. 

To provide better customer service, NCJRS has made this Federallyfunded grant final report available electronically in addition to 

traditional paper copies.

 

Opinions or points of view expressed are those 

of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect 

the official position or policies of the U.S. 

Department of Justice.
Disproportionate Minority Contact in the Juvenile Justice System: 

A Study of Differential Minority Arrest/Referral to Court in Three Cities* 

A Report to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention 

David Huizinga, Terence P. Thornberry, Kelly E. Knight, Peter J. Lovegrove, 

Rolf Loeber, Karl Hill, and David P. Farrington 

July 28, 2007 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Executive Summary 

This report uses information from three community studies of delinquency to examine 

disproportionate minority contact (DMC) and factors that might affect DMC at the police 

contact/court referral level. Although these studies were not designed to study DMC issues and 

as such have some limitations in the kinds of issues that can be examined, these studies do 

provide the relatively unique ability to examine two often given reasons for DMC -- offending 

behavior and the greater presence of risk factors for contact/referral among minorities. 

Three main conclusions seem warranted based on the findings presented in this report. First, 

there was clear evidence of DMC. At all three sites it was found that a greater proportion of 

minorities are contacted/referred, although at one site the rate of referral was similar for Whites 

and Asians. 

Second, DMC can not be explained by differences in the offending behavior of different racial 

groups. The often stated reason for DMC – that it simply reflects the difference in offending 

rates among different racial/ethnic groups – was not supported by the information provided by 

these three studies. Although self-reported offending is a significant predictor of which 

individuals are contacted/referred, levels of delinquent offending have only marginal effects on 

the level of DMC. This finding held true for a measure of total offending and for violent and 

property offenses as well. 

Third, DMC was substantially reduced by considering the combined effect of a number of 

additional risk factors for arrest. At two of the sites this risk effect is substantial and statistically 

significant, but the total risk variable was not significant at the third site (although DMC was 

reduced at the third site by the inclusion of the risk variable). Given the magnitudes of effect, it 

appears that multiple risk factors do a better job of explaining DMC than does delinquent 

behavior. At one site, the race effect on contact/referral was reduced to non-significance by the 

consideration of risk, while at the other two sites the race effect was substantially reduced but not 

eliminated. 

i

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Overall, the weight of the evidence suggests that the effect of race/ethnicity on the chance of 

being contacted/referred is reduced but remains significant when both offending and risk are 

controlled. Among the risks considered were type of neighborhood, family economic status, 

family structure (single parents), age of mother at first birth (teen mom), and youth educational 

problems, as well as other factors. 

 

Do these observations about DMC at the arrest/referral point of juvenile justice processing imply 

there is racial bias in the juvenile justice system? The answer is not necessarily. If there is bias in 

the juvenile justice system then the kinds of findings reported here would be expected. However, 

the reverse statement is not necessarily correct; that is, findings of disproportionality cannot be 

used to conclude that there is racial bias in the system. Other factors not measured in these 

studies may affect the decision to contact/refer and affect DMC and are not controlled in the 

analyses conducted for this report. However, importantly, two of the more common reasons 

given for DMC, different levels of offending behavior and the presence of other risk factors, 

were shown not to fully explain the observed DMC. Examination of other, perhaps more subtle 

factors, including more direct measurement of bias, seem needed to more fully understand the 

origins of DMC. 

The findings of this report also suggest some further directions for research to more fully 

understand DMC at the initial contact/arrest/referral stage. First, the need for DMC studies in 

multiple sites is clearly indicated. Findings can be site specific so that findings from one site may 

not generalize to other sites. This observation suggests that individual communities may need to 

develop information capacities to permit local identification of factors that lead to DMC in the 

community, and not rely on findings from other communities – although studies in other 

communities would surely provide guidance. Second, disentangling the effects of race, social 

class, and neighborhood on arrest/referral is difficult, given the overlap of these individual and 

family characteristics and environments. However, this is a critical issue and studies designed to 

address these issues are needed. In the current study, race, social class, and neighborhood were 

each highly significant predictors of contact/referral at all three sites, suggesting their 

importance. These factors are also likely to be correlated with additional factors that may impact 

DMC. Third, the finding that DMC exists even after delinquency and a selection of risk factors 

were controlled, suggests that identification of additional factors that influence DMC, at least at 

ii

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

some sites, is needed. Obvious among these are police decision making and the factors that 

influence such decision making (e.g., perceived public danger, availability of capable guardians, 

prior contact with offender, offender demeanor at time of contact, existence of police diversion 

programs or availability of community services, etc.), and factors influencing the likelihood of 

initial discovery and apprehension such as calls for service and patrol patterns, as well as 

additional individual characteristics. 

As the above comments suggest, additional information is needed to more fully understand the 

causes of DMC at the police contact, arrest, court referral stage. However, this report does 

indicate that DMC can not be explained by differences in the offending behavior of different 

racial groups and that, in general, DMC is substantially reduced, but not eliminated, by 

consideration of additional risk factors beyond delinquent behavior. 

iii

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Acknowledgement 

This report on disproportionate minority contact in the Juvenile Justice System relies on work 

conducted by Loeber, R., Farrington, D.P., Hill, K., and Thornberry, T.P., September, 2005, in 

preparation of an unpublished document “Advancing Knowledge on Disproportionate Minority 

Contact (DMC) in the Juvenile Justice System with Longitudinal Data: A Study of Differential 

Minority Representation at Arrest/Referral to Court in Three Cities. This current report relies 

heavily on the statistical analyses prepared by Loeber et al. (2005) and extends the discussion of 

those results. 

iv

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 

PREVIOUS STUDIES 

For the past fifty years, researchers have been studying the degree to which race affects juvenile justice 

decision-making (Pope & Snyder, 2003). Although findings are not always consistent in the levels of 

disproportionate contact reported, since studies vary by location, point of contact considered, and 

methods employed (see Pope, Lovell & Hsia, 2002), national level data reveal that disproportionate 

minority contact (DMC), which we define as contact at any point within the juvenile justice system, is 

evident at all decision points. Moreover, DMC generally increases from earlier to later stages of 

processing (OJJDP, 1999). Using data from 1997 and 1998, Poe-Yamagato and Jones (2000) found that 

African American youth accounted for: 26% of juvenile arrests, 31% of referrals to juvenile court, 44% 

of the detained population, 34% of youth formally processed by the juvenile court, 32% of youth 

adjudicated delinquent, 46% of youth judicially waived to criminal court, 40% of youth in residential 

placement, and 58% of youth admitted to state prison, despite accounting for only 15% of the juvenile 

population nationwide. Hamparian and Leiber (1997) also found evidence of DMC in 31 of the 36 states 

that they studied. 

More than one explanation has been given for DMC. Some argue that DMC is the result of racial bias 

within the juvenile justice system. Others argue that DMC is the result of minority youth committing 

more crimes, more serious crimes, or types of offenses that are more likely to come to the attention of 

the police, e.g. weapon offenses. Still others argue that DMC is, in part, produced by risk factors for 

delinquency that are also correlated with race, for example, coming from broken or dysfunctional homes 

(cf. Snyder and Sickmund, 2006; Bishop, 2005). Because of these possibilities, many studies have 

extended the examination of DMC by statistically controlling for relevant variables. Typically, these 

include offense characteristics and prior record, demographic variables, non-individual risk factors such 

as neighborhood characteristics, individual-level risk factors, or some combination thereof. 

This report uses information from three longitudinal community studies of delinquency, conducted at 

Pittsburgh, Rochester, and Seattle, to examine disproportionate minority contact (DMC) and factors that 

might affect DMC at the point of contact/arrest/court referral. Although these studies were not designed 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

to investigate DMC issues and thus have some limitations in the kinds of issues that can be examined, 

the studies provide the relatively unique opportunity to examine two often cited reasons for the existence 

of DMC – differences in offending among racial/ethnic groups and the presence of risk factors for arrest 

that are related to race/ethnicity. As can be observed in the following literature review, although the 

possibility that DMC is a result of higher rates of involvement in delinquency or serious delinquency 

among minorities, or that social or personal risk factors for arrest/court referral are more prevalent 

among minorities, there is a paucity of empirical findings about these issues. And, it is the need for 

greater information about these issues, using multiple sites so that findings can be replicated, that 

provided the impetus for the design and analyses of the research reported here. This summary report 

draws information from three separate but coordinated site reports that provide additional details about 

findings from each site. These individual site reports are included as Appendices. 

The research reported here is driven by two main questions. (1) The effect of self-report offending on 

DMC and (2) The effect of potential risk factors for arrest on DMC, and is limited to examining these 

two specific questions. The findings presented are important and raise additional issues and research 

questions about DMC at the arrest/referral stage that are not empirically considered in this report but are 

described in the concluding section of the report. 

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this section, we describe existing literature that examines whether race effects remain significant

when controlling for sets of variables, namely: offense characteristics and prior records, demographic 

factors, non-individual and individual risk factors, and self-reported delinquency. 

Our search strategy included library searches (such as Sociological Abstracts and National Criminal 

Justice Reference Services), as well as input from colleagues and individual documents collected at 

conferences and the like. In effect, a snowball technique was used to find published studies on DMC. 

Although literature on DMC dates back to the 1950s, we restricted our review to more recent studies, 

from 1994 and forward, in an effort to capture relationships existing under current and recent policies. 

Even with this restriction, however, we note that in many recent publications the data analyzed for these 

studies were collected much earlier, ranging from 1945-2001. Although the empirical investigation in 

the present report covers only early contact with the juvenile justice system – contact/arrest or referral – 

because of the sparse literature on some central issues our review examines various decision points in 

2

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

the juvenile justice system (arrest, court referral, disposition, etc.). Table 1 lists the 11 publications that 

met our criteria (studies from 1994 onward that control for offense characteristics, prior records, 

demographic factors, risk factors, or self-reported delinquency) and includes citation, data years, 

decision-making point, use of statistical controls, and evidence of race effects. 

We are interested in three core questions: 

1. Is there a race effect in juvenile justice system decision-making? 

2. If so, does it remain significant after controls are added?

3. If so, does its magnitude change?

At the outset it should be noted that answering these seemingly simple questions from previous research, 

especially the last two, with general answers is a difficult task. The studies examine different, and 

multiple decision points, often with different results at each point. Some studies present a bivariate 

relationship between race and processing and then control for other variables, allowing an estimate of 

whether the effect is reduced. However, other studies only present multivariate models which do not 

allow for an estimate of change in the size of the effect. In addition, several studies simultaneously 

control for more than one type of variable in their analyses, so it is difficult at times to discern the 

degree to which controlling for each particular group of factors, say self-reported offending versus 

neighborhood characteristics, changes the effect of race on arrest. Given the way most analyses are 

conducted we are limited to more general or global conclusions. That said, the last three columns in 

Table 1 provide our best effort to respond to the three key questions. If the data were not provided to 

answer these questions or if the results are ambiguous we indicated NA for not available. 

Disproportionate Minority Contact 

On the first issue there is little disagreement. There is a noticeable level of DMC in the juvenile justice 

system. Minority youth, especially African American and Hispanic youth, are generally more likely to 

have contact with the juvenile justice system at all stages, from arrest to confinement. The empirical 

studies reviewed here find that, before control variables are added to the equation, differences by race 

and ethnicity are quite evident. In one of the most comprehensive reviews of this topic Engen, Steen, 

and Bridges (2002) performed an empirical analysis across 125 studies addressing the relationship 

between race and juvenile justice, as well as criminal justice, outcomes. They found that race effects 

were, by and large, significant. 

3

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Race Effects When Controls Are Added 

The next to last column examines whether race effects remain statistically significant once control 

variables for offense characteristics, risk factors, etc. are added to the equations. The variables that are 

actually controlled in each study are listed, by type and by specific variable, in the middle columns of 

Table 1. 

The effect of race on processing begins to change somewhat when controls are added. In most studies 

the impact of race remains significant in the presence of controls but in several cases the results are 

“mixed”. That is, race is significant at some decision points but not others or when some variables are 

controlled but not others. For example, Leiber and Jamieson (1995) found significant race effects at 

diversion, petition, and initial appearance, but not at further processing, adjudication or disposition.1

 

Interestingly, at some stages they find that African American youth are treated more harshly while at 

others more leniently. Only one study, Bridges and Steen (1998), finds that race is reduced to statistical 

non-significance once other variables are controlled. However, in that case, decision-makers’ 

attributions that were shown to depend on race are included in the model, so it can not be concluded that 

race is inconsequential in processing outcomes. Bridges and Steen (1998) conclude that these 

attributions held by probation officers are one of the mechanisms that produce differential outcomes. 

Although these differences in the impact of race are noted, the general conclusion from these studies is 

that race remains a significant predictor of juvenile justice system processing after introducing various 

statistical controls. 

Whether the size of the race effect on juvenile justice system processing remains the same or is reduced 

in the presence of statistical controls is difficult to determine given the nature of the available literature. 

We feel able to assess this question for six of the studies we reviewed, and these are listed in the last

column of Table 1. In all six cases the magnitude of the race effect was reduced. In Bridges and Steen 

(1998) the race effect is smaller and not significant. In DeJong and Jackson (1998), there is no 

significant difference between African American and White youth in the light of controls but the 

difference between Hispanic and White youth becomes significant for referrals (but not placement) 

when population density is added to the equation. 

 1 Definitions are provided by Leiber and Jamieson 1995: 372 

4

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

5

In the other studies the impact of race, while remaining statistically significant, is smaller – sometimes 

substantially so. For example, in a New Zealand study, Fergusson et al. (2003) report that the bivariate 

ratio of minority to non-minority youth being processed was 4.1. When self-reported offending was 

controlled it dropped to 2.1 and when self-reported offending and offender characteristics were jointly 

controlled it further dropped to 1.6. Similar declines in magnitude are reported in the other studies. It is 

interesting and important to note that only one study, Fergusson et al. (2003), examined the influence of 

self-reported delinquency. 

Summary 

Overall, two general conclusions seem warranted. First, there is disproportionate minority contact with 

the juvenile justice system. Minority youth are more likely to have contact with the system and to 

penetrate further into it than non-minority youth. Second, when variables measuring individual 

characteristics, offending patterns, and offense characteristics are held constant, the effect of race 

typically remains statistically significant but typically also becomes smaller in size. Thus to some extent 

the race differences in processing can be understood, in part, by these other variables. We now turn to 

the empirical examination of these same issues using the data from the studies in Pittsburgh, Rochester, 

and Seattle. 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Table 1 

Summary of Studies Used 

Citation Data Years Decision Point Controls Types Specific Controls

Original RaceEffect Significant

Race Effect withControlsSignificant

Bridges, G.S. and S. Steen.(1998). “Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attribution stereotypes as mediating mechanisms.”American Sociological Review 63(4): 554-570. 1990-1991

narratives on negativeinternal and external attributes, risk of reoffending, and sentencingrecommendation

offense characteristics and prior contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics, individual risk factors

depends on the model: age, sex, present offense, prior record, countyidentity, PO identityand race, detainedprior to adjudication, violent offense, negative internal and external attributes,risk of offending yes no 

Dejong, Christina and Kenneth C. Jackson. 1998."Putting Race into Context: Race, Juvenile Justice Processing, andUrbanization." Justice Quarterly 15:488-570. 1990

referral to court, placement

offense characteristics and prior contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics, individual risk factors population density yes yes/mixed 

Farrington, D. P., R. Loeber, M. Stouthamer-Loeber. (2003). “How Can theRelationship between Race and Violence be Explained?”Pp. 213-237 in ViolentCrime: Assessing Race and Ethnic Differences, edited byD. F. Hawkins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pr 1987-1999

reported and court violence

offense characteristics and prior contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics, individual risk factors and self-report delinquency

child factors, childrearing factors, socioeconomic factors, parent factors yes yes 

6

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 Table 1 (Continued) 

Summary of Studies Used 

Citation Data Years Decision Point Controls Types Specific Controls

Original RaceEffect Significant

Race Effect withControlsSignificant

Feld, B. C. (1995). “TheSocial Context of Juvenile Justice Administration: Racial Disparities in an Urban Juvenile Court.” Pp. 66-97 inMinorities in JuvenileJustice , edited by K. K. Leonard, C. E. Pope, and W.H. Feyerherm. ThousandOaks: Sage Publications 1986 sentencing

offense characteristics and prior contact

depends on model: prior/current, records, home removal, secure confinement dispo, age, gender, attorney yes yes 

Fergusson, D. M., L. J.Horwood, and N. SwainCampbell. (2003). “Ethnicityand Criminal Convictions:Results of a 21-yearLongitudinal Study.” The Australian and New ZealandJournal of Criminology 36(3): 354-367. 1977-1998 rate of conviction

offense characteristics and prior Contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics, individual risk factors and self-report delinquency

age, SES, left school, gender, self-reportedoffenses (prop/violentand others) yes yes 

Frazier, C. E., D. M. Bishop,and J. C. Henretta. 1992. "TheSocial-Context of Race Differentials in Juvenile Justice Dispositions."Sociological Quarterly 33:447-

458. 1987

intakerecommendation,court referral, and court disposition

offense characteristics and prior contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics

depends on the model: gender,offense severity, priors, severity of priors, racial incomeinequality, %white,%black, index crimerate, race x racialincome inequality,race x %white, race xwhite poverty, race xindex crime, race byjuv. arrest rate na yes 

7

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Table 1 

Summary of Studies Used 

Citation Data Years Decision Point Controls Types Specific Controls

Original RaceEffect Significant

Race Effect withControlsSignificant

Leiber, M. J. and K. M. Jamieson. (1995). “Race and Decision Making Within Juvenile Justice: The Importance of Context.”Journal of Quantitative Criminology 11(4): 363-388. 1980-1991

further processing, diversion, petition,initial appearance,adjudication, and judicial disposition

non-individual riskfactors, demographics, individual risk factors

attitudes in

punishment and racial 

diff., poverty, racial inequality, juvenile arrests, age, gender, school problems, dropouts n/a yes/mixed 

Leiber, M. J. and K. Y. Mack. 2003. "The individual and joint effects of race, gender,and family status on juvenile justice decision-making." Journal of Research in Crimeand Delinquency 40:34-70. 1980-1991

further processing, diversion, petition,initial appearance,adjudication, and judicial disposition

offense characteristics, nonindividual risk factors, demographics, individual risk factors

gender, family status, age, attending school,prior referrals, court authority, # of charges, crimeseverity and type yes/mixed yes/mixed 

Sealock, M. D. and S. S. Simpson. (1998). “UnravelingBias in Arrest Decisions: The Role of Juvenile Offender Type-scripts.” Justice Quarterly 15(3) 427-457. 1968-1975 arrest

offense characteristics and prior contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics

gender, SES, age,offense seriousness, #of previous contacts, officer witnessed offense, gender typingof offense yes yes 

Thornberry, T. P. (1979). “Sentencing Disparities in theJuvenile Justice System.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 70(2): 165-171. 1945- sentencing

offense characteristics, nonindividual risk factors seriousness, prior record and SES yes yes 

8

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
9

Citation Data Years Decision Point Controls Types Specific Controls

Original RaceEffect Significant

Race Effect withControlsSignificant

Wordes, M. and T. S. Bynum.(1995). “Policing Juveniles: Is there Bias Against Color?”Pp. 47-65 in Minorities in Juvenile Justice , edited by K.K. Leonard, C. E. Pope, andW. H. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 1990

referral and custodydecisions

offense characteristics and prior contacts, non-individual riskfactors, demographics

gender, age, # of priors, co-offenders, victim injury, drug charge, weapon,department (1-7) yes yes/mixed 

Summary of Studies Used 

Table 1 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

METHODS 

STUDY SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION 

The three studies from which data are drawn for this report are the Pittsburgh Youth Study, the 

Rochester Youth Development Study, and the Seattle Social Development Project.2 These three 

studies are among the best available longitudinal studies of delinquency, with repeated measures 

of delinquency over the juvenile years, records of official delinquency at each age, and 

measurements of a wide range of risk factors. (Descriptions of these studies can be found in 

Thornberry and Krohn, 2003). Combined, the three studies include African-Americans, 

Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Whites, and in Seattle information about both genders is 

available. 

The Pittsburgh Youth Study sample is based on a probability sample of boys in grades 1, 4 and 7 

in inner-city Pittsburgh public schools in 1988. Initially, approximately 1000 boys from each 

grade were selected and 85% of these boys and their parents participated in a screening 

assessment. Based on the screening assessment, the 30% most disruptive/delinquent boys in each

grade were included in the sample along with a random selection of the remaining 70% less 

disruptive/delinquent boys to achieve a final sample of 500 boys in each grade, roughly half 

high-risk and half lower-risk. These boys and their caretaker were followed longitudinally. Just 

over half were White and just under half were African-American, reflecting the racial 

composition of the included public schools at that time. For this report the youngest (grade 1) 

and oldest (grade 7) cohorts are used. 

The Rochester Youth Development Study sample is comprised of a stratified sample of 7th and 

8th grade students in the public schools of Rochester, New York in 1988. To increase the number 

 2 The Denver Youth Survey (DYS) and a related study, the Denver Neighborhood Study (DNS), were originally considered for

inclusion in this list of studies. However, the longitudinal DYS sample was specifically drawn from only high-risk neighborhoods 

of Denver and does not provide a representative city sample from which inferences about DMC, in general, can appropriately be

made. In addition, the sampling results in restricted ranges of many of the risk factors so that the statistical examination of such

risks as an explanation for DMC can not be appropriately conducted. The DNS is a cross-sectional study of the entire city of 

Denver and being cross-sectional limits its comparability to the other three sites. It also has a very small number of AfricanAmericans, which reflects the low proportion of African-Americans in Denver. Also, given the small sample sizes of Whites in 

the DYS and African-Americans in the DNS it was necessary (and for Denver appropriate) to use a more inclusive measure of 

offenses that lead to arrest in order to have sufficient arrests for analyses by racial subgroup. This also made cross-site 

comparisons difficult. For these reasons, findings from the Denver studies are not included in this report. Interested readers can

obtain a copy of a report of the findings from the Denver studies from the DYS or from OJJDP.

10

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

of high-risk cases included in the sample, males (75% versus 25%) and students living in high 

arrest-rate areas of the city were over-represented in the final sample of 1000 students and their 

caretakers. The sample can be weighted to represent the original total 7th and 8th grade cohort of 

the city. The sample is 68% African American, 17% Hispanic, and 15% White. For this report, 

the Rochester sample is limited to males because the number of females available for analysis 

requiring estimates of arrest by racial group is too small to provide stable estimates. 

The Seattle Social Development Study sample was drawn from 5th grade students attending 

eighteen elementary schools serving high-crime neighborhoods of Seattle in 1985. The study 

nests an intervention study initiated at first grade entry in 1981 within the longitudinal study. 

From the population of 1,053 students entering grade 5 in the participating schools, 808 

consented to participate and form the longitudinal sample. During the study, because of 

mandatory busing to achieve racial balance, all schools in the study served at least two different 

neighborhoods of the city. Of the sample, 49% are female; 46% are European Americans; 24% 

are African Americans; 21% Asian American; and 9% have other ethnic group identity. 

It should be noted that although city names are used in the titles of the three research projects, 

the analyses of the samples used do not necessarily provide generalizations to the full cities. 

When appropriately weighted, the Rochester project does so generalize, the Pittsburgh project 

generalizes to inner-city neighborhoods of Pittsburgh, and the Seattle project generalizes to highcrime neighborhoods of Seattle. 

Because the Pittsburgh sample includes only males and, for this report, the Rochester sample is 

limited to males, the findings described in this report, which describe cross-site findings, focus 

only on males. Findings about females are available at the Seattle site and are described in the 

Seattle report in an Appendix. 

 

APPROPRIATENESS, STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDIES FOR DMC ASSESSMENT 

The studies used in this report have both strengths and limitations in their ability to address 

decision-making in the juvenile justice system, especially whether there are racial or ethnic 

differences in the prevalence and frequency of contact at different stages of the juvenile justice 

11

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been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

system. All three of these longitudinal studies were designed as individual level investigations of 

the development of delinquent behavior using community samples and are especially focused on 

conditions leading to and explanations for delinquent and drug use behavior. A part of this focus 

includes information about officially recognized delinquent behavior and juvenile justice system

experience. However, the studies were not specifically designed to address the issue of

disproportionate minority contact. Thus, for example, the studies did not attempt to select 

samples in such a way to insure that a sufficient number of each race/ethnic group would be 

available for arrest, referral to court, or court disposition analyses. Thus, the ability to examine 

racial differences throughout the system is limited for some studies (e.g., see footnote 1). 

The studies also did not collect information from/about decision-makers so that a direct 

examination of the issue of racial bias among juvenile justice decision-makers cannot be made. 

Although several potential factors that could affect DMC can be examined and controlled in 

analyses of data from these studies, the existence of racial bias can not be demonstrated with the 

available data. In addition, factors other that racial bias may still remain. For example, we do not 

have measures of the willingness of a victim to press charges or of the behavior of by-standers. 

 

The design of these longitudinal-community studies of individuals is in sharp contrast with 

typical studies of decision-making in the juvenile justice system. Most studies of decision 

making sample cases from the system to maximize the ability to observe decisions and 

investigate decision making processes. These studies are based on official records drawn from

the files of the police, court, or youth corrections. As a result, these studies are severely limited 

in their ability to analyze information about prior delinquent behavior and personal 

characteristics of a juvenile to see what role they may play in our understanding of DMC. As 

indicated earlier in the literature review, most of these studies are limited to controlling for 

characteristics of the offense (e.g. its seriousness), prior official record, demographic 

characteristics, or area of residence. Some of these studies also collect information from/about 

decisions and decision makers to more directly address the issue of potential racial bias (e.g., 

Bridges and Steen, 1998), which, as noted above, is different from the orientation of most 

community studies. 

12

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

The great strength of the longitudinal community studies used in this report is the detailed 

understanding of individual offending and characteristics collected in prospective interviews. 

Two areas are particularly important in filling gaps in our understanding of DMC. First, at each 

interview the studies collected detailed reports about involvement in delinquent behavior, 

including drug use. This information describes offending patterns from the perspective of the 

individual and is not filtered through the lens of official decision makers. As a result, we can 

examine a very central question: Do racial and ethnic differences in contact with the juvenile 

justice system result from differences in self-reported offending? As indicated in the literature 

review, this issue has rarely been investigated in previous studies because very few studies have 

access to both self-report and official data. 

Second, the studies have also collected information about a host of major risk factors for 

involvement in delinquency. Indeed, all three studies have significantly contributed to the 

identification of important risk factors for delinquency and other problem behavior. (See the 

respective chapters in Thornberry and Krohn, 2003). Thus the current investigation can address 

the following question: Are racial and ethnic differences in contact with the juvenile justice 

system reduced or eliminated when core risk factors for delinquency, and presumably therefore 

for official contact, are held constant?

In sum, the studies used in this report were not designed to investigate decision making; they 

were originally designed to investigate the causes and correlates of delinquency, especially 

serious, chronic and violent delinquency. As such, there are some DMC issues that can be 

adequately investigated and other issues that cannot. On the positive side, however, the original 

designs of these studies provide information that is generally absent from the literature on DMC. 

In particular, this report investigates the role of self-reported offending and individual risk 

factors in DMC within the juvenile justice system. 

13

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

MEASURES

To increase the comparability of measures across the potential studies used in this report, 

researchers from each of the projects (David P. Farrington, Karl Hill, David Huizinga, Rolf 

Loeber, and Terence P. Thornberry) were joined by James Herbert Williams (an expert in 

African Americans’ representation in the justice system) in a meeting in November, 2003 to 

consider what measures would be needed and available at all sites to examine DMC issues. This 

meeting and subsequent communications identified a set of definitions and measures that were 

available and could be used in common analyses across sites. The available measures, although 

not always identical, were very similar in content as described below. 

Age Period Covered 

Because the prevalence of arrest/referral in an annual period within the samples employed is 

sufficiently small for certain offenses, a factor that affects reliability of analyses, data from

several years of each of the longitudinal studies were combined to provide multiple year 

measures at each site. There is some variation in the ages included at the sites. In Pittsburgh, the 

arrest and delinquency data used are from ages 13-17, with risk factors measured in the same age 

window. In New York, the age of majority is 16, so to maintain a JJS focus in Rochester, the 

arrest and delinquency data used are from ages 13-15, with risk factors measured in the same age 

period. In Seattle, arrest and delinquency data used are from ages 13-17 with the majority of risk 

factors measured during ages 13-14, thus providing some temporal ordering for the risk analyses. 

It should be noted that the use of multiple year measures does provide some concern for the 

temporal ordering of the measurement of arrest, self-reported offending, and risk factors, but the 

data are sufficiently sparse that they do not permit analyses that maintain complete time order. 

However, all the measures do reflect the same or earlier age period and many of the risks are 

constant or precede the age period examined. 

14

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Ethnicity/Race 

Ethnicity was defined through self-reported ethnic/racial identification by reports from either the 

youth respondents or their caretakers. The following groups became the focus of the study: 

African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and European Americans (Whites). Other 

ethnic groups were not adequately represented in any of the samples to permit analyses. Hispanic 

identification included various socio-cultural groups loosely termed Hispanic that vary by 

national origin. 

Contact, Arrest, Court Referral 

All of the sites had information about (1) arrest (that includes officially recorded police contact) 

or (2) police arrest/contact that resulted in court referral, or (3) both. This information provided 

an early point of contact with the juvenile justice system that was available across sites. 

Although the possibility of examining DMC at later stages of the juvenile justice system was 

considered, not all sites had available or sufficient data with which to examine processing at 

these later stages. Thus, for the purpose of this report, attention focuses on officially recorded 

contact/arrest or court referral. To the extent possible, sites with information that could be 

deemed contact/arrest leading to court referral used that information and others used 

contact/arrest. Given this variation, for common nomenclature, the measures of contact/arrest, 

and referral are referred to in this summary report simply as contact/referral. 

Delinquency 

Although there was cross-site commonality across most of the self-report delinquency measures 

available within each study, a decision was made to focus on specific types of offenses where it 

was believed DMC would be most likely observed and for which there was reasonable 

comparability between arrest charges and self-report delinquency items. These included Violent 

Offenses, Property Offenses, Weapon Offenses, Drug Selling Offenses, and Drug Use Offenses. 

The arrest offenses and corresponding self-report items are listed in Table 2. 

15

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

The replication of analyses using similar measures across multiple studies is important, since it 

permits examination of the consistency of findings across multiple settings. Conceivably, 

findings about DMC may or may not replicate across different communities. An advantage of the 

current study is that such replication can be examined across the three study sites. For the 

purpose of this summary report, we thus focus most attention on three summary delinquency 

measures – Total Offenses (a measure including all of the offenses considered), Violent 

Offenses, and Property Offenses that were analyzed at all three study sites. It should be noted 

that the Rochester total offense measure excludes drug offenses, since these were not included in 

analyses at that site. The interested reader can learn about other additional offending measures in 

the individual site reports included as Appendices. 

The potential for and level of differential validity of self-reports of delinquent behavior by race 

has been noted by Hindelang et al. (1981) and Huizinga and Elliott (1986), among others. Of 

importance, however, Farrington et al. (1996) using the Causes and Correlates self-report 

measure did not find evidence for differential validity by race using data from the Pittsburgh 

project. A good summary of these findings is provided in a summary of the use of SRD by 

Thornberry and Krohn (2000). Given the variability in findings, it is uncertain whether 

differential reporting by race has an effect on the findings reported here, but the findings of 

Farrington et al. suggests such effects may be minimal. However, the possibility exists and 

should be noted by the reader. 

Risk Factors 

In addition to delinquency, a number of other factors that might influence the chance of 

disproportionate contact with the justice system were identified. Although not all risk factors 

used at one site were available or had equivalent measures at all sites, care was taken to insure

that most of the risk factors selected for analysis had at least general measurement similarity or 

similar content across the studies. Although there are some differences across projects in the 

specific measures, each of the projects had reasonably similar measures of most of the selected 

factors. These factors and the significance of their relationship to being arrested are listed in 

Table 3. In Table 3, within general content areas, the risk factor used at each site is indicated, 

16

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

with the letters P, R, S being used to represent the sites Pittsburgh, Rochester, and Seattle, 

respectively, and a “-” or “na” to indicate that the factor was not used/available at a particular 

site. As noted above, the Pittsburgh site examined DMC in two separate cohorts, the youngest 

and the oldest two cohorts of the sample. The findings related to these cohorts are labeled Y and 

O, respectively. 

As can be seen in the Table 3, family socioeconomic status, family structure, age of mother at 

first birth, educational/academic capability and performance factors, carrying a hidden weapon, 

gang membership, and neighborhood poverty are all related to arrest/referral at each of the three 

sites. In addition, physical discipline or harsh punishment, low mother or parent education, and 

lack of guilt are significant predictors in the two sites that included these measures. Although 

there is substantial similarity in the significance of the majority of these potential risk factors, 

there are also some site differences. For example, family member in trouble with the law is 

highly significant only in Rochester and measures of hyperactivity and related problems are 

significant in two of the three sites. There are also differences between the two separate cohorts 

of the Pittsburgh study, suggesting the possibility of a period or other effect. 

For the purpose of this summary report, the measure of risk used in analyses is a sum across the 

entire list of risk factors used at each site, where each risk is coded as being present or absent for 

a given individual. The measure thus provides a count of the number of risks facing a particular 

individual. Findings for other summative measures of risk used at the different sites can be found 

in the individual site reports in the Appendices. 

The selection of a summative risk measure was based on the following considerations. The 

projects of OJJDP’s Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency have 

found that it is often the composite or sum of a number of risk factors that is most efficacious in 

predicting delinquency and other outcomes. This is often referred to as a dose-response 

relationship, implying that a variety of factors may contribute to increasing risk, but that for any 

individual it is the sum or combination of factors, rather than the unique explanatory power of a 

single variable, that has the greatest explanatory power. In addition, although there is substantial 

overlap, the measurement and selection of risk variables varies across studies. Also, it was found 

17

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

that risks may vary by type of offense considered (see for example the Rochester report), and 

that the strengths of risks vary by site (and by sample in Pittsburgh) (see Table 3). Thus, 

although it would be useful to identify particular risks as more important, it was anticipated that 

the identification of specific important risks or a rank ordering of risks by importance that could 

be generalized across types of offenses and sites was unlikely. For these reasons, the use of a 

summary risk scale is appealing, and it was decided to use the sum of risks as a single measure 

representing the different risk factors. 

18

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Table 2 

Arrest and Self Reported Delinquency Items used in the Across Project DMC Analyses 

Common Across-Project Measures 

Arrest Offense Self Reported Delinquency Items

Violence 

Assault – Aggravated Attacked with weapon or intent to seriously injure 

Gang Fights 

Assault – Simple Various items measuring minor assault, such as 

 Hit someone with intent to hurt them, 

 Thrown objects with intent to injure 

Sex Assault Physically hurt/threatened to get sex 

Had sex against person’s will 

Robbery Used weapon, force, strong arm to get money or 

 things from people 

Homicide/Manslaughter Follow-ups or other information from assault items 

Domestic Violence Follow-ups or other information from assault items

Total 

Violence 

Combination/Sum of the 

above arrests for violence

Combination/Sum of above violence offenses 

Arrest Offense Self Reported Delinquency Items

Property

Arson Purposely set fire to ... 

Auto Theft Stolen a motor vehicle such as car or motorcycle 

Burglary Gone into a building to steal something 

Fraud – Credit Card, Other Used checks, credit cards, fake money illegally 

Fraud – Forgery, etc. Forged someone’s name on a check or other legal document. 

Joyride Taken a car/motorcycle for a drive without the 

 owner’s permission

Stolen Goods Bought, sold, or held stolen goods 

Grand Theft $50+ Stolen things worth $50-100

Stolen things worth more than $100 

Petty Theft LT $50 Stolen things worth $5 or less 

Stolen things worth $5-50 

Unspecified Theft Shoplift (Not specified in above theft items) 

 Stolen something from a store 

Vandalism Purposely damaged or destroyed property not belonging 

 to you 

Auto Break-in /Burglary Broken into a car to steal something 

Total 

Property

Combination/Sum of the 

above arrests for property

offenses 

Combination/Sum of the above property offenses 

19

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Table 2 (Continued) 

Arrest and SRD Items used in the Across Project DMC Analyses 

Common Across-Project Measures 

Arrest Offense Self Reported Delinquency Items

Weapon 

Offense 

Concealed Weapon Carried a hidden weapon 

Drug 

Offenses 

Drug Sales Sold marijuana 

Sold Hard Drugs 

Poss. MJ/ Paraphernalia Used marijuana 

Total Drug 

Offenses 

Combination/Sum of the 

above arrests for drug 

offenses 

Combination/Sum of the above drug offenses 

Total 

Common 

AcrossProject 

Offenses 

Combination/Sum of all 

above arrests (violence, 

property, weapon, and drug 

offenses) 

Combination/Sum of all above reported offenses (violence, 

property, weapon, and drug offenses)

20

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Table 3 

Risk Factors for Arrest/Referral 

Variable/Risk P R S Pittsburgh Rochester Seattle

FAMILY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

Y *** Family on Welfare P R - O *** *** na 

Poverty - - S na na *** 

FAMILY STRUCTURE 

Y *** 

O *

Family Structure (1 or 2 Parent) 

Broken Home

P 

- 

- 

R 

S 

- na

na 

*** 

* 

na

N Y ** umber of Siblings P - S O na +

PARENTING 

Supervision P - - Y ns

O *** 

na na

Physical Punishment P - - Y ns

O **

na na

Harsh Discipline - - S na na * 

PARENT CHARACTERISTICS 

Age of Mother at First Birth Y *** P R S 

O *** *** ***

Y ** Poorly Educated Mother P - - O ** na na

Low Parent Education - R - na *** na

 Y ns

 O ns

Nr. of police contacts for female caretaker 

Mother Trouble with the Law 

P 

- 

- 

- 

- 

S na

na 

na 

na 

ns

 Y ns

 O ns

Number of police contacts for male caretaker 

Father Trouble with the Law 

P -

S 

na na 

ns

Member of Family in Trouble with the Law - R - na ** na

YOUTH CHARACTERISTICS 

 Y ns

O **

na

HIA- Hyperactivity/Inattentive/Attention Deficit 

Achenbach Hyperactive 

Hyperactive/Impulsive 

P 

- 

- 

- 

R 

- 

- 

- 

S na

na 

*** 

na 

na

 na

ns

R Y * epeated Grade P - S 

O *** na *** 

CAT Rea Y * ding Score P R - O ** *** na

CAT Lang Y ns uage Score P - - O *** na na

CAT Math Score Y ns P R - O   na

Poor Grades - - S na na ** * 

21

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Table 3 (Continued) 

Risk Factors for Arrest/Referral 

YOUTH CHARACTERISTICS (Continued) P R S Pittsburgh Rochester Seattle

Y ** Lack of Guilt P - S 

O *** na * 

C Y * arried Hidden Weapon P R S 

 O ns *** ***

Used Weapon in Serious Delinquency P R - Y ns

 O ns

*** na

 Y ns

 O *

Ever member of a Street Gang 

Gang Membership 

P 

- 

R 

- 

- 

S 

** na

*** 

NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTERISTICS 

Wilkstr Y *** om Neighborhood SES (See Pittsburgh report 

for definition)

P - -

O *** 

na na

Percent Neighborhood Poverty - R - na ** na

Bad N Y ** eighborhood 

 (See Pittsburgh and Seattle reports for definition) 

P - S

 O ns na ** 

Perception of Neighborhood Disorganization - R - na na

*** p≤ .000 ** p≤.01 * p≤.05 + p≤.10 ns – Not statistically significant 

na: Not available at the indicated site

Note: The significance levels for Pittsburgh and Rochester reflect the significance of the factor as a direct 

influence on arrest/referral. For Seattle, the significance level reflects the effect of the factor after controlling 

for self-reported delinquency and race among active offenders. 

22

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been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Analytic Strategy 

To examine whether the observed disproportionate minority contact/arrest/referral could be 

explained by self-reported delinquency and/or explained by risk factors present in these 

youngsters’ lives, minority status, self-reported delinquency, and an index of risk were used in a 

sequence of logistic regressions. These analyses predicted arrest in a hierarchical fashion – first 

entering minority status, followed by a delinquency measure, and followed finally by the index 

indicating the number of risk factors facing an individual. If disproportionate arrest/referral rates 

could be explained by level of delinquency or by the risk factors, at each step the effect of 

minority status in these models should be reduced and possibly could become non-significant. 

This strategy, the use of reduced-form equations, is a straight-forward and parsimonious way to 

address the research questions, and is the design followed in most of the literature examining 

such DMC issues. It has the advantage of indicating the effect of minority status on the 

probability of contact/referral and then examining whether this observed effect can be explained 

by level of involvement in delinquent behavior, by additional risk factors for contact/referral 

while controlling for level of delinquent behavior, or by their combination. 

As noted above, because each of the studies is a longitudinal study, the data used in the analyses 

cover multiple years. To provide comparability across sites, a generally common age period 

available across projects is used. Delinquency and contact/referral data are cumulative over the 

ages 13-17 for the Pittsburgh and Seattle sites and, because the age of majority in New York is 

16, are cumulative over the ages 13-15 for the Rochester site. In Pittsburgh and Rochester, the 

risk factors represent time-invariant characteristics or are averages over the age periods 

examined and in Seattle are invariant or cover the ages 13-14. Because the research questions 

posed at the initiation of this research effort are not inherently developmental or longitudinal in 

nature, the developmental nature of the studies is not employed in the analyses. For the purpose 

of using logistic regression, the arrest/contact variable was coded 1 if arrested in the specified 

age period for the type of offense being examined, and 0 if not arrested. 

23

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been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

FINDINGS

MAIN EFFECTS OF RACE AND ETHNICITY

The first question is: are there different levels of racial/ethnic group contact/referral within the 

juvenile justice system in each of the three cities studied? The answer is unequivocally yes. 

Table 4 represents the core information for the Total Common offense measure which is the sum

of the offenses in all of the categories studied. In all three cities, African American youth have 

the highest rate of contact/referral, and in all three cases they have significantly higher rates than 

Whites. In addition, in Rochester, the African Americans have a significantly higher rate than 

Hispanics. Also, in Rochester, Hispanics have a significantly higher rate than Whites, and in 

Seattle, the Asian Americans have a marginally higher rate of contact/referral (p=.08) as 

compared to Whites. 

The overall contact rate with the juvenile justice system is somewhat lower in Rochester than in 

the other two cities. This appears to be primarily a function of different ages of jurisdiction for 

the juvenile courts across the states. New York has the lowest age cut-off –- the sixteenth 

birthday –- for jurisdiction to shift to the criminal justice system. This difference makes direct

cross-site comparisons difficult and it is probably best to focus on whether statistical 

relationships, e.g. between race and juvenile justice system contact, is the same or different 

across cities rather than on absolute comparisons. In this case the answer seems clear, African 

American youth have higher levels of contact than Whites and, at least in Rochester, Hispanics 

do too. 

In addition to total common offenses, we also investigated several specific types of offending. 

These offense-specific comparisons yield the same basic conclusion. In Rochester for both 

violent and property crimes both African Americans and Hispanics have significantly higher 

rates than Whites. The Pittsburgh project examined four offense types –- violence, property, 

weapons, and drug use – for their youngest and oldest cohorts. In all cases, the rate of 

contact/referral within the juvenile justice system is significantly higher for African Americans 

than for Whites. Finally, in Seattle African American youth have higher rates of contact than 

Whites or Asian Americans for violence, property, and drug offenses. There are few differences 

24

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been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

between Whites and Asian Americans; only for property is there a significant difference with 

Asian Americans having a higher contact/referral rate. 

Summary 

The consistency of these findings is compelling. As with many other studies, those in Pittsburgh, 

Rochester, and Seattle show that African American youth are significantly more likely to come

into contact with the juvenile justice system than Whites. In Rochester, they are more likely to 

have juvenile justice system involvement than Hispanics and in Seattle they are more likely to 

have contact than Asian Americans. In the one city that could investigate it, Rochester, we see 

that Hispanics are more likely to have contact than Whites. And, in the one city where 

information about Asian Americans was available, Seattle, there appear to be few differences 

between Asian Americans and Whites. 

 

This main effect of minority status on juvenile justice system contact is hardly surprising, it 

comports with previous research and common observation. The question before us now is the 

extent to which these studies can shed light on the reasons for this effect. 

Table 4 

Prevalence of Official Arrest/Contact for Total Common Offenses by Race/Ethnicity

African

American 

White Hispanic Asian American

Pittsburgh

 Youngest Sample 55.4 (1) 28.2 --- --- 

 Oldest Sample 51.2 (1) 33.7 --- --- 

Rochester 38.7 (1)(2) 11.5 (4) 20.7 --- 

Seattle 55.6 (1)(3) 26.0 --- 33.3 

(1) African Americans significantly different from Whites. 

(2) African Americans significantly different from Hispanics. 

(3) African Americans significantly different from Asian Americans. 

(4) Whites significantly different from Hispanics 

25

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been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

CONTROLLING FOR SELF-REPORTED OFFENDING

There are a variety of reasons why minority youth, especially African American youth, 

disproportionately come into contact with the juvenile justice system. One obvious potential 

explanation is that more of them commit offenses or that together they commit a greater number 

of total offenses. Unfortunately, there have been very few studies that have examined this 

possibility, primarily because prior studies of decision-making are rarely able to collect selfreported offending data from the research participants. The three studies used in these analyses 

have extensive self-report offending information, however. 

In the previous section we saw relatively large race/ethnicity effects in predicting official 

contact/referral. However, if we focus on the level of self-reported offending, race/ethnic effects 

are less dramatic and less consistently significant. That is, African American youth and Hispanic 

youth have somewhat higher prevalence rates of self-reported delinquency than Whites, but the 

differences are not nearly as large as when official data are used. Details of race/ethnic 

differences in delinquency can be found in Table 5 and in the individual site reports in the 

Appendices. 

In Table 5, both the prevalence of offending (proportion of persons who are offenders) and the 

frequency of offending (mean number of offenses per person – Pittsburgh, Seattle; or total 

number of offenses committed by all persons – Rochester) are listed. In addition, the prevalence 

and frequency of contact/referral, and the percent of offenders (those who commit one or more 

offenses) who are contacted/referred are given. As can be seen in Table 5, at all three sites and 

for most types of offenses, African Americans have somewhat higher prevalence rates of 

delinquent behavior than Whites3

, but their contact/referral rates far exceed those of Whites. For 

example, for the Total set of offenses common across sites, the African American prevalence rate 

of delinquent behavior ranges from 1.1 to 1.5 times that of Whites across sites, but the 

contact/referral rate is 1.5 to 3.4 times that of Whites. Additionally, expressed in another way, in 

Pittsburgh, 38.1% of White offenders (individuals who committed an offense), were 

apprehended and referred to court, but 66.3% of African American offenders were apprehended 

and referred to court. In Rochester, 19.2% of White offenders and 51.3% of African American 

 3

 Exceptions are the lower rate for property and total offense measures for the oldest sample in Pittsburgh.

26

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been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

offenders were contacted/arrested, and, in Seattle, 33.2% of White offenders were apprehended 

and referred to court, while 64.4% of African American offenders were apprehended and 

referred to court. 

Similar findings hold for violent and property offenses. For violent offenses, African Americans 

are 1.1 to 1.5 times more likely to report involvement in violent offenses but are 2 to almost 5 

times more likely to be contacted/referred than Whites, depending on the site. Also, African 

American violent offenders are roughly 2-5 times more likely to be apprehended/referred to 

court. For property offenses, African Americans are 1.1-1.4 times more likely to report 

involvement in violent offenses (except for the oldest cohort in Pittsburgh) but are roughly 1.4 to 

3 times more likely to be contacted/referred than Whites, depending on the site; and African 

American property offenders are roughly 1.4 to 2 times more likely to be apprehended/referred 

to court. 

Perhaps the most striking finding is observed for drug offenses. For the youngest sample in 

Pittsburgh, the African American to White prevalence ratio indicates that African Americans are 

1.3 times more likely to be involved in a drug offense, but the ratio for court referral rates 

indicates that African Americans are 3.7 times more likely to be referred to court. Or, in terms of 

offenders, 10.6% of White offenders are apprehended and referred but 30.8% of African 

American offenders are apprehended and referred. Similar findings hold for the older Pittsburgh 

sample. For example, in terms of offenders in this sample, 8.7% of White offenders are 

apprehended and referred but 41.5% of African American offenders are apprehended and 

referred, indicating an almost 5 times greater rate of referral for African Americans. Similarly in 

Seattle, African Americans are 1.2 times as likely to report engaging in a drug offense but are 

16.7 times more likely to be apprehended and referred to court. Similarly for offenders, 

2.8% of White drug offenders are apprehended and referred to court, but 37.8% of African 

American offenders are apprehended and referred, indicating that African American drug 

offenders are more than 13 times more likely to be apprehended and referred. 

Thus, quite clearly, on either a per person or per offender basis, at all three sites, African 

Americans have a substantially higher probability of being contacted/referred than do Whites, 

although there are substantial site differences. For Hispanics in Rochester and Asian Americans 

27

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

28

in Seattle, the effects of race are not as evident or consistent. In Rochester, although for 

Hispanics the prevalence rate of contact/arrest is significantly higher for property and total 

delinquency measures, differences in the percent of offenders with a contact/arrest are not 

statistically significant between Whites and Hispanics for any of the three measures considered 

(violent, property, or total measures of offending). In Seattle, although Asian Americans 

consistently have lower prevalence rates of offending, disproportionate referral to court among 

Asian Americans is observed for property and total measures of delinquency. For each of these 

types of delinquency, Asian American offenders have about twice the chance as White offenders 

of being referred (39.6% for Whites to 80.6% for Asians for property offenses, and 33.2% for 

Whites to 59.8% for Asians for the set of total offenses). 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
29

Table 5. Prevalence and Frequency of Offending and Official Contact/Referral By Race and Eth

Pittsburgh 

Youngest Sample Olde

Prevalence White Black Ratio: Black/White White BlacViolent Offenses Prevalence of Offending (%) 54.3 72.3 1.3 *** 57.6 6 Prevalence of Court Referral (%) 14.9 34.6 2.3 *** 13.1 2 Percent of Offenders Referred to Court 27.4% 47.9% 1.7 *** 22.7% 43.Property Offenses Prevalence of Offending (%) 49.7 55.0 1.1 ns 57.6 5 Prevalence of Court Referral (%) 20.2 38.3 1.9 *** 27.6 3 Percent of Offenders Referred to Court 40.6% 69.6% 1.7 *** 47.9% 69.Drug Offense Prevalence of Offending (%) 45.2 58.2 1.3 ** 33.5 3 Prevalence of Court Referral (%) 4.8 17.9 3.7 *** 2.9 1 Percent of Offenders Referred to Court 10.6% 30.8% 2.9 *** 8.7% 41.Total Common Offenses  Prevalence of Offending (%) 74.1 83.5 1.1 * 81.6 7 Prevalence of Court Referral (%) 28.2 55.4 2.0 *** 33.7 5 Percent of Offenders Referred to Court 38.1% 66.3% 1.7 *** 41.3% 68.Frequency White Black Ratio: Black/White White BlacViolent Offenses Mean Number of Offenses 25.04 23.01 0.9 ns 14.26 1 Mean Number of Court Referrals 2.68 2.36 0.9 ns 1.82 2 Probability of Referral per Offense 10.7% 10.3% 1.0 ns 12.8% 17.Property Offenses Mean Number of Offenses 57.12 41.96 0.7 ns 45.95 4 Mean Number of Court Referrals 7.34 4.29 0.6 ns 7.36 6 Probability of Referral per Offense 12.9% 10.2% 0.8 *** 16.0% 15.Drug Offense Mean Number of Offenses 278.7 346.7 1.2 ns 128.58 288 Mean Number of Court Referrals 1.52 2.18 1.4 * 1.59 1 Probability of Referral per Offense 0.5% 0.6% 1.2 *** 1.2% 0.Total Common Offenses Mean Number of Offenses 275.95 333.32 1.2 ns 156.91 228 Mean Number of Court Referrals 7.06 5.56 0.8 ns 7.53 7 Probability of Referral per Offense 2.6% 1.7% 0.7 *** 4.8% 3.* p ≤.05, ** p ≤ .01 *** p ≤ .001 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
30

Table 5 (Continued) 

Rochester Prevalence White Black Hispanic Ratio: Black/White RatiViolent Offenses Prevalence of Offending 45.8 67.2 59.7 1.5 ***  Prevalence of Police Contact/Arrest 3.6 17.1 4.9 4.8 ***  Percent of Offenders with Contact/Arrest 7.9% 25.4% 8.2% 3.2 *** Property Offenses Prevalence of Offending 30.5 43.5 54.3 1.4 **  Prevalence of Police Contact/Arrest 9.2 28.6 17.2 3.1 ***  Percent of Offenders with Contact/Arrest 30.2% 65.7% 31.7% 2.2 *** Total Common Offenses  Prevalence of Offending 60.0 75.4 74.6 1.3 ***  Prevalence of Police Contact/Arrest 11.5 38.7 20.7 3.4 ***  Probability of Police Contact/Arrest per Offender 19.2% 51.3% 27.7% 2.7 *** Frequency White Black Hispanic Ratio: Black/White Rati Violent Offenses  Number of Offenses 733 3486 731 4.8  Number of Contacts/Arrests 7 95 6 13.6  Probability of Police Contact/Arrest per Offense 1.0% 2.7% 0.8% 2.9 *** Property Offenses Number of Offenses 924 1918 987 2.1  Number of Contacts/Arrests 21 208 36 9.9  Probability of Police Contact/Arrest per Offense 2.3% 10.8% 3.6% 4.8 *** Total Common Offenses  Number of Offenses 5161 14705 4397 2.8  Number of Contacts/Arrests 31 321 50 10.4  Probability of Police Contact/Arrest per Offense 0.6% 2.2% 1.1% 3.6 *** * p ≤.05, ** p ≤ .01 *** p ≤ .001 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
31

Table 5 (Continued) 

Seattle Prevalence White Black Asian Ratio: Black/White Ratio: AViolent Offenses Prevalence of Offending 52.3 74.1 38.1 1.4 *  Prevalence of Court Referrals 8.7 37.2 9.0 4.3 *  Percent of Offenders with a Court Referral 16.6% 50.2% 23.6% 3.0 *** Property Offenses Prevalence of Offending 58.4 61.9 39.2 1.1 ns  Prevalence of Court Referrals 23.1 47.3 31.6 2.0 *  Percent of Offenders with a Court Referral 39.6% 76.4% 80.6% 1.9 *** Drug Offense Prevalence of Offending 46.7 57.4 18.8 1.2 *  Prevalence of Court Referrals 1.3 21.7 0.6 16.7 *  Percent of Offenders with a Court Referral 2.8% 37.8% 3.2% 13.6 *** Total Common Offenses  Prevalence of Offending 78.4 86.3 55.7 1.1 *  Prevalence of Court Referrals 26 55.6 33.3 2.1 *  Percent of Offenders with a Court Referral 33.2% 64.4% 59.8% 1.9 *** Frequency White Black Asian Ratio: Black/White Ratio: AViolent Offenses Mean Number of Offenses Among Violent Offenders 14.3 20.3 7.7 1.4 ns 

Mean Number of Court Referrals Among Violent Offenders 0.26 1.36 0.30 5.2 * 

 Percent of Offenses resulting in Court Referral 1.8% 6.7% 3.9% 3.7 *** Property Offenses Mean Number of Offenses Among Property Offenders 38.7 23.9 22.7 0.6 ns  Mean Number of Court Referrals Among Offenders 0.93 2.84 1.19 3.1 *  Percent of Offenses resulting in Court Referral 2.4% 11.9% 5.2% 4.9 *** Drug Offense Mean Number of Offenses Among Drug Offenders 107.1 254.1 43.2 2.4 *  Mean Number of Court Referrals Among Drug Offenders 0.04 0.81 0.03 20.3 *  Percent of Offenses resulting in Court Referral 0.0% 0.3% 0.1% 8.5 *** Total Common Offenses  Mean Number of Offenses Among Offenders 102.1 203.4 35.8 2.0 ns  Mean Number of Court Referrals Among Offenders 0.9 4.0 1.1 4.2 *  Percent of Offenses resulting in Court Referral 0.9% 2.0% 3.1% 2.1 *** * p ≤.05, + p ≤ .10 

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Because different individual offenders may commit different numbers of offenses, it is also 

useful to examine differences in the total frequency of offending and contact/referral among 

racial groups. That is, conceivably, even if the number of offenders were the same in different 

groups of individuals, one group may commit substantially more offenses than another and as a 

result have a higher rate of contact/referral. For this reason, the frequency (or incident) rates of 

offending and contact referral are also provided in Table 54

. In Rochester and Seattle the results 

from these frequency analyses are similar to those from the examination of prevalence. In 

comparison to Whites, African Americans have a substantially and statistically significant 

greater chance per offense of being contacted/referred for all types of offenses. In Rochester, 

Hispanics have a higher rate of contact/arrest per offense for the total set of offenses considered, 

although differences for violent and property offenses are not significant. In Seattle, Asian 

Americans have significantly higher rates of per offense referral in comparison to Whites for all 

types of offenses. 

In Pittsburgh, the findings are mixed by sample and type of delinquency. For African Americans 

in the youngest sample in Pittsburgh, the per offense rate of apprehension and referral is lower 

for property offenses and for the total set of offenses in comparison to Whites. However, 

although significant, the rates for drug offenses are similar and the difference for violent offenses 

is not significant. In the oldest Pittsburgh sample, the per offense rate of apprehension and 

referral is higher and significant for violent offenses, but lower and significant for drug offenses 

and the set of total offenses, and is not significant for property offenses. 

Combining these findings about per offense rates of contact/referral across sites suggests 

evidence of disproportionate minority referral in two of the sites, but mixed findings in the other 

site with minorities in some cases having lower rates of referral than whites. 

 4

 It should be noted that in these analyses the total number of offenses for a specific group can be fairly large 

resulting in excessive statistical power. This can result in even very small differences between groups being

statistically significant. 

32

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Although these findings of prevalence (person based) and frequency (incidence based) 

comparisons among racial groups are indicative of disproportionate contact/referral, the more 

central question is what happens to the impact of race/ethnicity on contact/referral within the 

juvenile justice system once self-reported offending is held constant in a multivariate analysis. 

The results for total common offenses are presented in Table 6. 

The top panel presents the baseline model when only race/ethnicity is included as a predictor of 

official contact with the juvenile justice system. Consistent with the previous section, there are 

robust effects. In all four comparisons, African American youth have a significantly higher odds 

ratio than White youth, indicating greater contact with the system. In Rochester, Hispanic youth 

are significantly more likely to come into contact with the system than White youth but there is 

no significant difference between Asian American and White youth in Seattle. 

The second panel of Table 6 (Control Model I) introduces self-reported offending into the 

picture. Generally speaking, self-reported offending itself is strongly related to official contact. 

The central question, though, is whether the odds ratios associated with race/ethnicity are 

substantially reduced, as compared to those on the top panel? The answer is no. By and large 

the odds ratios are of the same magnitude. With one exception, (Asian American vs. Whites in 

Seattle), they all decline or are quite similar, and the declines are quite modest. For example, the 

average odds ratio for African Americans across the four equations in the baseline model is 3.45 

and in the models controlling for self-reported offending the average is 3.2. The only evidence 

of a reduction in the race/ethnic effect comes in Rochester for the Hispanic youth; the odds ratio 

declines from 2.1 (p<.02) to 1.8 (p<.08). In Seattle there appears to be a suppression effect for 

Asian American youth as the odds ratio increases from 1.1 (ns) to 2.0 (p<.05). 

33

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Table 6 

Total Offenses

Odds Ratios Predicting Official Contact/Arrest/Referral

Controlling for Self-Reported Offending -- Males Only

Pittsburgh Rochester Seattle

Youngest Oldest

Baseline Model: 

 African American 3.2*** 2.2*** 5.0*** 3.4*** 

 Hispanic --- --- 2.1* --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 1.1 ns 

Control Model I: 

 African American 3.0*** 2.4*** 4.4*** 3.0*** 

 Hispanic --- --- 1.8† --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 2.0* 

 Self-Reported Offending 7.8*** 2.9*** 4.4*** 2.5*** 

Control Model II: 

 African American 1.7* 1.4 ns 3.8*** 1.9*

 Hispanic --- --- 1.6 ns --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 1.1 ns 

 Self-Reported Offending 7.3*** 2.8*** 2.7*** 2.0***

 Risk Factor Index 1.2*** 1.3*** 1.1† 1.2***

†

 p≤.10, * p≤.05; ** p≤.01; ***p≤.001

The studies also examined this issue by offense type with the same results (see Tables 7 and 8 

and tables in the Appendices). For violent offenses the odds ratios for African American youth 

drop but only very slightly and all remain significant. In Rochester, the difference between 

Hispanic and White youth is not significant in either equation and in Seattle we again see a 

modest suppressor effect for Asian American youth. The same pattern is observed for property 

offenses. 

The Pittsburgh Youth Study also examined weapon offenses and drug offenses and found no 

evidence that self-reported offending explained the racial disparities in contact with the juvenile 

justice system. African American youth still had higher contact rates. The Seattle Social 

34

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Development Project examined drug possession and drug sales and also found no evidence that 

controlling for self-reported offending substantially altered the results of the baseline models. 

Given the concern about temporal ordering because of the multiple year periods used in these 

analyses, observed earlier in this report, it should be noted that to the extent that arrest/contact 

leads to increases in delinquent behavior, the relationship between self-report offending and 

arrest/contact could be misleading. However, given that the influence of the self-report measure 

is very small at all three sites, the temporal ordering issue does not seem particularly salient and 

does not appear to influence the findings. 

Table 7 

Violent Offenses 

Odds Ratios Predicting Official Contact/Arrest/Referral 

Controlling for Self-Reported Offending -- Males Only

Pittsburgh Rochester Seattle

Youngest Oldest

Baseline Model: 

 African American 2.7*** 2.4*** 5.8*** 6.4** 

 Hispanic --- --- 1.5 ns --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 1.3 ns 

Control Model I: 

 African American 2.4*** 2.4*** 4.4*** 4.9*** 

 Hispanic --- --- 1.2 ns --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 2.3* 

 Self-Reported Offending 5.0*** 1.9** 4.6*** 2.6*** 

Control Model II: 

 African American 1.4 ns 1.8† 3.9** 3.0***

 Hispanic --- --- 1.0 ns --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 2.1* 

 Self-Reported Offending 4.9*** 1.8*** 4.2*** 2.0***

 Risk Factor Index 1.2*** 1.1** 1.1 ns 1.3***

†

 p≤.10, * p≤.05; ** p≤.01; ***p≤.001

35

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Table 8 

Property Offenses 

Odds Ratios Predicting Official Contact/Arrest/Referral 

Controlling Self-Reported Offending -- Males Only 

Pittsburgh Rochester Seattle

Youngest Oldest

Baseline Model: 

 African American 2.4*** 1.7* 4.5*** 2.9*** 

 Hispanic --- --- 2.2** --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 1.2 ns 

Control Model I: 

 African American 2.4*** 1.8** 3.6*** 3.0*** 

 Hispanic --- --- 1.6 ns --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 1.8* 

 Self-Reported Offending 3.4*** 4.3*** 2.7*** 2.4*** 

Control Model II: 

 African American 1.5 ns 0.9 ns 3.2*** 1.9*

 Hispanic --- --- 1.5 ns --- 

 Asian American --- --- --- 1.8†

 Self-Reported Offending 3.1*** 4.1*** 2.5*** 2.0***

 Risk Factor Index 1.2*** 1.3*** 1.1 ns 1.2*** 

†

 p≤.10, * p≤.05; ** p≤.01; ***p≤.001

36

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Summary 

Overall, the weight of the evidence in this section is clear. On a per person or per offender basis, 

African Americans have a substantially higher probability of being contacted/referred than do 

Whites. For Hispanics in Rochester and Asians in Seattle, the effects of minority status are not as 

consistent or evident. Similarly, on a per offense (or incident) basis, in two of the sites 

(Rochester and Seattle) African Americans have a substantially higher rate of contact/referral 

than do Whites, although in the third site (Pittsburgh) the findings are mixed. Per offense 

findings in Seattle also indicate significantly higher rates for Asian Americans than Whites for 

all types of offenses, and per offense findings in Rochester indicate significantly higher rates for 

Hispanics than Whites for all types of offenses. 

In formal statistical models, controlling for the impact of self-reported offending does not in any 

fundamental way alter the disproportionate nature of DMC described in the previous section. 

For total common offenses and various offense types, and across the three cities studied, African 

American youth have higher contact/referral prevalence rates than White youth even when selfreports are held constant. The odds ratios do decline, but only very slightly when race is 

included in the models, and all remain statistically significant. There is some evidence of decline 

for Hispanic youth in Rochester, but in this comparison the main effect is itself rather modest. In 

Seattle, Asian American youth appear somewhat more likely to be referred within the juvenile 

justice system than Whites once self-reported offending is statistically controlled. Thus, selfreported offending, a generally understudied topic, does not explain the differential rates of 

contact with the juvenile justice system by race/ethnicity. 

37

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

CONTROLLING FOR BOTH SELF-REPORTED OFFENDING AND RISK FACTORS 

The previous section indicated that controlling for self-reported delinquency only very modestly 

reduced the effect of race/ethnicity as a predictor of contact/referral. That is, the explanation of 

DMC at the contact/referral level was not a result of differences in involvement in delinquent 

behavior. In this section we examine the influence of other risk factors as another possible 

explanation of the disproportionate rates of contact/referral among minorities, after controlling 

for level of delinquent involvement. Various risk factors are related to the chance of being 

arrested, as indicated in Table 4. Recall from the description of measures that a risk index, 

indicating the number of risk factors facing an individual was calculated at each site. The third 

panel of Table 6 (Control Model II) displays, for the total offense measure, the odds ratios of 

contact/referral (in comparison to Whites) when race, self-reported offending, and the risk index 

are all included in a logistic regression model. 

As can be seen in Table 6, for the total set of delinquent offenses, even when controlling for 

delinquent involvement, the risk index has a significant effect on the chance of being 

contacted/referred. However, more importantly for the purposes here, with one exception, the 

addition of the risk index to delinquent involvement as a predictor of contact/referral 

substantially reduces the effect of race/ethnicity, but it clearly does not eliminate it. The one 

exception to this rule is the oldest cohort sub-sample in Pittsburgh, where the race/ethnic effect, 

although in the expected direction, has been reduced to non-significance. Thus, it appears that, 

quite generally for total delinquency, the combination of delinquent involvement and risk does 

not completely explain the observed disproportionate minority contact. The reduction in the 

magnitude of the race/ethnic effect is not trivial, however. In the youngest sample in Pittsburgh 

the coefficient for African American youth drops from 3.2 (Baseline Model) to 1.7 (Control 

Model II); comparable figures for Rochester are from 5.0 to 3.8, and for Seattle they are 3.4 to 

1.9. 

The effect of race/ethnicity, self-reported violent offending, and risk index on the probability of 

being contacted/referred for violent offenses is provided in Table 7 and similar information for 

property offenses is given in Table 8. For violent offenses, as might be expected given the earlier 

38

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

finding about total offending, both race/ethnicity and self-reported offending are clearly related 

to contact/referral, with the effect of race generally being diminished slightly when offending is 

taken into account. For violent offenses, the risk index is significant at both Pittsburgh and 

Seattle, but not in Rochester. The effect of race/ethnicity when delinquency and risk are jointly 

being controlled varies by site. In Pittsburgh, the race effect becomes either non-significant or 

only marginally significant for the youngest and oldest cohorts, respectively. However, in 

Rochester and Seattle, race/ethnicity remains a highly significant predictor of contact/referral 

when both delinquency and risk are controlled. 

For property offenses (Table 8), as with total and violent offenses, race/ethnicity and selfreported property offenses are predictive of contact/referral, and the effect of race/ethnicity is 

reduced only slightly when self-reported property offending is controlled. However, as with 

violent offenses, there are site differences in the significance of risk and in the significance of 

race/ethnicity when both offending and risk are controlled. In Rochester, risk is not a significant 

predictor of contact/referral. In all three cities, however, the odds ratios for race decline in size 

rather substantially from the baseline to the final model. In Pittsburgh, the effect of race/ethnicity 

is reduced to non-significance, but in Rochester and Seattle race/ethnicity remains a significant 

predictor of contact/referral, albeit of reduced magnitude, when both offending and risks are 

controlled.

Summary 

In considering the findings about the effect of race/ethnicity on contact/referral when both selfreport offending and other risks for arrest are controlled, it first should be noted that there are 

some site differences. This, perhaps, should be expected. Sites vary in their demographic 

characteristics, their physical environments, their social and political environments, in the 

standard operating procedures of police, and in the nature of local offending patterns. Quite 

conceivably, the impact of minority status on contact/referral may be site specific. Given this, 

what is particularly impressive is that there is some consistency of findings across sites. When 

race/ethnicity, offending, and risk are all included in a regression model predicting 

contact/referral, at all sites, offending is a highly significant predictor of contact/referral. And 

39

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

this applies to the consideration of total offenses, violent offenses, and property offenses. For 

these three sets of offenses, risk is a significant predictor of contact/referral at Pittsburgh and 

Seattle, but is either non-significant or only marginally significant at Rochester. 

Findings concerning the effect of race/ethnicity when both offending and risk are controlled also 

vary by site. In Rochester and Seattle, for the sets of offenses included in the total, violent, and 

property categories, race/ethnicity remains a significant predictor of contact/referral when 

offending and risk are controlled. However, for all three delinquency measures, the magnitude of 

the race effect is diminished. On the other hand, in Pittsburgh significance is found for only one 

cohort for the set of total offenses after offending and risk are controlled, and is either nonsignificant or marginally significant for violent and property offenses. Thus, the weight of the 

evidence suggests, that in general, the effect of race/ethnicity on the chance of being 

contacted/referred is reduced but remains significant when both offending and risk are 

controlled. However, at one site (that may presumably generalize to some other sites) the effect 

of race/ethnicity is reduced to non- or marginal significance when offending and risks are taken 

into account. That is, in general, DMC is not totally explained by the level of offending among 

racial/ethnic groups and the presence of risk factors, although this may vary by site. 

40

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

CONCLUSION

This report uses information from three community studies of delinquency to examine 

disproportionate minority contact (DMC) and factors that might affect DMC at the contact/court 

referral level. These studies were not designed to study DMC issues and as such have some

limitations in the kinds of issues that can be examined. For example, given the sampling 

strategies of these projects, the sample sizes needed to examine court disposition or incarceration

is not adequate at some sites, and for this reason the report is restricted to examination of DMC 

at the point of police contact or court referral. On the other hand, these studies provide the 

relatively unique ability to examine two often given reasons for DMC -- offending behavior and 

the greater presence of risk factors for contact/referral among minorities. 

Three main conclusions seem warranted based on the findings presented in this report. 

1. There is clear evidence that a greater proportion of minorities are contacted/referred, although 

in Seattle the rate of referral was similar for Whites and Asians. 

2. DMC can not be explained by differences in the offending behavior of different racial groups. 

Although self-reported offending is a significant predictor of which individuals are 

contacted/referred, levels of delinquent offending have only marginal effects on the level of 

DMC. This was found for offenses included in a total measure of delinquency and for both 

violent and property offenses. The often stated reason for DMC – that it simply reflects the 

difference in offending rates among different racial/ethnic groups – can not be supported by the 

information provided by these three studies, and we suspect that it is simply incorrect in general. 

3. The effect on DMC of including a number of additional risk factors results in mixed findings. 

The weight of the evidence suggests that, in general, the effect of race/ethnicity on the chance of 

being contacted/referred is reduced but remains significant when both offending and additional 

risks are controlled. However, there are substantial site differences. At one site (Seattle), risk 

substantially reduced the effect of DMC but did not eliminate it. At another site (Pittsburgh) risk 

reduced the effect of DMC to non- or marginal significance. At the third site (Rochester), the risk 

factors were either not significant or only marginally significant predictors of arrest when race 

and delinquency were controlled, and the inclusion of risk had only a small effect on DMC. 

41

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

Thus, in general, it appears that DMC at the contact/referral level cannot be fully explained by 

level of involvement in delinquency nor by delinquency level and risk factors combined 

(although the strength of this finding may vary by site). This finding is consistent with the 

findings from the only two studies we located that examined self-report delinquency and 

subsequent JJS processing: Fergusson et al. (2003) who examined race effects, levels of selfreport offending, other control factors, and convictions; and Huizinga and Elliott (1987) who 

examined self-report offending and arrest, with observations about incarceration5

. They are also 

in general accord with studies that have examined various risk and control factors (although not 

including self-report delinquency) described in the literature review. 

Does this observation about DMC at the arrest/referral point of juvenile justice processing imply 

there is racial bias in the juvenile justice system? The answer is not necessarily. It is correct to 

say that if there is bias in the juvenile justice system then the kinds of findings reported here 

would be expected. However, the reverse statement is not necessarily correct; that is, findings of 

disproportionality cannot be used to conclude that there is racial bias in the system. Other factors 

not measured in these studies may affect the decision to arrest/refer and are not controlled in the 

analyses conducted for this report and may affect the level of observed DMC. Among these are 

the availability and capability of a parent or guardian to take custody of and provide supervision 

for the youth; prior arrests of the youth or of family members; the presence and willingness of a 

victim to press charges; the crime rate and characteristics of the neighborhood (including police 

patrol practices) in which the offense occurs or in which the offender lives; as well as other 

factors potentially related to DMC. Any or a combination of these factors may affect decisions to 

arrest or refer a particular youth and examination of these factors would thus help our 

understanding of factors underlying DMC. Thus, a conclusion of bias on the basis of findings 

reported here would not be appropriate. However, importantly, two of the more common reasons 

given for DMC, different levels of offending behavior and the presence of selected risk factors, 

were shown not to fully explain the observed DMC. Examination of other, perhaps more subtle 

factors, including more direct measurement of bias, seem needed to more fully understand the 

origins of DMC. 

 5

 This study did not find evidence in a national sample of racial differences in self-report delinquency or in arrest 

rates by either general delinquency or by type of offense about 25 years ago, indicating that self-report offending 

could not explain the differences in incarceration rates between whites and minorities observed at that time. 

42

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

The findings of this report also suggest some further directions for additional research to more 

fully understand DMC at the initial contact/arrest/referral stage. First, the need for DMC studies 

in multiple sites is clearly indicated. Findings can be site specific so that findings from one site 

may not generalize to other sites. Thus, care is needed in identifying the factors at a particular 

site that contribute to DMC. For example, in the current study, the selected risk factors 

considered did not remove the race effect on arrest in two sites (when race and delinquency were 

included in a model) but did (with but one exception) remove the effect in the other site. In 

addition, there were factors that provided risk at some sites but not at others. There may also be 

urban vs. rural differences or effects of population density (see DeJong et al. in literature review) 

and differences in local options for police at time of contact (such as police diversion programs 

or transfer to local agencies) as well as factors occurring later in the justice system that may 

influence contact/arrest/referral decisions. Overall, these comments suggest that individual 

communities may need to develop the information capacities to permit local examination and 

identification of the factors that lead to DMC in their community, and not rely on findings from

other communities – although studies in other communities would provide guidance. In addition, 

it would be helpful if community studies were not based on select or targeted samples, such as 

high-risk neighborhoods or individuals, but require community-wide knowledge, since otherwise 

factors influencing DMC may be missed or misunderstood (see footnote 2). 

Second, disentangling the effects of race, social class, and neighborhood on arrest/referral is 

difficult, given the overlap of these individual and family characteristics and environments. 

However, this is a critical issue and studies designed to address these issues are needed. In the 

current study, race, social class, and neighborhood were each highly significant predictors of 

contact/referral at all three sites, suggesting their importance. These factors are also likely to be 

correlated with additional factors that may impact DMC. 

 

Third, the finding that DMC exists even after delinquency and a selection of risk factors were 

controlled, suggests that identification of additional factors that influence DMC, at least at some

sites, is needed. Obvious among these are police decision making, including the nature of the 

43

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

offense charged, and the factors that influence such decision making (perceived public danger, 

availability of capable guardians, prior contact with offender, offender demeanor at time of 

contact, etc.), and factors influencing the likelihood of initial discovery and apprehension such as 

calls for service (911 calls) and patrol patterns, and additional individual characteristics. 

As the above comments suggest, additional information is needed to more fully understand DMC 

at the police contact, arrest, court referral stage. However, this report does indicate that DMC can 

not be explained by differences in the offending behavior of different racial groups and that, in 

general, DMC is substantially reduced, but not eliminated, by consideration of a select set of 

additional risk factors. 

44

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
 

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This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

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47

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not 

been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.