• 

• • 

Un:ted States NATO: Committee on the EP A/400/7-90/005 

Environmental Protection Challenges ot June 1990 

Agency Modem Society 

&EPA Pilot Study On 

""c o, Indoor Air Quality ~'< ~1

0 ~ 

('~- cv ~" Managing Indoor 0 Air Quality Risks 

•

... 

Report on a Meeting Held in St. Michaels, Maryland 

October 25--27, 1989 
BIBLTOGRAPHTC INFORMATTON 


PB91-145896 

Report Nos: EPA/400/7-90/005 

Title: Pilot Study on Indoor Air Quality: Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks. Report 

on a Meeting Held in St. Michaels, Maryland on October 25-27, 1989. 

Date: Jun 90 

Performing Organization: Environmental Protection ~ency, Washington, DC.**NATO 

Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Brussels (Belgium). 

Supplementary Notes: Also available from Supt. of Docs. Prepared in cooperation 

with NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Brussels (Belgium). 

NTIS Field/Group Codes: 68A, 91A, 43F, 89A, 89G 

Price: PC Al0/MF A02 

Availability: 	Available from the National Technical Information Service, 

Springfield, VA. 22161 

Number of Pages: 214p 

Keywords: *Indoor air pollution, *Meetings, *Houses, *Risk assessment, *Buildings, 

Air quality, Regulations, Radon, Formaldehyde, Field tests, Europe, Ventilation, 

Standards, Canada, Tables(Data), Graphs(Charts), Construction materials, Air 

pollution monitoring. 

Abstract: Contents: Quantifying Future Trends Of Indoor Air Quality As A Basis For 

Government Policy Plans; Assessing Indoor Air Quality Risks of Pesticides; 

Formaldehyde Emission Standards In The Federal Republic of Germany; Orientations 

and Actions of the European Community in the Assessment and Prevention of Indoor 

Air Pollution; EPA and Indoor Air Quality; The Non-Regulatory Approach to Reducing 

Risks from Radon Exposure; U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission; A Builders 

Guide to Healthy Homes; WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe; The Approach to 

Control Indoor Air Quality in Italy; Guidelines - Ventilation Classes; Energy 

Consequences of Upgrading Indoor Air Quality; Canada's Guidelines for Residential 

Indoor Air Quality: Rationale and Scope; Canadian Ventilation and Venting 

Standards; Indoor Air Quality Building Surveys Case Studies; Design of Indoor Air 

Quality Studies; Summary Findings of Inter-Ministerial Committee On Indoor Air 

Quality (Ontario); The Quebec Approach: Employee Survey EPA Headquarters; Pollution 

in Closed Spaces and Its Consequences in Conservation of Works of Art~ How 

Norwegian Health Authorities Will Handle Indoor Air Quality Problems. 

i 
NATO/CCMS WORKSHOP 

Pilot Study 


on Indoor Air Quality 


Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks 


Report on a meeting held in St. Michaels, Maryland 


October 25 - 27, 1989 


This report has been assembled and edited by the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 
DISCLAIMER 

The opinions expressed in these workshop papers arc those of the individual authors 

unless specifically indicated otherwise. These papers do not represent the offidal position of 

the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, 

or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 
Table of Contents 

Foreword and Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m 


List of Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 


Section I - Developing Information for Risk Management Decision Making 

H.J. Van De Wiel, Quantifying Future Trends Of Indoor 


Section II - Controlling Sources - The Regulatory Approach 


Bernd Seifert, Fonnaldehyde Emissi.on Standards In The Federal 


Bernd Seifert, Orientations and Actions of the European Community in 


Section III - Controlling IAQ - The Non-Regulatory Approach 


Lawrence Pratt, The Non-Regulatory Approach to Reducing 


Section IV - Indoor Air Pollutant Guidelines 


Air Quality As A Basis For Government Policy Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 


Michael Firestone, Assessing Indoor Air Quality Risks of Pesticides 9 


Republic of Gennany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 


the Assessment and Prevention of Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 


Robert Axelrad, EPA and Indoor Air Quality ............................. 41 


Risks from Radon Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 


Sandra Eberle, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 


John Spears, A Builders Guide to Healthy Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 


Reiner Tuerck, WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 


Marco Maroni, The Approach to Control Indoor Air Quality in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 


l 
Table of Contents (cont'd) 

Section V - Ventilation Standards and Guidelines 


Olav Bojerseth, Guidelines - Ventilation Classes 103 


Douglas Walkinshaw, Canada's Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality: 


Gaute Aatheim, Energy Consequences of Upgrading Indoor Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . 107 


Rationale and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 


Jim White, Canadian Ventilation and Venting Standards 141 


Section VI - Solving Problems in Buildings 


Tedd Nathanson, Indoor Air Quality Building Surveys Case Studies 145 


Gyan S. Rajhans, Summary Fin.dings of lnter-Mznisterial Committee On 


Germano Mulazzani, Pollution in Closed Spaces and Its Consequences in 


Finn Levy, How Norwegian Health Authorities Wzll Handle 


Edward Light, Design of Indoor Air Quality Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 


Indoor Air Quality (Ontario) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 


Jean-Qaude Dionne, The Quebec Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 


Kevin Teichman, Employee Survey EPA Headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 


Conservation of Works of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 


Indoor Air Quality Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 


11 
Foreword and Acknowledgments 

Prof ess?r Marco Maroni, Director of the Pilot Study 

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forma11y established the Committee on the 

Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) on November 6, 1969. CCMS' goal was to attack practical 

problems already under study at the national level and, by combining the expertise and technology 

available in member countries, to arrive fairly rapidly at valid conclusions and to make 

recommendations for actions to benefit all member countries. The interchange of practical 

applications and of technological and scientific information are of special importance. 

In 1988, Italy proposed to the NATO/CCMS a pilot study on indoor air quality. The United 

States agreed to participate as co-chair. There are a number of policy and research objectives of 

the pilot study: 

• 	 The policy objectives are to identify agencies, institutions, and individuals 

responsible for establishing policy and regulations; and to examine policy strategics 

and propose a range of policy options that could be adopted by NATO nations. 

• 	 The research objectives are to identify current research efforts and develop a 

registry of contacts; to characterize indoor air quality problems in NATO 

countries; to identify problems which pose high risks to human health and 

materials; and to identify, study, and recommend mitigation or control methods. 

The first plenary meeting for the pilot study was held in Erice, Italy in February 1989; a 

tentative schedule of five subsequent workshops was agreed upon: 

• 	 Risk Management, USA, October 1989; 

• 	 Energy and Building Sciences, Canada, August 1990; 

• 	 Risk Assessment and Case Studies, Federal Republic of Germany, February 1991; 

• 	 Epidemiological and Clinical Assessment of Indoor-Related Health Effect~. United 

Kingdom, 1991; and 

• 	 Diagnostic Principles and Methods, USA, 1991. 

The 	pilot study will conclude with a final report to the CCMS in the summer of 1992. 

The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) organized the second meeting, which 

focused on "Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks." The workshop, held October 25-27, 1989, in St. 

Michaels, Maryland, explored programs and policies designed to resolve indoor air quality problems 

in participating countries. Forty participants, representing seven countries shared information ahout 

lll 
regulatory and non-regulatory approaches to controlling indoor air quality. This volume, the 

second report of the pilot study, contains the papers that were presented at the workshop. 

Special thanks and appreciation is extended to the workshop participants whose knowledge, 

cooperation, and enthusiasm were critical to the successful planning and conduct of the workshop 

activities. Thanks is also expressed to the staff of EPA's Indoor Air Division, and to ICF 

Incorporated, who assisted EPA in providing the logistical support for the workshop and in 

preparing and publishing these proceedings. 

IV 
NATO/CCMS Pilot Study on Indoor Air Quality1 


Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks 


St. Michaels, Maryland 


October 25 - 27, 1989 


Allegrin~ lvo 

National Research Council of Italy 

Institute for Atmospheric Pollution 

Via Salaria Km 29.3 CP-10 

00016 Monterotondo (Rome) Italy 

Phone: 39-6-9005349 

FAX: 39-6-9005849 

Andreoli, Carla 

Ufficio Studi - Ministero Ambiente 

Piazza Venezia 11 

2-187 Roma, Italy 

Phone: 39-6-67866293 

FAX: 39-6-678-7709 

Anversa, Anna 

Biologist, Region Lombardia 

Department of Health and Hygiene 

Via Stresa 24 

20125 Milano, Italy 

Phone: 39-2-67653359 

FAX: 39-2-67653111 

Axelrad, Bob• 

Director, Indoor Air Division 

ANR-445 US EPA 

401 M Street, SW 

Washington, DC 20460 

Phone: 202-475-8470 

FAX: 202-382-7991 

Participants 

Bacci, Pietro 

Senior Scientist 

Italian Electricity Board 

Thermal & Nuclear Research Center 

ENEL - CR'IN Via Rubattino 54 

20314 Milano, Italy 

Phone: 39-2-88473950 

FAX: 39-2-88473915 

Barbieri, Franco, MD 

Visiting Scientist 

Environmental Criteria and 

Assessment Office 

Office of Research & Development 

US EPA 

Research Triangle Park, NC 2771 

Phone: 919-541-4155 

FAX: 919-541-5078 

Bjorseth, Olav, Ph.D.• 

Industrial Hygienist 

Foundation for Scientific & Industrial 

Research 

Norwegian Institute of Technology 

University of Trondheim 

7034 Trondheim, Norway 

Phone: 47-7-593575 

FAX: 47-7-593603 or 596995 

* Asterisks denote speakers at the conference. 

v 
•• 

Bochicchio, Francesco 

Physicist 

National Institute of Health 

Viale Regina Elena 299 

00161 Roma, Italy 

Phone: 39-6-4990 ext. 97h 

FAX: 39-6-492872 

Carra, Sergio 

Professor 

Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica Applicata 

Politecnico di Milano 

Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32 

20133 Milano, Italy 

Phone: 39-2-23993147 

FAX: 39-2-23992206 

Crespi-Gonzalez, Maria Alicia 

Professor, Department of Environmental 

Teehnology 

Politechnical University 

Arroyo Fresno 23 

28305 Madrid, Spain 

Phone: 3166178-3735136 

•• (representing DG Medio Ambiente 

Ministerio Obras Publicas y Urbanismo) 

DeNegri, Enw 

Clinical Chemistry Department 

Hospital of Gorgonzola-Melzo 

USSL 58 

20066 Cernusco SIN Milano 

Italy 

Phone: 39-2-9513591 

FAX: 39-2-9230641 

Dionne, Jcan-Oaude• 

IRSST 

505 Boulevard de Maisonneuve Oeust 

Montreal, Quebec 

Canada H3A 3C24 

Phone: 514-288-1551 

FAX: 514-288-0998 

Fara, Gaetano Maria 

Professor of Hygiene & Preventive Medicine, 

Chairman 

Institute of Hygiene 

University La Sapienza 

Pie Aldo Moro 5 

00185 Roma, Italy 

Phone: 39-6-49914510 

FAX: 39-6-49914510 

Feldman, Elissa 

Chief, Implementation Branch 

Indoor Air Division 

ANR-445 US EPA 

401 M Street, SW 

Washington, DC 20460 

Phone: 202-475-8470 

FAX: 202-382-7991 

Flatheim, Gaute• 

Consulting Engineer 

Siv. Ing. Gaute Flatheim A/S 

Verksgt. 46 

4013 Stavanger, Norway 

Phone: 47-4-534355 

FAX: 47-4-524892 

Jacquignon, P.C. 

Secretariat d'Etat a l'Environnement aupres 

du Premier Ministre 

14 Boulevard du General Leclerc 

92524 Neuilly-sur-Seine, France 

Phone: 33-1-47581212 ext. 2324/2325 

FAX: 33-1-47450474 

Kanitz, Prof. Stefano 

Institute of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine 

University of Genova 

via Pastore 1 

(16132) Genova, Italy 

Phone: 39-10-3538522 

FAX: 39-10-3538504 

Lavcssi, Massimo 

Coordinatore Amministrivo 

Unita Sanitaria Locale 58 

Piazza Martini delta Liberta 20063 

Ccmusco Sul Naviglio, Italy 

Phone: 39-2-92360341 

FAX: 39-2-9230641 

Vl 
Levy. Finn MD'* 

Senior Physician 

National Institute of Occupational Health 

PO Box 8149 Dep. 

N 0033 Oslo l, Norway 

Phone: 47-2-466850 

FAX: 47-02-603276 

Maroni, Marco, MD• 

Professor of Occupationa1 Health 

Istituto di Medicina del Lavoro 

Via San Barnaba, 8 

20122 Milano, Italy 

Phone: 39-2-55181723 

F~X: 39-2-55187172 

Monticelli, Lucrezio 

Consiglierc 

Ufficio Legislativo 

Ministero Ambiente 

Piazza Venezia 11 

20187 Roma, Italy 

Phone: 39-6-67593205 

FAX: 39-6-67593202 

Mulazzani, Germano• 

Vice Soprintendente al Beni Culturali e 

Ambientali della Lombardia 

Ministero dei Beni Culturali 

Milano, Italy 

Phone: 39-2-972509 

Nathanson, Tedd• 

Senior Engineer 

Building Air Quality, Technology 

Public Works Canada 

Ottawa KIA OM2 Canada 

Phone: 613-736-2144 

FAX: 613-952-8341 

Piermattei, Silvana 

Physicist 

ENENDISP 

Via Brancati, 48 

00144 Roma, Italy 

Phone: 39-6-50072862 

FAX: 39-6-5013429 

Prather, Jefferson Lt. Col. 


Staff Bioenvironmental Engineer 


HQ USAF/SGPA 


Bolling AFB, DC 20332 


Phone: 202-767-1739 


FAX: 202-767-6208 


Rajhans, Gyan * 


Principal Occupational Hygiene 


Advisor 


Health and Safety Support Services 


Ontario Ministry of Labor 


400 University Avenue - 7th floor 


Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A1T7 


Phone: 416-326-1401 


FAX: 416-326-1439 


Sarno, Renato 


Architetto, Comune di Milano 


Via Pirelli 39 


Milano, Italy 


Phone: 39-2-654738 


FAX: 39-2-6552390 


Seifert, Bernd• 


Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene 


Corensplatz 1 


1000 Berlin 33 


Federal Republic of Germany 


Phone: 49-30-8308-2734 


FAX: 49-30-8308-2830 


Teichman, Kevin• 


H8105 US EPA 


401 M Street, SW 


Washington, DC 20460 


Phone: 202-382-7669 


FAX: 202-252-0106 


Tuerck, Reiner• 


Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature 


Protection & Nuclear Safety 


Bernkastclcr Str. 8 


PO Box 12 06 29 


5300 Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany 


Phone: 49-228-3052720 


FAX: 49-228-3053524 


Vil 
Van de Wiel, H.J. 

National Institute of Public Health and 

Environmental Protection 

PO Box t 

3720 BA Bilthoven 

The Netherlands 

Phone: 31-30-742689 

FAX: 31-30-742971 

Viegi, Giovanni, MD 

CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology 

Via Paolo Savi 8 

1-56100 Pisa, Italy 

Phone: 39-50-592712/554065 

FAX: 39-50-553461 

Walkinshaw, Douglas· 

Indoor Air '90 

c/o Canada Mortgage & Housing Corporation 

682 Montreal Road 

Ottawa, Canada KlA OP7 

Phone: 613-748-2714 

FAX: 613-748-6192 

White, Jim H.* 

Senior Advisor - Building Science 

Research Division 

Canada Mortgage & Housing Corporation 

682 Montreal Road 

Ottawa, Canada KlA OP7 

Phone: 613-748-2309 

FAX: 613-748-6192 

Vlll 
Additional Conference Participants 

Eberle, Sandra• 

Manager, Chemical Hazards Program 

US Consumer Product Safety Commission 

5401 Westbard Ave., Room 419 

Bethesda, MD 20207 

Phone: 301-492-6554 

FAX: 301-492-6924/6925 

Firestone, Michael* 

Supervisory Chemist, HED 

Office of Pesticides Programs 

H-7509C US EPA 

401 M Street, SW 

Washington, DC 20460 

Phone: 703-557-0459 

Light, Ed* 

Manager, Indoor Air Quality 

Dames & Moore 

7101 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 700 

Bethesda, Maryland 20814-4870 

Phone: 301-652-2215 

FAX: 301-656-8059 

Pratt, Lawrence• 

Radon Division 

ANR-464 US EPA 

401 M Street, SW 

Washington, DC 20460 

Phone: 202-475-9617 

FAX: 202-475-8347 

Schmidt, Anita 

Radon Division 

ANR-464 US EPA 

401 M Street, SW 

Washington, DC 20460 

Phone: 202-475-9615 

FAX: 202-475-8347 

Spears, John W. • 

Geomet 

20251 Century Blvd. 

Germantown, MD 20874 

Phone: 301-428-9890 

IX 
Section I 


Developing Information for Risk 

Management Decision Making 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I 1 

Quantifying Future Trends Of 

Indoor Air Quality As A Basis 

'gI(tt~,g~~;&,~W~iil%:~g:J,l~~n·~;l:~~~f~Yii'i:W\'ffM:nmwmn 

H. J. Van De Wiel 

E. Lebret 

H.C. Eerens 

L.H. Vaas 

National Institute of Public Health 

and Environmental Protection 

The Netherlands 

W.K. Van Der Lingen 

Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and Environment 

The Netherlands 

M.J. Leupen 

TNO, Division of Technology for Society 

The Netherlands 

Summary 

The home is an important micro-environment for human exposure to air 

contaminants. As a basis for policy development, Dutch indoor air quality for the coming 

decades bas been assessed for "current efforts" and "maximum mitigation" scenarios to 

show the range of achievable quality. Air quality is quantified in terms of the percentage 

of Dutch homes exceeding pollution levels that correspond to the "maximum allowable 

risk." The highest frequencies were obtained for nitrogen dioxide (90 percent), radon (70 

- 90 percent), particulate matter and environmental tobacco smoke-related components (60 

- 65 percent), and dampness (15 percent) -- used as an indicator for biological 

contamination. 

The current percentage of homes that do not exceed any of these levels is negligible. 

In the "current efforts" scenario, this percentage increases, to a maximum of five percent 

by the year 2010, whereas the percentage reaches 40 percent in the year 2010 in the 11maximum mitigation" scenario. 
2 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I 

Introduction 

Several aspects of the indoor environment, such as daylight access, ventilation, noise, 

and pest control, traditionally have been the province of government. Since the early 

1980s, indoor air quality (IAQ) has received increased governmental attention. lrt the 

framework of the Netherlands' National Policy Plan for the Environment, an investigation 

has been conducted to quantify the present and future IAQ characteristics in terms of the 

percentage of Dutch housing stock that exceeds health-related air quality limits. Two 

scenarios were used: "current efforts" and "maximum mitigation." The results of the two 

scenarios indicate the range of obtainable IAQ in the future. 

Health Related Limit Values 

In The Netherlands, an important principle of risk management is that man-made 

pollution levels should remain below the level of "maximum allowable risk." Because of 

the lack of knowledge concerning the effects of a mixture of pollutants, the principle is 

app1ied to each of the agents separately. By definition, the maximum allowable pollution 

limit corresponds to the human "no-effect-level" for non-carcinogens, and to an annual 

individual cancer risk of 10-6 for carcinogens. PoJlutants were screened according to the 

criteria given in Figure 1. 

Figure 1 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I 3 

Thirteen compounds, all of physical-chemical nature, passed the criteria. A 

fourteenth IAQ indicator, dampness, was introduced to cover the potential exposure to 

high levels of biological agents, such as housedust mites and mold alJergens (Table 1 ). 

Modeling and Estimation 

For pollutants emanating from indoor sources, the percentage of homes exceeding 

the air quality limit was estimated using the presence of sources in the Dutch housing 

stock (broken down into three categories: existing homes, renovated homes, and new 

homes), and the probability of passing the air quality limit if one or more sources were 

present in a home (Figure 1 ). 

Most of the abundant outdoor pollutants originate from motorized traffic. 

Concentrations of pollutants at the house front on busy streets were computed using the 

traffic model CAR [5]. The corresponding indoor concentration depends on the 

penetration/decay factor, e.g., 1.0 for inert gases, 0.4 for particulates. The occupancy 

factor is assumed to be constant. More details are provided in References 6 and 7. 

Table 1 


Selected IAQ Indicators and 


Their Maximum Allowable Concentration 


JAQ lndkator ConcJAv. Time Reference 

Radon 1 Bq/m3EER; year 1 

Asbestos 4000 - 40,000 F/m3

; year 2 

Particulate matter 40 μg/m3

; year 2 

140 μg/m3

; 24 hours 2 

cadmium 10-20 ng/m3

; year 1 

Benz(a)pyrene 1 ng/m3

; year 1 

Benzene 12 μg/m3

; year 2 

Lead 0.5 μg!m3

; year 3 

Nitrogen dioxide 300 μg/m3

; 1 hour 3 

carbon monoxide 40 mg/m3

; 1 hour 3 

10 mg/m3

; 8 hours 3 

Sulfur dioxide 150 - 200 μg/m3

; 1 hour 1 

100 - 120 μg/m3; 8 hours 1 

Formaldehyde 120 μglm3

; 1 hour 4 

Dichloromethane 1.7 mg/m3

; 24 hours 2 

Housedust mites and indirect: "dampness" 

mold allergens 
4 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on JAQ: Section I 

Present and Future IAQ 

1'itrogen Dioxide 

The most abundant indoor source of nitrogen dioxide is unvented water heaters 

(geisers ). Hourly averages as high as 2,000 μgfm3 have been monitored in Dutch kitchens 

[8]. This value is likely to occur in approximately 23 percent of Dutch homes. 

Marginal exceedance of the nitrogen dioxide limit will occur in homes in which 

gas-ranges are used (approximately 90 percent of Dutch homes). Other sources are not 

widely used ( unvented kerosene heaters) or will not cause significant increases of nitrogen 

dioxide levels to occur (motorized traffic). Unvented geisers are rarely installed in new 

homes. Furthermore, there is a trend to combine space heating and water heating in a 

single vented heater. Improving burner technology will reduce nitrogen dioxide pollution, 

but wil1 not prevent levels in excess of the air quality limit. Further reduction of the 

percentage of homes with severe exceedance wi11 only be possible if the indoor sources 

are eliminated. The severe exceedances of the nitrogen dioxide limit is likely to decrease 

from 23 percent in 1985 to nine percent in 2010. 

In the "maximum mitigation" scenario, it is assumed that new unvented geisers will 

not be permitted in the new housing stock and that an existing unvented geiser wil1 not 

be permitted when moving into an existing home. These additional measures result in 

negligible exceedances after 2003. 

Gas-fired cooking-ranges will gradua11y be replaced by electric cooking-ranges and 

microwave ovens. However, approximately 65 percent of the homes will sti11 be equipped 

with gas-fired cooking ranges in 2010. Application of low-NOx burners in gas-ranges will 

prevent exceedance of the air quality limit. A mitigation scenario similar to the unvented 

geiser eliminates exceedances in 2006. 

Radon 

There are three main sources of radon exposure: 

• radon emitted by building materials; 

• outdoor radon emitted from the soil; and 

• outdoor radon emitted from the soil that leaks indoors through crawl 

spaces. 

The average radon daughter concentration in Dutch homes is 12 Becquerel equilibrium 

equiva1ent radon per cubic meter (Bq/m3EER). The average outdoor concentration is 2.0 

Bq/m3

EER. 

In practice, radon from conventional building materials and exposure to outdoor 

radon cannot be avoided, and therefore is not part of risk management. However, radon 

penetration via the crawl space is avoidable by technical means. Only this kind of indoor 

radon contamination is considered. This radon contamination contributes to approximately 

60 percent of all radon indoors. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I 5 

The percentage of homes passing the air quality limit is 70 - 90 percent. Although 

new homes will have much lower air transfer from the crawl space, their beneficial effect 

on the total percentage will be counterbalanced by the demolition of leaky old homes. 

An additional reduction of the transfer rate will bring the percentage down to 

approximately 50 percent in 2010.. 

Particulate Matter 

The dominant source of particulate matter is smoking. Every home-smoked cigarette 

raises the daily average concentration of particulate matter by 2 - 5 μg/m3 [8]. The 

average daily consumption of 8 - 10 home-smoked cigarettes per smoker is high enough 

to raise the annual average above the 40 μg/m3 air quality limit. Without smoking in the 

home, exceedance of this limit is improbable. Approximately 60 percent of Dutch homes 

have one or more occupants that smoke. The number of smokers is decreasing by two 

percent per year. If this reduction rate continues, approximately 39 percent of the 

population will smoke in 2010. 

The Netherlands has endorsed WHO's target of a 20 percent population of smokers 

by 1995. To achieve this target, an annual reduction of smokers by six percent is 

necessary. Continuation of such a "discouragement policy" after 1995 will lead to 15 

percent total smokers by 2010. 

Tobacco smoke contains thousands of constituents. As with particulate matter, the 

impact of smoking on the air quality limit exceedance will influence levels of 

benz( a )pyrene and, possibly cadmium. 

Dampness 

Currently, 15 percent of the Dutch housing stock consists of damp homes. Present 

regulations on construction and ventilation may reduce this percentage to ten percent 

damp new homes and 12 percent damp renovated homes. The impact on the total 

percentage of damp homes is small: 15 percent reduction in 1985 and 13 percent 

reduction in 2010. There is a general opinion among experts that by implementing stricter 

measures, the percentage of new and renovated damp homes will not fall below five 

percent and ten percent, respectively. These measures imply stricter regulations on 

insulation, ventilation, and moisture penetration, in combination with information programs 

for users and producers. If these measures are implemented, the corresponding 

percentage of homes in exceedance of the air quality limit will fall to eight percent in 

2010. 

Miscellaneous 

Lead, benzene, benz( a )pyrene, and carbon monoxide from motorized traffic 

contribute to the air quality limit indoors exceedance. The increasing use of unleaded 

gasoline resulted in negligible exceedance of the lead limit in 1987. Furthermore, the 

introduction of the catalyst wiU eliminate exceedance for other pollutants by the year 2000. 
6 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section l 

However, evaporation of gaso1ine remains an important source of indoor benzene. 

Additional reduction of car exhaust will be governed by acid deposition and outdoor 

pollution objectives. Reductions in car exhaust will speed up improvement of IAQ 

marginally. 

As with nitrogen dioxide, unvented geisers are the most important source of carbon 

monoxide. About 20 percent of these appliances can cause Jevels of carbon monoxide 

beyond an hourly mean of 40 μg/m3

• Results of the scenario studies for carbon monoxide 

are comparable to those of nitrogen dioxide. 

Dichloromethane, when used as a paint stripper, exceeds the air quality limit in one 

to five percent of the homes. Heat guns are expected to replace paint strippers in the 

coming decade. Dichloromethane in hairspray may lead to exceedance of the air quality 

limit, but only for the users. Dichloromethane exceedance is not considered an IAQ 

problem. 

A number of pollutants have a negligible percentage of homes in exceedance: sulfur 

dioxide, ozone, cadmium, asbestos, and formaldehyde. However, the numerous indoor 

sources and the Jack of representative data do not allow a quantitative assessment. 

In summary, the percentage of exceedance due to all of these components adds up 

to about 15 percent in 1985 and four percent in 2010. Extra mitigation causes a 50 

percent reduction by 2010. 

Conclusion 

Pollution caused by several sources isn excess of the maximum allowable limit in a 

substantial percentage of the Dutch housing stock. Presently, maximum levels for nitrogen 

dioxide are exceeded in 90 percent of Dutch homes. Maximum radon levels are exceeded 

in 70 - 90 percent of Dutch homes; particulate matter levels are exceeded in 60 - 65 

percent of Dutch homes; and allergens levels are exceeded in 15 percent of Dutch homes. 

In the coming decades, there will be a positive trend toward reductions in indoor air 

pollution. However, the percentage of "healthy homes" will be smaU (five percent). A 

level of approximately 40 percent will be achievable only if maximum mitigation measures 

are taken now. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I 7 

References 

1. 	 Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional Publications, European Series 

Nr. 23, Copenhagen, 1987. 

2. 	 Criteria Documents on asbestos, fine dust, benzene and dichloromethane. National 

Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Bilthoven, The Netherlands, 

1987. 

3. 	 Proposed Guidelines for lead (1984), nitrogen dioxide (1979) and carbon monoxide 

(1975). Dutch Health Council, The Hague, The Netherlands. 

4. 	 Letter to Parliament. Parliament 81/82 Nr. 17100, 1989. 

5. 	 K.D. van Hout and H.P. Baars, to be published in: Proceedings of 8th World Qcan 

Air Congress, The Hague, The Netherlands, 11-15 Sept. 1989. 

6. 	 F. Langeweg, Concern for Tomorrow, A National Environmental Survey 1985-2010. 

National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Bilthoven, The 

Netherlands, 1989. 

7. 	 H.J. van de Wiel, E. Lebret, W.K. van der Lingen, H.C. Berens, LH. Vaas and M.J. 

Leupen, Toxicol. Ind. Health, in press. 

8. 	 E. Lebret, Air pollution in Dutch homes. Thesis, Agricultural University of 

Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1985. 
8 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I 
Section II 


Controlling Sources - The 

Regulatory Approach 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 9 

Assessing Indoor Air Quality 

Risks of Pesticides {f:Jitt]t?.~~::m~~;~m:r~t~~~~~~~~~r~~r):~~~Z~JflHJ~~~r~~w~~%~t~~~tf:~~~t~;*t~~*~t~1.Mt&.®~~~t.~m~~~~~~~~~~~[~~ 

Michael P. Firestone, Ph.D. 

Supervisory Chemist 

Non-dietary Exposure Branch 

Health Effects Division 

Office of Pesticide Programs 

US Environmental Protection Agency 

Introduction 

EPA regulates pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, Rodenticide Act 

(FIFRA). When making decisions involving the regulation of pesticides, FIFRA directs 

the Agency to weigh the beneficial aspects of a pesticide use versus the risks associated 

with such a use. This process is known as risk management. This outline will deal with 

the key aspects of the process of exposure and risk assessment. 

EPA regulates the use of pesticides through its Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP). 

Within OPP, the human exposure and risks associated with pesticides are evaluated by the 

Health Effects Division (HED). The following presentation will focus on five topics: 

1. 	 Health Effects Division organization; 

2. 	 Toxicology data requirements; 

3. 	 Data requirements for Residential Post-Application Exposure Monitoring 


(proposed); 


4. 	 Criteria for requiring exposure data; and 

5. 	 Future development. 

Health Effects Division (HED) 

The Health Effects Division is composed of five branches: 

1. 	 Science Analysis and Coordination (SACB) 

2. 	 Toxicology - Insecticide, Rodenticide Support (TB-IRS) 

3. 	 Toxicology - Herbicide, Fungicide, Antimicrobial Support (TB-HFAS) 

4. 	 Dietary Exposure (DEB) 

5. 	 Non-Dietary Exposure (NDEB) 
10 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

Non-Dietary Exposure Branch (NDEB) 

Function: Assess human non-dietary exposure to pesticides resulting from: 

• 	 Direct handling, such as mixing/loading and applying pesticides; 

• 	 Agricultural reentry and other occupational post-application contact, such 

as harvesting and pruning; and 

• 	 Residential post-application contact resulting from indoor and lawn 

treatment. 

Methodology: 

• 	 Determination of unit e~sure (i.e., exposure . per amount of material 

handled, per time period, or per exposure incident). 

• 	 Integration of unit exposure determination with information regarding the 

specific use of the pesticide to yield a comprehensive exposure assessment. 

• 	 H exposure and risk are unacceptable, determination of the value of 

various risk reduction measures, such as protective clothing, engineering 

controls, limiting application rates, limiting the acreage treated in a single 

day, watering-in lawn pesticides, etc. 

The Other Branches of the Health Effects Division 

Toxicology and Coordination Branches/BED 

Function: 

• 	 Conduct hazard assessment and analyze dose-response relationship; and 

• 	 Integrate hazard and exposure assessments to yield a risk assessment. 

Biological Analysis Branch/BEAD 


Function: 


• 	 Develop quantitative use assessment to answer questions related to 

amount of material handled, duration of exposure, and number of 

treatments per use site per day/season/year; 

• 	 Types of mixing/loading and application equipment utilized; and 

• 	 Range and distribution of use sites. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 11 

Toxicology Data Requirements ( 40 CFR 158.340) 

Type and amount of data below required depends on the use pattern of the pesticide. 

• 	 Acute toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation, eye irritation, dermal irritation and 


sensitization); 


• 	 Suh-chronic toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation including neurotoxicity 


testing); 


• 	 Mutagenicity; 

• 	 Developmental toxicity and reproductive toxicity; 

• 	 Chronic trndcity, including carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, and 


immunotoxicity; and 


• 	 Other, including metabolism and dermal penetration. 

Residential Post-Application Exposure Monitoring Data 

Requirements (proposed) 

A. 	 Types of data required: 

• 	 Foliar residue dissipation; 

• 	 Soil residue dissipation; 

• 	 Indoor surface residue dissipation; 

• 	 Passive dosimetry I dermal exposure; and 

• 	 Passive dosimetry I respiratory exposure (note: includes personal or 


fixed-site studies in which the dissipation of ambient air levels over time 


is monitored. 


B. 	 The following should be considered when developing a post-application 

exposure monitoring study protocol: 

• 	 Data bridging foliar, soil, or indoor surface residue data to potential 


dermal and oral exposure for children and adults; 


• 	 Ambient air level dissipation data extrapolated to respiratory exposure by 


considering the effect of age, sex, and activity patterns variation on 


respiration rates; 


• 	 Each use site I formulation type combination; and 

• 	 Studies reflecting maximum application rates, maximum number of 


treatments, minimum intervals between re-treatment, and a variety of use 


sites (e.g., for home lawn studies, consider various grass varieties and 


geographical locations; for indoor studies, consider various housing or 


construction types and ventilation rates). 

12 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

Criteria for Requiring Residential Post-Application Exposure Monitoring 

Data 

Data 	will be required if the following toxicity criteria are met: 

• 	 The acute dermal toxicity of the technical grade of the active ingredient 

(TGAI) is less than 2000 mg/kg (i.e., Toxicity Categories I and II listed 

in 40 CFR 162.10). 

• 	 The acute inhalation toxicity of the TGAI is less than two mg/liter and the 

TGAI has a vapor pressure greater than 10·4 mm Hg at 25°C if used 

indoors or 10-3 at 25°C if used outdoors. 

• 	 The TGAI is found to cause developmental toxicity. 

• 	 The potential for other adverse health effects exist, including 

carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, reproductive effects, immunotoxicity, and 

others for which the Agency requires toxicity testing. 

• 	 Epidemiologica]/poisoning incident data indicate that adverse health effects 

are resulting from post-application exposure. 

Residential Exposure Assessment - Future Developments 

• 	 Consumer pesticide use survey; 

• 	 Cooperative efforts by various EPA offices (Office of Pesticides and Toxic 

Substances and Office of Research and Development) to fund research 

on developing a methodology to assess residential post-application 

exposure to lawn pesticides and indoor use pesticides; and 

• 	 Non-Occupational Pesticide Exposure Study (NOPES) - Results will be 

released shortly of a retrospective multi-season monitoring study 

conducted in Jacksonville, Florida and Springfield/Chicopee, 

Massachusetts. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 13 

Formaldehyde Emission 

Standards In The Federal 

l,~gg~~Jii~~"mg[1.i~i~=:~:D~·,:nrnt:i:t'~mmgrny=t':::::.r=:::?~:t:w:"u::::;:: 

Bernd Seifert 

Institute for Water, Soil and 

Air Hygiene of the Federal Health Office 

Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany 

The Initial Events 

In 1975, students and teachers of several newly built air-conditioned schools in 

Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany, complained about headaches, and eye and throat 

irritations. It quickly became clear that th<?se complaints were caused by high concentrations of formaldehyde in the air of the classrooms. The high formaldehyde levels were 

mainly traced to special urea-formaldehyde particleboards glued to the ceiling for noise 

reduction purposes and, to a lesser extent, to particleboard-based furniture. 

Table 1 shows some of the results that were obtained when the air of the respective 

rooms was analyzed [1 ]. The very high levels of formaldehyde were attributed to 

inadequate ventilation. This result could be proven by taking measurements in an 

otherwise similar, but well-ventilated school building, in which formaldehyde levels about 

ten times lower were observed. 

The Setting of a Guideline Value 

Because complaints similar to those observed in Cologne were reported from other 

parts of the country, the Federal Health Office, in 1977, convened an ad-hoc commission 

of experts to discuss setting a limit value for formaldehyde in indoor air. In those days, 

not much information was available on potential adverse health effects of formaldehyde 

at levels beJow 1.0 ppm. 

Based on toxicological knowledge and the scientific literature, the comm1ss1on 

proposed a guideline value of 0.1 ppm [2]. It is noteworthy that this value was only given 

with <;me significant digit, which implies that it could not be considered as an exact limit 

below which any effect wou1d be exc1uded. When publishing the 0.1 ppm value, the 

commission did not determine the conditions under which measurement would have to be 

carried out to determine the formaldehyde level in indoor air. In addition, the value was 

not linked to a time interval. 
14 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

Over the years, the 0.1 ppm value has been adopted by many other European 

countries. The World Health Organization, in the recently published "Air Quality 

Guidelines for Europe," proposed a value of 100 μg/m3 as a 30 min average [3]. 

The Consequence of the Guideline Value 

The guideline value was used to develop the formaldehyde emission standards for 

particleboard because urea-formaldehyde-glued particleboard is one of the basic materials 

in the construction of pre-fabricated houses. In 1980, a guideline was issued by the 

Committee on Harmonized Technical Prescriptions for Construction [ 4]. In this guideline, 

particleboard was classified into three categories, according to its formaldehyde emission 

(see Table 2). The Institute for Building Technology, an institution created by the Federal 

States (Lander), which have the responsibility for building codes in the Federal Republic 

of Germany, recommended applying the guideline to the Llinder. 

Although the equilibrium concentration in a large test chamber, as determined under 

the conditions given in Table 3, was defined to be the reference, a more simple, derived 

test method, namely the 11 perforator11 method, was developed to permit a more practicable 

and rapid classification. According to the perforator method, the sample of particleboard 

is cut into small pieces and extracted with toluene. The formaldehyde content of the 

water used for re-extraction is then determined by iodimetric titration. The full procedure 

is explained in the German standard DIN EN 120 [5], the text of which is identical to the 

respective European standard, adopted in 1982. 

In addition, another derived method was developed which is the so-called "gas 

analysis" method [6]. In this method, specified in German standard DIN 52368, a small 

piece of particleboard ( 400 mm x 50 mm) is placed in a special oven at 60°C. Air with 

a relative humidity of two ± one percent is drawn through the oven at about one liter/min 

and collected in bubblers filled with water. The formaldehyde content of the water is 

determined photometrically using the acetylacetone method. There is a linear correlation 

between the perforator and the gas analysis method [7]. 

According to the ETB guideline [4], only class El particleboard can be used for 

construction purposes, but E2 and E3 quality particleboard can be used if it has been 

given an appropriate coating to lower the formaldehyde emission to ~he El level. 

However, since some of the adhesives used to fix veneers contain large amounts of 

formaldehyde, the coating process does not result in lower formaldehyde emissions in all 

cases [7]. 

In 1985, a guideline was also issued to control formaldehyde em1ss10n from 

urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) [8]. In this guideline, three classes of UFFI 

were defined, as well as the conditions under which the respective foam quality could be 

used. To guarantee a formaldehyde concentration of or below 0.1 ppm in the air of the 

adjacent room, materials used to separate the respective foam from the atmosphere of the 

room were prescribed. The guideline provided detailed conditions under which the 

formaldehyde off-gassing of the foam had to be determined. However, it should be 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section II 15 

mentioned that the actual practical importance of this guideline is low because UFFI is 

no longer widely used in the Federal Republic of Germany. 

The Shortcomings of Regulation 

The classification of particleboard proved to be very useful as a tool for lowering 

formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air. However, the shortcomings of the regulation 

soon became apparent: because only the use of particleboard for construction had been 

regulated, low quality particleboard (increasingly used in the manufacturing of furniture 

-- especially imported furniture) was not subject to any regulation. Thus, despite the use 

of El quality particleboard in construction, indoor air formaldehyde levels did not 

decrease as much as had been expected. 

Another critical aspect was that the guideline was misinterpreted. When the 0.1 

ppm value was issued in 1977, it was meant as a guideline value. However, over the 

years, many people, including judges, considered it to be a standard with resulting legal 

implications. This interpretation did not take into account that the guideline had not 

provided detailed prescriptions of all the conditions under which the formaldehyde 

concentration in the air of a room would have had to be measured (e.g., temperature, 

relative humidity, ventilation status, and sampling period). 

Furthermore, it appeared that the correlation between the reference method (test 

chamber) and the widely used perforator method was not satisfactory for low 

fonnaldehyde contents. This result was due to two effects: on the one hand, for E 1 

particleboard, the results were very close to the detection limit, and on the other hand, 

the iodirnetric titration, by nature, is not specific for formaldehyde. 

The Recent Approach 

In Octoher l 986, the Ordinance on Hazardous Substances [9] came into force under 

the Chemicals Act [1 O]. In this ordinance, a number of paragraphs also addressed the 

question of formaldehyde. Among other things, the following prescriptions, effective as 

of January 1, 1988, were made in §9 with the goal of regulating all wood-based materials, 

regardless of their use: 

• 	 Wood-based products (particleboard, coated particleboard, blackboard, 

veneer plywood, fiberboard) must not be circulated if they lead to an 

equilibrium concentration of formaldehyde of more than 0.1 ppm. The 

equilibrium concentration is to be determined in a large test chamber 

using a test method which corresponds to the scientific and technical 

state-of-the-art. The Federal Health Office will publish such a test 

method in agreement with the Federal Institute for Materials Research 

and Testing, following an expert hearing. 

• 	 Furniture must not be circulated if it contains wood-based products which 

do not meet these requirements. 
16 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

One of the critical points left open in the ordinance was the publication of an 

appropriate test method, since measured formaldehyde levels are critically dependent on 

a number of parameters, (e.g., temperature and relative humidity). As an example, the 

nomogram shown in Figure 1 establishes the link between the formaldehyde concentration 

and both temperature and relative humidity [ 11]. 

As it is difficult to set values for· these parameters that would be valid for any public 

or private space, long and intensive discussions among experts, industry, consumer 

associations, and the general pub1ic preceded the publication of the test method as 

requested in the ordinance. 

The parameters that were given most attention in these discussions were relative 

humidity, the loading factor, and air velocity: 

• 	 Relative humidity could certainly exceed 45 percent under certain 

circumstances, especia1ly in the summer. 

• 	 A loading factor of 1.0 was be]ieved by many experts, including those of 

the Federal Health Office, to be too 1ow for a number of situations 

encountered in practice. 

• 	 The air velocity in the test chamber also has a pronounced influence on 

the formaldehyde level (see Table 2). Indeed, an air velocity of 0.3 m/sec 

had been chosen in a large number of test chamber experiments because 

of a much better reproducibility of the results. However, as Figure 2 

shows, the concentrations obtained under these conditions were higher 

by about 15 percent than those that would have been measured in the 

field where much smaller air velocities ( < 0.1 m/sec) prevail. 

Finally, the conditions given in Table 4 were proposed [12]. Air velocity in the test 

chamber of 0.3 m/sec was used in order to get more reproducible results. The fact that 

the concentration measured in the chamber could he 15 percent too high was accepted 

as a kind of safety margin for cases in which relative humidity and/or loading factors were 

higher than those given in Table 4. 

To account for the differences in coated and uncoated particleboard, the way of 

preparing the test specimen was prescribed in detail, taking into account the ratio of 

cut-to-total areas. The new proposal also permit~ testing of pre-formed pieces made of 

wood-based products, such as medium-density fiberboard. 

The Trend in Formaldehyde Concentrations 

In the Federal Republic of Germany, many formaldehyde measurements have been 

carried out since 1977 when the guideline value of 0.1 ppm was introduced. However, 

many of these measurements have been made by local institutions and the data have 

usually not been compiled and published. The Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 17 

of the Federal Health Office, between 1984 and 1986, ran three programs to analyze 

formaldehyde in a larger number of indoor environments. 

In Program I and Program II, measurements were made follo~'ing complaints of 

home dwellers; randomly chosen homes were included in Program III. The homes visited 

in Program I were located in Berlin; the homes in Program II were located in the 

remainder of the Federal Republic of Germany. Program III induded homes in any part 

of the country with a response rate of 89 percent. In all three programs, formaldehyde 

was determined using passive samplers exposed as duplicates over 48 hours. Table 5 gives 

an overview of the sampling. Table 6 summarizes the results of the three programs. 

The guideline value of 0.12 mg:/m3 (0.1 ppm) was generally met, with averages close 

to 0.06 mg (0.05 ppm). In the complaint cases (Programs I and II), the number of homes 

exhibiting a concentration level higher than 0.1 ppm was approximately ten percent, 

whereas in the random study (Program III), the rate of exceedance was only tvvo percent. 

In all programs, the SOth percentile was lower than 50 μglm3• 

Since the passive samplers were exposed over 48-hour periods, the results in Table 

6 are 48-hour averages. Thus, short-term sampling in the same homes, e.g. over 

30-minute periods, may have led to higher concentrations than those reported here. It 

should also be mentioned that results obtained by a passive sampling procedure are 

generally less reproducible than those of active sampling procedures. For the samplers 

used in the studies described above, the relative standard deviation under field conditions 

as calculated from the duplicates was approximately 20 to 30 percent at concentration 

levels between 50 and 100 μglm3

• 

Although the official regulatory abatement strategies have been effective in reducing 

formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air, further reductions are possible by additional 

control measures. As an example, the local authorities in Ni.irnberg, FRG, undertook to 

achieve formaldehyde levels of less than 0.075 ppm in 320 rooms of more than 100 

pre-schools [13]. Table 7 shows the distribution before and after the four-year abatement 

program which cost about 1.1 million Deutsche Marks (with about 25 percent spent on 

chemical analysis). 

One effective control measure was the sealing of all uncoated pa11icleboard edges 

in the rooms. In addition, the substantial contributions from cleansing and disinfecting 

agents, tobacco smoking, processed cork, and various hobby products was reduced by 

more careful selection of products and better education. 

The Future 

Particleboard is but one, although major, source of formaldehyde in indoor air. In 

addition, formaldehyde emissions may result from other products, such as textiles, 

carpeting, wallpapers, lacquers, and varnishes. UntiJ now, the contribution of these 

products to the final formaldehyde concentration has not been considered in the 
18 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

regulatory processes. Although much progress has been made in the Ordinance on 

Hazardous Substances [9] by extending regulation to wood-based products of all kind, the 

inclusion of more formaldehyde emitting materials still needs to be reached to guarantee 

a 0.1 ppm level under alJ circumstances. However, even after achieving this level, the 

final goal should be to bring the formaldehyde concentration in indoor air down to levels 

below 0.1 ppm. The example of the city of Nilrnberg shows that this goal can be reached even without further regulation. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section II 19 

References 


1. 	 Deimel, M.: Erfahrungen Jiber Formaldehyde-Raumluftkonzentrationen m 

schulneubauten. In: K. Aurand et al. (Eds.): organische verunreinigungen in der 

umwelt (organic pollutants in the environment), pp. 416-427. Erich Schmidt Verlag, 

Ber1in, 1978. 

2. 	 Federal Health office: criteria for formaldehyde m indoor air. Press release No. 

19/77, 12 Oct. 1977. 

3. 	 World Health Organization: Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Reg. Puhl., 

European Series No. 23 Copenhagen, 1987. 

4. 	 Ausschuss fur Einheitliche Technische Baubestirnmungen (ETB) (Committee on 

Harmonized Technical Prescriptions for Construction): Richtlinie uber die 

vetwendung von Spanplatten hinsichtlich der Venneidung unzumutbarer 

Formaldehydkonentrationen in der Raumluft (Guideline on the use of particleboard 

with regard to the avoidance of inacceptab)e formaldehyde concentrations in indoor 

air). Beuth Verlag, Berlin, April 1980. 

5. 	 Deutsches Institut fur Normung: SpanpJatten. Bestimmung des FormaldehydgehaJtes. 

Extraktionsverfahren genannt Perforatormethode (ParticJeboard. Determination of 

the formaldehyde content. Extraction procedure called perforator method). DIN EN 

120, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, October 1984. 

6. 	 Deutsches Institut fiCir Normung: Priifung von Spanplatten. Bestimrnung der 

Formaldehydabgabe durch Gasanalyse (Testing of particleboard. Determination of 

the formaldehyde off-gassing by gas analysis). DIN 52.368, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, 

September 1984. 

7. 	 Marutzki, R., and A. Flentge: Neuere Erkenntnisse zur Formaldehydabgabe von 

Mbbeln (Recent results on the emission of formaldehyde from furniture). WK.I-Mitt. 

394/1985. WilhelmKlauditz-Institut, Braunschweig, 1985. 

8. 	 Ausschuss flir Einheitliche Technische Baubestimmungen (ETB) (Committee on 

Harmonised Technical Prescriptions for Construction): Richtlinie zur Begrenzung der 

Foriftaldehydemission in die Raumluft bei Verwendung von Harnstoff 

Formaldehydharz Ortschaum (Guideline to limit the formaldehyde emission into 

indoor air from urea-formaldehyde foam insulation). Beuth Verlag, Berlin, April 

1985. 

9. 	 Verordnung fiber gefahrliche Stoffe (Gefahrstoffverordnung GefStoffV) vom 

26.8.1986 (Ordinance on Hazardous Substances of 26 Aug. 1986). Bundesgesetzblatt 

I, 1470-1467, 1986. 

10. 	 Gesetz zum Schutz vor gefihrlichen Staffen (Chemikaliengesetz chemG) vorn 

16.9.1980 (Chemicals Act of 16 Sept. 1980). Bundesgesetzblatt I, pp. 1718, 1980. 
20 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

11. 	 Mehlhorn, L.: Normierungsverfahren fiir die Formaldehydabgabe van spanplatten 

(Standardizing procedures for the formaldehyde emission from particleboard). 

Adhiision 6/1986, 27-33 

12. 	 Bundesgesundheitsamt (Federal Health office): Pridfverfahren fiir Holzwerkstoffe 

(Test procedure for wood-based materials). Bundesgesundheitsblatt 32 (6) :256-258, 

1989. 

13. 	 Pluschke, P., and G. Hantusch: Cost-effective strategies to measure and reduce 

formaldehyde concentrations in public buildings. In: L.J. Brasser and W.C. Mulder: 

Man and his ecosystem. Proc. 8th World Clean Air Congress, The Hague, 11-15 

Sept. 1989, Vol. 1, pp. 357-362, Elsevier, 1989. 
Room 

Class 

El 

E2 

E3 

NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section II 21 

TABLE 1 

FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATIONS IN 4 COLOGNE SCHOOLS 

AS MEASURED DURIXG THE SUMMER HOLIDAYS (1976) 

Formaldehyde concentration (ppm) 

School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 

1 0.53 0.97 0.63 0.97 

2 0.37 0.47 0.52 0.64 

3 0.31 0.56 0.46 1.2 

4 0.40 0.48 0.40 1.4 

5 0.38 0.31 0.37 1.1 

6 0.51 0.63 0.42 1.3 

7 0.61 0.58 0.50 1.9 

8 0.43 0.73 0.35 1.6 

TABLE 2 

CIASSIFICATION OF PARTICLEBOARD ACCORDING TO 


ITS FOR.:.'\fALDEHYDE EMISSION 


Equilibrium concentration 

in a 40 m3 test chamber 

s 0.1 ppm 

> 0.1 - 1.0 ppm 

> 1.0 - 2.3 ppm 

"Perforator value" 

(mg HCH0/100 g dry material) 

s 10 

> 10 - 30 

> 30 - 60 
22 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

TABLE 3 

CONDITIONS FOR THE REFERENCE METHOD TO TEST 

PARTICLEBOARD FOR FORMALDEHYDE EMISSIONS (1980) 

3 Size of test chamber 40 m

Temperature 23 ± 1 °C 

Relative humidity 45 ± 3% 

Loading 1 m2

/m3 

Air exchange 1 ACH 

TABLE 4 

CONDITIONS FOR THE REFERENCE METHOD TO TEST 

PARTICLEBOARD FOR FORMALDEHYDE EMISSIONS (1989) 

3 Size of test chamber ~ 12 m

Temperature 23±1°C 

Relative humidity 45 ± 5% 

Air exchange 1 ± 0.1 ACH 

Air velocity 0.3 ± 0.1 mis 

Loading 1 m2

/m3 

TABLE 5 

OVERVIEW OF MEASURING PROGRAMMES 

I II III 

Distributed samplers 188 1,388 740 

Lost samplers 8 80 

Unused samplers 2 

Samplers as duplicates 154 1,158 656 

Samplers as "singles" 34 147 4 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section II 23 

TABLE 6 

RESULTS OF MEASURING PROGRAMMES I - III (/μg/m3) 

Parameter I 11 III 

Arithmetic mean 60 63 56 

Standard deviation ±43 ±68 ±28 

Minimum ND ND ND 

Maximum 229 1,240 279 

Values exceeding 

0.12 mglm3 (%) 8 8 8 

TABLE 7 

DISTRIBUTION OF FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATIONS IN 

320 PRESCHOOL ROOMS BEFORE AND AFfER CONTROL 

Formaldehyde 

concentration 

(ppm) Before control After control 

<0,04 19 30 

0.04 - 0.075 44 65 

0.075 - 0.1 18 4.6 

0.1 - 0.15 15 0.4 

0.15 4 
24 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

2.5 

K 

2.0 

1.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0 

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Relative humidity [•;.] 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 25 

Orientations and Actions of the 

European Community in the 

Assessment and Prevention of 

Indoor Air Pollution ~~w~~f.if{l~~i.~r:~;~~rim~{fK~l~~~~~~~m~~'.~~~~~~~~.;~~fa~~~~~r:~~~~Jm:~ff;~~:~~~l~~'ffJ.~;}$t~:r.cyi~~~~~~r~1m:~rrtt~1tmr1wr::~0 

Maurizio de Bartoli 

Helmut Knoppel 

CEC Joint Research Center 

Environment Institute 

Ispra, Italy 

Bernd Seifert 


Bundesgesundheitsamt 


Institut Fur Wasser Boden und Lufthygiene 


Berlin, FRG 


Introduction 

While various services of the Commission of the European Communities have 

developed some interest in certain aspects of IAQ, or will develop such interest, no 

comprehensive policy and action is being developed in this area. Research activities of 

the Commission have been developed since 1981 by Directorate-General XII (Science, 

Research and Development) through its Joint Research Center (Ispra). Various 

Commission services are actually or potentially involved in some IAQ policy and 

regulatory acts: 

• 	 The Directorate-General XI (Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil 

Protection) is in charge of "defining and implementing preventive 

measures against indoor pollution from a growing number of substances"; 

• 	 The Directorate-General III (Internal Market and Industrial Affairs) is in 

charge of regulating hygienic properties of building materials; 

• 	 The Directorate-General V (Employment and Social Affairs) is in charge 

of community legislation on smoking prevention; and 

• 	 The Consumer Protection Service is preparing its first action program 

which may consider the impact of consumer products on indoor air 

quality. 
26 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section 11 

The various activities and tasks of these Commissions are described in the rest of 

this paper. 

Research Activities 

As explicitly stated in the fourth "Policy and Action Program on the Environment 

(1987-1992)" of the European Community, approved by the Council of Ministers on 

October 19, 1987, scientific research is an essential preparatory activity for almost any 

political action in the field of environmental protection. Moreover, under the title "actions 

in specific sectors, atmospheric pollution," the program specifies that a major objective of 

an overall longer-term strategy to reduce air pollution is "to identify the atmospheric 

pollutants (outdoor and indoor) of greatest concern from the standpoint of the protection 

of human health." 

Research supporting the environmental policy of the Community may be carried out 

within three different frameworks: 

• 	 In-house or "direct11 research performed within the framework of 

multi-annual specific research programs of the Joint Research Center or, 

on request, of other Commission services; 

• 	 Contract or shared-cost research performed in the Member Countries and 

co-financed by the Commission within the framework of multi-annual 

research action programs; and 

• 	 Concerted actions which implement a cooperation at the community level 

among national research institutions in specific research areas are also 

defined in the multi-annual research action program. The financial 

contribution of the Commission to concerted actions usuaJly covers only 

expenses for a secretariat and for the organization of meetings. 

European non-member countries may participate in the research action program 

(shared cost research and concerted actions) via an agreement with the Community. 

Member countries also have the option of participating in selected concerted actions in 

the COST ("Cooperation Europeenne dans le Domaine de la Recherche Scientifique et 

Technique") framework. COST is a cooperation agreement between all European OECD 

Countries and the European Community. Community concerted actions become Category 

A COST projects as soon as a COST country which is not an EC member state begins 

to participate in it (Category B COST projects are those projects developed and decided 

upon within the COST framework and which may or may not be included in the 

Commission's research action program). 

For the time being, IAQ research has been implemented at the community level as 

in-house research and as a concerted action. Both are briefly described below. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 27 

JRC 	Research 

Studies on indoor air pollution by organic chemicals started at the Ispra 

Establishment of the Joint Research Center (JRC) in 1981, with the goal of gaining 

knowledge on the actual concentrations of these compounds in indoor spaces and of 

developing analytical methods adequate for such investigations. This research action is 

continuing and is now part of the activity of the JRC's Institute for the Environment. 

Presently, it mainly addresses the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from 

building furnishing materials and from household products. 

The following studies have been performed (relating information may be found in 

the publications listed in the Appendix): 

• 	 Field Studies: contribution of micro-environments to 24-hour exposure of 

a pupil to voes (March 1981); analysis of aldehydes and other VOCs 

present in different indoor spaces (15 homes, indoors and outdoors, in 

1983-84); pentachlorophenol in homes and in a tannery (1985); 

semi-volatile and particulate organic matter in a home sample (1985); and 

aldehydes and other voes in the buildings of the European Parliament 

(1986-88). 

• 	 Emission Studies: headspace and chamber measurements of aldehydes and 

voes emitted from building/furnishing materials and household products 

(since 1985); aldehydes and ketones in mainstream (active) and sidestream 

(passive) cigarette smoke (1987). 

• 	 Methods Development: development and testing of analytical and 

characterization methods, including the organization of and participation 

in inter-laboratory comparisons (determination of aldehydes and ketones, 

diffusion or passive sampling of voes, characterization of voe 

emissions). 

• 	 Biological Effects: bioassays for mutagenicity on bacteria and mice to 

determine the genotoxicity of pollutants relevant in indoor air; in vitro and 

in vivo measurements in mice to investigate emhryotoxic effects of 

methylglyoxal and acetaldehyde. 

COST Project 613: '1ndoor Air Quality and Its Impact on Man" 

The most important activity in the IAQ field at the community level is the concerted 

action "Indoor Air Quality and Its Impact on Man," which is part of the Community 

multi-annual research program for the protection of the environment (1986-1990) and was 

approved in June 1986. The Committee met for the first time in March 1987. The 

concerted action became COST project 613/1 through the association of Sweden and 

Switzerland; Norway and Finland will soon join the concerted action. The Institute for the 

Environment of the Joint Research Center acts as leader of the project. 
28 NA TO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

The scope of COST Project 613/1 is to determine the human health and comfort 

effects caused by air pollution in non-industrial, indoor environments (homes, schools, 

offices, etc.). COST Project 613/1 has five objectives: 

• 	 Identification and characterization of pollutants and sources; 

• 	 Assessment of population exposure; 

• 	 Assessment of health effects; 

• 	 Development and validation of reference methods; 

• 	 Collation, synthesis, and dissemination of data; 

Cooperation is implemented through a committee composed of members of all 

participating countries, the Secretariat and through working groups (WGs). For the time 

being, six WGs have been established: 

• 	 WG 1: preparation of a practical guide to "sick building syndrome" 

investigations (task achieved); 

• 	 WG 2: preparation of the guide, "Sampling Strategy in Indoor Air 

Chemical Analysis"; 

• 	 WG 3: preparation of a guideline for the determination of steady state 

concentrations of formaldehyde in test chambers due to emissions from 

wood-based materials (task achieved); 

• 	 WG 4: preparation of a discussion document on health effects of 

indoor air poJlution; 

• 	 WG 5: preparation of a guideline or standard procedure for the 

determination of microbiological pollution; and 

• 	 WG 6: preparation of a guideline on ventilation requirements. 

In an attempt to overcome the increasing difficulty of having to hand over the 

essential information in a concise form, the Committee, through the Secretariat and the 

Working Groups, issues summary reports on single pollutants of high priority and on 

other topics. Five publications have been issued: 

• 	 Report No. /: Radon in Indoor Air 

• 	 Report No. 2: Formaldehyde Emission from Wood-Based Materials: 

GuideJine for the Determination of Steady State Concentrations in Test 

Chambers 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section II 29 

• Report No. 3: Indoor Pollution by N02 in European Countries 

• Report No. 4: "Sick Building Syndrome" - a Practical Guide 

• Report No. 5: Project Inventory 

Policy and Regulatory Activities 

Before presenting the actual and potential policy and regulatory activ1t1es, it 1s 

worthwhile to recall the institutional framework for the implementation of Community 

policies and its terminology. Community policy is broken down into sectorial policies 

which usually are associated with one of the Directorates-General or Commission Services 

assisting the Commission in its task. The Commission defines its policy objectives in 

sectorial multi-annual Policy and Action Programs approved by the Council of Ministers. 

The regulatory process in the Community starts with a proposal of the Commission 

to the Council of Ministers, which is the organization with decision-making authority -- the 

European Parliament only has an advisory role, with limited budgetary power. There are 

three types of legal acts with binding force at the Community level: regulations, decisions, 

and directives. Directives are mainly used in the environmental field and define a result 

to be achieved, but leave to the Member States the choice of forms and methods. The 

Commission also bas the task of implementing the approved rules, and verifying their 

implementation by the Member States. Besides the three types of acts mentioned above, 

the Commission may propose (and the Commission and Council may approve) 

recommendations and resolutions which do not have binding force, but are only a 

commitment in principle. The Commission and Council may, however, exert a remarkable 

pressure on national governments and social forces. 

Several sectorial policies of the Commission and, hence, the acttv1ty of several 

Directorates-General or Commission Services, actually or potentially touch aspects of the 

IAQ issue. Directorate-General XI (Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection) 

is responsible for the environmental and radiation protection policy of the Commission. 

Its fourth "Policy and Action Program on the Environment (1987-1992),'' approved by the 

Council of Ministers on Octoher 19, 1987, includes as one of the major objectives "an 

overall longer-term strategy to reduce air pollution, and "to define and iμiplement 

preventive measures against indoor pollution from a growing number of substances." 

The presence of radon in indoor air is one of the major causes of concern for those 

working to protect human health from indoor pollutants. In 1989, a "recommendation of 

the Commission on the protection of the public against indoor exposure to radon" was 

drafted and is now under discussion. The recommendation introduces "a reference level 

for consideration of remedial action" (not to be used for the purpose of legal regulation) 

for existing housing and a "design level" for future housing. The levels, in terms of 

effective dose equivalent, are 20 Sv/ycar for existing homes and ten Sv/year for future 

homes. In terms of radon gas concentration, the levels are 400 Bq/m3 for existing homes 

and 200 Bq/m3 for future homes. 
30 ~ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

As a further preventive measure, an information booklet is under preparation for 

the genera] population on the potential hazards of indoor air pollution and possible 

methods to avoid or reduce it. The Directorate-General III (Internal Market and 

Industrial Affairs) has prepared the important directive 89/106 "on the approximation of 

laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States relating to 

construction products," approved by the Council on December 21, 1988. This directive: 

issued in order to guarantee the free movement of goods, set~ out a framework for 

regulations concerning construction products. The directive requires that such products 

"must be suitable for construction works which (as a whole and in their separate parts) 

... satisfy the ... essential requirements." 

One of these requirements concerns "hygiene, health and environment" and specifies: 

''The construction work must be designed and built in such a way that it will not be a 

threat to the hygiene or health of the occupants or neighbors, in particular as a result of 

any of the following: the giving off of toxic gas; the presence of dangerous particles or 

gases in the air; or the emission of dangerous radiation. 

Limiting the emission of formaldehyde from wood-based materials is presently under 

consideration as a first case to safeguard the above mentioned essential requirement. For 

this scope, CEN (Commitee Europeen de Norma1isation), the organization recognized by 

the directive for the certification of technical specifications, has been charged to validate 

a method for the determination of formaldehyde emissions from wood-based panels which 

previously had been specified by a Working Group of COST Project 613. 

A directive regarding asbestos has been issued by the Commission (87/217/CEE, in 

force since March 19, 1987). Although it makes no explicit reference to indoor air 

pollution, the directive has an indirect impact on indoor air quality. The directive 

introduces measures to prevent and reduce air and other environmental poBution by 

asbestos, and specifies rules to be observed during removal of asbestos containing 

materials from buildings. 

The Directorate-General V (Employment and Social Affairs) is in charge of 

Community legislation on smoking prevention which is being recognized as the most 

important issue of indoor air pollution. In the framework of the program, "Europe against 

Cancer," the Council of Health Ministers adopted on May 16, 1989 a resolution banning 

smoking in public places, except in clearly defined areas reserved for smokers. A directive 

in a very advanced stage of preparation (approval is expected in the Council meeting of 

November 13, 1989) concerns the labeling of tobacco products with warning messages 

("seriously damages health," "causes cancer," etc.). Two directives are in the discussion 

phase: one concerns the maximum tar yield of cigarettes, the other concerns the 

limitation of advertising by press and posters . 

. The Consumer Protection Service is preparing its first action program. The impact 

of consumer products on indoor air quality is presently under consideration as a subject 

of the program. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 31 

It is interesting to observe that all presently taken or prepared actions follow the 

approach of reducing exposure to indoor pollutants through the reduction or appropriate 

manipulation of the source. This approach, along with appropriate information on the 

population and on selected professional categories, appears the only realistic way of 

reducing exposure of the population to pollutants in indoor air. 

The European Parliament, in October 1988, adopted a resolution on air quality in 

buildings, in which, considering that "more attention should be devoted in Community 

environmental polic.,)' to the problem of the quality of air in indoor environments, 

reiterates the request already made with regard to bans on smoking ... considers ... 

that the Commission should promote further in depth research into the possible causes 

and effects of air pollution inside buildings on human health." Moreover, the resolution 

invites the Commission to prepare a directive on the subject, which should include: 

• 	 A list of substances whose use in construction works and in cleaning 

should be regulated or prohibited; 

• 	 Quality standards to be applied to air in indoor environments; 

• 	 Rules governing the planning, building, management and maintenance of 

air conditioning and ventilation systems; and 

• 	 Minimum rules for the maintenance of buildings open to the public, in 

order to ensure the highest standard of hygiene and cleanliness." 
32 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

Appendix A 


Publications by the Environment Institute of the JRC - lspra 


on Indoor Air Quality 


M. 	 De Bortoli, H. Knappe], L. Mo1have, B. Seifert, D. U11rich: "Inter-laboratory 

Comparison of Passive Samplers for Organic Vapors with Respect to their 

Applicability to Indoor Air PoJlution Monitoring: a Pilot Study." Commission of the 

European Communities, Report EUR 9450, Brussels-Luxembourg 1984. 

M. 	De Bartoli, H. Knoppel, E. Pecchio, A. Peil, L. Rogora, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt, 

and H. Vissers: "Measurements of Indoor Air Quality and Comparison with Ambient 

Air: A Study of 15 Homes in Northern Italy'. Commission of the European 

Communities, Report EUR %56, Brussels, Luxemburg 1985. 

M. 	 De Bartoli, L. Molhave, M.A. Thorsen, D. Ullrich: 'European Inter-laboratory 

Comparison of Passive Samplers for Organic Vapor Monitoring in Indoor Air, 11 

Commission of the European Communities, Report EUR 10487 EN, 

Brussels-Luxemburg 1986. 

M. 	De Bartoli, H. Knoppel, E. Pecchio, A. Peil, L. Rogora, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt , 

and H. Vissers: 'Concentrations of Selected Organic Pollutants in Indoor and 

Outdoor Air in Northern Italy." Environ. Int., 12 (1986) 343 - 350. 

S. 	 Mahajan, G. Pellegrini, M. Shea, R. Colombo, and M. De Bartoli: "Comparison 

between Measured and Model (LBL and BRE) Predicted Infiltration Rates for a 

Passive Solar Test Cell"- Int. J. Solar Energy, 4 (1986) 109 - 120. 

H. Knoppel: "Sampling and Analysis: Chamber and Field Studies"; Chairman's Summary, 

Session V, Symposium on Characterization of Contaminant Emissions from Indoor 

Sources. Atmospheric Environment, 21 (1987) 439 - 442. 

M. Maroni, H. Knoppel, H. Schlitt and 	S. Righetti: "Occupational and Environmental 

Exposure to Pentachlorophenol." Commission of the European Communities Report 

EUR 10795 EN, Brussels, Luxemburg 1987. 

L. Clerici: "Acetaldehyde activation of po1y(AD-ribose)polymerase in hepatocytes of mice 

treated in vivo." In Mutation Research, 227(1989) 47-51. 

H. 	 Schlitt and H. Knoppel: "Carbonyl compounds in mainstream and environmental 

cigarette smoke." In "Present and future of indoor air quality," C.J- Bieva, Y. 

Courtois and M. Govaerts Eds, Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam 1989, 197-206. 

H. Knoppel and H. Schauenburg: "Screening of Household Products for the Emission of 

Volatile Organic Compounds." Presented at 'Indoor Air 1987', Berlin 17 - 21 August 

1987, Environment International 15(1989) in press. 

M. 	Oehme and H. Knoppel: "Analysis of Low Volatile and Particulate Bound Organic 

Indoor Pollutants: Assessment of a Sensitive Method and First Results," ibid. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on L<\Q: Section II 33 

M. 	De Bortoli, H. Knoppel, E. Pecchio, and H. Vissers: "Performance of a Thermally 

Desorbable Diffusion Sampler for Personal and Indoor Air Monitoring," ibid. 

A Colombo, M. De Bartoli, E. Pecchio, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt and H. Vissers: 

"Chamber testing of organic emission from building and furnishing materials," The 

Science of the Total Environment, in press. 

H. 	Knoppel and M. De Bartoli, "Experiences with indoor measurements of organic 

compounds," presented at the Indoor Air Quality International Symposium of the 

American Industrial Hygiene Conference, 21-26 May 1989, St. Louis, uSA. 
34 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section H 

EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES SERVICES 


INVOLVED IN POLICY AND REGULATORY ASPECTS 


OF INDOOR AIR QUALI1Y 


Directorate - General XI: Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection 

Definition and Implementation of preventive measures against Indoor pollution 

from a growing number of substances 

Directorate - General III: Internal Market and Industrial Affairs 

Regulation of hygienic properties of building materials 

Directorate • General V: Employment and Social Affairs 

Legislation on smoking prevention 

Consumer Protection Service 

Preparation of an action program considering the impact of consumer products 

on indoor air quality 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II v 

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES SUPPORTING 


EC ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 


In-house or "Direct" Research 

Joint Research Centre, Ispra 

Other Commission Services 

Contract or Shared-cost Research 

Carried out by Member Countries with financial support of EC Commission 

(Multi-annual Research Action programmes) 

Concerted Actions 

0:>0peration of member States without financial support of research costs 

(Other European OECD countries may participate) 
36 NATO CCMS Pilot S1udy on IAQ: Sec1ion II 

COST 


•Cost projects facilitate work that goes beyond the resources of 

individual partners. 

• The majority of COST projects operate without any joint funding. 

• Most COST projects are designed to promote basic applied scientific 

and technical research in the following areas: 

1. Informatics 

2. Telecommunications 

3. Transport 

4. Oceanography 

5. Metallurgy and Materials Science 

6. Environmental Protection 

7. Meteorology 

8. Agriculture 

9. Food Technology 

10. Social Technology 

11. Medical Research 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section II 37 

COST STRUCTURES 

• 	 Committee of Senior Officials (CSO) 

(Permanent body of representatives of 19 States and EC) 

• 	 Committees to prepare COST projects 

- Working Party on Legal, Administrative and Technical 

Questions (Representatives of all interested parties) 

-	 Ad hoc Working Parties for Special Topics 

(Delegates from States with particular interest and EC) 

• 	 Committee for the implementation of COST projects 

- Concertation Committees 

- Management Committees 

• 	 COST Secretariat 
38 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on JAQ: Section II 

COST 613 

Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man 

Category A Type cooperation: 

The subject is part of the Community program 

The secretariat is provided by the EC Commission 

Non-Community COST states contribute the extra cost for their participation 

History: 

Ad hoc working party since 1982 

Concerted Action started in 1987 

Actual Situation: 

As Switzerland and Sweden have joined in, the Concerted Action is now a COSTCommunity action, directed by a Community-COST Concertation Committee (CCCC) 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 39 

COST 613 

Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man 

ACTIVITIES 

The COST project has the aim of promoting the scientific cooperation and the 

exchange of knowledge in the following fields: 

Identification and characterisation of indoor pollutants and sources 

Assessment of exposure and health effects 

Development and validation of methodologies 

The program is implemented through the following activities: 

Establishment of working group 

Publication of reports on issues of major concern 

Organization of scientific symposia and workshops 

Liaison with other international organizations (WHO, NATO/CCMS) 
40 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II 

COST 613 

Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man 

EXISTING WORKING GROUPS 

• Strategies for indoor measurements (final draft) 

• "Sick Building Syndrome" - A practical guide (final draft) 

• Biological effects in man related to indoor air pollution (preliminary draft) 

• Determination of formaldehyde emissions in test chambers (interJaboratory test) 

• Determination of biological pollutants (work started) 

• Guideline on ventilation requirements (work started) 
Section III 


Controlling IAQ - The NonRegulatory Approach 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 41 

Robert Axelrad 

Director, Indoor Air Division 

US Environmental Protection Agency 

Introduction 

In 1970, when the Clean Air Act was passed to address the problems of urbanization, 

industrial development, and the increasing use of automobiles, the Act was interpreted as 

applying only to the air external to structures. As a result, most Federal programs 

concerned with reducing exposure in enclosed spaces (for example, residences, public or 

commercial buildings, or transportation vehicles) have singled out only a handful of 

individual pollutants for action or control under various Federal statutes. To date, no 

comprehensive legislation to address many of the issues raised by indoor air pollution has 

been enacted. 

In the early 1970s, formaldehyde was identified by the Consumer Product Safety 

Commission (CPSC) as the source of acute irritant reactions and a cancer hazard in 

individuals whose homes were insulated with urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) 

or constructed of large amounts of particleboard and/or plywood. Programs to address 

another major indoor air pollutant -- asbestos -- have been in operation for some time 

and two major laws have been enacted by Congress to provide (1) loans and grants to 

schools with severe asbestos hazards and financial need, and (2) a regulatory framework 

for asbestos control in schools. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, concern over naturally 

occurring radon began to rise and in 1984, when extremely high levels of radon were 

found in homes in the Reading Prong geological formation in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 

and New York, radon became a major indoor air pollution program. 

In the early 1980s, however, EPA's research program, using the total exposure 

assessment methodology, began to demonstrate that for many people, indoor exposures 

to pollutants were significantly greater than exposures ·from outdoor, or ambient, sources. 

In addition, studies of a selected number of pollutants in ten buildings demonstrated that 

for many pollutants, indoor levels were often higher than outdoor levels. Coupled with 

the extremely high percentage of time spent indoors (approximately 90 percent for most 

people), concern began to grow that indoor air pollution may pose higher risks to the 

population than previously thought. 

In 1984, Congress began appropriating approximately $2 million a year for EPA to 

conduct indoor air research. However, considerable debate and uncertainty continued 

among the various Federal agencies over the appropriate government role in the indoor 

air arena. 
42 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

In 1986, following years of increasing concern over the potential risks to human 

health from pollutants in indoor environments, Congress enacted Title IV of the Superfund 

Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) to establish an effective research effort 

aimed at characterizing the extent of the indoor air pollution problem and to begin to 

take steps to enhance the quality of the indoor air. Title IV (the Radon Gas and Indoor 

Air Quality Research Act) gave EPA clear authority for the first time to begin to address 

IAQ problems on a more comprehensive basis. Title IV directs EPA to: 

• 	 Conduct research on all facets of the IAQ issue; 

• 	 Disseminate information on IAQ problems and solutions; 

• 	 Establish two advisory committees to assist EPA in carrying out the 

mandate of Title IV; and 

• 	 Submit two reports to Congress describing, in the first report, EPA's 

plans for implementing Title IV, and, in the second report, the 

activities carried out under Title TV and whatever recommendations 

the Agency deems appropriate. 

In June 1987, EPA submitted to Congress the EPA Indoor Air Quality 

Implementation Plan, describing the Agency's plans for fulfilling the mandate of SARA 

Title IV. In the report, EPA descnbed two overall goals in addressing TAO problems: to 

adequately characterize and understand the risks to human health which pollutants pose 

in indoor environments, and to reduce these risks by reducing exposure to indoor 

pollutants. The Agency said that it would pursue the two goals through the 

implementation of three policy objectives: 

1. 	 The Agency will conduct research and analyses to further refine its 

assessment of the nature and magnitude of the health and welfare 

problems posed by individual air pollutants as well as by poJlutant 

mixtures indoors. 

2. 	 The Agency will identify and assess the full range of mitigation 

strategies available to address high priority indoor air problems. 

3. 	 For identified high risk, high priority problems, the Agency will 

adopt and execute appropriate mitigation strategies. These strategies 

may involve one or more of the following: 

• 	 Issuing regulations under existing regulatory authorities (e.g. Toxic 

Substances Control Act (TSCA), FIFRA, or the Safe Drinking 

Water Act); 

• 	 Building state, local government, and private sector capability to 

address TAO problems through non-regulatory programs of 

information dissemination, technical assistance, guidance, and 

training; 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section lII 43 

• 	 Referring problems to other ·Federal agencies with appropriate 

statutory authority (e.g. CPSC and the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development); and 

• 	 Requesting separate indoor air regulatory authority from Congress 

if deemed necessary. 

In 1988 and in 1989, legislation was introduced in both houses of Congress that 

would dramatically expand the Federal government's role in carrying out research and 

providing technical assistance and information dissemination programs on indoor air 

quality. 

How 	Indoor Air is Organized at EPA\ 

Many different EPA offices have played and will continue to play significant roles 

as EPA continues to develop an effective response to indoor air issues. In part due to 

varying statutory mandates and separate development tracks, EPA's various indoor air 

activities continue to be decentralized. ~Aajor indoor air related activities occur in four 

separate Assistant Administratorships. Radon policy is developed and carried out by the 

Office of Radiation Programs in the Office of Air and Radiation. Research activities are 

conducted by a number of laboratories within EPA's Office of Research and 

Development. Asbestos regulatory and grant assistance programs are administered by the 

Assistant Administrator for Pesticides and Toxic Substances, as are regulatory activities 

related to indoor exposures to pesticides and other chemicals. The Office of Drinking 

Water has responsibility for indoor air pollution sources originating with the water supply. 

In early 1986, the Office of Air and Radiation established a small, three-person IAQ 

staff to begin to identify and fill the gaps in the Agency's response to human exposures 

to air pollutants indoors and to provide policy direction in the implementation of SARA 

Title IV. Since 1986, additional staff and financial resources have been allocated to 

indoor air issues and in September 1988, the indoor air staff was elevated to division 

status as part of an office-wide reorganization. The Indoor Air Division is currently 

comprised of 11 full-time employees, with an extramural contract budget of $1.37 million. 

The Division's functions include the following: 

• 	 Evaluate various policy options and develop a national IAQ policy and 

program; 

• 	 Assist in setting the research agenda to ensure that the research that is 

conducted is policy-relevant; 

• 	 Coordinate the IAQ activities of the various EPA program offices and 

stay abreast of other Federal, state, and local agencies, as well as private 

sector activities addressing various facets of the IAQ problem; and 

• 	 Develop and disseminate information to the general public, building 

owners and managers, architects, health care professionals, state and local 
44 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Ill 

government agencies, industry, the public interest community, and other 

interested groups. 

Indoor Air Program Elements 

Over time, the indoor air program will address all of the factors affecting air quality 

in alJ indoor environments. The program is currently comprised of five major elements: 

• 	 Policy Development -- Studies and analyses to characterize the nature and 

extent of IAQ problems and lead to the integration of information into 

clear cut policy options; 

• 	 Buildings Program -- The development of building-related information 

and implementation programs for key building management audiences to 

encourage prevention, diagnosis, and mitigation of IAQ problems; 

• 	 Pollutant/Source Program -- Activities to identify and characterize specific 

indoor air pollution sources and pollutants, and to devise strategies for 

their control; 

• 	 lntergovemmental Programs -- Activities designed to ensure that indoor air 

activities are coordinated at all JeveJs of government and that specific 

program components are designed to enhance the capabilities of other 

FederaJ agencies and state and local governments; and 

• 	 Public Information Program -- Activities to communicate information on 

indoor air pollution risks and remedies to the public. 

Policy Development 

Report to Congress 

Among other requirements, EPA was specifically required under Section 403( e) of 

Superfund to submit a- Report to Congress describing the activities carried out under 

SARA Title IV and make recommendations as appropriate. In August 1989, the Agency 

submitted its Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality and concluded: "sufficient 

evidence exists to conclude that indoor air pollution represents a major portion of the 

public's exposure to air pollution and may pose serious acute and chronic health risks. 

This evidence warrants an expanded effort to characterize and mitigate this exposure." 

There are three volumes of the report: 

• 	 Volume I -- Federal Programs Addressing Indoor Air Quality 

• 	 Volume II -- Assessment and Control of Indoor Air Pollution 

• 	 Volume III -- Indoor Air Pollution Research Needs Statement 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 45 

The report reached a number of conclusions and made several recommendations. 

However, the report also indicated that indoor air research and policy programs have not 

yet sufficiently characterized IAQ problems and solutions to be able to determine whether 

additional regulatory approaches to IAQ problems are needed. Nevertheless, EPA made 

a number of recommendations intended to develop the necessary information to make 

such determinations: 

1. 	 Research to better characterize exposure and health effects of chemical contaminants 

and pollutant mixtures commonly found indoors should be significantly expanded. 

Although EPA is beginning to devote greater attentioff to characterizing non-cancer 

health effects from various exposure routes, information on exposure in homes and 

buildings is limited to a very few pollutants and groups of pollutants. In addition, 

virtually nothing is known about cancer and non-cancer health effects caused by 

low-level respiratory exposures to multiple chemical contaminants. An expanded 

research program in this field is needed to help characterize causes of and solutions 

to the "sick building syndrome" and to investigate emerging health issues, such as 

multiple chemical sensitivity. 

2. 	 A research program to characterize and develop mitigation strategies for biological 

contaminants in indoor air should be developed. 

EP A's historical experience in addressing environmental hazards has predominantly 

focused on chemical contaminants. However, biological contaminants in indoor air 

are predominantly responsible for known building-related illnesses, which include 

Legionnaires disease and hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and have been increasingly 

associated with poor hygienic and maintenance practices in buildings. While both 

the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the CPSC 

have active research undeiway, the lack of EPA participation limits the scope and 

magnitude of the effort. 

3. 	 Research to identify and characterize significant indoor air pollution sources and to 

evaluate appropriate mitigation strategies should be significantly expanded. 

Source control is the most effective control option when major sources can be 

identified and characterized, and it may be the only viable option in some situations. 

However, significant resources must be devoted to identifying and characterizing 

sources to enable EPA and other Federal agencies to take appropriate control 

actions under existing authorities or to advise the public of the health risks from 

specific sources as well as actions the public can take to reduce risk. Furthermore, 

research into innovative control technologies and evaluation of technologies 

developed by the private sector, including air cleaning technologies, should be 

significantly enhanced. 

4. 	 A program is needed to develop and promote, in conjunction with appropriate 

private sector organizations, guidelines covering ventilation, as well as other building 
46 -:-:IATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: 

S. 

6. 

Section 1Il 

design, operation, and maintenance practices for ensuring that IAQ is protective of 

public health. 

An effective nationa] program to control indoor air pollution will require the 

application of generic strategies involving provisions for adequate ventilation, and 

provisions to avoid problems through proper building design, operation, and 

maintenance. This approach, combined with programs targeted to specific individual 

high risk sources and pollutants would provide a comprehensive, but feasible and 

cost-effective control strategy. In our view, a pollutant-by-pollutant approach 

encompassing target levels for individual pollutants would not resolve the bulk of 

IAQ problems. 

A program of technical assistance, and infonnation dissemination, similar in scope 

to the Agency's radon program, is needed to infonn the public about risks and 

mitigation strategies, and to assist state and local governments and the private 

sector in solving IAQ problems. Such a program should include an IAQ 

clearinghouse. 

While EPA has joined the ongoing Federal and private sector efforts to disseminate 

information on indoor air quality, as our experience with radon has demonstrated, 

a program is needed that can keep pace with the needs of state and local 

governments, architects, building owners and managers, researchers, the medical and 

health communities, building occupants, and others who are seeking reliable technical 

and non-technical information. A program to transfer knowledge and develop 

capabilities in the public and private sectors would include a variety of technical 

assistance and information dissemination activities comparable to those developed to 

address the radon problem. An indoor air information clearinghouse is needed to 

enhance coordination and access to such information. 

The Federal government should undertake an effort to characterize the nature and 

pervasiveness of the health impacts associated with IAQ problems in commercial 

and public buildings, schools, health care facilities, and residences, and develop and 

promote recommended guidelines for diagnosing and controlling such problems. 

The available literature suggests that IAQ problems are pervasive in a wide spectrum 

of buildings, but the prevalence of such problems, the nature of their sources, and 

the amount of human exposure attributable to these sources are virtually unknown. 

However, an increasing number of complaints are being registered to government 

agencies, and a growing number of private sector firms are attempting to respond 

to a rapidly emerging market for diagnostic and mitigation services. A major study 

is needed to determine the scope and character of such problems, and to develop 

recommendations to guide and control the quality of diagnostic and mitigation 

services in the private sector. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 4 7 

Pending Legislation 

Two bills, S. 657 and H.R. 1530, were introduced during the 1st Session of the lOlst 

Congress which, if enacted, would expand Federal IAQ programs. Initially identical in 

language, at this writing the Senate version has been substantially modified to correct a 

number of problems with the bill identified by a variety of individuals and organizations. 

It is anticipated that many, if not all, of the changes in the Senate version may also be 

adopted in the House version. At this time, the key provisions of the Senate bill include: 

• 	 No new regulatory authority; 

• 	 Authorizations of $48.5 mil1ion per year for five years; 

• 	 Expansion of indoor air research and requirements for special studies on 


exposure assessment and characterization of IAQ problems in schools and 


child care facilities; 


• 	 Development and promotion of building technology management practices, 


including a new emphasis on ventilation needs; 


• 	 Development of a list of contaminants "...which are known to occur (or 


which are expected to occur) in indoor air at levels which may reasonably 


be expected to have an adverse impact on human health." The initial list 


must include 11 specific pollutants for which EPA must develop health 


advisories within three years: benzene, biological contaminants, carbon 


monoxide, environmental tobacco smoke, formaldehyde, lead, methylene 


chloride, nitrogen oxide, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic 


hydrocarbons (P AHs ), and radon. 


• 	 Preparation of a National Response Plan, integrating actions to be taken 


by the Federal government under its various statutory authorities to 


address IAQ risks; 


• 	 A Federal Building Response Plan and Demonstration Program; 

• 	 A major state grant program to provide assistance to states for IAQ 


assessment and mitigation programs; 


• 	 A national IAQ information clearinghouse; and 

• 	 Expanded roles for a number of other Federal agencies, including NIOSH 


and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 

48 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

Other Policy Development Activities 

In Fiscal Year 1990, the indoor air program will pursue a number of other policy 

development initiatives, including: 

• 	 Initiation of a process to establish a consensus-based system for 

credentialing private sector IAQ diagnostic and mitigation firms; 

• 	 Initiation of an assessment of multiple chemical sensitivity issues to 

determine what is currently known, and what research needs to be done 

to address indoor air issues relevant to sensitive individuals and 

populations (this assessment will be used to develop a long-range research 

and analysis agenda); and 

• 	 A training needs analysis to aid in the dev~lopment of a comprehensive, 

long-range IAQ training plan. 

Buildings Program 

Development of targeted guidance programs, information dissemination, and training 

tailored to building owners and managers, design engineers, and architects and covering 

public and commercial buildings, schools, and residential structures is a high priority. A 

number of guidance documents are in development: 

• 	 Information to be used by architects, developers, and engineers in the 

design and construction of new buildings, including a technical manual on 

preventing problems in commercial structures as well as a new home 

construction guide geared specifically to builders; 

• 	 Information for huilding owners and managers designed to be used in an 

assessment program to identify and correct potential problems in existing 

buildings before complaints begin; and 

• 	 Information for building owners and managers on how to manage an 

existing building-related IAQ problem, including components on 

conducting a building investigation, employee relations, use of contractors, 

and mitigation techniques. 

Another high priority need is for the development of baseline data on the scope of 

the indoor air problem nationwide and of appropriate guidelines for conducting building 

investigations. An effort to develop such guidelines and protocols is expected to get 

underway in -i 990. 

Pollutant/Source Program 

Initially, the pollutant/source program focused on the risks associated with 

environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), a known carcinogen and the largest source of 
NATO CC.MS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section lll 49 

particles and mutagens indoors where smoking is permitted. This past year, the Indoor 

Air Division wrote and distributed a fact sheet on environmental tobacco smoke, 

describing the current state of knowledge about health effects and mitigation. A number 

of other significant projects are underway: 

• 	 Preparation, in cooperation with EPA's Office of Research and 

Development (ORD), of a lung cancer and respiratory disease risk 

assessment of environmental tobacco smoke; 

• 	 Development, in cooperation with the Department of Health and Human 

Services (DHHS), of a policy-makers' guide to mitigation of ETS 

exposure; and 

• 	 Publication of a compendium of technical information on the 

environmental tobacco smoke issue. 

The indoor air program is actively involved in a number of Agency working groups 

that focus on other indoor pollutants for which primary responsibility is located elsewhere 

in the Agency, including radon, asbestos, formaldehyde, chlorinated solvents, and 

pesticides. 

Intergovernmental Program 

Federal Coordination 

A number of Federal agencies are involved in IAQ issues and participate with EPA 

on the interagen(,-y Committee on Indoor Air Quality (CIAQ). As one of four co-chairs 

of the CIAQ, EPA provides staff and funding support for the CIAQ and prepares a yearly 

compendium of Current Federal Indoor Air Quality Activities. 

The Consumer Product Safety Act and the Federal Hazardous Substance Act 

provide the CPSC with regulatory authority over consumer products that may contribute 

to indoor air pollution. Since many of the sources of indoor air pollution are consumer 

products (e.g. household chemicals), CPSC plays a significant role in addressing indoor air 

pollution. 

The Department of Energy (DOE) has played a major role in IAQ since the 1970s. 

The two primary DOE policy goals concerning indoor air quality are: 1) eliminating 

potential hazards to the public and the environment from radioactive contamination 

remaining at facilities and sites previously used in the nation's atomic energy programs; 

and 2) developing information to ensure the maintenance of healthful indoor environments 

with continuing use of energy conservation measures in buildings. DOE's IAQ interests 

are focused on research and development, the DOE Remedial Action Program, health risk 

assessment, and participation in the CIAQ. A significant portion of DOE's efforts in 

indoor air arc related to radon exposure and health effects research. 
50 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

The Department of Health and Human Services is a major contributor to the 

identification and reso]ution of IAQ problems through several of its organizational 

components. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health serves as the 

DHHS co-chair of the CIAQ and is the primary agency of the Federal government with 

extensive experience in conducting building investigations. Since 1971, NIOSH has 

conducted approximately 550 IAQ investigations under its Health Hazard Evaluation 

Program. 

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration is charged under the 

Occupational Safety and Health Act with protecting the health of workers in the 

workplace. Recent interest in IAQ in non-industrial settings has prompted OSHA to 

begin development of guidance for its inspectors on identifying non-industrial IAQ 

problems. 

The General Services Administration is involved in a variety of IAQ activities re]ated 

to its responsibilities to manage a significant portion of Federal buildings. 

State and Local Governments 

EPA recognizes state and local governments as the cornerstone of a long range 

strategy to control IAQ problems. Many state and local governments currently address 

IAQ concerns through restrictions on smoking in public places, ventilation requirements 

in building codes, asbestos inspection and abatement programs, po11utant concentration 

and emission standards, prob]em building evaluations, and research and public information 

dissemination activities. 

However, most states currently do not have a comprehensive strategy for addressing 

indoor air problems. A fundamental component of EP A's long range strategy is to 

provide technical assistance to states to imp1ement comprehensive indoor air programs. 

Technical assistance will be provided on substantive levels through the provision of 

training and technology transfer as well as assisting states in organizing effective indoor air 

programs. 

Development of model state programs during the next two to three years is a high 

priority. A limited number of state pilot grants for IAQ assessment activities wil1 be made 

available during this period. Ultimately, the availability of grant assistance for the 

development of state IAQ assessment and response programs will be essential in the 

development of a strong and independently funded set of state programs necessary to limit 

the long-term Federal role in indoor air quality. 

International 

Internationally, EPA is involved as co-chair of a three year international pilot study 

on IAQ under the auspices of NATO's Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society 

(NATO/CCMS). Proposed and led by Italy, the outputs from this study will include a 

series of proceedings from the bi-annual meetings, an inventory of risk management 

activities in the NATO countries and integration of US research activities into the 

European Communities' existing database on IAQ research. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 51 

Public Information Program 

A<; a predominantly non-regulatory program, developing and disseminating both 

technica1 and non-technical information is the fundamental core of the program. In 

addition to providing guidance of a technical nature to audiences such as building owners 

and managers, state and local governments, physicians and other health care providers, 

there is a need to communicate with the general public about IAQ risks and risk 

reduction strategics. 

In 1988, the program published and disseminated ''The Inside Story -- A Guide to 

Indoor Air Quality," which was produced jointly with the Consumer Product Safety 

Commission. Through the Public Health Foundation, a Directory of State Indoor Air 

Contacts has also been developed and distributed. ln addition, EPA has published a 

series of fact sheet~ on various IAQ topics (e.g., "Environmental Tohacco Smoke" and 

"Ventilation and Air Quality in Offices"). 

The indoor air program is continuing to develop puhlic information materials on a 

variety of topics. A recently published report of a survey of private sector IAQ diagnostic 

and mitigation firms contains 1istings of more than 1,200 firms which responded to the 

survey and which can be used as a directory to assist the public in obt<"lining IAQ services. 

Projects currently underway include: 

o 	 P1anning for an IAQ information clearinghouse, the objective of which is 


to serve a<; a repository for technical and non-technical information on 


IAQ issues which will be accessible to the scientific community) all levels 


of government, private sector groups, and the public; 


• 	 Production of a videotape version of "The Inside Story -- A Guide to 


Indoor Air Quality; and 


• 	 Publication of a summary of available information on residentia1 air 


cleaning devices. 


Summary 

Although IAQ has not been the focus of major legislative and agency initiatives until 

recently, a significant body of scientific evidence indicates that indoor air pollution poses 

considerable risks to public health. Currently decentralized in its organization, EPA is 

developing an effective program to develop and disseminate information on a broad range 

of indoor air issues and to begin to study and analyze some of the most difficult long term 

policy questions. An expanded public and private sector effort to characterize IAQ 

problems and to evaluate, recommend, and implement risk management strategies is 

needed. 
52 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 53 

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54 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 55 

The Non ..Regulatory Approach to 

Reducing Risks from Radon 

~~}Jg,~M:~~o:::xrs:\:•:::U'..:'•t/:;:·r::X)W?ki~ff:YV:&·:ni:tN#?EWtfiWb'f:?:::b'#: 

Lawrence Pratt 

Radon Division 

US Environmental Protection Agency 

Radon is believed to be the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United 

States, causing an estimated 20,000 deaths each year. USEPA's senior scientists have 

ranked radon as the top environmental health problem facing the nation. Many leading 

health and scientific organizations, including the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and 

the U.S. Public Health Service, share this perspective. Estimates of the health risk from 

radon exposure are based on strong human and animal data, including studies of 

thousands of underground miners. At this time, the United States government has 

undertaken an entirely non-regulatory approach to reducing radon risk to the population. 

Although radon has been regulated in underground mines in the U.S. since the 

1950's, residential radon exposure was not believed to be a problem. In the late 1960's, 

several houses in Grand Junction, Colorado were discovered to have highly elevated radon 

levels because of the materials used in their construction. The foundations had been 

made with mill tailings from a nearby uranium mine. At about the same time, several 

houses with elevated radon levels were discovered in Florida. The source was traced back 

to reclaimed phosphate lands, again a "man-made" source. Even after these discoveries, 

elevated indoor radon was believed to be a purely "man-made" phenomenon. 

This belief changed radically in 1985, when a nuclear power plant worker named 

Stanley Watras began triggering the plant's radiation safety alarms on his way home from 

work each day. The plant managers were puzzled since Mr. Watras' job did not bring 

him into contact with any radioactive material. They decided to pass him through the 

radiation detectors on his way in to work. He again triggered the alarms. After further 

investigation by the State of Pennsylvania, it was determined that the worker's radiation 

exposure source was in his home. The source was narrowed to radon gas, exposing the 

worker and his family to over 10 working levels. 

News of this discovery set off a local panic in areas near the "Reading Prong", as the 

large geological formation where Watras' house is located is known. Several Federal 

agencies, State governments, universities and private organizations became curious as to 

whether elevated radon levels were isolated to this part of the country. As EPA worked 

with other States, EP A's concerns about the scope and severity of the problem were 

confirmed. Data collected through radon surveys, conducted jointly by EPA and 25 States 

to date, have shown that radon is a widespread national health problem, affecting millions 

of homes nationwide. 
56 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

Elevated radon levels have been found in every State tested thus far. We estimate 

that about eight million or 10 percent of the nation's homes could have annual average 

radon concentrations above EPA's current action guideline of 4 pCi/L. 

Based on this information, the U.S. government has recommended that all homes 

below the third floor of a huilding he tested for radon, and elevated levels lowered. At 

the time this recommendation was made, citizens were directed to follow our previously 

established guideline or "action level" of 4 pCi/1. Selection of 4 pCi/1, in 1986, was not a 

risk-based decision, but rather a decision based on the ability of the current radon 

reduction technology. At that time, radon mitigation technology was still fairly new, and 

the best available technology could only guarantee results down to 4 pCi/1. In spite of 

pressure to be consistent with acceptable risk levels in other EPA programs, we did not 

feel that it was appropriate to establish a more protective action level at that time. 

EPA's Radon Action Program 

The U.S. EPA established its Radon Action Program in 1985 as a non-regulatory 

program. A small program was established to undertake a variety of activities designed 

to assess the extent of radon risk nationwide, and develop reliable techniques to measure 

radon and mitigate elevated levels. 

EPA believes that radon risk reduction is best achieved by a concerted effort of 

Federal and State expertise and resources. A~ with many government programs in the 

U.S., particularly environmental programs, national level programs are frequently designed 

to support State efforts. The USEP A felt this approach would be the most appropriate 

for radon risk reduction as well. Different States have drastically different radon 

characteristics and needs, and it was believed that the State governments were in the best 

position to act appropriately for their citizens. The current USEPA radon program sti11 

works within this framework. 

Two important pieces of legislation have charted our course and greatly expanded 

our involvement in reducing radon risk. First, the Radon Gas and Indoor Air Quality 

Research Act of 1986 (Title IV of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 

of 1986, P.L 99-499) confirmed EPA's direction in surveying, research and technology. 

And then, in October 1988, the Indoor Radon Abatement Act (P.L 100-551) directed 

EPA to undertake a broad range of activities to achieve the National goal of making 

indoor air as free from radon as outdoor air. 

The goal of our program was and continues to be to reduce the public health risks 

of radon by 1) forming partnerships with the States and other Federal Agencies, 2) by 

informing and educating the public, and 3) by developing the technical capabilities of the 

States and private sector. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 57 

State Partnerships 

Our initial success in this program is due in large part to the strong partnerships we 

developed with the States where radon was first identified as a problem. Early in the 

program we recognized that reducing radon risk would require the efforts of Federal and 

State government. The basis for this approach is that certain types of activities, such as 

research and technical studies, are best done by the Federal government. Other activities, 

such as providing day to day advice to the public and detailed analyses of local situations 

are best handled by State and local agencies because of their proximity to the problem. 

In addition, we have found that State governments play the key role in motivating the 

public to act. 

EPA has traditionally provided a broad range of technical assistance to States. This 

includes assistance in assessing radon potential in the State, designing effective radon 

programs including public information strategies, and providing the technical training and 

assistance needed by State officials and the fledgling radon industry to meet the needs of 

the public. 

We have continued to strengthen our partnerships with States in a number of ways. 

State Grants 

The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988 gave EPA its first authority to make 

grants for the purpose of establishing and enhancing radon programs at the State level. 

48 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Virgin Islands have asked 

for, and will receive, grant assistance. Our goal with this grant program is to develop 

continuing capabilities at the State level to respond to the informational and technical 

needs of the public. 

We have designed a program which a11ows the States a great deal of flexibility in 

choosing the activities that are most appropriate for their States needs. Grant funds will 

be used for a wide variety of activities, including: developing State radon strategies, 

strengthening State technical capabilities in surveying, measurement and problem 

mitigation; providing support for the development of State certification programs for radon 

measurement and mitigation firms; and, establishing public information programs targeted 

at the State level to supplement Federal efforts. EPA has also made funds available to 

several States to develop innovative approaches to radon reduction. These projects 

include: a project to demonstrate cost-effective radon reduction techniques in low income 

housing, a pilot nationwide radon teleconference, and a project to develop radon 

curriculum for junior high and high school science classes. 

Other State Activities 

In addition to these grant-related activities, we have also undertaken a number of 

other activities to assist our State partners, including the development of a national radon 

database, design of model State radon programs, and presentation of specialized radon 

courses for State public and private sector audiences. 
58 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

Public Information and Education 

Over the past few years, the public's awareness of the problems caused by radon has 

increased. Our goal is to assist States in educating the public about radon risk and the 

need for action. EP A's approach has been to develop the highest quality informational 

material to distribute to the public. 

These materials are designed to ensure that the public has complete and accurate 

information for making radon risk decisions. Studies of our materials consistently show 

them to be effective, informative documents. However, we now believe that the primary 

result of our public information efforts to date has been an increase in public awareness 

without a corresponding increase in appropriate and effective actions to reduce radon 

risks. Even with this increased radon awareness, we are concerned that only about 3% 

of the homes in the United States have been tested. Prior to 1988, approximately 600,000 

homes had been tested for radon. Following the government recommendation in 

September of 1988 that most homes be tested, an estimated 1.2 million additional homes 

were tested. However, nearly 80 mi11ion U.S. homes still need to be tested. 

In response to the severity of the national radon problem, and the evidence of 

limited public action, we began working to identify ways to better motivate the public to 

take action. As a result, we began shifting the emphasis of our public outreach materials 

from a purely informational tone, to a more motivational message. 

We hope to expand our public information and education efforts in the future, and 

to find even better ways to increase public action. This challenge has led us to undertake 

a number of activities designed to better motivate the public to test for radon and 

remediate elevated levels. We are exploring ways to streamline our guidelines to make 

risk reduction simpler and more efficient. We have embarked on a national media 

campaign to motivate public action. And, we are developing strong relationships with a 

number of national organizations which have common interests in radon protection. I will 

discuss some our major activities in these areas. 

Citizen's Guide 

The Indoor Radon Abatement Act directs us to revise our principal radon policy 

document, "A Citizen's Guide to Radon." The original "Citizen's Guide" was designed as 

an informational document to distribute to concerned citizens through State and Federal 

agencies. Recognizing the mounting evidence of the severity of the radon problem, the 

Congress directed EPA to update and revise the guidance contained in the document. 

For this revision, we are incorporating what we have learned over the past 4 years 

from the public, the States, and from risk communication research which clearly shows 

that people are more likely to take effective action to reduce their radon risks if our 

instructions provide clear and simple directions for action. We are currently exploring 

ways to streamline our testing and mitigation guidance while still ensuring a high level of 

technical validity and responsibility. Specifically, we are examining the use of short-term 

measurements (those Jess than 90 days) as decision making tools. 
l\ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 59 

Advertising Council 

We are currently working with the Advertising Council on a national advertising 

campaign to encourage radon testing. The goal of the campaign is to increase public 

awareness of radon problems and motivate public action. The campaign began in October 

of 1989 with television, radio, and print media advertising in 33 States. Included in this 

program is a nationwide telephone hotline for the public to call to receive free radon test 

information. The Public Service Campaign has been well received across the country. 

For example, most television stations in the target areas are airing the television ad. 

While we are still in the initial stages of this effort, it is clear that this campaign is 

having an effect. The hotline is currently receiving over 2,000 calls per week. We expect 

this response to increase as the television, radio, and billboard advertising efforts expand. 

National Organb:ations 

We are also working with a number of national organizations to better reach the 

public. The American Lung Association is currently designing public information 

programs and media campaigns at the State and local level. For the past three years, 

EPA has been working with the American Medical Association (AMA) to educate health 

professionals about the effects of radon so that they can become community leaders in 

reducing radon risk. These activities include: radon seminars, designed specifically for 

health professionals, in 14 States; design and distribution of radon related materials for 

newsletters and other publications; and, a radon brochure especially designed to explain 

radon issues to physicians. We are also a member of a radon and real estate working 

group in conjunction with the National Association of Home Builders, and the National 

Association of Realtors to develop information and guidance for handling radon issues in 

real estate transactions. 

Capability Development 

The third major area of our program is the development of the technical capabilities 

of the States and the private sector. Our goal is to ensure that the public has access to 

reliable radon measurement and mitigation services, and that there are knowledgeable and 

informed State and local officials to assist them in reducing their risk. 

When EPA initiated its radon program, there was only limited experience in radon 

measurement and mitigation. The first States to address radon problems turned to EPA 

for assistance in assessing the extent of the radon problem, for reliable inexpensive ways 

to test for radon, and techniques for reducing elevated levels. 

This program area has been the cornerstone of EPA's radon program. EPA has 

been a leader in radon technology, including: the development and evaluation of 

measurement technology; research, design, testing and demonstration of radon mitigation 

.. 
60 KATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

techniques; educating public and private sector technical personnel; and in ensuring the 

proficiency and reliability of private sector measurement and mitigation firms. 

We are currently involved in a number of technical activities. For example, we are 

working with States to assess the extent of the radon problem at the State and national 

level. We are also continuing our research devoted to developing and demonstrating 

effective radon mitigation techniques. In response to the new national goal of ma.Icing 

indoor air as free from radon as outdoor air, recent work has emphasized the 

development of techniques to reduce radon levels below 4 pCi/L. Other activities include 

developing and teaching reliable techniques for reducing elevated radon levels in existing 

homes and preventing radon entry into new homes and researching and demonstrating 

techniques for protecting school children, teachers and staff from elevated radon levels in 

their schools. 

One of our highest priorities is the development of mode] standards for radon 

resistant new constmction. We have recently completed an interim version of these 

standards which we expect to publish this summer. We are now worlcing with the various 

building code organizations to speed adoption of these standards into State and local 

building codes. Adoption of these techniques is essential to ensure that millions of new 

homes are resistant to radon entry, and can be readiJy adapted to achieve even lower 

levels. 

Proficiency Programs 

EPA is now administering two proficiency programs, the Radon Measurement 

Proficiency (RMP) program, and the Radon Contractor Proficiency (RCP) program. The 

RMP is a voluntary program established in 1986, to improve State and consumer 

confidence in the radon testing industry. The RCP program, established in 1989, performs 

a similar function for the radon mitigation industry. Specifically, the programs are 

designed to assure homeowners that they can obtain reliable radon measurementc;, and 

receive quality mitigation services. The RMP program has focused on establishing 

minimum performance requirements for the industry and for test devices, and on 

promoting consistency and quality assurance by all measurement firms. The RCP 

emphasizes understanding radon behavior in structures, and tests participants knowledge 

of diagnostic and mitigation techniques. 

Under both of these programs, we distribute performance results to State 

governments to respond to public inquiries about reliable testing and mitigation services. 

The RCP currently lists over 600 successful participants. The RMP, which has been in 

place since 1986, had almost 5,000 participants in 1989. 

Conclusion 

Some of the key points for the future of the USEP A Radon Action Program are 

listed below. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 61 

Although the Federal role is important, radon is not just a Federal issue. State 

radon programs play a vital role in determining which activities are most appropriate for 

each State, and for assisting the public in reducing radon risk. Our program will continue 

to be a non-regulatory program to support State and private sector capabilities. 

Though we have raised public awareness of the radon problem, our future focus will 

be to assist States in translating this raised awareness into meaningful risk reduction. 

We will continue our public outreach strategies attempt to reach even more 

Americans. We believe that large-scale risk reduction is achievable by continuing to find 

new and creative ways to inform and motivate the public. 

We are also working on a number of activities to prevent radon exposure. We will 

continue to develop and promote adoption of radon resistant construction techniques. 

We are exploring ways to provide more radon information at the time of home sales. We 

are also evaluating appropriate Federal response to address radon exposure in public 

buildings and the workplace. 

The key to our program in the future will be to empower the public to reduce radon 

risk. We believe that we have established an effective non-regulatory framework to give 

the public the tools and the confidence to take definitive action to reduce radon risk. 
62 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 
•• 

NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section llI 63 

US Consumer Product Safety 

Commission** 

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Sandra Eberle 

US Consumer Product Safety Commission 

Indoor air quality is an issue that has long been of great importance to the 

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). In the past year, the Commission has 

renewed its commitment and re-energized its program in indoor air quality. This reflects 

to some extent the shift between administrations, and has led to increased Agency 

willingness to take action to ensure the safety of the indoor environment. 

CPSC is an independent regulatory agency; it is not a part of the presidential cabinet, 

nor is it strictly part of the legislative branch, i.e. Congress. The CPSC is headed by 

commissioners, who are appointed by the US President but confirmed by the Senate. 

The CPSC, therefore, consists of a collegial body of political appointees who direct the 

career technical staff. 

The Commission came into existence in 1973 and has been involved since the late 

1970s in the regulation of products that impact indoor air quality. The Commission is 

best known for regulating the safety of toys. The Commission is also responsible for the 

labeling of hazardous products, with the exception of pesticides. Other activities include 

the labeling on household products. The Commission, therefore, has a broad mandate 

and is concerned with everything from the presence of nitrosamines in children's pacifiers 

to preventing children from falling into backyard swimming pools. 

With such a broad mandate and a limited budget, the Commission has found it very 

important to rely on and work with the voluntary standards community. A majority of the 

Commission's activities involve, to some extent, the voluntary standards community, 

including the American National Standards Institute, the American Society for Testing and 

Materials, and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning 

Engineers (ASHRAE). In addition, the Commission sometimes works with other groups 

This anicle was prepared by Ms. Eberle in her capacity as an employee of the Consumer Product 

Safety Commission. For that reason it is not subject to copyright and may be freely reproduced (see 

17 U.S.C. 105). The ideas expressed in this presentation are those of Ms. Eberle and do not reflect 

those of the Consumer Product Safety Commission. 
64 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Ill 

that operate outside the traditional consensus organizations but that follow similar standard 

making procedures ..Many of the standards the commission develops will eventually go to 

the International Standards Organization (ISO) for consideration. 

With regard to indoor air quality, the specific areas that the Commission has been 

working on in the past few years include comhustion appliances, such as kerosene heaters, 

space heaters, wood stoves, and formaldehyde in compressed wood products. The 

Commission was required in 1981 by Congress to consider a voluntary standard whenever 

it is considering regulating a product. In other words, when we as a Commission came 

to the conclusion in 1983 that kerosene heaters presented an unreasonable risk of injury, 

we were required by statute to consider a voluntary standard before we could issue a 

mandatory standard. 

This requirement has meant that the Commission defers mandatory standard setting 

while we work with the voluntary consensus community to see if we can develop an 

adequate voluntary standard. That does not mean that we say, "Go out, form a committee 

and do good things. Then come back to us with what you have developed.'1 \Ve take a 

very active role in this process. We attend meetings, we conduct research, and we conduct 

testing. For example, ·with kerosene heaters, we created a chamber test facility in our own 

laboratories for combustion appliances. We developed a test system for using this 

chamber, validated the system though field studies in homes, and developed what we felt 

was an emissions rate standard based on that chamber testing which would be adequate 

to protect health in the indoor air. The voluntary standard system agreed that the test 

system and the health effects level were adequate but argued that the research-type test 

system was too expensive to be practical. What was needed was a test system that could 

be run relatively cheaply and quickly because the voluntary standards system was going to 

have hundreds of heaters to test and could not employ Ph.D. chemists and engineers to 

run the tests. So, the Commission and the voluntary standards system started to work on 

a new certification test system. 

The research for that new certification test system has taken the Commission three 

years. We think we are almost there. What we have had to do is to develop a hood 

testing method, where instead of having a controlled environmental chamber, there was 

a more open setup. This setup involved putting a hood over the top of the combustion 

appliance and collecting the plume gases inside of the hood. The gases had to be 

well-mixed to ensure that what was being measured was an accurate representation of the 

emissions of the appliance. This effort has taken our chemists and engineers a 

considerable amount of work. They are now correlating the measurements taken with the 

hood with those taken from the sophisticated environmental chamber. Once we get the 

correlation defined between the two emission test systems, we will be able to go forward 

with the voluntary standard based on the health effect level and emission rate. The hood 

system has resulted in a test that can be performed relatively cheaply and quickly, and will 

ensure that the home appliance would not produce levels of nitrogen dioxide and carbon 

monoxide that could adversely affect the health of the occupants. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 65 

The health effect levels we have chosen arc scientifically justifiable. Of course, there 

are those that say the levels are too high, and others that say the levels are too low. We 

arc basically looking at avoiding any occurrence of levels exceeding 0.3 ppm of nitrogen 

dioxide, and we believe that this Jevel will ensure that the health effects of concern will 

be avoided. This level is uifferent than most of the standaru nitrogen dioxide levels 

because we are not dealing with averages, but rather are seeking to avoid peak exposures. 

Most standards are set as averages avoiding the peaks. Because this type of appliance is 

turned on for extended periods of time, the Commission felt that this kind of standard was 

best tu ensure that the appliance's running cycle did not achieve a nitrogen dioxide level 

that could have an impact on the respiratory health of the individuals. Once this 

certification test method is in place and the emission rate is determined, the Commission 

will be able to take it though the consensus process. We are working with the 

Undern-Titers L'lboratory, which in the United States is both a voluntary standards writing 

body (which takes its standards through the American National Standards Institute process) 

and a certification body. In other words, the Underwriters Laboratory will perform the 

test for money and allow the use of a seal on the kerosene heaters to demonstrate that 

the heaters have indeed met the standard. 

This process is all going along reasonably well. If it doesn't work, we would have 

the option of issuing an advance notice of proposed rule-making and subsequently issuing 

a mandatory standard. We. find that the difference between instituting a voluntary 

standard versus a mandatory standard is that if we go though the voluntary consensus 

process and if the industry is willing to abide by the standard, then the Commission will 

avoid a very expensive and messy step that is normally encountered in the United States 

-- litigation. In the case of litigation, we would go to court and fight over every nuance 

of evidence, such as whether the health study, chamber test, and hood test are adequate. 

This process takes a long time and is very expensive. Thus, we find that when these 

consensus processes can be used and when there is general agreement to an appropriate 

health endpoint, the voluntary standard process is a very good process and is, in some 

cases, much faster than the mandatory standards process. 

In other cases, the voluntary standard process is not faster and does not work. An 

example of such a case is pressed wood products. In 1985 and 1986, the Commission had 

a recommendation from the staff and a petition from the Consumer Federation of 

America, an activist consumer group, to initiate a rule-making on pressed wood products. 

The Commission chose in this case to use a voluntary standard approach. \Vhilc a 

voluntary standard has been produced by the pressed wood products industry, it was the 

judgement of the staff that the standard was not adequate and did not address any of the 

issues that the staff had raised. The standard did not result in uniform labeling on the 

product, a test system on the product that could be adequately verified) or a test level that 

we believed would adequately protect the health of the consumers living in the homes 

where these products arc used. In this case, we now have before the Commission the 

option of initiating a regulatory process on formaldehyde. I suspect that we will have to 

take some additional action to bring these parties to the table and to get a true dialogue 

going, but there has to be willingness on both sides to have negotiations proceed. 
66 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

The Commission has also had an experience in IAQ that did not use a voluntary 

standard system, relying instead on what we call a voluntary action. We used a voluntary 

action approach with methylene chloride, a chemical widely used in consumer products as 

a solvent and flame suppressant. Methylene chloride is a carcinogen in animals. We 

believed that it was appropriate to labe1 products that contained methylene chloride in any 

substantial amount. The labeling should tell the public that these products should be used 

outside or in an area with good ventilation because they contain a possible human 

carcinogen. So, the Commission staff sat down with the firms who make the chemical and 

the product, and we, along with the Consumer Federation of America and other consumer 

representatives developed a label. There were three things we were trying to achieve; 

• 	 Reformulation of products that contain methylene chloride where it is not 

a necessary ingredient; 

• 	 A cancer-warning label; and 

• 	 Consumer information to inform the public about the correct use of these 

products and the hazards involved. 

We were able in four months time to deve1op a label, a research system for product 

reformulations, and the essential message for consumer information. Because of certain 

process concerns, the Commission decided that it would start to pursue a mandatory 

rule-making process. This decision put the voluntary process off track by about two years. 

After the Commission decided that· it would discontinue the mandatory process, the 

voluntary effort was restarted. We developed the wording for the brochure and six 

months ago the industry had 200,000 copies of the brochure printed and distributed. It 

is likely that several hundred thousand more copies will be distributed by paint-stripper 

companies, who are the major users of methylene chloride, and that widespread product 

reformulation away from methylene chloride will occur. We feel that in this situation the 

consensus approach, although it did not result in a formal voluntary standard, did result 

in significant consumer protection with a minimum resource commitment on the part of 

the Federal government. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Ill 67 

A Builders Guide to 

ll~~~\1:~=¥f1f~mt.a"tt.~W.~~&Wh1ij~ 

John W. Spears 

ICF Inc. 

Introduction 

Over the past decade home builders, home buyers and regulators have become more 

aware of potential environmental hazards that may affect the quality of the home 

environment. One of the first major home health concerns was with improperly installed 

ureaforrnaldehyde foam insulation (UFI) in the 1970's which led to the demise of the UFI 

industry. In recent years, asbestos and lead hazards have caused EPA to ban these 

products from use in buildings. More recently, the threat of radon gas has caused 

builders to seriously consider modifying their standard construction details to prevent the 

entry of this cancer causing agent. The levels of formaldehyde are being controlled by 

HUD in products used in mobile homes and many builders are switching to low 

formaldehyde emitting products. 

The trend to building homes with clean air and water is clear not only from a 

regulatory perspective but from a market perspective. Electronic air cleaners have 

become a popular feature of modern HVAC systems and builders are beginning to 

incorporate central ventilation systems into their homes. In addition, combustion furnaces 

and water heaters are beginning to use sealed combustion in an effort to improve energy 

efficiency. 

As consumers continue to learn more about indoor air quality they will begin to 

demand more of the home builder. Many home buyers are already asking about radon 

and as consumer awareness grows they will be asking more about indoor air quality in 

general. 

Some builders have already begun to respond to the increasing consumer demand 

for healthy homes. This paper provides a comprehensive look at what is involved in 

designing and building healthy homes and how to incorporate a healthy home upgrade 

package into a builder's current home line. 
68 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

The Healthy Home 

A healthy home is one that is designed to ensure its inhabitants breathe clean air 

and drink clean water. It provides a safe haven from the dangers posed by air and water 

pollution from outdoor sources, such as Jead, radon, pesticides, and carbon monoxide and 

other gases contained in smog. A healthy home reduces the chances of allergic reactions 

and asthmatic attacks caused by pollens, dusts, and other outdoor pollutants. A healthy 

home is also not a major source of indoor pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds 

(VOCs), asbestos, combustion products, and microbiological organisms that can cause 

respiratory problems. 

Maintaining a healthy home depends on the decisions and actions of the inhabitants 

once they have moved in -- for example, the choice of furnishings, the way in which 

combustion, ventilation, and air handling systems are maintained, and attention to 

preventing and/or cleaning up water damage. 

Whether a home is healthy or not is not easily quantified and some people are more 

acutely sensitive to certain indoor air pollutants than are others and require more care in 

the construction of a home. 

When building a healthy home, there are at least two and sometimes three levels of 

protection that can be built into the home. The first level is the minimum level of 

protection from the major indoor pollution sources and should probably be standard 

practice for all new homes. 

The minimum level features include: 

• A dry basement, with no mold or mildew problems: 

• No elevated radon levels; 

• No backdrafting of furnace, domestic water heater, or fireplace; 

• No lead paint or solder; 

• No asbestos; 

• No unvented appliances; 

• Humidity maintained at 30 - 50 percent; 

• Pesticides applied carefully, if required; 

• Kitchen and bathroom exhaust fans. 

Beyond the minimum level the builder may choose to offer a Healthy Home upgrade 

package which has the potential for significantly improving the indoor environment. The 

upgrade package may include the following: 

• Whole house ventilation system, with or without a heat recovery system; 

• Filtration systems for air and/or water; 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Ill 69 

• 	 Central vacuum system that exhausts house dust outside; 

• 	 Care in the use of certain potentially harmful building materials, such 

as plywood, particleboard, carpet adhesives, formaldehyde-containing 

paneling, cabinets, carpets, underlayment, paints, and finishes; and 

• 	 Non-toxic alternatives to pesticides, mildcwcides, and formaldehyde. 

For some chemicaHy sensitive people even the Healthy Home upgrade package may 

not be enough. For these people special care needs to be taken to analyze each product 

that is used in the building for potential effects on the chemically sensitive occupant and 

extreme care needs to be taken in the construction, operation, and maintenance of the 

home. 

General Considerations 

Most potential indoor air and water quality problems can be effectively prevented 

or reduced during the construction process through the proper use of pollutant source 

control, ventilation, air cleaning, humidity control, and water filtration. 

Source Control -- The first line of defense for preventing indoor air quality problems 

is reducing or eliminating the source of the pollutants. Many different toxic chemicals 

are contained in building materials but most of these chemicals offgas in a short period 

of time after construction. Formaldehyde, however, can take a much longer time, even 

years, to offgas. Avoid using products that contain high amounts of formaldehyde, such 

as urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI), particleboard, chip board, wafer hoard, 

composition board, and medium density fiber board. These products are commonly used 

in counter tops, kitchen and bathroom cabinet<;, floor under1ayment, roof and wall 

sheathing, shelving, and furniture. 

As an alternative, use solid wood or exterior grade plywood, which uses the Jess 

harmful form phenol-formaldehyde. Most oriented strand board (OSB) also uses phenolformaldehyde. Most formaldehyde-containing products can also be sealed with alkyl-based 

paint or poly-urethane to reduce offgassing. 

Mix all paints and finishes outside whenever possible to avoid breathing fumes and 

always apply these products in well-ventilated area<> and continue to ventilate until all 

volatile solvents have evaporated and no odor is detected. If concerned about the toxicity 

of paints, solvents, finishes, and other products, you can request a statement of toxicity 

from the manufacturer (the Materials Safety Data Sheet, or MSDS). Non-toxic paints, 

stains, finishes, and wood preservatives are also available from some manufacturers. 

Other important sources include certain consumer products, improper application of 

pesticides, high radon levels in the underlying soil, backdrafting furnaces, unvented 

appliances and excess humidity. 
70 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

Ventilation ·· Inadequate ventilation or poor air distribution throughout the home is 

a major factor affecting indoor air quality. Maintaining good ventilation is necessary both 

at the whole house level and in individual rooms, particularly the bathroom, kitchen, and 

other localized indoor air pollution sources. The rate at which indoor air is replaced by 

outside air is called the air exchange rate, and it is measured in air changes per hour 

(ACH). A constant 0.35 ACH minimum should be maintained for the whole house, 

although you may need to increase the ventilation rate in the kitchen, bathroom, laundry 

room, garage, and workshop during periods of use. Due to the fluctuating natural air 

infiltration rate a mechanical ventilation system may be necessary to ensure minimum 

ventilation. The simplest ventilation system consists of bathroom exhaust fans and a 

kitchen range hood vented to the outside (Figures 1 and 4). Recirculating range hoods 

are inadequate for removing pollutants generated in the kitchen. The bathroom exhaust 

fan should be quiet (less that 2.5 sanes) and capable of exhausting at least 50 cubic feet 

per minute (CFM). The kitchen exhaust fan should be capable of exhausting at least 100 

CFM. 

The fans should be controlled such that at least one fan operates continuously to 

provide whole house ventilation. ASHRAE standard 62-89 "Ventilation for Acceptable 

Indoor Air Quality" suggests that the ventilation system should have a capability to provide 

a minimum of 0.35 ACH for living areas. For a 2,000 square foot home with eight foot 

ceilings, the ventilation requirement amounts to an air flow rate of 5,600 cubic feet per 

hour or 93 CFM continuous ventilation. 

Many builders find it more convenient to install one central exhaust fan in the 

basement or attic and duct it to each bathroom, the laundry room, and the kitchen. The 

central fan will tend to be quieter because it is not in the room and reduces drafts, 

particularly in the bathroom, from leaky fan ducts (Figures 2 and 3 ). 

Provision for fresh air intake to the home is an important component of the 

ventilation system. With the exhaust fans running, the house will be depressurized and 

outside air will be drawn in from alJ the holes and cracks in the building. This may be 

adequate to supply the house with air only if the home uses no combustion equipment 

with uses a natural draft chimney and there is very little risk of radon in the soil. 

The exhaust system depressurizes the home and competes with a natural draft 

chimney for air. This may cause serious backdrafting problems. The depressurization may 

also draw in radon through leaks in the slab, floor or basement. To avoid this problem, 

dedicated fresh air intakes are recommended to distribute fresh air throughout the house. 

The fresh air is generally introduced into the bedrooms, living room, and recreation or 

family room. 

The fresh air can be distributed in a number of ways. If the home has a ducted 

heating and/or cooling system, the fresh air can be introduced directly into the return duct 

of the air handler. A four to six inch insulated (R7 with continuous vapor barrier) duct 

is run from a screened outside vent to the house return duct ahead of the filter system 

(Figures 2 and 4). 
~ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 71 

The fresh air intake can be controlled by either a manual damper or an automatic 

control. A manual damper can be a motorized damper controlled by a switch located next 

to the thermostat. In this way, a homeowner can operate the heating/cooling system much 

like the car air conditioner. The homeowner can choose to recirculate house air or bring 

in the desired amount of fresh outside air. Some automatic systems give the homeowner 

the option to recirculate house air or bring in zero to 100 percent outside air depending 

on outside air conditions. In commercial buildings, this is called an "economizer." 

If the home has no heating/cooling duct system, then fresh air can be either brought 

in to each room via a dedicated duct system or directly via specially designed "through the 

wall" vents. With a dedicated fresh air duct system, the air can he filtered and tempered 

before entering the room. In mild climates, ''through the wall" vents may be appropriate. 

Several manufacturers provide both nthrough the wall" vents and automatic dampers that 

limit the inlet air flow to the desired 10 - 15 CFM per room as recommended by 

ASHRAE, thereby limiting the unnecessary increase in heating and cooling costs associated 

with high ventilation rates (Figures 1 and 3). 

The vents should be placed so that they provide fresh air to the bedrooms and living 

areas. To avoid short circuits, the supply should be located opposite the door, which 

should be undercut. Avoid cold drafts by venting through the furnace, and locating vents 

so they spread the air across the ceiling. Fresh air vents may also be located in closets 

with louvered doors. This has the advantage of helping keep clothes fresh, and reduces 

mold and mildew. The outside air intake should be located a minimum of six feet from 

exhaust vents, the garage and driveway, dryer exhaust, gas meter, plumbing stacks, and 

should be above the snow line. 

The exhaust fans are controlled to provide continuous whole house ventilation at the 

minimum ventilation rate and boosted ventilation at times of heavy use. The boost mode 

can be activated by either a timer switch in the bathroom or can be wired with the 

bathroom light. Automatic boost can be accomplished with a dehumidistat which activates 

the boost mode when the humidity rises. These controls can also be used in combination. 

A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) is a device that transfers the heat of the exhaust 

air into the fresh air intake stream thereby recovering otherwise wasted heat (Figure 5). 

HRVs can be used as a stand alone ventilation system or be integrated into the existing 

ductwork. 

The HRV is convenient to use because all of the components of the ventilation 

system (exhaust fan, fresh air supply fan, and heat exchanger) are included in the HRV 

package. Typical applications of HRV systems are illustrated in Figures 6 and 7. It is 

important that HRVs be installed with balanced air flows in and out to avoid excessive 

building depressurization. 
72 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 


Figure 1 


Decentraliud Exhaust Ventilation with Through-Wall Ports 


-I 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 73 

Figure 2 

Central Exhaust System with Forced-Air Heating 

\ 

\ 

' ' ' 

Figure 3 

Central Exhaust System with Through·Wall Ports 

Flpre 1 
------

7 4 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section m 

Figure 4 


Decentralized Exhaust Ventilation with Forced-Air Heating System 


// /==· .... =======r / 

/ 

Figure 5 

Typical Air-to-Afr Heat Exchanger Components 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 75 

Figure 6 


Air-to.Air Heat Exchanger with Area Heaters 


/ 

/ /· 

....... 


Figure 7 


Central Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger with a Forced·Air Heating System 

76 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

Air Cleaning -- An effective air cleaning system can remove 99.9 percent of the 

particles in the air as well as some odors and gases. The fi]ter suppJied with the furnace 

is inadequate in removing respirable suspended particles, and should be supplemented with 

other types of air cleaners, such as an e]ectrostatic precipitator (ESP) or a high efficiency 

particulate air (HEPA) filter. Air cleaning systems, under the right conditions, can 

effectively remove certain partides and may reduce any associated health effects. 

However, some controversy exists about the effectiveness of air cJeaners in alleviating the 

allergic reactions produced by Jarger particles, such as pollen, a11ergens, house dust, some 

molds, and animal dander. Larger allergenic particles settle out rapidly from the air. 

Because only a small proportion of these a11ergens are generaJiy suspended in the air, air 

cleaners may not be 100 percent effective in their removal. 

Air cleaners are usually classified based on the type of equipment they contain for 

removing particles of various size from the air. The two general types of in-duct air 

cleaners are mechanical filters and electronic air cleaners. 

Mechanical filters come in three types: flat, pleated, and electret. Flat filters are 

the typical low packing density furnace filter and consist of coarse gJass fibers, animal hair, 

vegetable fibers, or synthetic fibers. The fibers are often coated with a viscous substance 

(e.g., oil) which may act as an adhesive for particles. These filters remove only a small 

percentage of partic1es smaller than one micron and have little effect on the indoor air 

quality. They generally are used to keep the inside of the furnace clean and as a prefilter for more efficient filters. 

Pleated (i.e., extended surface) filters general]y attain greater efficiency for removal 

of small particles than flat filters. Their greater surface areas allows a decrease in the 

fiber size and increased packing density of the filter without a large drop in the air flow 

rate. The resistance to air flow is greater with pleated filters, however, than with flat 

filters. When designing the HVAC system, the furnace fan must be sized to handle the 

increase pressure drop imposed by the filter. The filter could be installed with its own fan 

built in. The most efficient pleated filter, the high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, 

has a particulate removal efficiency of nearly 100 percent for 0.03 micron particles. 

Electret filters are specifically formulated filters embedded with a permanent static 

charge. Particulate material in the air is attracted to the charged fiber. 

Electronic air cleaners are devices which trap charged particles using an electrical 

field. The most common type of electronic air cleaner is the electrostatic precipitator, 

which traps particles on a series of charged flat plates. Electronic air cleaners require 

electrical power to operate and must be cleaned regularly to maintain their effectiveness. 

Published standards on the rated efficiency or effectiveness or air-cleaning devices 

can be used for comparison among different devices. ASHRAE Standard 52-76 and 

Military Standard 282 are used to certify the efficiency of in-duct air cleaners in removing 

particles. The ASHRAE Standard 52-76 atmospheric dust spot rating is useful in 

evaluating the relative efficiency of many air cleaning units. Figure 8 shows typical 

applications and limitations of filters rated using this standard and gives a general , 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 77 

indication of the types of particles which should be removed by a device with a particular 

rating. 

Military Standard 282 (i.e., the percentage removal of very small particles of 

dioctylphthalate (DOP)) is used to rate high efficiency air cleaners -- those with ASHRAE 

atmospheric dust spot ratings above about 90 percent. HEP A filters, the highest efficiency 

air-cleaning filters, remove almost 100 percent of the DOP particles. 

The actual effectiveness of an air cleaning system in a home is dependent on how 

well the system mixes the air. Effectiveness may be decreased if air exiting the HVAC 

system is not well-mixed with room air before re-entering the system. This can happen 

if air supply and return vents are too closely spaced and do not allow the air to sweep the 

room. 

Figure 8 

Filter Applications Based on ASHRAE Atmospheric Dnstspot Test 

Air Cleaner Efficiency Rating' 

10% 

• 	 Used in window • Used in air • Used in heating. • Used same as • Generallyused • Used same as 

air conditioners conditioners. air conditioning. 40%, but better in ~itals and 80%, but 

and heating OOmcstic heating. and as prefilters protection. ~arem. generally rated 

systems. and central air to high dlicicncy WJing Military 

S)'Slems. 	 cleaners. • Useful on all • Very useful on Standard 282. 

• 	 Useful on lint. majclily partides catE.ng 

• 	 Fairly useful on • Useful on finer of particles smudge and • Excellent 

• 	 Somewhat useful r.igwced pollen airborne dust causing smudge stain, and coal protection 

on common (generally over and pollen. and stain, and and oil smoke against all 

ragweed pollen 85%). coal and oil particles. smokeparticles 

(generally under Reduce smudge smoke panides. and bacteria. • 

70%). • 	 Not very useful and stain • Quite useful on 


on smoke and materially. • Partially useful tobacro smoke. 


• 	 Not very useful Slaining panides. on tobacco 

on smoke and • Slightly usdul smoke particles. • Very useful on 

staining particles. on non-tobacco bacteria. 

smoke panlcles. • Some type!. 

reasonably

• 	 Not very useful useful on 

on tobacco bacteria. 

smoke partides. 

l Efficiency rating by ASHRAE dust spot test. 
78 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 

Humidity Control -- Very high and very low humidity levels in homes can cause 

adverse health effects in the form of respiratory infections and allergies. These health 

effects can be minimized by maintaining relative humidity hetween 30 and 50 percent. 

Molds, fungi, bacteria, and house mites proliferate in high humidity (above 60 percent) 

and the harmful effect~ of many chemicals, such as formaldehyde, may be enhanced with 

increased humidity. By installing a humidity meter, homeowners will be able to monitor 

and maintain the humidity. 

High humidity levels can result from a very tight home without adequate kitchen 

and bathroom venting, or from water leaking through the roof or in the basement. One 

common cause of high humidity in air conditioned homes is an oversized air conditioner, 

which cools the house very quickly, but does not run long enough to reduce the humidity. 

Make sure that the cooling load is determined accurately and don't oversize the system. 

Homes that are built airtight (less than 0.5 ACH) should use mechanical ventilation to 

exhaust excess humidity from bathrooms, the kitchen, and the laundry room, and to bring 

in drier outside air. 

Low humidity is generally a problem in houses with gas or oil furnaces because 

the high temperature generated by the equipment dries the air, and in drafty houses 

where the outdoor winter air dries the indoor air. Humidifiers can be used to maintain 

the relative humidity in the winter. Use a humidistat to control the humidifier so that 

the relative humidity of the house does not go above 60 percent. Cool mist or evaporative 

humidifiers (these have a reservoir of water) require regular cleaning to prevent the 

buildup of fungi and bacteria in the water and on the evaporator pads. Ultrasonic 

humidifiers, vaporizers, or steam humidifiers also require maintenance. If a humidifier is 

used, be sure that the homeowner is aware of the manufacturer's maintenance 

requirements. 

Operating the Healthy Home 

We can design and build homes that have the potential for being healthy but if 

they are not operated properly by the occupants we may have wasted our time and their 

money. It is vitally important that the new homeowner understand how to operate the 

home to get the maximum benefit from the systems installed. 

The best way to accomplish this is to provide the new home buyer with an owner's 

manual for the home at the time of sale. The owner's manual should contain important 

information about the products and systems in the building, including: 

1. 	 Description of how the house works as a system of source control, 

ventilation, and air cleaning. A simplified schematic is useful. 

2. 	 Maintenance schedules and procedures, for example, for filters, fans, and 

humidifiers. 

3. 	 Manufacturer's manuals for the equipment used in the house, such as the 

furnace, heat recovery ventilator, humidifier, and air cleaner. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section HJ 79 

4. Phone numbers of whom to contact for service. 

The builder should also provide the new homeowner with information about living 

in a healthy home. This includes information about consumer products and activities that 

affect indoor air quality. The builder may want to give the homeowner a copy of "The 

Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality," which is available from the U.S. EPA or 

the Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC). 

A good time to go over the owner's manual with the homeowner is during the final 

walk-through of the home. At this time, the builder can point out the features of the 

home and answer any questions the owner may have about operation and maintenance. 

At each stage of the construction process, there are different considerations to be 

taken into account that will ultimately affect the indoor air quality of the home. Important 

considerations for each stage are listed and summarized in Table A. 
Stage of Construction 

1. Site Selection 

TABLE A 

Potential Problems 	 Pollutant 

Water runoff causing wet 	 Biological growth on 

basement 	 damp surfaces causing 

allergic reactions. Choose high ground with 

low water table 

Ground water 	 Variety of water 

contamination 	 pollutants including 

organic and inorganic chemicals and 

microorganisms 

Radon gas in the soil 	 Radon decay products 

increase risk of lung 

cancer 

Local pesticide use 	 Organophosphate 

poisoning 

Highway pollution 	 Noise, lead in air, smog, 

dust, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide 

Hazardous waste sites 	 Numerous toxic wastes 

S

Test and 

Seal slab

slab and 

Avoid usi

organoph

avoid site

it is being 

like golf 

Locate ho

busy stre

buffer ar

Investigat

constructi
TABLE A 


Stage of Construction 

2. Site preparation 

3. Foundation 

4. Building 

Potential Problems 

Poor drainage 

Trash in the backfill may 

attract termites and 

require pesticides 

Radon gas leaking into 

home 

Moisture from leaky 

basement, damp crawl 

space or damp floor 

Concrete additives cause 

reactions in some people 

Uncontrolled infiltration 

and exfiltration causing 

backdrafting, radon 

entry, termiticide entry 

Engine exhaust and 

toxins in garage may be 

drawn into home 

Pollutant 

Wet basement or floors 

causing mold or mildew 

Pesticides 

Radon decay products Mold, mildew 

Various pollutants 

Combustion products 

from backdrafting, radon, 

pesticides 

Car exhaust, CO, C02, 

and various voes and 

pesticides stored in 

garage 

S

Drain sit

Use term

clean ba

predator

pesticide

Good wa

gravel un

Radon v

Good wa

drainage 

Avoid us

Build wi

constructand prov

mechanicVent gar

from the 

exhaust f

from the 
Stage of Construction 

5. HVAC System 

TABLE A 


Potential Problems Pollutant 

Building materials that 

contain formaldehyde -

particle board, chip 

board, wafer board, 

composition board, 

medium density 

fiberboard 

Formaldehyde 

Asbestos tiles or shingles Asbestos 

Offgassing of paint Various VOCs 

finishes and adhesives 

Saw dust from treated Penta and chromated 

lumber copper arsenate 

General air quality Various pollutants and 

problems humidity 

Backdrafting of Various combustion 

combustion products products 

S

Use exte

plywood 

formalde

boards o

based pa

polyuret

Avoid u

or sand 

Use non

alternati

well dur

immedia

applying 

Wear re

cutting 

Install a 

ventilatio

kitchen, 

laundry 

and fresh 

Use seal

or electr

forced v

vent syst
Stage of Construction 

TABLE A 

Potential Problems Pollutant 

Airborne particles and Fiberglass, mold, mildew 

mold and mildew from 

wet duct liners 

Excess humidity from Mold, mildew, 

bathrooms and laundry bioaerosols 

rooms 

Short circuiting of supply Mold, mildew and 

and return vents reduce localized build up of 

effectiveness of air pollutants 

cleaning and ventilation 

Furnace fan-induced Radon or pesticides 

depressurization of 

basement or crawispace 

Excess humidity from Mold, mildew 

humidifiers, or 

undersized air 

conditioners 

Poorly maintained Bioaerosols 

humidifiers 

Allergies from dust, Suspended respirable 

mold, pollen, and other particulates such as 

airborne particles cigarette smoke, dust, 

pollen, mold, mildew 

Avoid d

ducts, u

insulatiInstall e

Locate 

the roo

doors t

with do

Tightly 

and sup

furnace 

Maintai

don't o

conditio

Disinfec

regularl

Install h

filtratio
TABLE A 

Stage of Construction Potential Problems Pollutant 

6. Plumbing Lead from solder in Lead 	 Use pla

water 	 free sol

Water pollution from Microorganisms, Test wa

ground water or central particles, organic and necessa

system inorganic chemicals 	 

7. Appliances 	 Combustion products Combustion products Vent al

from unvented 	 equipm

appliances 

Allergies caused by dust Various suspended 	 Use cen

and bioaerosols during respirable particulates cleaner 

and after vacuuming 	 exhaust 
Section W 

Indoor Air Pollutant Guidelines 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 85 

WHO Air Quality Guidelines 

for EuroBe ~-~::~:~:~.it~{~:;5~.<;?.~~=~~;~}~~~~:g:':~&~f}:ti~$;~{~;;~;~~-~f;,}~:~~~::::::~:.:::i;~;ff~ili\:~f{~i~.~~:!f::~~~{:!~\'.~(t:::.?. :fo~~~~t~~~~:~:~~:;::~~~~~:i~~::(i~~ 

Reiner Tuerck • 

Ministry for Environment 

N'ature Conservation and Nuclear Safety 

Federal Republic of Germany 

The overall purpose of the World Health Organization is to contribute to the WHO 

goal of "health for all by the year 2000." Regional targets were set to achieve this goal 

in the European Region, which extends beyond the geographical borders of Europe and 

includes Greenland, Israel, and the Asian parts of the Soviet Union and Turkey. Target 

21 of the European Regional Strategy deals with control of air pollution. Target 21 

requests that "by 1995, everyone in the Region should be effectively protected against 

recognized health risk from air pollution." The explanatory text for this target states that 

achieving this target will require the introduction of effective legislative, administrative, and 

technical measures for the surveillance and control of both outdoor and indoor air 

pollution, in order to comply with criteria to safeguard human health. The time schedule 

specified in this target is quite ambitious and it is not likely that the target can be met in 

time in all parts of the region. 

The Air Quality Guidelines project followed on the heels of the Drinking Water 

Guidelines, which were jointly developed by the WHO regional office in Europe and the 

WHO Headquarters in Geneva. The Drinking Water Guidelines were finalized in 1983. 

After those guidelines were published, the Dutch government approached WHO and 

suggested that Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) should be developed. In November 1983, 

the WHO Regional Office for Europe emharked on the AQG project, which was 

generously supported by the government of The Netherlands. 

The decision to start the project was based on the consideration that a common basis 

for the control of air poHution was needed for the European Region. The only 

internationally agreed upon source of information are the environmental health criteria 

documents of the International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS). These documents 

are scientifically of high value, hut unfortunately the time interval between the publication 

of these documents may be rather long. 

• Mr. Tucrck is the former projccl manager of the World Health Organization air quality guidelines 

project. 
86 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

One of the main aims of the AQG project was to evaluate many substances during 

a relatively short time period. The primary aims of the Guidelines were twofold: 

• 	 Protection of pubJic health and thus the elimination or reduction to a 

minimum of constituents of air that are known to be hazardous to hu:n;ian 

health and well being; and 

• 	 To serve as a basis for air quality management and development of 

standards, although guideline values are not standards in themselves. 

The entire procedure for establishing the Air Quality Guidelines took three and a half 

years and consisted of four phases: 

• 	 1st Phase: Planning and Preparation; 

• 	 2nd Phase: Internal Review Process; 

• 	 3rd Phase: External Review Process; and 

• 	 4th Phase: Publication. 

A planning meeting in early 1984 decided on content, format, workplan, and 

timetable as well as on the chemicals to be included in the project. The selection of 

chemicals was based on an established set of criteria: 

• 	 Severity and frequency of observed or suspected adverse effects on human 

health -- where irreversible effects are of special concern; 

• 	 Ubiquity and abundance of the agent in the human environment -- with 

emphasis on air pollutants; 

• 	 Environmental transformation or metabolic alteration - as these 

alterations may lead to the production of chemicals with greater toxic 

potential; 

• 	 Persistence in the environment -- particularly if the pollutant would resist 

environmental degradation and accumulate in humans, in the environment, 

or in food chains; and 

• 	 Population exposed -- concerning the size of exposed population and 

special groups at risk. 

A list 	of pollutants selected for study on the basis of the criteria is presented in Exhibit 1. 

The planning and preparation phase of the project consisted mainly of a series of 

meetings to deal with specific substances or groups of substances. Subsequently, extensive 

internal and external review process followed, as well as a final plenary meeting. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 87 

Exhibit 1 

Organic air po11utants Inorganic air po1lutants 

Acrylonitrile Arsenic 

Benzene A~bestos 

Carbon disulfide Cadmium 

1,2-Dichloroethane Carbon monoxide 

Dichloromethane Chromium 

Formaldehyde Hydrogen sulfide 

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Lead 

(carcinogenic fraction) Manganese 

Styrene Mercury 

Tetrachloroethylene Nickel 

Toluene Nitrogen oxides 

Trichloroethylene Ozone/photochemical oxidants 

Vinyl chloride Particulate matter 

Radon 

Sulfur oxides 

Vanadium 

The entire process was aided by an editonal consultation group of ten scientists. AS 

shown in Exhibit 2, working papers were prepared for each of the substances, and 

e:irtensive review procedures were conducted. Drafts of the working papers were reviewed 

two and three times, and many comments were received. 

The WHO guidelines consist of a general part describing the criteria used in 

establishing guideline values, a summary of the guidelines, and a description of how to use 

the guidelines. A more detailed scientific description of background information on the 

individual substances (based on the WHO EHC documents, other reviews, and original 

papers) and the derivation of guidelines is given in sections on inorganic and organic 

substances. 

Exhibit 3 lists the substances and guideline values. The guidelines are divided into 

different categories depending on whether their health effects are carcinogenic or 

otherwise. Guideline values for non-carcinogenic effects are presented in terms of 

concentration (mg or μg per m3

) and a time-weighted average. It is believed that 

inhalation of an air pollutant in concentrations and for an exposure time below a guideline 

value will not have adverse effects on health, although compliance with the guideline 

values cannot guarantee the absolute exclusion of effects at levels below the guideline 

values, e.g., with regard to sensitive groups or in the case of combined exposure. On the 

other hand, if situations occur where the guideline values are slightly exceeded, this does 

not always mean that adverse health effects will occur. 

With the exception of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter, guideline values are 

~indicated for individual substances. In Exhibit 4, guideline values for the combined 
88 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

exposure to sulfur dioxide and particulate matter are presented, reflecting the know1edgc 

that health effects are more significant when both pollutants are present. Exhibit 5 

presents the rationale and guideline values for substances based on sensory effects or 

annoyance reactions. These values are based on an average exposure time of 30 minutes. 

Carcinogenic risk estimates are presented in Exhibit 6. Since most of the selected 

substances are proven human carcinogens, the estimates are based on human studies 

rather than animal studies. The carcinogenk risk estimate is indicated as a unit risk for 

lifetime exposure. No assumption was made that there would be a negligible or 

acceptable risk at a certain number e.g., 10-6 or 10-4

• Risk estimates for asbestos and 

radon daughters based on different units are presented in Exhibits 7 and 8. 

As stated above, the guideline values are not standards in themselves. The values 

should not be used without looking at the background information, which explains the 

rationale for the guideline values. Furthermore, it should be noted "that the guidelines 

do not differentiate between indoor and outdoor exposure" because this distinction docs 

not "directly affect the basic exposure-effect relationship." With regard to average times, 

experts agree that the current state of knowledge is insufficient to delineate concentrations 

for aH exposure situations. Depending on the action mechanism in the environmental 

exposure range, short exposure times are indicated for the more acute type of effect, 

whereas long-term exposure times were attributed to substances that have chronic effects, 

particularly those which accumulate in the body. Regulators need "to select the most 

appropriate and practical standards in relation to the guideJines, without necessarily using 

the guidelines directly." 

Since the publication of the guidelines, two meetings have been held with air 

polJution control experts from countries of the Region, one with experts of southern 

Europe and another with experts of eastern Europe. The purpose of these meetings was 

to discuss how the guidelines can best be applied by member states. Both meetings 

demonstrated a substantial interest from member countries which are ready to replace 

values based on historical approaches, with values based on a consensus of international 

experts. In conducting surveys of exposure situations, countries can now compare the 

results with air quality guidelines and rank substances for air pollution control measures 

in terms of importance. 

I hope that the WHO Afr Quality Guidelines will not only be used for ambient air 

poJlution control but also for solving indoor air pollution problems. 

Air quality guidelines for Europe 

Copenhagen: WHO. Regional Office for Europe, 1987 

WHO regional publications, European series; No. 23 

ISBN 92-890-1114-9 

Air/Analysis -- Air Pollution/Prevention and Control 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 89 

Exhibit 2 

Procedure in Establishing Air Quality Guidelines 

Editorial 


Consulting Group 


10 


Authors of working papers 

28 


Participants of working group aeetings 

Ill 

External reviewers 

JM) 
90 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

Exhibit 3 


Guideline Values for Individual Substances 


Based on Effects Other Than Cancer or Odor/Annoyance0 


Time-weighted 


Substance average Averaging time 


Cadmium 

Carbon disulfide 

Carbon monoxide 

1-2,Dichlorocthanc 

Dichloromethane 

(Methylene chloride) 

Formaldehyde 

Hydrogen sulfide 

Lead 

Manganese 

Mercury 

Nitrogen dioxide 

Ozone 

Styrene 

Sulfur dioxide 

Tetrachloroethylene 

Toluene 

T richloroethylene 

Vanadium 

1 - 5 ng!m3 


10 - 20 ng/m3 


100 μg!m3 


100 mg!m3b 


60 mg!m3b 


30 mg!m3b 


10 mg!m3 


0.7 mg!m3 


3 mg!m3 


100 μg/m3 


150 μg!m3 


0.5 - 1.0 μg!m3 


1 μg!m3 


1 μg!m3d 


(indoor air) 


40 μg!m3 


150 μg!m3 


150 - 200 μg/m3 


100 - 120 μg!m3 


800 μg/m3 


500 μg!m3 


350 μg!m3 


5 mg!m3 


8 mg!m3 


1 mg/m3 


1 μg!m3 


1 year (rural areas) 


1 year (urban areas) 


24 hours 


15 minutes 


30 minutes 


1 hour 


8 hours 


24 hours 


24 hours 


30 minutes 


24 hours 


1 year 


1 year 


1 year 


1 hour 


24 hours 


1 hour 


8 hours 


24 hours 


10 minutes 


1 hour 


24 hours 


24 hours 


24 hours 


24 hours 


a. Information from this table should not be used without reference to the rationale given in the 

chapters. 

b. Exposure at these concentrations should be for no longer than the indicated times and should not 

be repeated within 8 hours. 

c. Due to respiratory irritancy, it would be desirable to have a short-term guideline, but the present 

data base docs not permit such estimations. 

d. The guideline value is given only for indoor pollution, no guidance is given on outdoor 

concentrations (via deposition and entry into the food chain) that might be of indirect relevance. 

Note: When air levels in the general environment are orders of magnitude lower than the guideline values, 

presen~ exposures are unlikely to present a health concern. Guideline values in those cases are directed 

only to specific release episodes or specific indoor pollution problems. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 91 

Exhibit 4 

Guideline Values for Combined Exposure to Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate Matter° 

Gravimetric assessment 

Reflectance Total 

Averaging Sulfur assessment suspended Thoracic 

Time Dioxide black smokeb particulates (TSP)c particles (TP)d 

(μglm3) (μglm3) (μg/m3) (μg/m3) 

Short term 24 hours 125 125 12Cf ?Cf 

Long term 1 year 50 50 

a. No direct comparisons can be made between values for particulate matter in the right- and left-hand 

sections of this table, since both the health indicators and the measurement methods differ. While 

numerically, TSP/TP values are generally greater than those of black smoke, there is no consistent 

relationship between them, the ratio of one to the other varying widely from time to time and place 

to place, depending on the nature of the sources. 

b. Nominal μg/m3 units, assessed by reflectance. Application of the black smoke value is recommended 

only in areas where coal smoke from domestic fires is the dominant component of the particulates. 

It does not necessarily apply where diesel smoke is an important contributor. 

<:. TSP measurement by high volume sampler, without any size selection. 

d. TP equivalent values as for a sampler with ISO-TP characteristics (having a 50 percent cut-off point 

at 10 μm); estimated from TSP values using site-specific TSP/ISO-TP ratios. 

e. Values to be regarded as tentative at this stage, being based on a single study also involving sulfur 

dioxide exposure. 
92 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

Exhibits 

Threshold and Guideline Values Based on Sensory Effects 

or Annoyance Reactions, Using an Averaging Time of 30 Minutes 

Detection Recognition Guideline 

Substance threshold threshold value 

Carbon disulfide in 

viscose emissions 20 μg/m 3 

Hydrogen sulfide 0.2-2.0 μg!m3 0.6-6.0 μglm3 	 7 μg!m3 

Styrene 70 μ.g/m3 210-280 μ.g/m3 	 70 μg!m3 

Tetrachloroethylcne 8 mg/m3 24-32 mg/m3 	 8 mg/m3 

Toluene I mg/rn3 10 mg/m3 	 1 mg/m3 

Exhibit 6 

Carcinogenic Risk Estimates Based on Human Studies• 

!ARC Group 

Substance Classification Unit riskb Site of tumour 

Acrylonitrile 2A 2 x 10-5 lung 

Arsenic 1 4 x 10"3 lung 

Benzene 1 4 x 10.(; blood (leukemia) 

Chromium (VI) 1 4 x 10·2 lung 

Nickel 2A 4 x 104 lung 

Polynuclear aromatic 

hydrocarbons 

(carcinogenic fraction)c 9 X 10"2 lung 

Vinyl chloride 1 1 x 10"' liver and other sites 

a. 	 Calculated with average relative risk model. 

b. 	 Cancer risk estimates for lifetime exposure to a concentration of 1 μg!m3• 

c. 	 Expresse.d as benzo(a)pyrene (based on benzo(a)pyrene concentration of 1 μg/m3 in air as a 

component of benzene-soluble coke-oven emissions). 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 93 

Exhibit 7 


Risk Estimates for Asbestos 


Concentration Range of lifetime risk estimates 

500F./m3(0.0005F/ml) 10-6 - 10·5 (lung cancer in a population where 30 percent are smokers) 

10·5 - 104 (mesothelioma) 

Note: p• = fibers measured by optical methods. 

Exhibit 8 

Risk Estimates and Recommended Action Level 

for Radon Daughters 

Lung cancer Recommended level 

excess lifetime risk for remedial action 

Exposure estimate in buildings 

1 Bq/m3

EER (0.7 x 104 ) - (2.1 x 104 ) > 100 Bq/m3EER 

(annual average) 
94 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section IV 95 

The Approach to Control 

!~JJgg~g,~&~~ff?~Z~~;!~~~::r!:~:a:!:!:~).!~@:i,~g:;t:~'.\}(~}:}:V!.G:!N!W 

Marco Maroni 

Istituto di Medicina del Lavoro 

Universita di Milano 

Introduction 

The expression "Indoor Air Quality" refers to the air quality of non-industrial closed 

spaces. The environments covered by such a definition include dwellings, public buildings, 

and offices; thus the problems of indoor air quality concern an the general population and, 

at least in the developed countries, the greater part of the working people. This accounts 

for the growing interest in this issue, the implications of which pertain to public health, 

the safety and comfort of the population, industrial production, architectural design and 

engineering, commercial regulations, and, in a word, the quality of life in our modern 

society. 

Concern about indoor air quality was initially raised by occasional episodes of high 

pollutant concentrations in public buildings or dwellings, caused by agents such as 

formaldehyde, asbestos, and pentacblorophenol. A more systematic approach to the study 

of indoor spaces has led to the discovery of multiple sources of pollution and to the 

detection of irritants, toxic substances, neurotoxic agents, and proven or suspected 

carcinogens -- all of which are frequently present indoors at higher concentrations than 

outdoors. These findings, combined with the fact that populations in western countries 

spend 80 - 90 percent of their time indoors, have directed great attention to indoor air 

quality, comparable to that commanded by atmospheric pollution. 

The interest in indoor air quality in Italy is rather recent: this paper provides an 

overview of the research experience gained so far in Italy and the activities undertaken by 

the public administration. 

Characterization of the Sources of Indoor Pollutants and Assessment of 

Population Exposure 

Organic Substances 

During the last few years~ the public has become aware of the fact that the pollutant 

~oncentrations observed in the outdoor atmosphere may not be representative of indoor 
96 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

air, at least for many pollutants and particularly for VOCs. With the exception of 

formaldehyde, not much qualitative and quantitative data exists on the indoor occurrence 

of voes and on the indoor/outdoor concentration ratios. Published data showing 

indoor/outdoor concentration ratios greater than 1.0 for many compounds, derived from 

northern Europe and the United States, need to be verified as we11 as their applicability 

to other countries analyzed. Such information would aid in identifying pollution sources, 

assessing potential health risks, and estabJishing national or local priorities for action. 

Recently, a significant study has been carried out in the northern part of Italy by 

scientists of the Joint Research Center of the Commission of the European Communities 

in Ispra. The study consists of two parts: (1) a comparison of indoor and outdoor 

concentrations of 35 selected voes, total voes and respirable suspended particulates in 

several dwellings; and (2) a detailed analysis of indoor air samples by GC-MS to identify 

the single voes present. The survey included five apartments and nine detached houses, 

located in urban, suburban, and rural areas of Lombardy, that were exposed to high, 

moderate, and low traffic densities. 

The measurements of the indoor and outdoor concentrations of the 35 voes 

selected for this study (which included 3 aldehydes, 2 ketones, 6 halocarbons, 8 alkanes, 

8 alkylbenzenes, 2 terpenes, naphtalene, and other VOes) have shown that the VOCs 

were nearly always more at higher concentrations indoors than outdoors, often by an order 

of magnitude. The mean concentration of total voes was about 3 mglm3 indoors 

compared to 0.4 mglm3 outdoors. Among the substances of major toxicological concern 

for humans, elevated concentrations were detected for benzene, toluene, 1,4­

dichlorobenzene, and dichloromethane. 

Detailed analysis of air samples by Ge-MS led to the identification of a much larger 

number of compounds, sometimes more than a hundred for a single sample. Most of the 

identified compounds were so1vents derived from consumer products rather than from 

building materials. Many of these compounds have also been detected in northern Europe 

and the United States and are the constituents of paints, wood impregnants, glues, cleaning 

agents, liquid waxes, and polishes. Interestingly, this study did not find a significant 

correlation between the minimum air exchange rate of the houses and the indoor total 

voe concentrations, thus indicating that the residents' behavior may be a factor prevaiJing 

over ventilation in determining indoor voe levels. 

The interest in consumer products as a possible source of significant indoor pollution 

has also Jed to an investigation of the voe emissions from some widely used household 

products marketed in Italy. Ten commercial products for cleaning and conservation (eight 

waxes and two detergents), intended for application to large surfaces, were screened in 

laboratory tests for voe emissions. 

The products containing water as a main constituent were found to emit oxygenated 

compounds, among which were terpene alcohols and their acetates, aliphatic alcohols and 

esters, and alkoxy-a1cohols. The products without water essentiaJly emitted hydrocarbons 

(alkanes, alkenes, and terpenes). It is interesting to note that, on the whole, more than ~ 

90 individual voes were detected in only ten products, thus indicating that household ... 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 97 

products may represent a rich and varied source of chemical indoor pollution. Even 

though it may be argued that indoor concentrations for most of these compounds are 

usually fairly low, it is also true that toxicological information for many of them is very 

scarce, especialJy with regard to the Jong-term effects these compounds may have on 

humans. Since the characterization of emissions from household products can be very 

informative regarding the nature of potential indoor pollution, these experimental tests 

should be encouraged (though taking into account their reasonable cost). Moreover, their 

results can also help industry design better and safer products. 

One aspect of particular concern for household products is the occurrence of allergic 

reactions among users. This matter is not new, as it was abruptly discovered by the public 

when new biotechnologic detergents, possessing extremely powerful sensitizing properties, 

were introduced on the market in the 1970s. However, the problem is still acute and can 

be viewed as one of the major current "occupational" diseases in housewives. At present, 

a multi-focal survey is under way in Italy, in cooperation with the Institute of Occupational 

Medicine of Milano and the University of Bari, with the support of Assocasa, the Italian 

association of the industrial producers of household products. The two main purposes are 

to define the incidence of allergic diseases among housewives, and to identify the main 

causative agents. Several thousand subjects will be contacted and screened over two years 

to provide a better assessment of the problem as well as specific information for 

prevention. 

Formaldehyde 

Formaldehyde is perhaps the most well-known organic indoor pollutant, as can be 

deduced by the large quantities of data available on indoor formaldehyde concentrations. 

The main sources of formaldehyde pollution are urea-formaldehyde-glued particleboard 

and plywood, urea formaldehyde foams used for insulation, moquettes (a type of 

upholstery or rug fabric), textiles, adhesives, and cosmetics. The emission rate from these 

materials is greatly influenced by air temperature and humidity. Outdoor sources can 

also contribute to low-level concentrations in buildings, particularly in cities. 

Several countries have set limits for formaldehyde exposure indoors. The current 

threshold concentration recommended by a Circular of the Ministry of Health in Italy is 

0.1 ppm, which is the same value adopted by the Federal Republic of Germany, The 

Netherlands, Denmark, and Finland, and corresponds to the 0.12 ppm value endorsed by 

the 'World Health Organization for the general population. 

Formaldehyde is a proven rodent carcinogen, and, as such, is a suspected human 

carcinogen. Moreover, a small part of the general population has proven to be hyperreactive to formaldehyde exposure, either because of the hypersusceptibility of the airways 

mucosa or because of allergic sensitization. These facts may render questionable the 

validity of the recommended limits and should encourage a more comprehensive approach 

to prevention addressed at limiting exposure as far as feasible. 
98 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

Pentachlorophenol 

Pentachloropheno1 (PCP) is a versatile pesticide, mainly used as an inhibitor of 

bio1ogical degradation in wood treatment, leather tanning, and paper production. Due to 

these widespread uses, PCP has become an ubiquitous pollutant of the general 

environment. However, concern for population exposure has been raised, particularly for 

log-home residents whose houses have been treated with PCP. Studies in the United 

States have indicated that log-home inhabitants (particularly infants) may have blood PCP 

concentrations two or three orders of magnitude higher than those found in the general 

population. 

In Italy, although log-homes are not popular, it is very common to find wooden 

surfaces inside homes. Moreover, the leather industry is very well developed; the three 

main clusters of tanneries, located in Lombardy, Veneta and Campania, each consume 

about 100 tons of PCP per year. 

A survey completed in 1987 investigated the level of occupational and home exposure 

to PCP of wood and leather workers, and of selected subjects in the general population. 

While occupational exposure has been found to result in very high blood and urine 

concentrations of PCP (up to 4,000 - 5,000 μg/liter), urinary PCP levels in the general 

population have been found to vary according to whether wooden surfaces treated with 

PCP were present in the house (urinary excretion: 50 - 100 μg/1) or whether no known 

sources were detectable (urinary excretion: 2 - 15 μg/1). 

It is interesting to note that increased urinary PCP concentrations were also observed 

in locations where indoor PCP application had occurred more than ten years before the 

study, thus indicating the long persistence of PCP release from the treated wood surfaces. 

The comparison of PCP concentrations in house dust and in urine of occupants gave a 

correlation coefficient of 0.9 in this study. 

Since PCP can be easily absorbed through the skin, another remarkab1e finding was 

that finished leather after tanning as well as leather articles may contain hundreds of ppm 

of PCP, which can be transferred and deposited onto human skin by direct contact. 

When some commercial PCP products marketed in Italy were analyzed for minor 

constituents and impurities, ppm concentrations of total dioxins and trace amounts 

(maximum concentration: 0.19 ppb) of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin were detected. 

These findings account in part for the concern associated with indoor PCP pollution and 

human PCP exposure. 

Inorganic Gases 

Several inorganic gases have been recognized as possible indoor pollutants. Carbon 

monoxide, which can be released by combustion appliances, especially in the case of 

malfunction, is particularly insidious because it does not have warning properties and can 

easily lead to acute poisoning and fatalities. In Italy, due to the extensive use of ope~ 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 99 

flame heating systems, such accidents are not rare, and a sustained effort would be 

desirable for preventing these casualties. 

Besides acute effects, concern has been grm\~ng that low-level inorganic gas 

concentrations in confined living spaces may be responsible for long-term adverse effects 

in residents, notah1y in their respiratory systems. :\"itrous oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), 

and ozone are the agents most likely to be involved in such effects. 

A map of indoor pollution and an assessment of the indoor population exposure to 

inorganic gases in Italy is not available. Exposure to these gases at low concentrations 

may affect a great portion of the population, while only a minority of the population is 

exposed to higher NOx concentrations, and an even smaller number of people are exposed 

to SOx and ozone in higher concentrations. SOx and KOx concentrations are regularly 

monitored outdoors in the large metropolitan areas, and these measurements have often 

shown critical values resulting from intensive traffic congestion and, particularly in the past, 

extensive use of fuel oil (instead of methane) for domestic heating. 

The contribution of indoor sources to overall exposure to inorganic gases has not yet 

been characterized, however, some research projects on this subject have been planned. 

The indoor concentrations of inorganic gases, particulate, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons 

resulting from combustion appliances is being investigated in the Milan area under the 

initiative of the city gas supplying company (AEM), with the support of the Centro 

Informazioni Studi Esperienze (CISE) research staff. Another large survey has been 

planned by the National Board of Electricity (ENEL) and the National Research Council 

(NRC) in Emilia-Romagna, in an agricultural area around the coal-fired power plant of 

Porto Tolle and in the town of Pisa. This study is geared towards understanding the 

qualitative and quantitative importance of indoor pollution, in terms of exposure allocation 

between indoors and outdoors for the general population. 

Asbestos and Man-Made Miner.ii Fibers 

After recognizing the carcinogenic potential of asbestos in working environments, 

the public has been alerted to the possibility that a similar risk may also exist in living 

environments where asbestos has been extensively applied without long-lasting effective 

protection. This concern has prompted many surveys, primarily in the United States, and 

specific preventive actions were undertaken by EPA, particularly for schools and other 

public buildings in the late 1970s. 

In Italy, testing for asbestos fiber concentrations in schools started in 1984 in the 

province of Milano and was soon after extended to other schools, hospitals, and some 

other public buildings of the Milan area. The bad condition of sprayed asbestos and/or 

the relatively high airborne fiber concentrations led, in many occasions, to the removal of 

asbestos and its substitution with other materials, or to the treatment of the asbestos 

surfaces with specifically developed encapsulants. 
100 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

In 1985, the Administration of the Lombardy Region issued a Circular requesting 

systematic inspections for asbestos of schools and hospitals, and prescribing technical 

guidelines for action and for safe execution of the asbestos decontamination activities. 

The subsequent year, a national Circular was issued by the Ministry of Health, extending 

the same regulations, with some modifications, to the whole country. 

At present in Italy, indoor asbestos pollution has been highlighted to the public 

attention but it is far from being a solved problem since remedial actions have been 

undertaken only in few regions and because of the difficulties in finding the necessary 

economic resources. The preventive campaign against asbestos, although incomplete, has 

achieved good results, namely characterization of indoor pollution of some buildings, 

development of decontamination procedures, standardization of the methods of 

measurement, and education of the public health officials. 

Despite the intense research activity carried out in several countries on indoor 

asbestos, two main scientific questions are still unsolved: the occurrence of health effects 

at low levels of exposure (less than 0.1 fibers/ml), and the health significance of the ultrasmall asbestos fibers that can be revealed and quantified only by electron microscopy. 

Another field requiring further study is the toxicity to humans of man-made mineral 

fibers (MMMFs ), such as glasswool and ceramic fibers. These fibers are being increasingly 

utilized and are becoming very popular as asbestos substitutes. 

Radioactive Pollutants 

Exposure of the population to natural radiation has become a prominent issue 

because of two main reasons: (1) natural radiation accounts for about 80 percent of the 

average effective annual dose equivalent received by the general population, and (2) 

according to some estimates, up to five percent of the observed lung cancer frequency in 

the general population might be associated with indoor radiation exposure. 

Surveys of natural radiation exposures have been carried out in many European 

countries. The general results of these studies have shown that mean indoor radon 

concentrations range between 20 and 50 Bq/m3

, which correspond to effective dose 

equivalents in the order of 0.5 to 1.3 mSv/year. These values are more or less the same 

order of magnitude as the average doses delivered by external penetrating radiation of 

terrestrial or cosmic origin. In contrast to penetrating radiation doses that show a narrow 

distribution around the mean value, indoor radon concentrations and their related doses 

have been found to be log-normally distributed in the population, with small groups of 

people receiving hundred-fold greater doses than the median values. 

Indoor radon pollution in Italy has been studied by research groups of the Istituto 

Superiore di Sanita (National Institute of Health), ENEA (the National Committee for 

Research and Development of Nuclear Energy and Alternative Energies), the Institute of 

Physics of the University of Milan, and CISE. About 330 houses have been investigated 

in Milano and in the U mbria region, and more than 1,000 in a national survey based on ~ 

randomly selected dwellings. The regional as well as the national studies have generally~ 
NATO CCMS Pilol Study on IAQ: Section IV 101 

found average exposure values comparable to those measured in other European countries, 

with a national median value of 25 Bq/nr1 and a maximum value of 154 Bq/m3

· 

In the study performed in Umbria, an area of higher exposure was detected in the 

town of Orvieto, with effective dose equivalent<; of 9.0 mSv/year. It is interesting to nore 

that 90 percent of the houses in this town are made of tufa, a po~ous rock. Further 

studies have been planned to better characterize this area. 

At present, a large national survey on radon exposure is underway in Italy under the 

coordination of the National Institute of Health and ENEA./DISP. This study plans to 

measure radon concentrations in several thousand houses throughout the country, selected 

with a random criterion. The first regional results of this survey will be available in 1990. 

Strategies for Prevention and Control 

Strategies for prevention and control of indoor po11ution can be developed at 

different levels: educational, technical, and regulatory. Of course, each strategy leve1 does 

not exclude the others, although different sources or agents may respond more or less 

favorably to each of these leve1s. A typical example of a source requiring an intensive 

action at the educational and social level is tobacco smoke; education may also be 

appropriate for other pollutants that are associated with bad habits or particular behaviors 

of the indoor occupants. 

Intervention at the technical level is nearly always necessary and represents the 

effective completion of actions at regulatory or educational levels. Technical aids are 

necessary to develop safer building materials or products to be used indoors as well as to 

design proper buildings, appropriate heating or ventilation systems, and appliances having 

specific technical requisites. 

Finally1 regulatory action is often viewed as the principa1 instrument availahle to 

public administrators to set air quality standards and uniform criteria for verification as 

well as to establish means of surveillance and enforcement. However, it should also be 

recognized that the regulatory approach has some limitations, including inflexibility and 

difficulty of verifying compliance, particularly in the case of ubiquitous pollutants. 

Recently, the Minister of the Environment of Italy has appointed a National Scientific 

Committee for Indoor Pollution, in order to review the state-of-the-art technology and to 

recommend actions to be undertaken by the Administration. The Committee, comprised 

of a Health Advisory Group and a Technical Advisory Group, is expected to prepare an 

extended document that should be released by the end of 1990. 

Other activities have been planned at the local level, including a Project on Indoor 

Pollution Control launched by the Administration of the Municipality of Milano. This 

project will focus primarily on checking and controlling indoor air quality in school 

buildings and in other major huildings for puhlic use that are owned by the Municipality. 
102 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 

Plans for Research 

The current level of IAQ know1edge is not adequate to answer an the questions that 

concern community administrators and the public. ·The information collected so far, either 

by direct investigations or by extrapolation from re1ated disciplines, is enough to indicate 

that indoor air quality is an emerging problem for health and human we1fare, but many 

aspects of indoor air quality are not yet very wel1 known, and the question of human 

health risks in particular remain open to investigation for many agents and conditions of 

exposure. 

Several countries, including the United States, the Federal Republic of Germany, and 

France, have established nationally coordinated IAQ research programs. All these 

programs contain many points in common but differ in terms of local priorities and 

specific agents or sources studied. At the international Jevel, groups active in indoor air 

quality are present in the World Health Organization and the Commission of the 

European Communities, where a Concerted Action on "Indoor Air Quality and its Impact 

on Man" was started in 1987 by initiative of the Environment Directorate of the 

Commission of the European Community. 

In Italy, IAQ investigations have started only recently, but some results are already 

available and several groups have shown interest and strong research capabilities. An 

inventory made in 1989 by the European Concerted Action recorded 15 research profiles 

underway in Italy. Future plans include two major national indoor air research programs 

that will be coordinated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Italy. The first 

program will last three years, starting in 1990, and is part of a comprehensive National 

Research Plan for Atmospheric Environment supported by a joint effort between the 

National Board for EJectricity (ENEL) and NRC. Here, research activity on the indoor 

environment is seen as a complement to outdoor studies to allow a better understanding 

of the effects of atmospheric pollution. The program is funded with about $25 million 

($US). 

The second program is a general National Plan for Research on Environment 

coordinated by the NRC, currently being considered for approval by the National 

Parliament. The plan includes ten major fields of research, one of which is "Urban Areas 

and Indoor Environment." If approved, this plan wi11 last five years and will support 

research activities for a total amount of about $100 million ($US). 
Section V 


Ventilation Standards and 

Guidelines 
l'ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 103 

Gu~delines - Ventilation 

Classes 

~:{}f::~\:)·)tf:)f~~~:;)t?~tt:t~~~f~~t~?:~::s~fHJtfrr~:r;:rr~\~:::w~=~fff?~~:t~~)~)~:~t~~~~t)tttn1~~J!ili~~%~~~~~~:~{t\::: 

Olav Bjoerscth 

Division of Work Science (SINTEF) 

Norwegian Institute of Technology 

University of Trondheim, Trondheim, Norway 

The Indoor Air Climate Institute in Sweden has proposed three ventilation classes, 

based upon PPD-indices (predicted percent dissatisfied). 

• 	 Class A: Very good thermal comfort, good air quality 

• 	 Class B: Good thermal comfort, acceptable air quality 

• 	 Class C: Acceptable thermal comfort, acceptable air quality 

Five standards were used in developing the classes: 

• 	 ISO 7730 "Moderate Thermal Environments - Determination of PHV and 


PPD indices" 


• 	 ISO 7726 "Thermal environments - instruments and methods for 


measuring physical quantities" 


• 	 ASHRAE 62-1981 "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality11 

• 	 ASHRAE 55-1981 "Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human 


Occupancy" 


• 	 NKB 40 1981 "Guidelines for Indoor Air Climate" 

Each class is divided in two parts, according to individual regulation of temperature 

and/or air flow (e.g., Class A - IR means that the temperature and/or the air flow can be 

regulated individually in each room). In class A, recycled air is not allowed. In classes 

B and C: recycling is allowed under certain circumstances. Table 1 provides the PPDs in 

the different classes. Table 2 provides the operative temperature in each class. The air 

velocity (based upon a three minute mean value) is given in Table 3. The vertical 
104 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

temperature differences and the acceptable floor temperatures are presented in Tables 4 

and 5. 

The lowest acceptable air flow in rooms where smoking is not permitted is given by: 

• Class A: Q = 0.75 (8N + E ) 

• Class B and C: Q = 0.35 (8N + E ) 

Q = air flow (liter per m2 floor) 

N = number of persons per floor 

E = emission factor 

EA = 1 (for low emitting materials [up to 40 μg per m2/h]) 

E8 = 2 (for medium emitting materials [up to 80 μg per m2/h]) 

Ee = 4 (for high emitting materials [up to 160 μg per m2/h]) 

The proposed guidelines reflect both person load and emission from building materials in 

the flow rate calculation. The capacity of the ventilation system in the different classes 

is given in Table 6. This allows for variation in the air flow in the different rooms if the 

person load is changed, or if there is an increase in heat emitting equipment. 

The guidelines are now being evaluated in Sweden. Some minor changes will come, 

but so far the main idea seems to be accepted. More details about emission test 

standards and other issues will be further discussed before the guidelines become official. 

Nmway is also trying to adopt these guidelines. 

For more details, contact Ulf Rengholt, The Indoor Air Climate Institute, 

Hantverkargatan 8, 11221 Stockholm, Sweden or Olav Bjoerseth. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section V 105 

Table l: PPD in Different Quality Classes {%) 

Class A Class B Class C Remarks 

Thermal comfort 5 - 7 10 10 10% = ISO 7730 

Sensory perception 10 20 20 20 = ASHRAE 62-1981 

Inconvenience 

reactions 0 - 1 5 5 

Mucous membrane 

reactions 0 - 1 10 10 

Odor 10 50 50 

Table 2: Operative Temperature In The Different Classes (°C) 

Class A Class B Class C 

Winter 20-22 19-23 18-25 

Summer 23-25 22-26 21-27 

Table 3: Maximum Air Velocity In The Different Classes (m/s) 

Class A Class B Class C 

Winter 0.08 0.11 0.15 

Summer 0.10 0.14 0.22 
106 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

Table 4: Maximum Vertical Temperature Difference {°C per m) 

Class A Class B Class C 

Summer and Winter 2.5 3.0 3.0 

Table 5: Floor Temperature (°C) 

Class A Class 8 Class C 

Summer and Winter 22 - 26 19 - 28 16 - 32 

Table 6: Capacity of the Ventilation System (%) 

Class A Class B Class C 

Total system 


CAV 100 - 110 100 - 105 100 


VAV 40 - 115 40 - 100 40-100 


Separate room 60 - 140 80 - 120 80-120 


CAV system: ventilation system with constant air flow 


VAV system: ventilation system with variable air flow 

NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 107 

Energy Consequences of 

!J~i~~~:d:i~~m:j(!.g~~~'~)~;::::~~~K~:iM~!j~n~t{='?':ffrE:\:::+? 

Gaute Flatheim 

Consulting Engineer 

Siv. Ing. Gaute Flatheim NS 

Stavanger, Norway 

Background And Description of the Situation 

Energy Technology 

Following the oil embargo of the 1970s, energy and conservation of energy have 

understandably received considerable attention. Some progress has been achieved in 

limiting the expected increase in energy requirements. Energy technology has become a 

field of its own, embracing energy production, energy supply, energy consumption, and 

energy conservation. 

The pattern of energy consumption in modern office buildings has also been altered. 

Improved insulation standards, reduced infiltration, heat recovery, and other approaches 

have reduced heat loss. Increased use of computer equipment, paper handling equipment, 

fax machines, and other office equipment has affected work procedures in buildings and 

increased internal heat loads. Exploitation of passive solar heat technologies and 

increased use of glass have also become popular. Collectively, these effort'i have led to 

an increase in surplus energy in buildings and a tum towards electricity as a main source 

of energy. Information concerning this trend is of considerable importance for planning 

expansions in energy supplies, including the potential for district heating. 

Indoor Climate 

The consequences of energy technology for the indoor climate have not received 

much attention. New developments in energy technology and the use of new materials in 

buildings have created buildings with indoor climate problems (e.g., sick building 

syndrome). Simultaneously, health, well-being, and productivity have become factors to 

which greater attention has been paid during debates about developments in society. 

When calculating the annual costs of a building, it is not only the financial costs that 

count, but also the value of occupants' well-being, health, and productivity. 
108 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

The problem of the indoor climate can now he documented through inquiries in 

which people give their opinion about the indoor situation. Key complaints mentioned 

include the following: 

• 	 Drafts; 

• 	 Dust or dry air; 

• 	 Humming and noise from ventilators and other machinery; 

• 	 Heavy air, headaches, nausea, dry throats, tiredness and stinging eyes; and 

• 	 Air that is too cold or too warm. 

Many individual cases also point towards conditions being worse in buildings that 

have small ventilation volumes. The minimum requirements of the building regulations 

often do not contain adequate reserve capacity for the following factors that can affect 

indoor air quality: 

• 	 Processes in the building (the work being performed in the building); 

• 	 Oeaning and cleaning agents; 

• 	 Copying equipment, computers, terminals, and printers; 

• 	 Degassing from furniture and fittings; 

• 	 Textile fibers; 

• 	 Floor adhesives; 

• 	 Other "hairy" surfaces; 

• 	 Rock-wool fihers and other man-made mineral fibers (MMMFs); 

• 	 Fall-out from paneled ceilings (especially MMMFs) & dust; 

• 	 Textile fibers from staff; and 

• 	 Dust in the duct network. 

Hypotheses 

A Norwegian research project has developed four working hypotheses regarding 

indoor air quality: 

1. 	 The present-day indoor climate m Norwegian office buildings must be 

improved. 

2. 	 Such an improvement will best be attained by changing the materials used 

and by upgrading the air standards. 

3. 	 Modern office buildings contain considerable surplus energy -- enough 

to heat the extra ventilation air. 

4. 	 The value of health and well-being must he included in a concept of total 

annual costs -- increased IAQ investment will result in the lowest total 

annual costs. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 109 

These hypotheses have already been confirmed by the massive frequency of 

complaints from a large number of buildings, forming some of the background for the 

research and development project. 

How Do We Define Air Quality'! 

Can Air Quality be Measured? 

Everyone who has tried to measure air quality, either in the laboratory or in actual 

buildings, has had difficulty in identifying the substances in the air which correlate with 

people's notions of good or bad air quality. This difficulty may be related to the existence 

of thousands of chemical compounds in the air, most of which are in extremely small 

concentrations -- it is very difficult to measure such low concentrations, and we have no 

knowledge of how human beings react to each substance or to combinations of several 

substances. 

This difficulty is the chief reason why Professor P.O. Fanger 11] points out that the 

human sense of smell is the best "instrument" for judging air quality. He has, therefore, 

developed a technique for determining the necessary volume of air, which uses a person's 

ability to judge air quality. This technique can be readily compared with sampling in the 

food industry or to wine-tasting. 

"Olf' - a JS"ew Unit for Indoor Pollution 

The human being has traditionally been considered the chief source of pollution in 

office buildings. Pioneering research by Pcttenkofer [2] and Yaglou [3] expresses the 

volume of pollution introduced per person. Pollution from human beings is we1l studied 

and familiar, and can therefore be used as a reference. Fanger [1] has consequently 

introduced the olf unit (from the Latin "olfactus" for sense of smell), which is the emission 

rate of air pollution from a standard person (Fig. 1 ). Any other po1lutant source can be 

expressed in olfs (i.e., the number of standard persons that emits a subjectively equivalent 

amount of pollution), since it will lead to the same dissatisfaction with air quality under 

otherwise equal conditions. 

The olf-values for some sources of pollution are: 

Sedentary person 1 olf • 

Active person 8 olf • 

Smoker, while smoking 25 olf • 

Smoker, on average 6 olf • 

• Materials in an office 0 - 0.5 olf/m2 

Since sense of smell is the "measuring instrument" used for judging air pollution, 

groups of people will have to be established who arc trained to use their sense of smell 

to determine olf values from different pollutant sources. These "smell-detection panels" 

will also need to be able to determine the degree of satisfaction with air quality in a room 
110 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

with given volumes of ventilation. Fanger has taken such a group of people to different 

buildings. The statistical results of this study are shmvn in Figure 2. 

Ventilation Volume per Olf 

A common ventilation volume used nowadays is 3 liters/second (1/s) per olf. At this 

level as much as 35 percent of the "smell detection panel'' will consider the air to be 

unsatisfactory. In order to reduce this number to five percent, the air volume will need 

to be increased to as much as 15 l/s per olf. 

Even the Ventilation System Pollutes 

The visit of the "smell-detection panel" to many diverse buildings has also revealed 

that the ventilation system itself pollutes, as determined by carrying out sme11ing tests in 

the same building, with and without operation of the ventilation system. Figure 3 shows 

an average olf-load in 20 investigated official buildings. 

This frightening picture shows that there is a challenge for the heating, ventilation, 

and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry to design and operate ventilation systems in such 

a way that the systems do not adversely affect the indoor climate. At the same time, it 

offers a challenge to the architect who must select materials and methods that release the 

smallest possible amounts of pollution into the indoor air. In Scandinavia, the notion of 

"low-olf buildings" has become a building objective. This objective requires a building 

pollution load of 0.2 olf/m2

• Present-day buildings, in which smoking is permitted, have 

a load of perhaps 0.7 olf/m2

• 

Energy Requirements in Office Buildings 

The energy required for heating modern office buildings has been reduced in recent 

years. This reduction has occurred because the need for energy conservation has resulted 

in buildings with improved insulation, triple glazing, reduced air infiltration, and reduced 

ventilation volumes. 

Despite this trend, we often see that modern office buildings have large total energy 

requirements, perhaps just as large as before the trend began. We also see that the 

energy requirements, to a greater extent than previously, must be met by electricity 

because buildings are now filled with electrical equipment, such as computer equipment, 

printing and copying equipment, and general office equipment. Large data processing and 

communication centers are also common. All this equipment produces excess heat which 

needs to be cooled by the air-conditioning system, which also requires electricity. 

A low energy consumption in modern office buildings is only possible if the 

air-conditioning system is designed in such a way that transferred heat can be exploited 

to cover heat losses. Figure 4 shows the "energy flow" in a modern building. Heat loss, 

ventilation loss, and domestic hot water requirements, determine the thermal energy 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 111 

requirement. At the same time, we have a great need for electric power to run 

equipment. 

If the heat excess from equipment operation, the sun, and human beings can be 

recovered and used to meet the thermal energy requirements, then the necessary input of 

thermal energy will be merely a balancing item. This "superfluity" of thermal energy in 

our office buildings offers us possibilities for upgrading the indoor climate without 

especially significant consequences for energy consumption. 

Energy Requirements in an Actual Building 

To put this into a more tangible form, we looked at a building planned for an oil 

company in Norway. The building has a total floor space of approximately 25,000 m2 and 

serves the needs of approximately 750 office jobs. We assumed that the building has 

present-day standard materials, and smoking is permitted, representing a poHution load of 

approximately 0.7 olf per m2 in the work-place area. A separate electronic data 

processing department is attached to the building, requiring 300 kW of energy to operate 

the data processing equipment. The building has a combined cooling unit, which cools the 

electronic data processing machines, office ceilings, and summer ventilation air. The 

excess heat is transferred to a water-based heating system. This energy can thereby be 

exploited to meet a substantial portion of the thermal requirements. 

We will first calculate the energy requirement of such a building having a ventilation 

volume in the office space corresponding to 3 l/s per olf (2 l/s per m2

), which is a very 

common figure today. Figure 2 shows that we can expect 35 percent of the building 

occupants to complain about the air quality. Subsequently, we will calculate the energy 

requirement if the air volume is increased to 4 l/s per olf and 6.5 l/s per olf. In the last 

case, we can expect approximately 20 percent of the occupants to complain about the air 

quality. 
112 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

Energy Requirements per Square Meter 

Figure 5 shows the energy requirements per square meter of this building, with the 

three different demands on air quality. We see that the need for electric power for 

lighting, operating equipment, and other needs is greater than the need for thermal energy 

for air conditioning. Furthermore, exploiting possibilities for recovering heat from electrical 

equipment, the sun, and othe.r sources will significantly reduce the actual supply of thermal 

energy. If we want to improve the air quality in this huilding by increasing the air 

volume, we see that it results in only marginal increases in total energy consumption. To 

reduce the expected number of complaints from 35 percent to 20 percent calls for an 

increase from 226 to 244 kWh/m2 per year, or approximately eight percent wilJ be 

necessary. 

This calculation confirms hypothesis 3, that there is a large amount of excess energy 

present in modern office buiJdings. When there is an increase in energy consumption with 

increases in air volume, this increase is largely related to increased energy for operating 

fans. 

Financial Consequences of Increased Ventilation 

In this case, an eight percent increase in energy consumption means that operating 

costs will increase by approximately NOK 315 ($45 US) per year for each employee. 

The consequences for investments are apparently larger. A doubling of the air volume, 

which is what we are talking about here, means an increase of investment of 

approximately NOK 15,000 ($2,143 US) per employee. With a real interest rate of six 

percent per year and depreciation over 15 years, this value translates into NOK 1,500 

($214 US) per year for each employee. With an air volume of 4 Ifs per olf, the figures 

for increased energy consumption and capital costs increase by about one-third. 

Performance and Well-Being 

Status 

Pollution in the external environment, primarily air and water, is the central 

environmental theme with which politicians and the media are preoccupied. The fact that 

people are mostly indoors is rarely pointed out. The reason seems to be that we have not 

considered it a health hazard to be indoors at home and places of work, except for at a 

few industrial work-places. 

Nowadays in Scandinavia, there seems to be a change in attitude. More and more 

people are realizing that the internal environment is also important for public health. 

Professional building owners have long since realized that investment in a good indoor 

climate is an investment in the well-being of employees and in increased productivity [4]. 

In our project, it is not our goal to carry out a broad investigation of the relationship 

between air quality and productivity. Such a study would demand too many resources. 
:-.IATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 113 

We nonetheless believe that information available from official statistics and related 

research projects can illustrate such a connection [5] and [6]. 

The Effect on Health of an Adverse Indoor Climate 

Problems related to the indoor climate seem largely to arise from the irritating effect 

of pollutants on the skin and on the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory 

passages. The irritation is chiefly felt as a sensation of "dry air" and results from the 

combined effect of irritants in the internal environment. Smell also plays an important 

role in our perception of our surroundings, and may be a stress factor. Formaldehyde is 

a common indoor irritant arising from building materials and smoking. In addition to eye 

irritation, changes in the mucous membranes of the nose have been demonstrated with 

exposure to high formaldehyde concentrations. 

Hyperactivity may result from irritation of mucous membranes, (and intensified by 

infections) which in turn reduces resistance to infections and increases risks for developing 

allergies. Epidemiological data suggest that internal climatic conditions may be important 

causes of a large proportion of allergies, respiratory ailments, and diseases. There seems, 

therefore, to be a very large preventive potential in improving these conditions, on health 

as well as economic grounds. In view of the data available, it is not unreasonable to 

assume that half the respiratory ailments and diseases in our population can be attributed 

to factors in the indoor environment. Several studies have also revealed considerable 

tiredness and occurrence of headaches, particularly where there are damp areas. This 

discovery opens the question of whether the central nervous system is also affected, or 

whether it is a form of allergic reaction. 

Rock-wool fibers, glass fibers and other MMMFs from construction materials and 

insulation are another cause of discomfort. Other significant fiber-induced health effects, 

such as itching and irritation, have not been documented, but major studies dealing with 

this problem are underway. 

Productivity 

Through controlled laboratory investigations using test subjects, Wyon [7]' has studied 

how indoor temperature extremes affect achievement capabilities of human beings. Wyon 

has shown that productivity is a function of finger temperature. It is important, therefore, 

to be aware of the factors affecting this temperature. When it is cold, the hands quickly 

become cooler because blood circulation to peripheral parts of the body is reduced. This 

will rapidly reduce ability to work efficiently with the hands, or perform similar tasks (see 

Figure 6). Movement and clothing also affect finger temperature. Figure 6 also shows 

accident proneness and mental performance at various air temperatures. 

· Wyon has also examined the interaction between thermal stress and other stress 

factors, such as noise and light. Relationships with air quality have not, however, been 

investigated. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that stress caused by poor air quality 

will also result in reduced achievement levels. Figure 6 shows that extremely small 
114 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section V 

departures from an optimal indoor climate will quickly reduce productivity by five to ten 

percent for some individuals. 

Official statistics [8] show that males have, on average, 31 days a year with reduced 

activity due to illness; the corresponding·value for females is 46 days. Moreover, we know 

that approximately one-fourth of these values results from diseases of the eyes, ears and 

respiratory system. This finding suggests that there is room for improvement. 

Proposals for Remedial Measures 

To solve the problems of poor air quality by merely increasing the air volume is not 

technically and economically acceptable. We must, therefore, do whatever is possible to 

reduce the poJlutant concentration. The aim must be to achieve "low-olf buildings." 

Smoking 

Smoking often creates the most serious pollutant concentrations in the indoor 

climate. In practice, smoking will demand such large amounts of air that it is impossible 

to diJute the air to an acceptable level. With a consumption of one to two cigarettes an 

hour, a smoker wiJI pollute the air as much as would six people who do not smoke. If 

smoking indoors is to be permitted, it must take place in separate smoking rooms with 

separate ventilating systems. 

Buildings Materials and Processes 

Evaporation of pollutants from construction materials, interior waIJs, floors, ceilings, 

and other sources may result from many factors. In new buildings, evaporation can take 

place from hardening materials, including paints, adhesives, and wallboard. This 

evaporation can lead to a need for increased ventilation in the initial phases, perhaps as 

Jong as one year after occupation. The half-life for evaporation may vary from several 

weeks to four months. This evaporation rate can be partially reduced by knowledge about 

and sensible use of construction materials. For example, damp wal1board may give off 

formaldehyde, drying adhesives and paints release solvents or fission products from plastics 

and hardeners. 

Failing to clean the building before it is brought into use, particularly in places 

where users cannot see, can cause poor indoor air quality. The building must therefore 

be thoroughly cleaned before being used. 

The accumulative or storage effect of pollution in the materials increases with 

increasing surface area and thus is greater on "hairy" surfaces. This effect can support 

a strong argument against carpeted floors. The negative effects of carpeted floors are 

increased by damp conditions, condensation on cold floors, heavy wear, and inadequate 

cleaning. Proper everyday cleaning can reduce indoor air problems. Vacuuming, however, 

may pollute the air with large quantities of fine particles. This problem can be alleviated 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 115 

by installing a central vacuum-cleaning system. It is theoretically possible to filter the air, 

but vacuum cleaners with "allergy filters" have not been adequately tested so far. 

Photocopying machines, paper-shredding equipment and other frequently used paper 

handling machines should be situated in areas with separate exhaust zones. Use of impact 

paper can lead to problems because of the release of chemical exhaust steam. Paper dust 

and pollutants can be prevented by using enclosed shelving and files, and by having these 

extend to the ceiling, thus avoiding unnecessary dust-traps. 

More investigation needs to be conducted to learn whether using lower paneled 

ceilings leads to problems with the indoor climate because of the large horizontal surface 

areas which are inaccessible for cleaning. If this hypothesis is confirmed, lowered ceilings 

should be avoided. 

Other Precautions 

• 	 Concrete must be well dried before painting and carpeting to avoid fungal 

growth and bad odors. 

• 	 Rock-wool and glass fiber insulation-products must be sealed to avoid 

MMMFs from entering occupational zones. 

• 	 All particle board, including that in furniture, must be coated to avoid 

formaldehyde emissions. 

• 	 Glues and paints must be tested for emissions. 

• 	 Avoid plastic materials which emit odors. 

Ventilation Installations 

Ventilation installations must be cleaned before the building is brought into use and 

must be kept clean. Failure to do so can cause IAQ problems. Ducts should be 

degreased, and delivered to the site where they will be used with caps on the ends to be 

removed prior to fitting. Deposition of dust and other pollutants in the installations can 

also cause IAQ problems. Recirculated air must not be permitted anytime. 

Induction units permit local recirculation in the room and lead to reduced air quality, 

both because dust is recirculated and because substantial quantities of pollutants quickly 

build up in the unit itself. Additional problems can occur when cooling takes place 

because it can result in condensation in the unit, which provides favorable conditions for 

mites, fungi, and bacteria to develop when food particles are present in the unit. 

Induction units must therefore be avoided. 

Hygroscopical, rotating, heat recovery units can also develop water-soluble impurities. 

All rotating heat recovery devices recover cooking fumes. There is still some uncertainty 
116 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

as to whether they also recover other pollutants, but it is clear that non-hygroscopical heat 

recovery units become hygroscopical and recover pollutants when their surfaces become 

contaminated [9]. These units must therefore be easily accessible for inspection and 

cleaning. 

Heat recovery units must also be installed in such a way that leakages and excess 

pressure do not occur from the used air side. The installations must be checked for 

leakages both on delivery and during subsequent follow-ups. 

Poorly located inlet openings can result in large numbers of insects entering the air 

inlet plant and causing unacceptable air quality and the development of allergies and 

asthma. Dampness in the plant also leads to undesirable biological activity. 

Humidification should generally be avoided. If humidification takes place in the plant, 

technology must be used which safeguards against this sort of development. Intermediate 

storage of water can also promote biological development. Even though this water is 

subsequently boiled in a steam humidifier, the organic material produced in the 

intermediate storage tank may lead to undesirable effects. Intermediate storage tanks 

should therefore not be used. There is also a risk of condensation precipitation in the 

ducts. 

Use of contaminated materials in the ventilation installation must be avoided. When 

sound absorbers made of fiberglass and rock wool are being installed, ensure that the 

plant is cleaned after fitting and use materials that do not allow fibers to be introduced 

into the air handling system. This principle applies to internal surfaces from the air inlet 

through and including the supply valves. The installations must be accessible for 

inspection and cleaning; this must be written into the contract, and be verified on 

acceptance. 

Annual Costs and Optimal Indoor Climate 

The annual costs of a building consist of capital costs, administrative, operating, and 

maintenance costs. It has become more and more common to use annual costs as a 

decision-making tool when new buildings are being planned. The reason for this practice 

is because the costs during the operating phase increase relatively, particularly labor and 

power costs. The annual costs are often evaluated per square meter floor space. 

Obvious1y, the costs should be as Jow as possible. 

Employees are at the Center of the Stage 

AU modern businesses stress the fact that their staff is their most important resource 

and the most significant production factor. Therefore, it is only natural that investments 

and operating costs related to the health and well-being of the employees be viewed in 

relation to productivity and annual costs. 
.'.'/ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 117 

What is the Value of Improved Prnrluctivity? 

It is difficult to give an unamhiguous answer to this question with regard to office 

workers. One approach may he to examine wage-related costs. In Figure 7, the value of 

improved productivity is shown for different wage levels. 

Can the Indoor Climate Influence Productivity'! 

There are strong indications that the indoor climate can influence productivity. The 

best figures demonstrate the connection between performance and thermal indoor climate. 

Apart from this, we must resort more to assumptions and assessments of the influence 

that the person with the complaint has on productivity, and whether the number of days 

absent through illness can be reduced. In extreme cases, we have seen health authorities 

threatening to close buildings whose indoor climate has obviously been the cause of 

people's absence (e.g., sick building syndrome). It is, therefore, not unreasonable to 

assume that an improvement in air quality indoors can he1p promote a productivity 

improvement of up to three percent. 

Is there an Optimal Air Quality? 

Jn Figure 7, we have included a scd]e for air quality, measured in air volume per olf 

which suggests that an improvement in air quality from 3 to 6 l/s per olf will result in 

productivity improvements of up to three percent. In the same figure, we have included 

bars showing increased capital costs and energy costs when air quality is upgraded by 

increasing air volume. Increased energy costs <1ccmmt for only a small portion of this total 

increase. It is likely that some of these relationships may differ somewhat. But the 

margins seem to be so large th~-i_t the main conclusion is clear: it is very profitable to 

upgrade air quality, 

flow do we Upgrade Air Quality? 

A good principle for HY AC epginecrs has always been to first eliminate the source, 

and then dilute; the same principle applies here. rlbe correct approach must be to carry 

out measures to reduce the sources of pollution in our buildings, but it is also necessary 

to increase air volumes. The short-term objective must be to obtain fewer than five 

percent complaints about the indoor climate from users, as opposed to the present 35 

percent. 

Total Costs - Office Building 

I would again like to focus on the connection between building-related and 

employee-related cost<> in a building. A perfect indoor environment is the goal, and low 

energy consumption is a must, hut not if energy conservation interferes with the indoor 

environment. Total costs are far more than investments, energy, maintenance~ and 

deaning. 
118 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

Costs such as these are related to the building characteristics and its operating 

practices. But why do we put up a building in the first piace? It is, of course, because ':"e 

have some work to be done, and this can be accomplished in a less e)...lJensive way if 

producti\~ty is high. A good indoor environment is one of the most important methods 

of improving the efficiency of any staff. This is e]ementary - but do we in the building 

industry or the building owners act as we should? I am afraid not, and therefore I have 

started to develop an extended expression for total costs. Total costs must be related to 

the sum of wage-related costs and building costs. Let's look at an example: 

The task is putting up a new office building for 150 employees; size: 300 sq. ft. per 

employee; equivalent to 45,000 sq. ft. 

ALT. I ALT. II 


Normal IAQ ($US) 1'IAQ top" ($US) 


Average costs/sq. ft. $130 143 


Total costs (millions) $5.85 6.43 


Office costs pr. year 

(7%, 	15 years) $3.9 4.3 

Running costs/year $850 	 900 

Wage-related costs $53.0 	 53.0 

TOTAL COSTS $57.75 	 58.2 

House rental in 

percentage 3900 + 850 * 100 = 8,2 4300 + 900 * 100 = 8,9. 

57750 58200 

Difference: 0. 7% 

Conclusions 

By means of a current research project in Norway, we intend to find out how to 

upgrade the air quality indoors, and at the same time discover the consequences of doing 

so. The need for such an upgrading is recognized through the ever-increasing numbers 

of complaints from persons in modern office buildings. Even though the research is at an 

early stage and more information needs to be collected and systematized, we can draw the 

following conclusions: 

• 	 All substances, materials, fittings, and equipment must be looked upon 

as sources of pollution. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 119 

We need to develop methods for characterizing IAQ. Training groups of 

people to use their noses to judge air quality seems to be a useful way 

of accomplishing this characterization. All architects and planners must 

be made conscious of the need to minimize the pollution load. It is 

always cheapest in the long run to make the right decisions before 

beginning any drawings. All office:; and electronic data processing 

equipment in our office buildings produce a heat surplus which can be 

exploited for heating. The air-conditioning systems must be designed in 

such a way that heat recovery is possible. This practice, however, leads 

towards using more electricity and less thermal energy in order to meet 

the energy requirements. In upgrading the air quality, we can scarcely 

avoid increasing the air volume above the small volumes that have been 

implemented due to the energy conservation drive. 

• 	 Optimal air quality is capable of increasing productivity. With regard to 

the thermal indoor dimate, a five to ten percent reduction in productivity 

has been shown to occur with only small departures from an optimal 

climate. Moreover, we know that of registered cases of illness, 

approximately one-fourth are related to the eyes, nose, and the respiratory 

system. \Ve assume that productivity can be readily increased by up to 

three percent by im.proving the air quality. Even a productivity 

improvement of only one percent would more than cover the increased 

costs of upgrading the IAQ. These increased cost-; include energy costs 

and capital costs. 

• 	 Increased energy consumption as a result of upgrading the air quality 

may be 21.s mu.ch as eight percent. This increase has little financial 

significance for the individual employer or owner-builder. Any increase 

in energy consumption is undesirable from the viewpoint of society at 

large. A marginal increase for upgrading the air quality must, 

nevertheless, be looked upon from the viewpoint that demands for energy 

conservation have for a long time taken place at the expense of air 

quality. 
120 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

References 

l. 	 P.O. Fanger: "A solution to the sick building mystery" Proceedings of the 4th 

International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Berlin (Vest), 17.-21. 

Aug. 1987. 

2. 	 M.V. Pettenkofer: "Uber den Luftwecksel in Vohngehauden." Munchen 1958. 

3. 	 C.P. Yaglou, E.C. Riley, D.I. Coggins: "Ventilation requirements." ASHRAE 

Transactions, von. 42, 1936. 

4. 	 J.P. Haukenes: "Annual costs. Investments - operating cost productivity." Annual 

refresher-course days at the Technical University of Norway, Trondheim, 4.-6. Jan. 

1989 (In Norwegian). 

5. 	 "Indoor Climate and Energy Saving." Publication no. 5. The Committee for Health, 

Well-being, and Indoor Environment of the Norwegian Society of Chartered 

Engineers, 1988 (In Norwegian). 

6. 	 "After Indoor Air '87." Publication no. 4. The Committee for Health, Well-being, and 

Indoor Environment of the Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers, 1988 (In 

Norwegian). 

7. 	 W. Wyon: "Indoor Climate and Productivity." Annual refresher-course days at the 

Technical University of Norway, Trondheim, 1985. 

8. 	 Statistical Yearbook 1988. Central Bureau of Statistics of Norway. 

9. 	 Khoury G-A- et. al: "An Investigation of Reentrainment of Chemical Fume Hood 

Exhaust in a Recovery Unit." Am.Ind.Hyg. Assoc.J.49(2) 61-65 (1988). 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 121 

FIGURE l 

1 olf 

Fig: One olf Is the pollution from 


a standard person 


Professor P. Ole Fanger, DTH Copenhagen 
---------- 122 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on l.PtQ: Section V 

----·-·--·-~~ 

FIGURE 2 


1 2.4 

so 

140 


i 


i 30 


~ 24 ....... ....,.., 


a' 20 


4 5 7 9 11 13 
 ·.~:"J I' -~~-·' 

Bloefftuents 

from people 


retum • 
 ~to

snlnfh 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on I.AQ: Section V 123 

FIGURE 3 

Cluantified pollution sources 

Occupants 42 olf 

Space 58 olf 

System 62 olf 

Total 162 oH 

Fig: Mean values of pollution sources quantified in 

20 offices and assembly halls In Copenhagen 

Professor P. Ole Fanger, DTH Copenhagen 
124 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

FIGURE 

Heat 

loss 

Vent. 

Domestic 

hot water 

4 

Combustion lo-• 

Supply of 

energy from 

sun, people, etc 

Supply of 

electrical 

energy 

Supply of 

thermal 

energy 

Fig: Power flow of energy in 


an office building 

NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 125 

FIGURE 5 

kWh/m2 per year 244 8% 

Fig: Energy demand 

and sup~ly in a 

25.000 m2 office 

building located in Electrlca Trondheim, Norway, 

for different Thermal Thermal· 

ventllatlon volumes l 

I 

3 4 6,5 

Air quality l/s per olf 
126 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

f'IGURE 6 

150 

Accidents Fig: Indoor climate 

140 Men accidents, wor~ 

130 .efficiency and 

complaints 

120 (simplified) 

110 Non-sedentary

(0,1 clo) 1Gn. 

10 

90 

IO 

70 

eo 

50 
>I ATO CG;(S hlot Study on IAQ: Section V 127 

FIGURE 7 

.:1•

0 

u 

r'.'. fit:·;J ~"1..~ ~roductivity

tnr~p~rovement versus 

Ggst of upgrading 

~ndoor air quality 

trough Increasing 

the ventllatlon 

volume 
128 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 
l\ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 129 

Canada's Guidelines for 

Residential Indoor Air Quality: 

§:~:~'~:g,g,~:,!~:,i;~:~:g:;:~'!~~gg,~':!'iL/::::tt)'t'.\/:::: .,,?,, :::::::::::'·::.. :.:,,,,. 

Victor C. Armstrong 

M.E. (Bette) Meek 


Douglas S. Walkinshaw 


Department of National Health and Welfare 


Environmental Health Centre 

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Introduction 

In Canada, responsibility for developing and implementing measures to protect public 

health resides largely with the provincial governments. At the federal level, the 

Department of National Health and Welfare provides advice to the provinces on matters 

relating to public health and, through a federal/provincial committee structure, endeavors 

to establish health-based standards or guidelines in a consistent manner. Figure 1 shows 

the reporting relationships for committees involved in IAQ-related work: other committees 

have been convened to deal with health-related issues, such as drinking water quality, 

recreational water quality, noise, and risks posed to the pregnant worker. 

In the fall of 1980, the conference of Deputy Ministers of Health approved the 

establishment of the Federal-Provincial Working Group on IAQ to consider "a definition 

of acceptable air quality," the need for "objective and/or maximum acceptable 

concentrations for substances," and a "specification of ventilation rates, or recirculation 

criteria" for housing. The scope of the work was to be restricted to "domestic premises," 

with recommendations being developed to protect the general public, assuming continuous 

exposure to residential indoor air. It was not expected that economic factors be 

accounted for in arriving at the recommendations. 

The Working Group, comprising members from eight of Canada's provinces, was 

convened in September 1981 and, over the subsequent four years, reviewed the scientific 

literature on 17 substances or groups of substances (those listed in Tables I and II as 

well as relative humidity and formaldehyde). Technical support, including the preparation 

of criteria documents, was provided by the Federal Department of National Health and 

Welfare. Radon was also included initially, but assessment of this element was 
130 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

subsequently referred to the Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Radiation Surveillance 

because of its specialized knowledge on radioactivity. 

The Working Group presented its recommendations to the Federal-Provincial 

Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health in September 1985; the 

Advisory Committee slightly amended some of these recommendations based on an 

assessment of economic factors and practicability, after which the report was approved by 

the Conference of Deputy Ministers of Health. Since all of the provinces are represented 

on these two senior committees, the guidelines, in effect, are endorsed by all provincial 

agencies which have an interest in indoor air quality. 

Figure 1 

Organizational Structure For Developing 

Exposure Guidelines In C..anada 

CONFERENCE OF 


DEPUTY MINISTERS 


OF HEALTH 


FEDERAL-PROVfNCIAL 


ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON 


ENVIRONMENTAL AND 


OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH 


WORKING GROUP WORKING GROUP SUBCOMMITTEE OTHER 

ON INDOOR AIR ON INDOOR AIR ON RADIATION COMMITTEES/ 

QUALITY IN TI-IE QUALITY SURVEILLANCE WORKING 

OFFICE ENVIRONMENT (RESIDENTIAL) GROUPS 

TECHNICAL 

SECRETARIAT 

Methodology Used in Setting the Residential Guidelines 

Selection of Contaminants 

The Canadian Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality were 

formulated with the objective of protecting the health of the vast majority of the general 

public, including susceptible populations, such as the very young, the elderly, and persons 

with pre-existing health problems. These groups are especially of interest with respect to 

indoor air quality since they often spend most of their time indoors. Two broad objectives 

were set: 

• 	 To develop guidelines for the concentrations of selected contaminants of 

residential indoor air, taking into account such factors as the sensitivity of 

groups at special risk, and the sources and mechanisms of action of 

contaminants; and 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 131 

• 	 To develop, where practicable, other guidelines or recommendations for 

measures that will preserve or improve air quality in domestic premises. 

Individuals at special risk were defined as "those whose physiological processes are 

either not fully developed or are deteriorating or for whom pathological or physiological 

changes impair the ahility to surmount the adverse effects of exposure to a pollutant." 

The Working Group recognized that the exposure guidelines may not provide complete 

protection for the allergic or hypersensitive portion of the population. The second 

objective was established on the basis that lifestyle factors and actions taken by the 

homeowner or occupants can have a significant impact on the quality of residential indoor 

air. 

The 17 suhstances (or groups of substances) were chosen for inclusion in the 

guidelines because of their potential to adversely affect health and because they were 

considered to be representative of the categories of pollutants that might be present in the 

home. In part, the selection was based on the availability of information from which 

recommendations could be formulated. The list did not fully represent the range of 

compounds found in the home; guidelines for additional substances will be developed as 

new data become availahle. 

An important consideration in deriving exposure guidelines for air quality is the 

possibility of interactive effectc;, since many pollutants are likely to be present 

simultaneously in the home environment. Where possible, the potential for synergistic and 

additive effects was considered in deriving the guidelines. However, in most cases, there 

was insufficient data to adequately address this aspect. 

Selection of Studies to Support Guidelines 

Despite the recent widespread interest in indoor air quality, reliable information on 

the health effects of exposure to the low levels and mixtures of contaminants found in the 

indoor environment is still inadequate. In most cases, the results of laboratory 

experiments using animals, clinical studies with human volunteers, and epidemiological 

investigations of populations in the urban and occupational environments were used as a 

basis for developing the numerical guidelines. The principles followed in tht.: evaluation 

of the results of these different types of studies as a basis for the recommended IAQ 

guidelines are outlined below. 

Epidemiological Studies - Most of the relevant epidemiological studies of populations are 

observational (non-experimental) in nature and are either of the descriptive 

(cross-sectional) or analytical (cohort and case-control) type. The results of these studies 

were evaluated against the following features of study design: 

• 	 Estimation of Exposure - In most observational studies of populations 

exposed to air pollutants, data on exposure are usually ohtained from one 

or several outdoor monitoring stations. Exposure, however, can vary 
132 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

greatly between individuals living in the same neighborhood, because of 

local climatic conditions and special features of the indoor environment, 

e.g., use of unvented combustion appliances. 

• 	 Role of Confounding Variables - In observational studies of populations 

exposed to air pollutants, a host of confounding variables (e.g., 

socioeconomic status, smoking, occupational exposure, meteorological 

factors), many of which have greater effects than air pollution, must be 

considered. 

• 	 Measurement of Outcome - There is substantial variation in the method of 

measurement of many of the health-related parameters in the studies 

conducted to date; such parameters include lung function, hospital 

admissions and frequency of symptoms. In many of the studies, outcome 

(e.g., frequency of symptoms) is determined by questionnaire, and 

responses may be subject to bias. 

For these reasons, the epidemiological studies considered most relevant for 

developing the guidelines were longitudinal investigations in which (1) there was adequate 

control of appropriate confounding factors; (2) objective health outcomes were 

determined; and (3) there was some attempt to take into account individual variations in 

exposure. 

The resu]ts of epidemiological investigations of effects in the general population were 

considered more relevant than those of occupationally exposed populations for deriving 

the exposure guidelines since the young, the elderly, and other high-risk groups are not 

normally represented in the workforce. Moreover, exposure periods and the mixture of 

po11utants present in the occupational environment generally vary considerably from those 

in the general environment. 

Clillical Studies: Clinical studies provide the most reliable data from which to derive 

exposure-response relationships that form the basis for air quality standards. However, 

these studies are restricted for ethical reasons to the examination of mild, temporary 

effects of short-term exposures to one or a few po11utants in a limited number of subjects. 

As such, clinical studies are most suitable for developing short-term exposure limits. 

The clinical studies considered most relevant for the derivation of the exposure 

guidelines were those in which there were appropriate control groups and in which 

subjects were randomly allocated into control and treatment groups. Studies in which 

both the investigator and subjects were 11 blind11 (i.e., unaware of which subjects were 

exposed) in order to minimize bias were also preferred. 

Animal Studies: Although numerous studies of the effects of airborne pollutants in animal 

species have been conducted, levels of exposure have, in general, been much higher than 

those in ambient air. Extrapolation of these results in order to predict the risks to 

humans is complicated by the distinct anatomical differences between the respiratory tracts 

of animals and humans. In addition, studies are frequently confined to unusually high 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 133 

concentrations of no more than one or two pollutants, rather than to the low 

concentrations and mixtures of substances general found in the home. However, the 

results of such studies were used mainly to clarify the toxicity mechanism and to assess 

carcinogenicity, particularly \.\.ith regard to formaldehyde. 

The reliability of carcinogenesis bioassays in animal species was evaluated on the 

basis of several features of the design and the results of the study. These features 

included the size of the experiment (i.e., the numbers of exposed and control animals); the 

influence of environmental factors (e.g., diet); the route and method of exposure; the 

doses administered; the species, strain and sex of the animals; the type, site, incidence and 

time to development of tumors; and the nature of the exposure-response relationship. 

Information concerning kinetics, metabolism, and the mechanism of action was also 

considered in assessing the relevance of the results of carcinogenesis bioassays for man. 

Derivation of Numerical Guidelines 

Non-carcinogenic Substances: For some types of adverse health effects that result from 

exposure to toxic substances, it is assumed there is a threshold level of exposure below 

which it is believed that adverse effects will not occur. For such effects, the exposure 

guidelines were derived by division of the "lowest" or ''no-observed adverse effect level" 

documented in epidemiological or clinical studies by uncertainty factors; the size of these 

factors varied depending on the adequacy of the available data, the nature and severity 

of the effect, and variations amongst individuals. 

Based on these principles, the guidelines listed in Tahle I were developed. In order 

to take into consideration the possible effects of both prolonged exposures and 

shorter-term, higher-level exposures, two types of guidelines were established, provided 

that adequate data were available: 

• 	 Acceptable Long-Term Exposure Range (ALTER) - the concentration range 

to which it is believed from existing information that a person may be 

exposed over a lifetime without undue risk to health; and 

• 	 Acceptable Short-Term Exposure Range (ASTER) - the concentration range 

to which it is believed from existing information that a person may be 

exposed over the specified time period without undue risk to health. 

The World Health Organization has used a factor of two to account for uncertainties 

in data from observational studies in deriving guidelines for daily and annual exposure to 

air pollutants; this value was adopted in deriving the upper limit of the ALTERs for 

carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. It must be 

stressed that the guideline for carbon dioxide was developed to protect against undesirable 

changes in acid-base balance and consequential adaptive changes, such as the release of 

calcium from the bones. The establishment of a more stringent guideline for carbon 

dioxide on the basis that it would serve as a surrogate for adequate ventilation was not 

recommended by the Working Group. 
134 NATO CCMS 	Pilot Study on lAQ: Section V 

Table I: 

Contaminants With Numerical Exposure Guidelines 

Acceptable Range μg/m3 (ppm) 

Contaminant Health Effects!Y ASTER ALTER 

c./C.I < l~ 5min 

irritation 

Aldehydes 	 Eye, nose, throat I 

Carbon dioxide 	 Acidosis <6300 ( <3500) 

Carbon monoxide 	 Adverse effects on (< 11y1 Sh 


cardiovascular 


system ( <25)£/ lh 


Nitrogen dioxide Respiratory disease; <480 ( <0.25) lh < 100 ( < 0.05) 

Ozone respiratory <240 ( <0.12) lh 

Particulate irritation; and < 100 lh <40 

matter& impaired lung 

Sulfur dioxide function < 1000( <0.38) 5 min <50 (<0.019) 

gJ 	 Health effects considered are described in relevant sections of reference 1. 

hi 	 Ci= 120 μg/m3 (formaldehyde); 50 μglm3 (acrolein); 9000 μglm3 (acetaldehyde), 

and ci are the respective measured concentrations. 

f:/ 	 In parts per million only, so as to be independent of ambient pressure. 

QI 	 < 2.5 μm mass median aerodynamic diameter. 

In instances where there was sufficient evidence of transient changes in groups at 

risk (for example, changes in pulmonary function in exercising asthmatics) in wellconducted clinical studies, an uncertainty factor was not incorporated in the derivation of 

the upper bound of the ASTERs. Reliable data were available on transient physiological 

or biochemical changes in human subjects with pre-existing health problems who were 

exposed to carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter, and, therefore, 

an uncertainty factor was not incorporated. 

Clinical studies indicate that both normal and asthmatic subjects can experience 

detrimental respiratory effects when exposed for brief periods to nitrogen dioxide 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 135 

Table II. Contaminants for which Numerical Guidelines were not set 

Contaminant 

Biological Agents 

Consumer Products0 

system; 

- chlorinated hydrocarbons 

- pest control products 

- product aerosols 

Fibrous Materials 

Lead 

Polycyclic Aromatic 

Hydrocarbons (P AHs) 

Tobacco Smoke 

respiratory 

Possible Health Effect~ 

Infectious disease; allergies 

Damage to central nervous 

allergic reactions 

Lung cancer; skin irritation 

Learning impairment; 

neurological 

disorders 

Lung cancer 

Lung cancer; sensory and 

irritation 

a Health effects considered are described in relevant sections of reference 1. 

b Data on the three subgroups were considered separately, 
136 KATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

concentrations of about 960 μg/m3 [3,4]. However, it was not possible to identify the level 

at which no adverse effects occur; in addition, no data were available from clinical studies 

for children, a sensitive subgroup. Therefore, an uncertainty factor of two was applied to 

derive the ASTER for this substance. Because of the wide variation in individual 

susceptibility to the irritant effects of aldehydes, the ASTERs for acrolein, acetaldehyde, 

and formaldehyde were derived by applying a factor of five to the lowest concentration 

reported to cause a significant increase in symptoms of irritation. The guideline is 

expressed for total aldehydes to account for the possible presence of more than one of 

the aldehydes. 

Carcinogenic Substances: It is generally accepted that carcinogenesis is a non-threshold 

phenomenon; therefore, it is assumed that there is a probability of harm at any level of 

exposure. While exposure to known or suspected carcinogens should therefore be avoided, 

it is not possible to eliminate certain carcinogens from the environment. Moreover, the 

incremental risks associated with exposure to the low levels of carcinogens present in the 

environment may be sufficiently small so as to be essentially negligible in comparison with 

other risks encountered in society. 

Available data indicate that formaldehyde may be carcinogenic to man. This 

substance was found to be carcinogenic in two strains nf rats, producing a high incidence 

of nasal squamous cell carcinomas (38 -50 percent) following exposure to a formaldehyde 

concentration of approximately 18 mglm3 (15 ppm) [5,6]. Formaldehyde was also found 

to be genotoxic in a number of assays and weakly mutagenic in cultured human cells as 

well as in other mamma1ian ce11s, Drosophila, fungi, and bacteria. 

Although the epidemiological studies conducted to date provide little convincing 

evidence that formaldehyde is carcinogenic in human populations, this possibility could not 

be excluded by the Working Group because of limitations of the data. Therefore, the 

long-term exposure guidelines for formaldehyde were set as low as possible taking into 

account the feasibility of remedial measures. The guidelines, are expressed both in terms 

of an ''action level'' of 120 μg/m3 (0.10 ppm), the lowest concentration considered to be 

feasible at the present time, and a longer term "target level" of 60 μgfm3 (0.05 ppm). The 

guidelines also state "that in the future, and where remedial measures are taken, every 

effort be made to reduce (formaldehyde) concentrations to below the target level." 

Based on a model which takes into account some of the mechanistic toxicological 

data, the maximum risk of cancer for continuous lifetime exposure to the levels specified 

in the guidelines is in the range of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 100,000. It seems likely that these 

calculated risks are overestimated because of the conservative assumptions upon which the 

mathematical model is based, and the lack of understanding of the mechanisms by which 

formaldehyde may induce cancer. 

Relative Humidity: Extremes of humidity are primarily associated with sensations of 

discomfort or annoyance. The Canadian Working Group on IAO, however, developed its 

relative humidity (RH) guidelines to protect occupants from health hazards that might 

arise indirectly from too much or too little humidity. Several species of bacteria and 

viruses survive best at low or high, rather than intermediate, levels of humidity. 
KATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 137 

Condensation of water on cold surfaces (e.g., on windows in winter, and on basement 

floors and plumbing in the summer) can also promote the growth, and hence potential 

for airborne dispersion, of mites and allergenic or mycotoxin-producing molds. 

Furthermore, the behavior of other pollutants, notably the release of formaldehyde from 

wood products and insulation, can be affected by humidity levels. Two guidelines were 

therefore specified; 30 - 80 pen.:ent RH for the non-heating season, and 30 - 55 percent 

RH for the heating season. In the latter case, a provision was allowed to relax the lower 

limit so that condensation on windows does not occur. 

Guidance Respecting Other Indoor Contaminants 

Table II lists other contaminants or groups of contaminants which are likely to be 

present in residential indoor environments and which are potentially hazardous to human 

health. The development of quantitative exposure guidelines for these parameters was, 

however, considered to be inappropriate for the folJowing reasons: 

• 	 For some groups of substances, individual components have widely 

differing toxicological properties -- the complexity of the mixtures 

precluded establishing a guideline for each constituent or for the group 

as a whole; 

• 	 Limiting airborne concentrations was not considered to be the appropriate 

strategy for effectively reducing intake, especially where inhalation is not 

the most significant route of exposure; and 

• 	 Available scientific data were inadequate. 

For these substances, information on possible sources in residential indoor ai1 and 

potential adverse health effects was provided; in addition, recommendations that should 

help to eliminate or reduce exposure were given. 

Application of the Residential Guidelines 

In Canada, no single agency or organization has sole responsihility for investigating 

and controlling the potential health impacts of indoor air pollutants. Moreover, in the 

case of residential buildings, involvement by government may, on the one hand, be viewed 

as an intrusion and, on the other, as a necessity. The complexity of the situation is well 

illustrated by the wide variety of approaches that are possible for controlling exposure to 

airborne pollutants that may be present in indoor environments. These approaches 

include: 

• 	 Ventilation; 

• 	 Source removal or substitution; 

• 	 Source modification; 

• 	 Source avoidance; 

• 	 Air purification; 
138 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

• Restrictions on the use of potentially hazardous chemicals in the home; 

• Certification programs for builders and trades people; 

• Mandatory courses for engineers and building designers; and 

• Educational programs for the general public. 

These approaches need not be mutually exclusive and corrective measures could 

involve a balanced application of several or all of them. The extent to which controls 

need to be exercised should be determined to a large degree by specifications or criteria, 

which define a quality of air that is conductive to good health and comfort. It was for 

this reason that the "Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Qua1ity11 were 

developed. Although these guidelines have been approved by government departments 

across the country, they are neither mandatory nor enforceable as standards. It is 

expected, however, that the guidelines will assist individuals and public health agencies in 

making consistent judgments about the need for remedial measures. In the longer term, 

it is anticipated that the national guidelines wi11 be used as a basis for developing or 

modifying building codes, product standards for construction materials and furnishings, and 

ventilation requirements. In this regard, the committee, which participated in the revision 

of ASHRAE 62-1981, proposed that the Canadian guidelines be included in an appendix 

of the new standard. 

It must be stressed that the Canadian exposure guidelines are not intended to apply 

to other indoor environments, such as office building or other work places where factors 

such as multiple occupancy may be important. 

Related Programs 

Residential Guidelines for Radon 

The development of a guideline for radon in Canadian housing has been under 

review since 1985 by the Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Radiation Surveillance and 

the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health. 

Inhalation of radon and radon daughters leads to exposure of the bronchial tissue 

of the lungs to radioactive substances with a resultant risk of cancer. More than 95 

percent of the radiation dose results from the deposition of the radon daughters. The 

increased risk of lung cancer among uranium miners exposed to radon and radon 

daughters has been well documented in a number of epidemiological studies. Therefore, 

since radon is a documented human carcinogen, indoor levels should be reduced as much 

as possible. 

The Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Radiation Surveillance initially proposed 

that a single "action level" of 800 Bq/m3 be adopted as an exposure guideline for radon 

in C.anadian housing. The subcommittee recommended this level as the annual average 

concentration above which remedial measures should be initiated in existing homes. This 

proposal is under review by the federal and provincial governments, and it is likely that 

a more stringent "target level" will also be specified. The target level, in effect, would be 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 139 

a long-term goal that should <::ncourage both the development of technology that would 

enahle or facilitate the implementation of remedial measures, and attainment of lower 

levels in new buildings in the future. The approach would thus be similar to that followed 

in developing the long-term exposure guidelines for formaldehyde. 

Guidelines for the Office Environment 

As a result of an increasing number of complaints about air quality in Canadian 

office buildings, the Conference of Deputy Ministers of Health approved, in February 

1987, the establishment of a Working Group to assess the problem of air quality in the 

office environment and to develop recommendations for actions to deal with this issue. 

The Federal-Provincial Working Group on Air Quality in the Office Environment 

subsequently met twice and concluded that complaints about office air quality should be 

addressed by developing a standard investigation protocol. The protocol should involve 

various levels of investigation and include a walk-through inspection; measurement of 

contaminant levels, ventilation rates, and thermal comfort; and an assessment of the 

prevalence of symptoms of i11-health and discomfort. It is likely that this approach will be 

examined in further detail by a working group under the auspices of the Federal-Provincial 

Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health. 
140 NA TO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Seerion V 

References 

1. 	 Health and Welfare Canada, Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality; 

Supporting Documentation, unpublished report. 

2. 	 World Health Organization, Sulfur Oxides and Suspended Particulate Matter, 

Environmental Health Criteria 8, Geneva, 1979. 

3. 	 T.J. Kulle, Air Pollution bv Nitrogen Oxides, Elsevier Scientific Pub1ishing company. 

Amsterdam, 1982, pp. 477-486. 

4. 	 H.D. Kerr, T.J. Kulle, M.L. Mcilhany and P. Swidersky, "Effects of nitrogen dioxide 

on pulmonary function in human subjects: an environmental chamber study," Env. 

Res. 19: 392 (1979). 

5. 	 W.D. Kerns, K.L. Pavkov, D.J. Donofrio, E.J. Gralla and J.A. Swenberg, 

"Carcinogenicity of formaldehyde in rats and mice after long-term inhalation 

exposure." Cancer Res. 43: 4382 (1983). 

6. 	 A.R. Sellakur, C.A. Snyder, J.J. Solomon, R.E. Albert, "Carcinogenicity of 

formaldehyde and hydrogen chloride in rats," J. Toxicol. App. Phamacol. 

81: 401 (1985). 

7. 	 World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, Indoor Air Quality 

Research, EURO Reports and Studies 103, World Health Organization, Copenhagen, 

1986. 

8. 	 Committee on Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Health Risks of 

Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters, BEIR VI, National Academy 

Press, Washington, D.C., 1988. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 141 

Canadian Ventilation and 

Venting Standards ~:~ :;: :.,;:::. ·: :: ·:·:::::;:~·::~:::::~:t~\:~·:~ :r/:~:: ·;::: ·~ :;t~\tt\~··;::; :~:~:-::::;:;}}~~t~~~t:;\r~:f:~{trn~;;:~~:t~:?~-~;:j/;:~r~:~ttW;t~;~~;t\tJ}:~:t:t;:\~:r~~:~~J?I~·u 

Jim H. White 

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation 

Introduction 

Field, laboratory, and theoretical research has shown a strong relationship between 

ventilation practices and venting problems with combustion appliances. The ventilated 

house can become a much better competing chimney than the designated combustion 

appliance venting system, causing the supposedly vented appliance to spill combustion 

products into the house, sometimes completely and in a totally stable mode. Even in 

leaky houses, this situation is undesirable, because of the total volume of combustion 

products that can be released each year. As a result of this research, new test equipment, 

products, and procedures, have been developed. In addition, building and installation 

codes for appliances, as well as equipment and component standards, are being modified. 

The Codes and Standards System 

The Associate Committee for the National Building Code (ACNBC) revises its model 

document on a five-year cycle. The next revision will take effect in 1990 [revisions have 

been completed]. 

The code is used for Federal buildings and for the territories, but the provinces have 

the direct responsibility for housing and health matters. The provinces may choose to 

adopt the model code unchanged, or may amend it, by addition or deletion, to suit their 

unique requirements and/or perceptions. Most municipalities are given the authority and 

responsibility for enforcing the codes. The provinces arrange for inspections in areas 

which do not have their own capability. The code may reference standards developed by 

Standards Writing Organizations (SWOs), or may select specific requirements from those 

standards (or from their own requirements, based on local experience) for incorporation 

into their provincial codes. 

Coordinating Committee on Combustion Venting of the ACNBC 

The ACNBC has authorized the establishment of this new committee to coordinate 

the interrelated requirements for venting of combustion products and ventilating indoor 

spnces. The committee is composed of representatives of the many ventilation and 
142 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 

venting code and standards groups and committees, and their associated industries. The 

committee's task is to ensure that a coordinated set of requirements, and changes in 

requirements, is submitted for the 1995 revision of the code, especially as they pertain to 

Part 9. The development of CSA F326, "Residential Ventilation Requirements," is 

intended to set the stage for this coordination, hut other codes and standards will require 

amendment. 

The 1990 Code Requirements 

Continuous mechanical ventilation, at 0.3 air changes per hour averaged over any 24­

hour period, must be installed, subject to Part 6 of the code, if the system installed is 

not a simple, exhaust-only system; and subject to prescriptive requirements of Section 

9.33, for simple systems. The prescriptive requirements include incorporation of make-up 

air openings, if appliances susceptible to pressure-induced spillage are installed, unless 

testing shows excessive depressurization is not a problem. A table of sizes of make-up air 

openings is provided, based on a depressurization limit of five Pascals. An Appendix to 

the Code Requirements provides an extensive commentary and examples. 

CSA F326 on Residential Mechanical Ventilation Requirements 

CSA F326 is essentially an interpretation of ASHRAE 62-1989 for single-family 

dwelling units under normal occupancy conditions. CSA F326 is designed so that the 

system can supply the greater of a room rate summation of flows or 0.3 ACH (but can 

he switched off by the occupant). The system can be a supply-only, exhaust-only, or 

nominally balanced mechanical system. CSA F326 ignores uncontrolled ventilation. 

Pressurization is limited to ten Pa, or to a flow of 0.12 l/s/m2 of envelope area to limit 

forced-outflow condensation. Depressurization is limited to ten Pa (only for the 

ventilation system). For a system with a clothes dryer, with the two largest exhaust 

devices operating, CSA F326 provides for five Pa if spill or backdraft sensitive appliances 

are installed; ten Pa if only induced draft appliances are installed; or 20 Pa if only sealed 

(or not any) combustion appliances are used. 

CSA documents and status are as fo11ows: 

• F326. l Requirements (preliminary standard issued) 

• F326.2 InstaUation Requirements (in printing) 

• F326.3 Performance Verification (drafted) 

• F326.4 Design Guidelines (under preparation) 

Appliance Installation Codes 

Some effort is underway to revise all of the major installation codes and appliance 

standards. The installation codes (plus one equipment standard) include: 

• CSA 8139 - Installation Code for Oil Burning Equipment 

• CGA 8149 - Natural Gas Installation Code 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 143 

• CSA 13365 - Installation Code for Solid Fuel Burning Appliances and 

Equipment 

• CSA A405 - Design and Construction of Masonry Chimneys and 

Fireplaces 

CSA B 139 - Installation Code for Oil Burning Equipment 

The committee is preparing a major revision, after many years of inaction. The 

new version will include revised sizing requirements for vents, plus a minimum a11owable 

chimney-base gas temperature, designed to eliminate steady-state condensation. The 

version incorporates sizes of newly-designed liners which incorporate mechanical alignment 

(spigots, rabbets, etc.), with sizing based on a flue gas velocity range (one to two m/s ). 

Gas temperatures at the chimney base are designed to prevent the liner temperature at 

the exit from going below 600C. This change may lead to radical redesign of chimneys, 

with more effective insulation values, and more reliable venting. 

CGA B149 - Natural Gas Installation Code 

The committee is awaiting a major, system-level study of sizing and insulation 

requirements for depressurized house conditions. The committee has already 

recommended downsizing of vents from historical levels. The next major revision is 

due in 1991. The changes should result in more reliable venting, even in competitive 

situations. 

CSA B365 - Solid Fuel Burning Equipment Installation Code 

CSA B365 is presently under a significant revision program, under which fresh air 

intakes will be given much more prominence. Flue sizing recommendations are being 

redeveloped, and may result in significant downsizing. Coordination with CSA A405 on 

masonry chimneys and fireplaces is assured through multiple common memberships. 

CSA A405 - Design and Construction of Masonry Chimneys and Fireplaces 

A405 is being significantly revised, with the intent of having it become more of a 

stand-alone document, and better justified by theory as well as laboratory and field 

testing, so that CSA A405 can be used by more local authorities. Sizing recommendations 

are being developed by CMHC for use with oil appliances (as per B139), and by Energy, 

Mines and Resources Canada, CCRL, for fireplaces. In both cases, recommended sizes 

will be smaller and insulation will be required. Much more research must be done 

before all important questions have been addressed. 
144 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 
Section VI 


Solving Problems in Buildings 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 145 

Indoor Air Quality Building 

Surveys Case Studies 

'.::. ~·:>::?:::t~=::rrr:::.:./;~-=::\::::; :) :::;~/;~:\t~:ttr~.:::·:·::::::=>\~~:~~=t::~~;:xr?t;::~.~:.?r~\t/·;:::::t; ~::::·t~\:(?:=:=:J~:: ;;~r;~:~.=r.:;:.~:::r:::;~:::::::·: :·. :·: ·..:.::::~ 

Tedd ~athanson 

Senior Engineer 

Building Air Quality Technology 

Public Works Canada 

In view of the general principle that a provincial legislature or municipal council 

cannot bind the Parliament of Canada, the Government of Canada has the exclusive 

responsibility to take such measures as may appear necessary or advisable to protect the 

property of Canada, and to provide safe and healthful working conditions and procedures 

for alJ persons who occupy or visit this property. 

The Canada L-ibor Code, Pan II, Occupational Safety and Health states that in the 

undertaking of any federal work and for companies under inter-provincial charter every 

employer shall: 

• 	 Ensure that the safety and health at work of every person employed is 


protected [ 124]; 


• 	 Ensure that all permanent and temporary buildings and structures meet 


the prescribed standards [125(a)]; 


• 	 Ensure that the levels of ventilation, lighting, temperature, humidity, 


sound and vibration are in accordance with prescribed standards [125(n)]; 


and 


• 	 Ensure that all hazardous substances in the workplace are controlled in 


accordance with prescribed standards [125.1( a)]. 


The Canada Labor Code authorizes the Department of L'lbor to prescribe and 

enforce concentration limits of chemical, biological, and physical agents in the workplace. 

Canada Occupational Safety and Health Regulations specify that the limit shall he less 

than the threshold limit value (TLV) adopted by the American Conference of 

Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGII I). Unfortunately, ACGIH threshold limit 

values are set for industrial workplaces and not for office environments. As a result, the 

TLV may he several orders of magnitude higher than office workplace levels. 
146 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Treasury Board Personnel Management Manual Chapter 3, also deemed part of 

collective agreements with ci\.il service unions, cites that, to the "extent practicable," 

ASHRAE standards should be applied in the workplace environment. To the extent 

practicable, the environmental conditions to be maintained in office buildings shall 

conform to the requirements specified in ASHRAE Standard 55-1981, "Thermal 

Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy" and ASHRAE Standard 62 -1981, 

"Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality." 

ASHRAE Standard 62-1981 has been revised to 62-1989 and prescribes two methods 

for ensuring acceptable IAQ. One method, the Ventilation Rate Procedure, provides a 

ventilation rate in liters per second (l/s) per person chosen to control C02 and other 

contaminants. For offices, 10 1/s per person is prescribed, which is equivalent to 

approximately 800 ppm C02• 

The other method, the IAQ procedure, provides a direct solution by restricting the 

concentrations of certain contaminants to some specified acceptable level. This method 

recognizes that there may be strong sources of contaminants irrespective of occupant 

density (e.g., _C02). Examples of such sources are: processes (such as a printing shop); 

building materials or furnishings; cleaning and maintenam:e materials; and improper 

building system operation and maintenance. 

While the ASHRAE standard is a good one, it does not mitigate the need for expert 

help and judicious interpretation. Certainly a C02 reading of unr:ler 800 ppm does not 

guarantee a good environment. In addition, ventilation is simply a process of dilution: 

contamination levels are decreased by increasing ventilation. More expedient (and 

cheaper) methods of insuring good indoor air quality include removing the contaminant 

source (if possible), directly exhausting the contaminant, and selecting a less toxic 

contaminant substitute. 

While the regulatory aspects of indoor air quality are based on ACGIH and 

ASHRAE standards, there are certain shortcomings in this approach: 

• 	 ASHRAE's definition of acceptable air quality is very broad: "Air in 

which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations 

determined by cognizant authorities and with which a substantial majority 

(80 percent or more) of the people exposed do not express 

dissatisfaction." 

• 	 Exposure limits are designed for use in industrial occupational 

environments, where there is exposure to high concentrations of a smalJ 

number of pre-identified compounds. The existing occupational health 

standards rely only on studies addressing one compound at a time, and 

do not reflect the possible additive or synergistic effect of multiple 

exposures in office spaces. In fact, office workers are exposed to a broad 

spectrum of contaminants, present at very low concentrations relative to 

permissible exposure levels. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Vl 147 

• 	 Only a fraction of the possible number of contaminants in indoor air 

have an exposure limit. New materials, products, office equipment, and 

processes generate tens of thousands of chemicals, especially organic 

compounds. Buildings cultivate and disseminate a multitude of 

micro-organisms, including fungi, spores, mold, and bacteria. 

Epidemiological studies and limits on exposure to these contaminants, 

some of which are mycotoxic or carcinogenic, have not yet emerged. 

• 	 Occupational standards do not seem to apply to office requirements. The 

composition of the work forces is also different and perhaps a 

contributing factor: there are more healthy, younger males in industrial 

workplaces. Neither does the standard address the hypersensitive 

individual nor the differences in "environmental expectations" between 

industrial and office workers. 

It is clear that a lot more research and study is needed before adequate and 

complete IAQ standards are available. 

This discussion on IAQ standards and regulations may appear rather daunting; 

however, in the majority of problem building cases, a solution is found. According to the 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (see Table 1) studies, no cause 

could be determined in only 12 percent of the buildings. 

In conducting an IAQ survey, a standard protocol should be followed: 

1. 	 Preliminary discussions and interviews to establish the possible 

problem areas, a walkthrough and inspection of the building systems, 

and a review of the drawings, control logic, and other pertinent 

documentation; 

2. 	 Simple measurement of selected parameters, such as COz, CO, 

temperature, humidity, presence of microbia1s, and air movement; 

3. 	 More complex measurement of volatile organic compounds (pump, 

charcoal tube, GC/MS or photoionization detector), particulates 

(pump, filter or light-scatter detector), radon (alpha etch detector, 

sniffer), air velocity (hot-wire anemometer), air volume (flow hood), 

and ventilation effectiveness and circulation (tracer gas, GC). 

In many cases, the problem (and possible solution) becomes apparent during the 

walkthrough, and simple measurements may be taken to confirm the hypothesis. 

Finally, why do we care about comfort criteria? Because poor indoor air lowers 

productivity and increases absenteeism costs! Over a 50-year span, building capital costs 

two to four percent, building operating cost-; six to eight percent, and salaries cost 88 - 92 

percent of the total building expenditure. 
148 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

TABLE 1 

NIOSH IAQ IJ'j'VESTIGATIONS (1979 · 1986) 

Problem Type Completed Percent 

Inadequate Ventilation 232 52 

Contamination (inside) 75 17 

Unknown 54 12 

Contamination (outside) 50 11 

Contamination (microbial) 22 5 

Contamination (building fabric) 13 3 

TOTAL: 446 100 

Complaint Percent of Buildings 

Eye Irritation 81 


Dry Throat 71 


Headache 67 


Fatigue 53 


Sinus Congestion 51 


Skin Irritation 38 


Shortness of Breath 33 


Cough 24 


Dizziness 22 


Nausea 15 

NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 149 

CASE STUDY - A 

Description 

Large downtown office building, 25 floors with a four-story underground garage. Floor 

area of 26,000 square meters. 

Problem 

Complaints of headaches, lethargy, and fainting spells from personnel in the 3rd floor 

conference translation booths. A study has been previously done, sampling six sites for 

CO.z, temperature, and humidity (at a cost of Sl,350). All measurements were found to 

be within ASHRAE standards. Recommendations were made to increase the outdoor air 

supply. 

Measurements 

co 	 8 ppm booth (10:00 a.m.) 

12 ppm corridor (2:30 p.m.) 

16 ppm stairwell (2:30 p.m.) 

170 ppm garage (5:00 p.m.) 

C02 450 - 500 ppm 

Temperature 20.5 - 21.Z'C 

Humidity 12 - 19% RH 

Formaldehyde 0.05 ppm 

Total YOCs 2.13 - 4.20 mg!m3 (hydrocarbons) 

Observations 

• 	 Boards placed to close to garage fresh air louvers; 

• 	 Garage heating system shut off; 

• 	 Main humidification boiler shut off; 

• 	 Humidistats and controllers defective and/or disconnected; 

• 	 Air handling filtering system and mixing plenums dirty and in disrepair; and 

• 	 Roll filter system not operating, frames damaged. 

Recommendations 

• 	 Open and operate garage ventilation/heating system. ASHRAE CO standards are 

9 ppm (8 hours) and 50 ppm (1 hour). 

• 	 Monitor garage attendant booth for CO levels, pressurize if required. 

• 	 Operate at a minimum humidity level of 20 percent RH; calibrate humidity controls. 

• 	 Repair, clean, and maintain air handling and filtering systems. 
150 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

• Implement operating and maintenance guidelines for building systems operation. 

Notes 

• 	 A meeting was required prior to survey due to the questions and concerns of 

employees, union, management, and the building owner. 

• 	 A court injunction was obtained against landlord to unblock and operate garage 

ventilation system. 

• 	 Volatile organic compounds sampling was conducted but analysis was not required. 
~ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 151 

CASE STUDY · B 

Description 

Rectangular, two-story multi-purpose office building, 32,500 square meters, facing a ten 

lane road. Occupancy between 800 - 1,200 employees. Built in 1955. 

Problem 

Belief that vehicle emissions were entering building fresh air intake situated at ground 

level, facing the road. Complaints of headaches and general lack of well-being. 

Measurements 

CO 0 - 4 ppm (7 ppm outside) 

C02 375 - 650 ppm 

Lead not detected (sampled by pump and filter; analyzed by X-ray 

fluorescence spectroscopy) 

Temperature 22 - 24.5°C 

Humidity 24 - 34% RH 

Formaldehyde less than 0.1 ppm 

Total VOCs 17.98 mg/m3 (toluene 3.7 mglm3

, n-decane 2.8 mglm3

, 

methyk)'clohexane 1.6 mglm1

) 

Observations 

• 	 Three offset printers in print shop unvented (except via return air); 

• 	 Improper storage of solvents and disposal of cleaning rags; 

• 	 Poor maintenance and housekeeping; 

• 	 Ceiling tiles missing, broken or soiled, dirty and cluttered hallways, storage of boxes, 

racks, and other items in hallways; and 

• 	 Humidity control for each system achieved by measurement of the supply air 

humidity level (by probe and gauge) and then by manual adjustment of the 

humidifier. 

Recommendations 

• 	 Install a dedicated exhaust system for the offset printers. 

• 	 Install an approved vented paint and solvent storage cabinet and refuse container. 

• 	 Repair and paint ceiling tiles. 

• 	 Increase housekeeping efforts and schedule day-shift cleaning. 

• 	 Remove all items stored in hallways. 
152 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

• Automate humidity control. 

Notes 

• 	 A total volatile organic compound (TVOC) leve1 of 17.98 mglm3 is way above 

expected values. Although no standard or guide1ines currently exist for TVOC levels, 

research by Molhave of Denmark suggests that complaints of sensory irritation and 

dryness in nose and eye, which are frequently symptoms of sick building syndrome, 

occur at concentrations above 2.0 mglm3 (ASHRAE Transactions 1986 V.92). The 

American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) proposed a TVOC guide1ine of 5.0 

mg/m3 (approximately one ppm) at the 1987 IAQ Berlin Conference. ACGIH 

TLVs exist for toluene (375 mglm3) and for methylcyclohexane (1,600 mg/m3). The 

measured values are 1/100 and 1/1,000 of the TLV respectively, underscoring the 

problem of using industrial workplace standards in the office environment. 

Public Works building TVOC samples have ranged from 0 to 6 mg/m3. Clearly 

more investigation is required, especially in the related art:as of material off-gassing, 

"bake-off of new buildings, and building commissioning, retrofit, and re-carpeting. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Sludy on IAQ: Section VI 153 

CASE STUDY • C 

Description 

A twin-tower, 11-story downtown office building, contammg three interconnected 

commercial floors and an 11-story atrium in each tower. Built in 1976, each floor is 3,000 

square meters, containing hoth open plan and enclosed offices. 

Problem 

Non-specific occupant complaints concerning poor IAQ and temperature vanat10ns. 

Multi-disciplinary studies (lighting, thermal comfort, ventilation, acoustics, functional space 

analysis, and air quality) were conducted. 

Measurements 

0 - 0.5 ppm 

525 - 750 ppm 

(fresh air supply 380, 420, 425 ppm and 400, 450, 475 ppm in two 

mechanical rooms) 

Outdoor C02 370 ppm 


Temperature 21.4 - 24°C 


Humidity 19 - 22% RH 


Formaldehyde 0.15 - 0.22 ppm (ASHRAE 0.1 ppm) 


Total VOCs 0.12 - 5.77 mglm3 (13 samples) 


Particulates 10 μg/m3 ( respirable) 


Observations 

• 	 Fresh air supply C02 levels indicate an external pollutant source; 

• 	 Inspection on roof confirmed re-entrainment of exhaust air (25 percent by 

calculation); and 

• 	 High levels of formaldehyde and TVOCs due to new fit-up of space (off-gassing of 

furnishings, partitions and carpeting) and re-entrainment of exhaust air. 

Recommendations 

• 	 Redesign two exhaust systems to eliminate re-entrainment into the fresh air intakes, 

and operate ventilation system continually (24 hours per day) in retrofit areas to 

reduce voe emission. 

• 	 Increase humidity to a minimum of 25 percent RH. 
154 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Notes 

• 	 Eight out of 13 sampling sites had TVOC concentrations greater than 2.0 mglm3

, 

including two locations greater than 5.0 mg!m3

• Individual compounds were 

measured between 0.015 - 0.004 percent of the TL Vs. 

• 	 No other major environmental problems were noted in the other disciplines. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 155 

CASE STUDY - D 

Description 

A four-story, "E" shaped building, 12,000 square meters, consisting of office space and a 

cafeteria. Six HVAC systems condition the interior environment. Built in 1955. 

Problem 

Sick building symptoms, complaints of discomfort such as allergic reactions at work, which 

disappear on weekends. Streaking of ceiling adjacent to air diffusers. 

Measurements 

C02 	 575 - 725 ppm 

Temperature 21.3 - 23.S°C 

Humidity 21.3 - 28.6% RH 

Particulates ND - 0.14 mglm3 (no metals or fibers) 

F ormaldehydc ND - 0.02 

Total VOCs 0.108 - 0.387 mglm3 (10 samples) 

Microbials 6 - 807 colony forming units/m3 (CFU) (five samples) 

Observations 

• 	 Microbial count of 807 colony forming units too high (perhaps 60 - 70 times normal) 

and penicillium viridicatum fungus is hazardous because it can produce mycotoxins. 

Although microbial guidelines are sketchy at this point, a count of over 100 CFU 

indicates that the species should be identified, and a count of over 500 CFU 

indicates a problem. Clearly, a problem existed. Fortunately, during the 

walk-through, a non-maintained water spray humidifier system and blocked drainage 

tank were noted. The system was unblocked on day one, cleaned with undiluted 

Javex on day two and subsequent days, and all associated ducts, diffusers, carpets, 

drapes and surfaces were cleaned on the following weekend. 

Further sampling resulted in counts of 6 CFU in the affected areas, indicating that 

the fungal contamination had been eliminated. Monitoring will continue every three 

months for a year. The summer may produce other possible fungal "amplifiers" to 

reactivate the microbial growth. The humidification system has been drained and 

shut down pending a decision whether to replace it with a steam unit or reactivate 

the existing system. 

To quote the laboratory research scientist: "People in casual contact with the office 

in the past are in no risk. People who worked in the office may have acquired an 

allergy and possibly suffered other discomfort if the fungus is toxigenic, or if mild 

hypersensitivity pneumonitis occurred. It is unlikely that any permanent health 

problems have been caused." 
156 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

• 	 New computer control and monitoring system for all six HVAC systems had recently 

been installed; 

• 	 High readings of C02 (600 - 720 ppm) at 8:30 a.m. indicates that there is possibly 

no overnight flushing of the building; 

• 	 Pipe insulation slightly damaged in the mechanical rooms; analysis indicates 50 - 75 

percent composition of chrysotile asbestos; 

• 	 Presence of desk fans and evidence of occupant tampering with the ventilation 

supply highJight possible air balancing problem; and 

• 	 Changes to the building's mechanical systems have not been recorded completely; 

building operating and maintenance manuals did not exist. 

Recommendations 

• 	 Carefully monitor microbial levels every three months. 

• 	 Establish an operating procedure and maintenance schedule. 

• 	 Ceiling areas near diffusers had particulate buildup consistent with 30-year old 

systems. The areas should be cleaned and painted, the ducts and the mechanical 

rooms, which serve as mixing plenums, should be vacuumed. 

• 	 The kitchen exhaust system should be removed from the mechanical room to stop 

the migration of cooking odors to the supply air. 

• 	 The amount of fresh air should be determined. Either ten liters per second per 

person or a minimum amount of 15 percent shouJd be maintained. 

• 	 Ventilation rate should be checked and system re-balanced if necessary. 

• 	 Damaged pipe insulation should be repaired and encapsulated. 

• Higher humidity 1eve1s (25 - 30 percent RH) should be maintained. 

Notes 

• 	 Due to the unfamiliarity with microbial contamination, it was difficult to mount a 

coordinated and concerted clean-up, and no single knowledgeable contractor existed . 

. Workers were not informed of the risks and no protective clothing or face masks 

were provided. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 157 

Design of Indoor Air Quality 

Studies 

r~~?;~~:~~~~Itf~~ff~~~;3rn:1~tf.:~?:I~~~tH1~:~~:1:J:~t~~rn:fr~f~rfo1:~;r~~~tr:t;~rN?:~~r·{:~}tJH:f:fI~I~·~J~{~:ttJ?}~:f~·:~·r~x~:~::~:;~r 

Edward N. Light, C.I.H. 

Manager, Indoor Air Quality 

Dames and Moore 

7101 Wisconsin Avenue 

Bethesda, MD 20814 

Procedures currently used by environmental investigators to assess the quality of air 

in buildings vary widely and can result in contradictory conclusions. With vaguely defined 

goals and no widely accepted standard protocol available, many IAQ complaint 

investigations fail in terms of either not identifying the cause of building-related symptoms 

or falsely accusing the wrong "suspect." The most common reasons that IAQ investigations 

arrive at such misleading conclusions are (1) an overemphasis on sampling, (2) an 

underemphasis on deductive reasoning (common sense), and (3) a tendency to blame the 

obvious (e.g., dirty ducts) when the most critical factors are more subtle. The purpose of 

this paper is to summarize general guidelines for conducting such studies in a systematic 

manner. 

Over the past several years, IAQ studies have increasingly been conducted for 

non-research purposes. Such investigations can be categorized as follows: 

• Investigation of occupant complaints or suspected problems; 

• Pre-occupancy consultation; or 

• Baseline surveys (sometimes with periodic follow-up). 

The interior building environment represents a dynamic and complex "eco-system." 

An understanding of how key factors change over space and time within the building and 

how they interact is critical to the success of any IAQ study. 

Sources of indoor air pollutants have been characterized in the technical literature 

and often sensationalized in the popular press. Interior pollutants may commonly 

originate from building occupants and their activities, equipment emissions, new 

furnishings, contaminated building materials, or outside sources drawn into the building. 

Ventilation is often the single most important factor determining whether these emissions 

present a problem. Air movement determines which building areas are actually affected 

by any given source. With an absence of IAQ standards, the bottom line for exposure 

often is whether a complaint situation exists. A building-related complaint could include 

anything from an acute health problem, to a health risk perceived as unacceptable, to 

false allegations originating from disgruntled employees. 
158 NATO CCMS Pi1ot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

General Strategies 

In a complaint situation, alJegations should be characterized as objectively as possible 

to determine if there are any patterns which tend to implicate or rule out actual building 

conditions. The most conclusive data are generated by medical exams and statisticaHybased epidemiology. Complaint data for most IAQ studies are constrained by project 

limitations to interviews or qualitative epidemiology. Such evaluations should be designed 

to spot, at a minimum, any consistent symptoms which suggest general syndromes and any 

special times, locations, or conditions where they appear to be most notable. 

The early stages of any IAQ study should also include a characterization of potential 

sources. While pollutant measurements are only a "snapshot" in time, a source 

characterization should ideally include a description of the range of potential emissions 

including worst case conditions and affected areas. Background information can be 

obtained from building plans and interviews with operating personnel. Historical 

descriptions of past episodic events are of particular interest. On-site inspection should 

document any indicators of source emissions, such as unusual odors, excessive dust, or 

staining. 

Similarly, an IAQ assessment should include a general evaluation of HVAC systems. 

Critical observations relate to ventilation rate, ventilation efficiency, pathways for 

contaminant movement, and equipment sanitation. Not only should conditions at the 

time of inspection be checked, but the range of conditions expected over a typical year 

should also be considered. 

Ideally, air sampling should not be initiated until most of the preceding information 

is available. Because air quality can fluctuate widely over space and time within any 

building, a successful sampling strategy should be based on a comprehensive understanding 

of how the building operates, the nature of the complaints and any visual or odor 

observations resulting from the inspection. The minimum goal of sampling should be to 

reflect both average and worst case conditions. At each sampling site, key factors that 

determine air quality should be documented. Although most samples are generally 

collected in the occupants' breathing zone, diagnostic samples (to locate sources and 

potential pathways for contaminant movement) may also be needed. Routine parameters 

commonly used to characterize indoor air include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, 

respirable suspended particulates, temperature, relative humidity, and smoke tube 

observations. Other parameters should be carefully selected based on specific building 

concerns. 

A scientific approach to resolving IAQ problems should include formulating and then 

testing a series of hypotheses. Information generated from building inspections and 

interviews and sampling data shou1d then be compared to an hypothesis. If a consistent 

pattern is not demonstrated> then other hypotheses should be considered, not necessarily 

·limited to IAQ issues. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 159 

A series of hypotheses may necessitate an increasingly detailed evaluation to resolve 

complex IAO problems. This process can be conducted in phases, beginning with an 

initial, in-house effort to document obvious conditions. The next phase often consists of 

a comprehensive screening by specialized investigators. In such a screening, the number 

and types of air samples are generally limited. The final phase, if needed, includes 

detailed, quantitative studies designed to evaluate specific issues. 

Special Considerations 

The outcome of an JAQ study can be easily prejudiced by the selection of study 

boundaries. A common client request is to study the JAQ complaint in only one room. 

Ideally, an IAQ study should include the entire building in order to evaluate all factors 

and put them into perspective. At a minimum, an investigation should include the 

complaint area, adjacent areas, any other potential sources, related air handling 

equipment, and a control site (e.g., similar area without complaints). 

A standard protocol for the assessment of asbestos-containing material (ACM) 

involves dividing the building into homogeneous areas where similar suspect material is 

present. Representative bulk samples are then collected and the results applied to the 

entire area. While the number of variables present in an IAQ investigation is much 

greater, a similar approach can be applied by dividing the building into homogeneous 

areas, based on the key factors identified in the initial building inspection and interviews. 

Examples of how a building might be divided include: 

• 	 Individual HVAC zones; 

• 	 Types of HVAC zones (i.e., interior vs. perimeter); 

• 	 Complaint vs. non-complaint areas; 

• 	 Complaint types; and 

• 	 Relationship to major sources (i.e., spaces directly, indirectly or not 

impacted by smoking areas). 

Although each area may not be identical, the key factor within any grouping should 

be similar. Test sites can then be selected to represent complaints, controls, and potential 

sources with a reasonable number of samples. 

The most effective control for an intermittent JAQ problem is to schedule JAQ 

investigators on-site, full-time. If the odor or symptoms only occur occasionally, they 

inevitably do not occur during the scheduled JAQ study. An intermittent odor or illness 

situation may be very difficult to track down in one or two visits (i.e., "You should have 

been here last week!"). One cost-effective approach to this type of problem is for the 

IAQ investigator to assign appropriate building personnel to document changes over time. 

For example, if an odor episode occurs, the building engineer could inspect the air 

handler and intake area while the building manager walks by three potential sources. 

Obvious odors detected at this critical time may identify the source. In another approach, 

occupants could keep a daily diary, noting symptoms and building conditions. 

Simultaneously, the building engineer could record the daily status of HVAC systems and 
160 NA TO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

suspect sources. ·A correlation (or lack thereof) could help resolve the complaint. 

Building conditions can also be manipulated to recreate worst case situations during the 

scheduled on-site IAQ investigation (i.e., arrange for the trash truck to idle at the loading 

dock or HVAC intake dampers to be manually set at minimum). FinaUy, tracers can be 

used to estimate where emissions would trave) during worst-case conditions. For example, 

peppermint oil released at a roof top exhaust or flushed down a drain might identify 

important source/receptor relationships. Similar observations of smoke tubes can also 

define areas affected by intermittent emissions. 

In addition to the routine IAQ indicators noted above, numerous other chemical, 

microbiological, and physical parameters may be included in a building assessment. These 

parameters should be selected very carefully with advance consideration as to how the 

data will be interpreted. Ideally, additional test parameters should only be inc1uded where 

potential source problems are observed or symptoms suggest a certain agent is present in 

the environment. When clients insist on "testing for everything," efforts must be made to 

provide appropriate controls and present information on normal background leve]s. 

Traditional industrial hygiene procedures may not be optimal for an IAQ assessment. 

Care must always be given in selecting a meaningful detection limit and averaging time for 

the IAQ setting. 

Where specific exposure problems are documented, the development of remedial 

measures may require more detailed diagnostic testing to locate major sources. For 

example, the control of microbial or pesticide contamination may involve surface or bulk 

sampling. Sites with the highest residues can be highlighted for cleanup efforts. 

Diagnostic testing may also involve the use of tracers to locate pathways of contaminant 

movement. 

One last issue important to the design of IAQ studies is the degree of detail. The 

quickest and cheapest way to resolve a relatively simple IAQ complaint is a qualitative 

study in which sampling is kept to a minimum. At the other extreme, a statistically-based 

study design presenting quantitative epidemiology and sampling results may be needed 

where there are complex technical or legal issues. In all cases, realistic study goals should 

be determined initially, with a corresponding study design based on cost, time, and 

practical constraints on the project. 

Interpretation of Data 

Unlike the more regulated environmental program areas, there are no IAQ 

standards defining whether test results are acceptable. Guidelines, available for some 

parameters, are subject to conflicting opinions among experts and should be tempered by 

site-specific considerations. IAQ data can also be interpreted by comparing elevated 

readings to control areas or to the expected background range for buildings without 

perceived IAQ problems. In a complaint investigation, unusual readings should be 

evaluated further for possible associations with symptom patterns. In a baseline study, 

elevated readings might highlight the need for revised operations and maintenance 

procedures which could improve air quality. As emphasized earlier, IAQ studies should 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section VI 161 

attempt to define worst-case conditions. In this regard, sampling results can be 

extrapolated (at least qualitatively) to estimate worst-case occupant exposure. 

Absolute or relative air quality concentrations may not provide the solution in an 

IAQ complaint investigation. These readings comprise only a part of the data base 

needed to develop possible associations between building conditions and symptom 

patterns. This process should also take into account how air quality changes in the 

building over time and space. If unusual exposure conditions are generally consistent with 

major complaints, then a positive association can be tentatively concluded. A "perfect fit" 

is very rare, due to mobility of building occupants, varying sensitivities, and psychosomatic 

complaints. A general inconsistency between building conditions and complaints can form 

the basis of a negative finding. Failure to show either a positive or negative association 

may indicate the need for more diagnostic data, or a trial and error approach (i.e., 

eliminate or modify one building factor at a time). 

Positive associations should be clarified as to whether they represent hypersensitive 

individuals only or suggest risk to the general population. Identified air quality problems 

should also be classified as to whether they are primarily due to excessive source 

emissions or to inadequate ventilation. 

In addition to looking for specific associatmns, JAQ results can be reviewed for 

unusual findings which suggest a potential risk to health. Positive conclusions may result 

where readings are considered to be elevated or emission sources and general indicators 

(e.g., odors) are suspect. Positive findings from an IAQ investigation should be presented 

in perspective with efforts to differentiate between minor and major problems. 

Conversely, air quality concentrations within a pre-determined background range or HVAC 

operation within ASHRAE standards may be considered negative findings. 

A detailed assessment of indoor air quality in a facility should rarely result in simple, 

uniform conclusions. Care should be taken to distinguish between differences in various 

occupant groups, building areas, and time periods. For example, a positive association 

with microbial contamination may be found, hut only with allergic individuals in zones A 

and D during the cooling season. At the same time, potential ventilation problems could 

be found in zones B and C. 

In summary, an IAQ investigation is much more than the simple collection of data 

evaluated for compliance with "standards." A multi-disciplinary study team with an 

understanding of the unique technical and practical aspects of IAQ is a prerequisite to the 

successful implementation of the protocols outlined in this paper. 
162 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Vl 163 

Summary Findings of the 

Inter-Ministerial Committee 

On Indoor Air Quality 

(Ontario)

·::.:-:::}::>:::::::·::::~{\??:~~/?~t~\t~~\=/~:::{{?/~ :~ ~:/~/f·~'.:/ '?~:::-· ~:/:/~:.'. >:··~· ·:· :=:~~:;· :.·:. ,. :.:: :.:.~:.~: .:: : ).;~.:...~.~-:~·~::~~~-~~~:.~:~\~~~-::.:::~;~:::..::::~·~-::i 

Gyan S. Rajhans 

M.Sc. (Eng.), CIH 

Principal Occupational Hygiene Advisor 

Occupational Health and Safety Division 

Toronto, C-anada 

Preface· 

The environmental awareness of the 1960s and 1970s has spilled over into other 

areas. One new area of concern is the indoor environment of our homes, offices, and 

schools. The indoor environment has received increasing attention from the occupants, 

ventilation engineers, and other specialists. Not only do people spend on average 70 - 90 

percent of their time indoors, but most new jobs in Ontario are created in the ~ervice 

sector and these employees arc usually located in modern offices. 

The energy crisis of the early 1970s prompted building owners to construct energy 

efficient buildings. Building owners achieved this by constructing "air tight" buildings in 

which air infiltration and exfiltration were reduced. However, as buildings become more 

energy efficient, occupants' complaints of "stuffiness" or "stale air" increased. Several 

terminologies are used to describe these complaints such as sick building syndrome (SBS), 

tight building syndrome (TBS), and closed building syndrome (CBS). 

The Ontario Ministries of Labor (MOL), Health, Education, and Government 

Services (MGS) and local health units have investigated more than 2,000 indoor air 

complaints since 1976. Most complaints concerned air-tight, multi-story buildings equipped 

with central HVAC systems, with some complaints from schools with or without HVAC 

systems. In many cases, the causes of the symptoms could not be found. 

• This article summarizes the key findings of the report entitled, "Report of the 

Inter-:\1inisterial Committee on Indoor Air Quality, Ontario Ministry of Labor.11 Tables, 

figures, and appendices referred to in this article are contained in the original report, 

which may be obtained from the author. 
164 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

IAO complaints will likely persist in the future and the Ontario Government needs 

a guideline for defining indoor air parameters and a uniform protocol for investigating 

''sick building" complaints. This concern is shared by many ministries. On March 30, 

1987, at the second meeting of the Deputy Ministers' Committee on Occupational and 

Environmental Health, a decision was made to set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee to 

review and evaluate potential health hazards from buildings and to develop a protocol for 

investigations of "sick building" complaints. The committee was established and named the 

Inter-Ministerial Committee on Indoor Air Quality (henceforth, referred to as the 

Committee). 

The Committee met for the first time on July 14, 1987. During its initial 

deliberations, the Committee sought an approval from the Deputy Ministers' Committee 

to exclude residential buildings from its deliberations because: 

• 	 A recently released Federal-Provincial report (April 1987) defines 

acceptable indoor air quality in residential buildings; 

• 	 The Ministry of Housing alone has jurisdiction in regulating construction 

and provision of ventilation methods in residential buildings; and 

• 	 Legislative authority with regard to IAQ in residential buildings is not 

clearly defined. 

The Committee also sought approval to exclude deliberations on second-hand cigarette 

smoke exposure because the committee expected a Government-wide policy on this issue. 

At their February 2, 1988 meeting, the Deputy Ministers agreed that the 

Committee's scope would be limited to commercial and institutional buildings, and would 

exclude residential and industrial buildings. However, the Deputy Ministers asked the 

Committee to reconsider its decision regarding second-hand smoke exposure. The general 

opinion of the Deputy Ministers' Committee was that it was neither appropriate nor 

realistic to exclude the consideration of cigarette smoke because in many cases, it is the 

most easily identifiable and most easily remedied cause of IAQ problems. The Committee 

reconsidered their position on second-hand smoke at their March 1988 meeting and 

agreed to address second-hand smoke in their terms of reference. Thus, the final terms 

of reference agreed upon were as fo11ows: 

• 	 Define the terms related to indoor air quality. 

• 	 Review and evaluate health hazards related to IAQ. 

• 	 Develop a uniform protocol for investigating IAQ concerns and a protocol 

for field measurements. 

• 	 Recommend acceptable criteria for IAQ including second-hand smoke 

exposure. 
~ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Vl 165 

During the period from July 1987 to August 1988, the Committee met 11 times to 

discuss and review the scientific literature as well as reports on indoor air quality in \iew 

of the terms of reference, and to develop a uniform protocol for the investigation of IAQ 

complaints. In addition, several Canadian and American governmental personnel working 

on IAQ problems were also contacted to obtain their views on IAQ standards. 

While the review of the IAQ literature helped the Committee arrive at the 

guidelines and recommendations made in its report, the protocol for investigating IAQ 

concerns, including the detailed questionnaire, was developed by the Committee with input 

from MOL hygienists, medical consultants, and a statistician. The Committee's protocol 

is reactive rather than proactive. The Committee did not develop a recommendation for 

radon because another inter-ministerial committee has dealt with this issue. A1;bestos, 

lighting, and noise are discussed briefly hecause the regulations dealing with these agents 

are either in existence (e.g., asbestos) or in the development stage (e.g., noise and 

lighting). 

The Committee has prepared its report to guide government inspectors, occupational 

health professionals~ building design professionals, and property managers in recognizing 

L\Q problems in non-residential and non-industrial buildings and in recommending 

remedial measures to address these problems. It is also hoped that the report will lead 

to a formal IAQ policy by the Government of Ontario. 

The Committee is fully cognizant that, in spite of all the work being done, the 

understanding of indoor air quality and its health hazards is still incomplete because of the 

many contaminants involved, the low concentrations of contaminants, and the 

non-specificity of the rnported symptoms. As knowledge grows, the information contained 

in the report will need updating. 

Executive Summary 

The Committee recommends adoption of uniform definitions 'of IAQ terminologies 

and a uniform protocol of IAQ investigations. Details are given in the report. A portion 

of the recommended protocol is a comprehensive questionnaire and its analysis. 

Because the sources of indoor pollutants cannot be avoided in most cases, the 

Committee proposes that adequate fresh air supply is the single most effective solution to 

IAQ problems, provided that HVAC systems are properly designed, operated, and 

maintained. For buildings without a complete mechanical ventilation system, full 

advantage should be taken of the ventilation provided by openable \\indows. 

The Committee also presents IAQ guidelines, which provide reference points for 

assess_ing the extent of remedial measures in buildings. 
166 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

The Committee was unable to find any regulatory IAQ standards specifically 

established for children in schools. However, the guidelines proposed in the report are 

stringent enough to protect the health of school children. 

The Committee recommends adoption of a non-smoking policy by Ontario Ministries 

due to the presence of several known or probable carcinogens as well as other toxins in 

"mainstream" and "sidestream" cigarette smoke. Until such time as the non-smoking policy 

is adopted, buildings should be provided with designated smoking areas with a separate 

exhaust and ventilation system. 

The Committee recommends that appropriate changes be made to the Building Code 

to reflect the findings of this report. 

Introduction 

In the last number of years, IAQ problems became common when energy 

conservation measures were introduced for buildings. These measures caused buildings 

to be more tightly sealed and to have less fresh air circulated. The complaints and 

symptoms of illness are the same in most of these buildings. The symptoms are usually 

not specific, therefore, likely causes of the problems are not easily identified. 

IAQ Issues 

The Committee identified seven IAQ issues to address. The first issue was defining 

the IAQ terms. Since several terminologies exist to describe "non-specific IAQ 

complaints" (e.g., sick building syndrome and tight building syndrome), it was necessary to 

first define indoor air quality and then to choose and define appropriate terms to 

characterize the common complaints associated with IAQ problems (e.g., eye and upper 

respiratory irritation, headache, dizziness, nausea, fatigue and perceived stuffiness in the 

air). Likewise, it was necessary to define "health" before developing the protocol for 

investigating IAQ complaints. 

The second issue was to design a protocol for IAQ investigations which provides 

consistency in the investigative approach throughout the province. A portion of the 

protocol is a comprehensive questionnaire and its analysis. The purpose of the 

questionnaire is to allow the investigator to (1) establish whether IAQ problems exist, (2) 

establish to what extent the problem exists, and (3) determine the possible sources of 

contamination. We believe that our protocol will help the investigator in identifying easy, 

low cost, energy effective solutions if the prescribed three stages are carefully followed. 

The third issue was to group the sources of contaminants causing IAQ problems into 

broad categories. The enormous number of contaminants that have so far been isolated 

from indoor air were reviewed and categorized according to whether they originate from 

"internal" sources or from "outdoor" sources. Internal sources were classified as building 

components, the HVAC system, people, furniture, office supplies and equipment, and 

parking garages. External sources were defined in terms of ambient air infiltration. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 167 

Common to both types of sources were temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide, carbon 

monoxide, formaldehyde, micro-organisms, organic solvents, and odor. Noise, radiation, 

asbestos, as well as ergonomic and working conditions, were excluded from both groups. 

The fourth issue was to develop a 'list of offices and buildings which may encounter 

IAQ problems due to sealed windows and the presence of HVAC systems. In developing 

this list, only those buildings which have extended occupancy periods, such as buildings in 

which people are present all day, were considered as opposed to intermittent occupancy 

buildings, such as underground concourses. This decision was necessary because places 

with intermittent occupancy cannot be properly evaluated using our protocol. 

The fifth issue was to determine factors affecting indoor air quality and propose IAO 

guidelines. In Chapter 4 of the report, IAQ guidelines.. are given, which provide 

reference points for assessing the extent of remedial measures in buildings. The 

committee did not find any IAQ standards established for children in schools. It has heen 

reported that factors related to younger age groups include a higher respiration rate per 

unit body weight and less ability to comprehend and communicate adverse health effects. 

Another factor to be considered is aggravation of pre-existing diseases in children. The 

guidelines developed for residential buildings by a Work Group of the Federal/Provincial 

Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health (see Chapter 4 of the 

report) appear to be stringent enough to protect the health of adult office workers as well 

as school children, hence the recommendation for its adoption. 

The si:x1h issue was to recommend remedial measures for IAQ problems. Adequate 

fresh air supply appears to be the single most effective solution to IAQ problems, both 

in office buildings and schools, because the sources of an indoor pollutant in most cases 

cannot be avoided or reduced. Properly filtered air, free from CO.?- bacteria, and tobacco 

smoke, is the primary means of control of air contaminants in occupied spaces. ASHRAE 

Standard 62-81 R prescribes the rates of outdoor air intake to achieve acceptable indoor 

air quality. The Committee has reviewed and accepted these rates as sufficient to dilute 

contaminants that are generated internally to acceptable levels. These prescribed rates 

correspond to the MOL and MGS experience, especially where these rates control C02 

to a concentration of 1,000 ppm or less. C02 is used as a surrogate measure for other 

contaminants, including odors. 

The seventh issue was exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke. This topic has 

captured public attention over the past several years. The most serious health hazard is 

demonstrated by the fact that second-hand. smoke exposure, in an office where many 

people smoke, is equivalent to one to five cigarettes per day, and that apprmdmately 5,000 

persons in the USA die annually from lung cancer caused by exposure to second-hand 

smoke. Children exposed to second-hand smoke have been shown to have an increased 

.. These guidelines are contained in Table 4.8 of the lnterministerial Report. 

These guidelines are also contained in Table 1 of Doug Walkinshaw's presentation on 

page 134. 
168 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Scc1ion VI 

incidence of respiratory illness. Nevertheless, no single satisfactory method is available to 

measure the amount of cigarette smoke present in a workplace. 

Definitions 

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ): IAQ refers to the physical, chemical, and biological 

characteristics of indoor air in non-residential workplaces (\\lith no internal industrial 

processes or operations) which can affect the comfort or health of the occupant. 

Tight Building Syndrome (TBS): TBS refers to non-specific symptoms of discomfort and 

ill-health, such as eye, nose and throat irritation, mental fatigue, headaches, 

unspecific hypersensitivities, and other similar complaints, in a significant number of 

occupants of non-industrial workplaces (mainly offices with HVAC systems). 

Health: Health refers to a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and 

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. 

Population at Risk 

The Committee derived a list of those buildings and offices in which the work 

population may encounter IAQ problems (Table 4.5 of the report). The list is based on 

the Ministries' experience and by no means is all inclusive. Building types are subdivided 

in the list and the groupings are based on the nature of the occupancy. 

Cost Implications 

The report docs not address the capital and operating costs of introducing 

recommended amounts of outdoor air into non-residential buildings. The Committee did 

not consider this to be part of their terms of reference. However, the Committee refers 

readers to a conclusion of the Federal-Provincial Work Group on Indoor Air Quality, 

which was contained in the first report to the Advisory Committee on Environmental and 

Occupational Health. According to the Work Group, implementing their recommended 

ventilation requirements for offices will have minimal energy cost implications for large 

offices. In addition, it should be possible to provide 200 cfm (cubic feet per minute) of 

ventilation for each person without significant building modifications. As far as schools 

and especially portables are concerned, no similar energy cost estimates are available in 

the published literature. 

Protocol for Indoor Air Quality Investigations 

Introduction 

The protocol for IAQ investigations first requires the acquisition of useful 

information at the least effort and cost. The protocol is based on investigating the 

building and, if necessary, the symptoms of the workers; both of these may be needed to 

identify the causes of indoor air problems before remedial measures are applied. 
.t"ATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 169 

The protocol for IAQ investigations developed hy the Committee has four stages: 

Stage 1. Preliminary Assessment 

Stage 2. Questionnaire 

Stage 3. Simple Measurements 

Stage 4. Complex Measurements 

In the Preliminary Assessment, physical factors and chemicals and their sources that 

cause 1AO problems may be identified. The Questionnaire amplifies this process and 

provides for the evaluation of workers' responses to poor IAO. The Simple and Complex 

Measurements should be undertaken if the results of the Preliminary Assessment and the 

Questionnaire do not identify the causes of the problems, or if the remedial measures that 

have been taken do not alleviate them. The Questionnaire can also be used to check the 

effectiveness of any remedial measures taken in Stage 1. For each stage of the 

investigation, a separate decision should be made based on the information available. 

Stages 3 or 4 of the investigation should not be conducted without a clear indication that 

the problem cannot be identified at Stage 1 or after the administration of the 

Questionnaire. 

Preliminary Assessment 

The preliminary assessment stage does not use instruments, but relics on an 

inspection and the collection of information on the building. The information comes from 

observations made in the building, knowledge of the operation of the HVAC system, and 

details of the complaints. 

Two activities are involved in the preliminary assessment: collection of information 

about the building (the Building Checklist), and interpretation of this information to 

provide evidence for or against the various causes of the problems. For a complete 

inspection, the Building Checklist, given in Appendix A of the report, should he used. 

The checklist is a questionnaire to be filled in with information about the building. Note 

that whenever possible, ventilation systems should be visually checked to ensure that they 

are performing in a satisfactory manner,. 

The Building Checklist is divided into five parts: 

• Carbon Monoxide - Combustion Byproducts; 

• Other Pollutant Sources; 

• HYAC Operations; 

• Maintenance and Design; and 

• Complaint Area Observation Sheet. 
170 NATO CCMS Piloc Sludy on IAQ: Section Vl 

Once information has been collected, the second activity in this stage is to interpret 

the results. Guidance on how to use the Building Checklist information to identify 

probable causes of problems is given in Part 6 of the report, the Assessment Summary. 

The report from the preliminary assessment should include assessment of information 

collected and recommendations for eliminating the problem. If the cause of the problem 

is not identified, the Questionnaire should then be administered. 

Questionnaire and Analysis 

Overview of the Questionnaire 

A comprehensive questionnaire has been developed as part of the protocol for IAQ 

investigations. The questionnaire is given in Appendix B of the report and it is based on 

questionnaires that were developed by the Ministries of Labor and Health, and by J.D. 

McDonald of McGill University. Drafts of this questionnaire were reviewed by 

participating ministries' staff and, where applicable, their suggestions have been 

incorporated by the Committee. 

The purpose of the questionnaire is to gather information on the problems that are 

experienced in the indoor environment. The questionnaire is designed to allow one to 

establish whether, and to what extent, IAQ problems exist, and to determine the possible 

sources of contamination. 

Questions have been defined which indicate symptoms typically associated with IAQ 

complaints. In addition, the questionnaire investigates the incidence of the more general 

complaints regarding exposure to physical conditions in the working environment, such as 

those relating to noise, lighting, humidity, temperature, and air movement. The format 

and language of the questionnaire is simple to allow individuals to complete it without 

assistance. 

The questionnaire results can also be analyzed in conjunction with the results of the 

contaminant measurements carried out in Stages 3 and 4. Among the contaminants which 

can be assessed are: VOCs; carbon monoxide, ozone, particulates, microorganisms, and 

formaldehyde. Indicators of exposure to carbon dioxide, which itself is not regarded as 

a major contaminant, suggest the presence of ventilation problems. The questionnaire 

also assesses indicators of exposure and symptoms related to tobacco smoke. 

Questionnaire Analysis 

The analysis of the questionnaires for each IAQ investigation case is performed in 

three stages: (1) analysis of each questionnaire; (2) compilation of the results for all 

questionnaires; and (3) interpretation of the results. The responses (health symptoms) of 

highest frequency are determined. If responses are only directed to specifically one or a 

few health symptoms, it may be easy to infer a cause. If responses are directed at many, 

non-specific health symptoms, then this findjng may indicate the effects of "tight building 

syndrome" and the Jack of fresh air. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section VI 171 

For each contaminant, questions relating to symptoms indicate the presence of 

complaints typica11y associated with the contaminant under review. The higher the 

symptom's score, the greater the likelihood/severity of the symptoms associated with the 

contaminant in question. To simplify matters, it is assumed that each indicator of 

symptoms or exposure -will have equal weighting. It is important to note that only 

symptoms which manifest themselves during regular working hours are of significance. For 

each contaminant, exposure levels for individual responses are estimated in the same 

manner. High total exposure scores indicate a greater likelihood of exposure to the 

contaminant in question. 

A series of worksheets are developed to assist in the analysis of the questionnaire 

(Appendix D). The "Lotus 1-2-3" software package is used in simplifying the analysis 

(Appendix E). A summary table for individual questionnaires will provide information 

about each contaminant and severity of exposure (Appendix F). Summary results of all 

questionnaires, for both symptoms and exposures, for different contaminants are compiled 

in a single table (Appendix F). 

To compare scores for all individuals in an investigation case, exposure and symptom 

scores can be plotted in the form of a frequency distribution chart (Appendix F). This 

chart provides information on the extent to which individual responses (relating to 

exposure and symptoms) vary among individuals in the survey. If high exposure and 

symptom scores are observed for only a small minority of individuals in the survey, the 

frequency distributions will reveal this. 

Some indoor air problems are more severe at times in the day and/or week when 

the rate of fresh air distribution is lower and/or when contaminants have had an 

opportunity to reach a higher concentration. A frequency distribution for days of the 

week may assist in identifying the source of the problem (Appendix F). 

The exposure and symptom scores can be compared for individual responses. High 

exposure and symptom scores may suggest that symptoms are indeed linked to the 

presence of a particular contaminant. If many of the responses in the survey exhibit the 

same pattern of high symptom scores associated with high exposure scores, then this result 

would further suggest that there may be a v.ridespread problem with a particular 

contaminant. A contingency table can be constructed and tests of significance can be 

performed (Chi Square) to determine whether or not there is a significant relationship 

between indicators of exposure and symptom intensity (Appendix F). 

In the long term, the analysis of different IAQ investigation cases will provide 

information on some of the trends, such as the relationship of IAQ problems to the sex 

of the respondents, type of office occupied, impact of stress and other factors. 
172 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Stage 3 - Field Measurements with Simple Instruments 

The third stage of the investigation involves simple instruments to take the following 

measurements: 

• Temperature; 

• Relative humidity; 

• Carbon dioxide; 

• Formaldehyde; 

• Carbon monoxide; and 

• Air movement. 

This stage is needed only if Stage 1 does not identify the problem and Stage 2 indicates 

prevalence of certain symptoms. 

In Stage 3, it is important that the above measurements be taken in the proper 

location and appropriate time of the year, week, and day. The tables in Appendix G 

indicate the suitable locations (including "control" locations) and time for measuring 

po11utants. 

Because the types of measurements made are unfamiliar to most people, the Data 

Assessment Table in Appendix H provides ranges of acceptable and unacceptable values 

for various pollutants. The measurement results can be compared against these ranges. 

The measurements can also be used in conjunction with the health symptoms from the 

Questionnaire. 

A list of simple pieces of equipment, which are often used for the monitoring of 

some basic pollutants, is given in Appendix I. The measurements should be easy, quick 

to perform, and are designed to be used by non-specialists who have received a minimum 

of training, for example, a building operator, property manager, or safety officer. 

It is expected that the data collected will prove or disprove the presence of 

hazardous levels of air pollutants in some cases, but not necessarily all cases. It may be 

necessary to go to Stage 4 to measure other potential pollutants which require complex 

measurement techniques. 

Stage 4 • Field Measurements with Complex Instruments 

If the problem is not ide.ntified in Stage 3 and it is suspected that the air 

contamination is occurring from specific sources within or outside the building, or in the 

event that harmful chemicals, dust, or microorganisms are suspected, it is necessary to use 

comp1ex in~truments to carry out further measurements of other pollutants: 

• Microorganisms; 


e Respirab1e suspended particulates; 


• Organic vapor; 


e Ozont::; 

NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 173 

• 	 NOx; and 

• 	 Asbestos. 

The complex measurement techniques are more time consuming and expensive to 

conduct than simple measurement techniques. The techniques also require an experienced 

consultant or specialized organizations, such as the Ministry of Labor or the Ministry of 

Health. These measurements arc usually only used after Stage 1, 2, and 3 evaluations 

have failed to resolve the situation. The measurements can also be used in an analysis 

with the health symptoms from the questionnaire (see Section 5.4 of the report). 

Interpretation of Field :Measurements 

Stage 3 and 4 measurements should be compared with Appendix H which gives 

ranges of acceptable and unacceptable values for carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, 

formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and physical factors. The guideline levels for 

microorganisms in Chapter 4 of the report can be used to make comparisons against 

measurements of microorganisms. 

Several situations arc possible: 

• 	 If all control and test location data fall in the normal outdoor and indoor 

ranges, any problems suspected are not due to this cause/pollutant. 

• 	 If control locations yield numbers in the normal ranges and one or more 

test locations yield numbers in the "do not exceed" range, there arc 

problems to be corrected. 

• 	 If control location data is in the normal range and one or more test 

locations yield numbers in the "possible problem'' range, more detailed 

testing may be necessary. 

• 	 If test and control locations yield numbers in the "possible problem" 

range, the problem may have been caused by outdoor air or the the 

testing equipment. 

Recommendations 

The Inter-ministerial Committee on Indoor Air Quality recommends the following for 

consideration of the Deputy Minister's Committee on Occupational and Environmental 

Health. 

Existing Buildings 

• 	 The "Protocol for Indoor Air Quality Investigation," including Questionnaire and 

Analysis, should be adopted to provide consistency throughout the province. 
174 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

• 	 A m1mmum of 15 cubic feet per minute per person of outdoor air should be 

provided so that carbon dioxide (an indicator of adequate fresh air) does not exceed 

1,000 ppm. For buildings without a complete mechanical ventilation system, full 

advantage should be taken of openable windows. 

• 	 Air velocity of an average of 30 (within a range of 20 to 50) feet per minute should 

he provided at the work station. 

• 	 Winter temperatures should be between 19.5°C and 24.6°C, and summer 

temperatures between 22.6°C and 27.2°C. 

• 	 Pollutants (e.g., copy machines, odors) should be removed at their source. 

• 	 The levels of pollutants should be below the levels specified in Tables 4.7, 4.8, and 

4.10. 

• 	 Viable organisms should not exceed 1,000 CFU/m3 in indoor air. 

New Buildings 

For new buildings, the opportunity exists to design to ensure adequate indoor air 

quality. Items (B), (C), (D), (E), (F), and (G) listed above are pertinent. Reference is 

usually made to ASHRAE as good engineering practice. In addition to the above 

combinations, the fo]]owing items require careful attention in new building design: 

• 	 In areas where opcnable '"'indows arc not provided, mechanical ventilation 

throughout the occupied zone should be provided at a minimum of 15 cubic feet per 

minute per person and air velocity provided at the work station of approximately 30 

feet per minute on average. 

• 	 Fresh air intakes should be located to avoid contamination, e.g., from street traffic. 

• 	 HVAC systems and materials should be designed to minimize the opportunity for 

growth of microorganisms, such as having self-draining pans to avoid standing water. 

• 	 The building design should provide for readily accessible inspection and maintenance. 

• 	 The building design should provide for pollutant removal at the source. 

• 	 Where practical, materials should be used that are low in pollutant emissions, e.g., 

using drywa11 instead of particleboard, and using tile instead of carpeting. 

• 	 The above changes should be incorporated in the Building Code. 
NATO CC~S Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 175 

Second-Hand Smoke 

These recommendations are based on the premise that second-hand smoke is a 

potential health hazard. 

• 	 All building areas normally occupied by the working population should be classified 

as non-smoking. 

• 	 Until such time as the previous recommendation can be implemented, buildings 

affected should be provided with designated smoking areas. In designated smoking 

areas, at least 60 cfm of outdoor air per person should be provided and exhaust air 

from these areas should not be recirculated to other areas. However, in existing 

buildings, this level may be economically impractical. 

}'uture Recommendations 

• 	 The Deputy Minister's Committee on Occupational and Environmental Health should 

continue to review, assess, monitor and coordinate IAQ issues. 

• 	 The Deputy Minister's Committee should support the formation of a national body 

to review these issues and to carry out applied research towards resolving these 

issues. 

• 	 The Deputy Minister's C'...ommittee should support the development of maintenance 

guidelines for new and existing buildings by the HVAC industry. 

NOTE: 	 To obtain a copy of the original report, please contact: G.S. Rajhans, Health 

and Safety Support Services Branch, Ontario Ministry of Labor, 400 University 

Avenue, Toronto, Canada, M7A177, Canada (416) 326-1401. 
' 176 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 177 

Jean-Claude Dionne 

IRSST- Montreal (Quebec) 

The number of complaints related to indoor air pollution in different work places 

(excluding industrial milieu) has increased in the province of Quebec during the last few 

years, as in other industrial societies. In order to solve a high percentage of these 

problems, we have developed an innovative, proactive strategy. 

The Institut de Recherche en Sante et en Securite du Travail du Quebec (IRSST) 

conducted a study in three office buildings. The goals were to understand the 

phenomenon of tight building syndrome and to develop different tools, for example: 

sampling techniques and strategies, analytical techniques, observation sheets, 

questionnaires, and so on. In a second step, 12 governmental buildings selected hy the 

employer and union representatives were fully studied by a multi-disciplinary team in a 

very comprehensive manner. A document "Strategy for Studying Air Quality in Office 

Buildings" was then written by two members of the team. 

This guide has been developed for building owners, managers, employers, and 

workers who must solve air quality problems in their buildings. The guide is an action 

tool allowing problems related to the physical performance of a building and its HY AC 

system to be identified, evaluated, and controlled. 

The proposed procedure has been developed for air quality studies in office 

buildings. Cases related to other non-industrial work environments, such as hospitals, 

schools, and day-care centers, present more complex problems and require adapted 

strategies. Nevertheless, the same steps (understanding the environment, evaluating 

suspected problems, and implementing corrections at the source) apply to all these 

environments. 

The factors included in the procedure are ventilation, comfort, chemical 

contaminants, bioaerosols, and work environments. Different tables (observation 

questionnaire on the ventilation system, contaminant-emission sources, noise and lighting; 

sampling strategy for chemical contaminants and bioaerosols; summary of concentrations 

of chemical contaminant<> and bioaerosols measured in the air of the 15 office buildings 

by a team from the IRSST) are also included. 
178 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

In 1988, I convinced the Association Quebecoise pour Ia Maitrise de Venergie 

(AQME) and the Bureau de L'efficacite Energetique to work on a guide for HVAC 

systems operators. A working group was mandated by AQME to construct this guide, 

which was published in French and in English in September 1989. 

This "Practical Maintenance Manual for Good Indoor Air Quality" does not attempt 

to solve all of the problems; however, it will a11ow the technical personnel involved to 

make the necessary verifications when a problem arises. Above all, it will help prevent 

such problems from arising by suggesting proper and regular equipment maintenance 

steps, thus efficiently managing energy. It is important to keep in mind that good indoor 

air quality is not contrary to an efficient energy management program. Indoor air quality 

and energy management are not only compatible, but one benefits from the other. 

Thjs document is unique; it is the first of its kind in North America. Furthermore, 

AQME will organize training workshops in many cities across Quebec. The workshops 

will help users to better understand and use the procedures outlined in the manual, 

therefore ensuring a better application. 

During the last three years, we have held many IAQ seminars and conferences in 

different cities of the province. The C.Ommission de la Sante et de la Securite du Travail 

du Quebec (CSST) has developed a manual titled "Guidance for Indoor Air Quality 

Investigations" and information sessions for inspectors. IRSST has a few ongoing research 

studies, in particular, techniques of decontamination in hospital ventilation systems, and 

the use of C02 probes to control fresh air entry. Finally, a report of a preliminary IAQ 

study in six day·care centers in Montreal will be published in two weeks. The study was 

conducted by Dr. J. Soto (from a community health department) and myself. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 179 

Employee Survey: 

~Cr~x=U~~!~;:~~a»£~!t~~'~!:CZBW:?F!S222H::'FWBF'''1:rn:;Jw•::::2•=::::•tn 

Kevin Teichman 

Office of Research and Development 

US Environmental Protection Agency 

Introduction 

EPA's Office of Research and Development is conducting a number of IAQ and 

work environment studies in four large office buildings in Washington, DC: the three 

EPA headquarters buildings and the Library of Congress Madison Building. The studies 

include two components: (1) administering a survey questionnaire to all building 

employees, requesting information on health symptoms, comfort concerns, and other 

background factors; and (2) conducting pollutant and ventilation measurements in selected 

building locations. A number of organizations are participating in the design and 

execution of this comprehensive study: EPA, the National Institute for Occupational 

Safety and Health (NIOSH), the J.B. Pierce Foundation of Yale University, and the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology. 

The initial results of the studies, i.e., the descriptive reporting of the building survey 

results, were not available at the time of the meeting. The EPA study is now available 

through the Office of Administration Resource Management of EPA. The Library of 

Congress study will not be available until after the summer of 1990 through the Publishing 

Office of the Library of Congress, Room LM602, Phone Number (202) 707-5093. 

Subsequent reports will present the results of the monitoring data and attempt to correlate 

the survey responses with the monitoring results. 

Background 

In recent years, employees at the three headquarters buildings of the EPA have 

expressed their concerns about indoor air pollution and work environment discomforts. 

Because of the difficulties encountered in determining the "actual" causes of such concerns 

about building environments, EPA has undertaken a systematic study of the nature and 

spatial distribution of employee health symptoms and comfort concerns in an attempt to 

determine if associations exist between employee responses and specific work place 

conditions. 
180 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

This paper summarizes the first of three volumes of a report that investigates the 

perceived and actual quality of indoor air at EPA headquarters. Volume I documents the 

design of the study and the results of the detailed survey of all EPA employees that was 

conducted in February 1989. Three work complexes were surveyed: Waterside Mall and 

the Fairchild Building in Washington, DC, and Crystal Mall in Arlington, Virginia. 

Volume II presents a descriptive summary of the survey data. Results of the 

environmental monitoring wi11 be presented in Volume II; multi-variate analyses of both 

sets of study results will be presented in Volume III. 

The research effort at EPA was integrated with a parallel study at the Library of 

Congress Madison Building. Both the EPA and the Library of Congress surveys made use 

of common study designs and survey instruments, although separate reports have been 

prepared for each agency. While certain features of the study are specific to the 

particular buildings involved, the survey was designed to be applicable to any building 

suspected of environmental problems. 

Information continues to be obtained by both labor and management on the health 

symptoms of EPA employees and the quality of indoor air at EPA headquarters. For 

example, both the National Federation of Federal Employees Local 2050 and the 

American Federation of Government Employees Local 3331 have accumulated iqformation 

on the i11nesses experienced by EPA employees. This information is provided in a 

supplement to Volume I entitled, "Additional Employee Adverse Health Effects 

Information." 

Study Design 

Because of the lack of prior information on employee health that could be used as 

benchmark data, and because of the spatial variability of ventilation, thermal factors, and 

other conditions that influence health and comfort, a comprehensive survey of all EPA 

employees at each of the three headquarters locations was required. A self-administered 

questionnaire was distributed to all employees in February 1989, aslcing for information 

about health symptoms and comfort concerns, along with data on background health and 

demographic characteristics. Among the topics covered in the questionnaire were: 

• 	 Location of workstation (to detect associations between the survey and 

monitoring data); 

• 	 Description of workstation, both current and changes over the previous 

year; 

• 	 Amount of time spent at workstation; 

• 	 Health symptoms experienced while in the building, both in the previous 

week and in the previous year; 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 181 

• 	 Other health characteristics and risk factors: (e.g., wearing of contact 

lenses and eyeglasses, smoking, allergies, and asthma); 

• 	 Eye, nose, throat, or respiratory irritation from tohacco smoke or other 

chemicals during the previous year; 

• 	 Gynecological problems during the previous year; 

• 	 Comfort issues (e.g., temperature, humidity, air movl:ment, noise, dust, 

light, odors, and furniture use during last year); 

• 	 Job characteristics, including job satisfaction and job stress; and 

• 	 Education, job pay plan and grade, and job classification. 

To increase participation in the survey, both management and unions were given the 

opportunity to review the draft questionnaire, and their endorsements were communicated 

to all employees prior to the survey. Stringent measures were taken to ensure the 

confidentiality of all responses. 

Findings from the employee survey were used to rank all rooms in the building on 

the basis of a health symptom index, and then to select approximately 100 locations for 

environmental monitoring and physical measurements. Environmental monitoring was 

conducted three weeks after the employee survey. All locations were monitored for 

temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. A subset of 

locations was also sampled for nicotine, biological contaminants, particles, formaldehyde 

and other aldchydes, other volatile organic compounds, and pesticides. In addition, 

ventilation parameters were measured. 

While the monitoring was in process, a supplemental questionnaire was also 

administered to all employees near the environmental equipment. This questionnaire 

provided a basis of comparison between air measurements and employee experiences on 

the same day. 

Results of the Survey 

The overall response rate for the survey questionnaire across all three bulldings was 

81 percent, with 3,955 of an estimated 4,900 EPA employees completing the survey. 

More than 1,400 employees also took the opportunity to volunteer additional comments 

in the "essay" question provided at the end of the survey form. Key results are reported 

below, first for health symptoms and then for comfort issues. It is important to note that 

the health symptoms and comfort issues reported in the survey are self-reported by the 

respondents, and the study did not attempt to verify the symptoms by a physician's 

diagnosis. No attempt is made in this report to associate health or comfort outcomes with 

possible risk factors in the building. These analyses will be the focus of Volume III. 
182 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Health Symptoms of the Building 

The most frequently occurring health symptoms reported by respondents were 

roughly similar across the three buildings -- headaches, contact lens problems (among 

contact Jens wearers), stuffy nose, dry/itchy skin, dry/itchy/tearing eyes, strained eyes, and 

sleepiness. 

To focus the findings on health symptoms that are potentially building-related, the 

report uses the concept of 11 cases." Each case represents an employee who reported 

experiencing a health symptom "often" or "always" in the previous year and whose health 

symptom reportedly got better when the employee left work. The use of "cases" is 

intended to focus on symptoms that are recurring rather than occasional and that appear 

to be connected in some way to the huilding. 

As Exhibit ES-1 shows, the highest percentages of cases were reported for the same 

top seven symptoms across all three buildings (although ranked in different orders in each 

building): 

• 	 headache; 

• 	 stuffy nose/sinus congestion; 

• 	 dry, itching, or tearing eyes; 

• 	 sore/strained eyes; 

• 	 unusual fatigue or tiredness; 

• 	 sleepiness or drowsiness; and 

• 	 contact lens problems (among contact lens wearers). 

Each of these symptoms was experienced "often" or 11always" by at least ten percent 

of respondents and was reported to improve after the employee left work. Another view 

of the same data is provided in Exhibit ES-2, which groups the symptoms into three 

categories: 

• 	 Indoor air quality symptoms, typically associated with acute discomfort, 

such as headache, runny nose, stuffy nose/sinus congestion, dry, itching or 

tearing eyes, burning eyes, dry throat, fatigue, and sleepiness. 

• 	 Respiratory or flu-like symptoms, which may be manifested in clinically 

defined illnesses that may require prolonged recovery times after leaving 

the building. Such symptoms include cough, wheezing, shortness of 

breath, chest tightness, fever, and aching muscles or joints. 

• 	 Ergonomic symptoms, which include back pain or stiffness, and pain or 

numbness in the shoulder, neck, hands, or wrists. 

Ao; Exhibit ES-2 shows, the predominant symptoms reported in each building are 

those associated with poor indoor air quality. Headache, fatigue, and symptoms associated 

with mucous membrane irritation have often been reported in published IAQ evaluations. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 183 

The use of "cases" may be considered by some as representing a conservative 

estimate of symptoms experienced by respondents. For example, it may be useful to 

consider the prevalence of symptoms reported by respondents ''sometimes," in addition to 

''often" or "always." Therefore, for comparison, Exhibit ES-3 provides the percent of all 

respondents who had symptoms "sometimes," "often," or 11always," and who "got better 

upon leaving work." In addition, it is recognized that certain symptoms that may be 

building-related do not improve upon leaving work (e.g., muscle pains, hypersensitivity 

reactions, and immune responses). The main body of the report includes exhibits that 

eliminate the "got better upon leaving work" criterion. 

About a third of respondents (28 - 38 percent) in each of the three buildings 

indicated that their symptoms reduced their ability to work at least some of the time. 

About a quarter of respondents indicated that their symptoms resulted in having to stay 

home or leave work early "sometimes" or "often" in the past year (22 - 25 percent at each 

building). 

Among Waterside Mall employees, 62 percent of respondents associated one or 

more of their symptoms with their work building, compared to 56 percent of Crystal Mall 

respondents and 49 percent at the Fairchild Building. Of those employees reporting that 

they "often" or "always" experienced symptoms, the percentage who reported that their 

symptoms improved when they left the budding generally ranged between 60 and 70 

percent. 

More employees in Waterside Mall than in the other buildings reported that hoth 

the frequency and duration of their infections had increased since they began work in 

their building. At Waterside Mall, 39 percent of respondents reported more frequent 

infections (compared to 31 percent for Crystal Mall and 23 percent for the F airchil<l 

Building), and 36 percent of Waterside Mall respondents reported longer lasting infections 

since beginning work at the building (compared to 31 percent for Crystal Mall and 23 

percent for the Fairchild Building). 

Paint and tobacco smoke were among the top four irritants in all three buildings, 

for nine listed possible sources of eye, nose, throat, and respiratory irritation. At 

Waterside Mall, fumes from new carpeting, paint fumes, and tobacco smoke were 

mentioned as the three leading sources of irritation. Crystal Mall respondents were more 

likely to identify paint fumes, tobacco smoke, and fumes from copy machines. Fairchild 

Building respondents pointed primarily to new carpeting, tobacco, smoke, and fumes from 

new drapes and paint. About one third of all respondents reported that they consider 

themselves especially sensitive to the irritants mentioned. 

Health Symptoms at the Waterside Mall Sectors 

A fairly clear pattern of health symptoms emerges when one breaks down the 

Waterside Mall complex into six separate "sectors." A greater prevalence of the problems 

reported in Waterside Mall are associated with the second floor Mall, third floor :Vfall, 

and Southeast Mall sectors. Respondents in these three sectors were also more likely to 
184 NATO CC~fS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section VI 

report that their symptoms reduced their ability to work and they perceived a stronger 

association of their symptoms \\-ith the building than respondents in other sectors. 

Exhibit ES-4 shows data on cases reported for each of the six sectors of Waterside 

Mall. The same seven symptoms noted above were associated with most cases. The 

second and third floors of the Mall and the Southeast Mall report the highest percentages 

of problems, with 20 percent or more of respondents reporting cases of stuffy nose/sinus 

congestion (third floor Mall); dry, itching, or tearing eyes (second floor Mall and Southeast 

Mall); sore/strained eyes (second floor Mall); and sleepiness or drowsiness (Southeast 

Mall). Among respondents who wear contact lenses at work, the percentage who reported 

problems with their lenses reached 45 percent in the second floor Mall and 38 percent on 

the third floor Ma11. 

Health Symptoms Reported Last Week 

Respondents were asked on how many days in the previous week they experienced 

the individual symptoms while working in the building. This question was intended to 

provide a more immediate, and perhaps more accurate, measure of the extent of symptom 

occurrence since the recall period was much more recent. In addition, this question was 

used to select sampling locations. The results reported in Exhibit ES-5 show the 

percentage of respondents experiencing the symptom at least one day on the previous 

week; a1so shown are the number of days respondents experienced the symptom in the 

previous week. 

In general, the results appear consistent with the relative ranldng of cases in the 

previous year (Exhibit ES-1), although the percentages reporting symptoms are much 

higher. This result is not surprising, however, since the percentages of symptoms 

experienced during the past year represented only those who responded "often" or "always" 

and whose symptoms got better when they Jeft work. Forty percent or more of 

respondents in each building reported experiencing headaches, stuffy nose, fatigue, or 

sleepiness in the week before the survey. Respondents indicated an average duration of 

between two and three days for most symptoms. 

Comfort 

Overa11, respondents were generaJly satisfied with their immediate physical 

workstations (e.g., chair comfort and lighting). This finding may be due to employees' 

ability to adjust these factors. For example, desk lamps are used reguJarJy by 42 - 46 

percent of respondents. Dissatisfaction with building-related factors, however, was 

reported in each building, and at somewhat higher levels in Waterside Mall than in the 

other two buildings. 

As one measure of dissatisfaction, for example, last year 48 percent of Waterside 

Mall ·respondents reported bringing in portable fans to their offices, compared to 45 

percent at Crystal Mall and 36 percent at the Fairchild Mall. Waterside Mall respondents 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on lAQ: Section Vl 185 

also regularly made use of portable heaters in substantial numbers (22 percent). As 

Exhibit ES-6 shows, 40 - 51 percent of respondents "often" or "always" wanted to adjust 

air movement, and between 38 - 55 percent of respondents "often" or "always" wanted to 

adjust the temperature. 

In all three buildings, respondents reported the air to be often or always too dry 

rater than too humid, with too little as opposed to too much air movement. For example, 

in Crystal Mall, 38 percent reported the air to be "too dry" as opposed to eight percent 

who reported the air to be "too humid," and 48 percent reported having too little air 

movement as opposed to three percent who reported too much air movement. The desire 

to adjust temperature was seasonally dependent in all three buildings, with respondents 

wanting to adjust temperature more during winter and summer. For example, over 

two-thirds of all respondents in Waterside Mall reported wanting to adjust temperature 

during winter and summer months. 

Exhibit ES-7 breaks down these responses by Waterside Mall sector. A need for 

adjustments in air movement and humidity was reported most by respondents on the 2nd 

and 3rd floors of the Mall and the Southeast Mall. Temperature adjustments were 

desired most in the 2nd and 3rd floors of the Mall, West Tower, and Southeast Mall. 

Volume I also outlines the findings of the survey regarding respondent background 

characteristics -- including employee demographic characteristics, health factors not related 

to the building, job satisfaction and sources of stress, and the physical work environments 

in which employees work. These factors will be used in the Volume III analyses as 

background variables to help explain patterns of health symptoms and comfort problems. 

These analyses will provide a more detailed context in which to understand the differential 

health and comfort problems experienced by different types of employees, and employees 

in different buildings and sectors. The analyses will thus help to determine to what extent 

the health and comfort symptoms described in this report can be attributed to building 

conditions and to what extent they can be attributed to other independent factors. 
186 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: S«tion VI 

Exhibit ES.I: Pereent of All Respondents Wbo Had Symptoms Often or Atwa11 List Year that 


Got Better Upon Leamaa Work, by EPA Headqaarten Building 


SYMPTOM 

Headache 

Nausea 

Rwmyaose 

Stuffy nose/sinus coapstion 

Sneezing 

Cough 

Wheuiug or wbiatling in chest 

Shonaess of breath 

Chest tigbtllesa 

Dry, itching. or tearing eyes 

Sore/strained eyes 

Blurry/double vision 

Burniag eyes 

Sorethro.t 

Hoarseaeu 

Dry throat 

Unusual fatigue or tiredness 

Sleepineu or drowsiness 

Chills 

Fe\'er 

Aching muscles or joints 

Problems with contact lenses• 

Difficulty remembering things 

Dizziacss/ligh•heldedness · 

Feeling depreaed 

Tension or aaYOtllllell 

Difficulty coaceDb'lb.aa 

Dry or itchy skin 

Pain or stiffness in upper back 

Pain or stitTJless in lower back 

Pa.in or numbness in shoulder/neclt. 

Pain or numbness in bands or wrisu 

WATERSIDE 

MALL 

16% 

1% 

8% 

16% 

7% 

4% 

1% 

2% 

2% 

17% 

16% 

49' 

l()'K, 

4% 

3% 

10% 

15% 

15% 

5% 

1% 

4% 

28% 

2% 

3% 

5% 

10% 

7% 

6% 

6% 

6%. 
 6% 

2% 

BUll.DING 

. 

CRYSTAL 

FAIRCHILD MAU. 

11% 16% 

1% 1% 

7%

17% "' 15%

7% 8% 

5% 4% 

1% 2% 

1% 2% 

1% 2% 

12% 15% 

12% 18% 

3% 5% 

8% 11% 

3% 4% 

2% 1% 

7% 9% 

14% 11% 

19% 13% 

1% 2% 

1% 0% 

4% 2% 

1~ 27% 

2% 2% 

2% 1% 

5% 4% 

11% 8% 

6% 5% 

49& 6% 

6% 6% 

6% 4% 

5% 5% 

2% 2% 

•These percenraga are baled upon 2DJI the people who war contact lenses at work "sometima. often or alwlys" (Pan II. 

Queaion 1.a). as opposed 10 ill respondents in the buildif11. 

Rererence: Pan II. Qu·eaion 7. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 187 

Exblblt £5.2: Pen.at ofAll Respandeats Who HM Symptomt Oftell or AlwaJI Liit Year that 

Get Better u,_ Lavina Work, bJ EPA Headquarters BaU•ln1 and by Group of 

S1111ptoms 

BUilDINO 

SYMPTOM 

WATI::RSIDE CRYSTAL 

FAIRCHll.D MALL MALL 

lDlllmE 6.il s:211UI! S..mptoms 

Hadldae 16% 11% 16% 

R.WU!f nose 8% 99& 7% 

Snaffy noee/linus c:onpltion 16% 179& 15% 

Dry, irching, or teariftl .,a 17% 12% 15% 

Burnq.,. 10% 8% 11% 

Drytlvoll 109& 7% 9% 

Unutual ratipe or tirednaa 159& 149& 119'0 

Sleepineu or drowliMU 15% 19'*1 13% 

Reminrorv mFlu-lib Swmmoma 


Coup 4'*1 S9& 49& 


Whoaina or whiltq in chat 19& 19& 2% 


Shonnesa ofbreath 29& 19& 2% 


Chat tigtttnca 29& 19& 2% 


Fever 19& 1% 0% 


Aching mmda or joinU 4% 4% 2% 


GIDnmni' SvmlXa 

Pain or aifTnca in upper bl'* 6% 6% 6% 

Pain or lliffnca in lower bl'* 69& 6% 4% 

Pain or nusnbnaa in sboulder/nect 6% S% 5% 

Plin or numbnes in Mndl-or wrilla 2% 2% 2% 

Reference: Part II, Question 7. 
188 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Exlal1'lt ES-3: Perceat olAll Rapoa41ents Who Had Symptoms Sometimes, Often or Always 

Lut Year ud that Got Better Upon Leavins Work, by EPA Headquarten 

Building 

SYMPTOM 


Headache 

Nausea 

RUDDynose 

Stuffy nose/sinus congestion 

Sneezing 

Cough 

Wh eenngor . wbistlina . m chest

Shonnesa ot bread& 

Char tigblncss 

Dry, itching. or teariua eyes 

Sore/straiaed .. 

Blurry/double vision 

Burniagcya 

Sore throat 

Hoarseness 

Dry throat 

Unusual fatigue or tirednesa 

Sleepiness or drowsiness 

Chills 

FeYer 

Aching muscles or joints 

Problems with contact Jeasa• 

Difficulty remembering thiap 

Dizziness/liabtbeadech1esa 

Feelins depressed 

Tension or DCn'OUlllCll 

Difraculty CODCeD1r11iDs 

Dry or itchy skin 

Pain or stiffness in upper back 

Pain or stiffness in lower back 

Paia or numbness in shoulder/neck 

Pain or numbness in buds or wrists 

WATERSIDE 

MAU. 

41% 

lK 

20% 

29% 

22% 

14% 

4% 

7% 

6% 

35% 

37% 

12% 

27% 

14% 

10% 

23% 

34% 

41% 

16% 

4% 

10% 

47% 

10% 

15% 

19% 

32% 

27% 

12% 

16% 

16'1> 

14% 

7% 

BUil..DING 

CRYSTAL 

MALL 

30% 

7% 

18% 

26% 

20% 

12% 

3% 

5% 

12% 

29% 

35% 

8% 

22% 

12% 

6% 

18% 

32% 

42% 

10% 

3% 

7% 

38% 

8% 

17% 

17% 

33% 

27% 

11% 

14% 

15% 

12% 

6% 

FAIRCHILD 

42% 

19% 

15% 

29% 

20% 

12% 

2% 

6% 

6% 

34% 

40% 

14% 

27% 

11% 

8% 

23% 

32% 

40% 

11% 

3% 

9% 

46% 

8% 

9% 

15% 

28% 

23% 

11% 

18% 

19% 

16% 

7% 

•These percentages are based upon a the people who war conta'1 lenses at work •somaim-. often or a.iw.ys• (Pan II, 

Quation I.a). u opposed to Ill.respondents in the building. 

Rererence: Pan II. Oueaion 7. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 189 

Exhibit ES-4: Percent ofAll Respondents Who Had S1111ptoms Often or Alwa71 Last Year that Got 

Better Upon Leaving Work. by Sector ID Waterside Mall 

WATERSIDE MALL SECTOR 

SYMPTOM 

EAST WEST MAU. MALL NE SE 

TOWER TOWER 2NDFLOOR 3RDFLOOR MALL MA.LL 

Headache 14% 13% 18% 19% 16% 18% 

Nausea 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 14% 

Rumiynose 7% 9% 9% 10% 8% 8% 

Stuffy DOIC/sinu congeatioa 1S% 13% 16% 219' 16% 16% 

Snetting 6% 7% 1% 8% 7% 6% 

Cough 4% S% 6% 6% 4% 2% 

Whetting or wbislliJag ill chest 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% 2% 

Shortness of breath 1% 2% 3% 3% 3% 2% 

Chest tightaca 1% 1% 3% 2% 2% 2% 

Dry, ildaing. or tearing e)U 14% 15% 21% 18% 13% 20% 

Sore/~e)U 15% 14% 22CJ& 18CJ& 14% 19% 

Blurry/double visioe 4% 4% 1% 3% 3% 3% 

Burninse,a 9% 10% 13% 11% 9% 10% 

Sore tbroli 3% 3% 7% 5% 3% 9% 

Hoarseness 3% 39& 5CJ& 3% 2% 4% 

Dry throat 8% 9% 15% 12% 8% 14% 

Unusual fatigue or~ 12% 15% 17% 17% 12% 15% 

Sleepiness or droMiDea 13% 14% 18% 17% 14% 20% 

Chills 2% 5% 5% 5% 6% 4% 

FC\U 4% 0% 0% 1% 1% 5% 

Ac:biq musdes or joints 3% 4% 5% 59' 4% 6% 

Problems with coatac:t lensea• 24% 2'% 45% 38% 31% 29% 

Dif'6cuJly rememberins tbiass 2% 2% 3% 3% 3% 1% 

Oinincu/ligbtbadedaes1 3% 2% 5% 4% 3% 4% 

Feeling depreued 5% 5% 4% 5% 6% 5% 

Tension or DCl'VOl&llDeSI 9% 10% 12% 10% 9% 12% 

Diffic:uky coac:eDlndiag 6% 6% l<>CJ& 10% 6% 10% 

Dry or itchy skira 6% 6% 8% 8% 6% 5% 

Pain or stiffneu iD upper back 4"11 8% 5% 1% 6% 4% 

Pain or sti.ffneu iD lower back 4% 7% 4% 6% 7% 6% 

Pain or numbaea& ia sbouldet/ncd. 4% 5% 6% 1% 6% 4% 

Pain or numbaeu ia hands or wrists 2% 2% 4% 2% 1% 2% 

•naae percsnllpS are bued upon sm1x the people who wear conrac:t lenlCI at wort .·sometimes. often or 11ways· (Pan 11, Question 

l.a), u oppoeed to Ill mpondenll in the tNildi.q. 

Rcf'erence: Plft 11, Oudtion 7. 
190 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Exhibit ES.5: Percent ofAll Respolldents ReportJna One or More Days ofSymptom and Avenge 

s,_,tom Days Last Week, by EPA Headquarters Bullcllna 

WATERSIDE MALL CRYSTAL MALL FAIRCHil..D 

SYMPTOMS 

% l+ Days• Avg. Days %1+ DQS• A"i-Days % 1+ Days• Avg. Dar. 

Headache 53% 2.0 47% 2.0 49% 2.2 

Nausea 13% 1.7 12% 1.7 13% 1.6 

Runny Nose 42% 2.7 36% 28 36% 2.7 

Stuffy Nose 51% 2.9 47% 3.0 51% 2.8 

Sneezing 40% 2.3 38% 2.3 40% 2.4 

Cough 31% 2.6 30% 2.S 30% 2.S 

Wheezin& 8% 2..S 7% 2.6 8% 3.0 

Shortness of Breath 11% 2.4 10% 2.6 9% 2.4 

Chest Tightness 9% 2.3 11% 2.4 9% 2.3 

Dry, Itch.in& or Tearing Eyes 41% 2.6 3S% 2.7 40% 2.6 

Sore/Strained Eyes 41% 2.6 37% 2..5 ~% 2.6 

Blurry /Double Vision 16% 2.S 13% 2.6 17% 2.7 

Burning Eyes 28% 2.S 23'1t 2.6 29% 2.S 

Sore Throat 259& 2.2 229& 2.2 22% 2.1 

Hoarseness 15% 2.3 13% 2..S 14% 2.1 

Dry Throat 31% 2.6 25% 2.7 26% 2.6 

Unusual Fatigue 449& 2.6 40% 2.7 43% 2.5 I 

Sleepiness 50% 2.4 49% 2.6 48% 2.4 

Chills 18% 2.4 9% 2.2 15% 2.2 

Fever 8% 1.9 6% 2.6 8% 1.9 

Aching Muscles 26% 2..S 26% 2.7 21% 2.4 

Problems w / Contact tenses•• 46% 2.8 39% 2.6 44% 2.3 

Difficulty Remembering Thinp 21% 2.4 18% 2.2 19% 1.9 

Dizzin~/Llghtheadedness 18% 20 13% 2.2 15% 1.8 

Feeling Depressed 27% 2.2 26% 2.4 26% 2.3 

Tension or Nervousnea 37% 2.3 39<Jl, 2.6 3S% 2.4 

Difficulty Concentrating 33% 2.3 33% 2.3 32% 2.0 

Dry or Itchy Skin 36% 3.3 30% 3.2 34% 3.1 

Pain in Upper Bad: 23% 2..S 22% 2.6 24% 2.6 

Pain in Lower Back 27% 2..S 25% 2.7 24% 2.3 

Pain in Shoulder /Neck 21% 2.6 21% 2.6 19% 2.5 

Pain in Hands or Wrist 11% 2.6 11% 2.6 10% 2.6 

•

Based on the total number of responding empl~ 

••These percentages arc based upon mm the people who wear contact lenses at work (Pan II, Question 1.a). as opposed 

to ill responding employees. 

Reference: Part II, Question 7. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 191 

Exhibit ES« 	 Number and Percent Reportlna Often or Always Wantlng to AcUust Environmental 

Comfort Last Year, by EPA Hadquaners Building 

WATERSIDE MALL CRYSTAL MALL FAIRCHILD 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Adjust Air Movement 1.574 51% 210 46% 164 40% 

Adjust Temperature 1.708 SS% 174 38% 162 40% 

Adjust Humidity 1,077 35% 160 35% 131 32% 

Reference: Part ill. Questions le, 1f and ti. 

Exhibit £S.7: Number and Percent Repordna Often or AlwaJS WantIna to Adjust Environmental 

Comfort Last Year, by Waterside Mall Sector 

WATERSIDE MALL SECTOR 

EAST WEST MAU. MALL NE SE 

TOWER TOWER 2NDFLOOR 3RDFLOOR MALL MALL 

N % N % N % N % N % N % 

Adjust Air Movement 759 45% 581 49% 392 61% 489 58% 432 51% 216 58% 

Adjust Temperatute 765 52% 594 S9% 394 62% 491 S9% 431 54% 221 57% 

Adjust Humidity 756 33% 589 34% 392 40% 484 41% 429 33% 217 42% 

Ref crence: Part III. Questions le, lf and Ii. 
192 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 193 

Pollution in Closed Spaces and 

Its Consequences in 

Conservation of Works of Art ;~::~;:.~~:t:~\:.:~~(;~\~/;/~;}}\~:t~H?{~:;};:~:r;1:.::~:~:.;r:~~;g;~:}:~tt~~~~:~;~~~~:t.ttt~~~~~:}_:t:/}i~#~t:~~:)~:~t;~~:~::t~}~t~}~:~:/:~?:~~~:;:::~:;:::~\\~::: 

Germano Mulazzani 

Art Historian of the Ministcro per I Beni Culturali 

Milan, Italy 

The concept of pollution, as it relates to conservation of works of art in closed 

spaces, differs from the one used for human environments. In this context, pollution may 

be defined as anything that damages the physical integrity of a work of art, by modifying 

its original and/or best condition, either in the case of a work which still stays in the place 

where it was made (e.g., art in churches and monumental buildings), or in the case of a 

work which has been moved (e.g., to a museum). 

The latter case, studied using the science called museography, is the best known 

because in many countries, especiaJly in those without an ancient history, museums are the 

only place where people can have a direct exposure to works of art. In addition, the 

problems pertinent to museums are rather well-known, and not only among specialists. 

The factors which must be considered in planning or in re-planning a museum are as 

follows. 

Museum Factors which Affect Art 

Temperature and Humidity. The ideal values for art conservation (especially paintings 

and, in particular, panel paintings), are 18 - 2CY'C and 50 - 60 percent humidity. In order 

to reach and maintain these values, most important museums install air-conditioning 

systems. In Italy, on the contrary, only a few museums have air conditioning systems, 

because an air-conditioning system is very expensive to install and operate, and its 

installation is often incompatible with the building architecture, since almost all Italian 

museums are placed in historical buildings. 

The air conditioning system must be operated continuously because its temporary 

inactivity can cause serious damage. Studies have demonstrated that sudden variations 

of temperature and humidity can harm works of art, although gradual variations may not. 

Dust. Dust caused by plaster and floors can be eliminated by avoiding the use of 

materials or buildings systems that produce dust, for instance, cement plasters or tiled 
194 NA TO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

floors. In order to reduce the dust brought in by visitors, the entrance of the museum 

must be preceded by a long covered passage. Dust produced by atmospheric pollution 

can be eliminated by the air-conditioning system or by an air-filtering system. 

Lighting (natural and artificial lighting). Museums must avoid the use of lighting that 

damages works of art. The infrared and UV rays in both natural and artificial light can 

harm works of art; the most sensitive works of art are drawings and prints, followed by 

textiles (e.g. carpets and tapestries) and paintings. Therefore, it is necessary to employ 

filters that eliminate these dangerous rays, and it is also useful to avoid lighting when the 

museums are closed. For smaJl works, such as drawings, prints, books, illuminations and 

other objects that are kept in glass show-cases, it is also necessary to avoid lights that 

generate heat. 

Case Studies of Art Conservation in Enclosed Spaces 

The Ministero per I Beni Culturali began to pay attention to the problems caused 

by pollution (especially air pollution) 20 years ago. We were struck by the damage to 

stone and marble sculptures placed in open air. We have carried out many studies and 

conservation activities and have reached a good level of knowledge and practice 

concerning open air art. 

Studies in the conservation of works placed in enclosed spaces started much later. 

These studies especially concern a kind of painting typical of Italian art mural painting, 

in particular fresco painting. Italian art of this type was painted from the 13th to 18th 

centuries, and is important and well-known, for example, the frescoes by Giotto at Assisi 

and Padua; by Piero della Francesca at Arezzo; by Michelangelo and Raphael in Rome; 

by Tiepolo and other Venetian painters all over Europe. 

Fresco painting has been popular due to its durability, but it is vulnerable to air 

pollution, especially in the presence of airborne sulfurous anhydride. Fresco painting, 

which is prevalently made of calcium carbonate (CaC03), when it contacts sulfurous 

anhydride (S02), tends to transfonn itself into gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) and 

then disintegrate. To address this problem, brilliant solutions have been recently found: 

for example, it is possible to recreate the film of calcium carbonate by using compresses 

of ammonium carbonate. Two important examples illustrate the reasons for the 

degradation of fresco mural paintings. 

Leonardo da Vinci, La.fit Supper, Milan, Refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle 

Grazie, 1495-1497. 

In the refectory of the Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, a 

room of nine by 36 meters, Leonardo painted, probably at the request of the Duke of 

Milan, Ludovico Sforza, between 1495 and 1497, a large painting representing the Last 

Supper with Christ and the Apostles. In the same year, 1495, a minor painter from 

Milan, Donato Montorfano, painted on the opposite wall a Crucifixion. This other 
NATO CC:MS Pilot Study on JAQ: Section VT 195 

pmntmg was made v.ith fresco technique and, except for some damage caused by the 

1943 bombing, is perfectly well-preserved. 

Leonardo did not carry out his work a fresco but with the tempera (distemper) 

technique. Fresco painting requires a quick execution, does not allow corrections 

(pentimenti), and requires very light colors, without light and shade or relief effects. 

Leonardo, for aesthetic reasons, wanted to employ for this mural painting the same 

technique that in the Italian Renaissance was employed for panel paintings. With the 

tempera technique, pigments are mixed with water and an organic glue (e.g., egg, animal 

glue, gum-arabic, or milk). With this system, the actual painting process could take as 

long as was necessary. Thc painting could be changed during its execution, and could 

have a much richer palette and more realistic effects of relief and chiaroscuro (light and 

shade). The wall chosen for the Last Supper (the wall is on the north side of the 

refectory) was covered with a preparation coat (the imprimitura) made of gypsum and 

glue. Leonardo painted on this coat for about two years, sometimes working night and 

day, sometimes staying in complete inactivity. He could also correct the picture as he 

liked. 

Leonardo was, from an aesthetic point of view, entirely successful. From a technical 

point of view, however, the painting was a true failure. By 1517, it was apparent that the 

Last Supper was going to deteriorate. The main reason for the painting's deterioration 

is that it was painted on a wall facing northward. The wall was the coldest one and 

therefore attracted all the dampness produced in the room, which must have been 

considerable, because friars had their meals at least twice a day in the refectory. 

Dampness caused the increased production of gypsum (a high hydroscopic substance) 

contained in the preparation coat, and this increase caused a loss of color in the painted 

coat. 

Restorations of the Last Supper have been documented since the 18th century, but 

they were merely ovcrpaintings to reverse the color loss. The scientific approach to the 

environmental conditions, the main reason for the damage, was started at the beginning 

of the 20th century. A very simple but efficacious remedy was adopted: the little room 

hehind the painted wall was heated; the wall was no longer the coldest point in the room 

and the deterioration began to slow. 

In 1943, the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie was almost completely destroyed 

by war-time bombing. Leonardo's painting was miraculously saved (it had been protected 

hy sand sacks), and a short time afterwards it was restored for the first time according to 

the modern concepts of art conservation. A new restoration, carried out with strictly 

scientific methods, was started in 1978. The restoration is not yet complete but it has 

given rise to many surveys that have studied every aspect of the painting and its 

conservation. The surveys have studied the humidity and temperature conditions in the 

refectory, the pollutants in the indoor air, the materials employed by Leonardo (pigments 

and glues), the microorganisms on the painting's surface, and the characteristics of the 

painted wall. 
196 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Almost all the studies have been published, but almost none has had practical 

consequences. The condition of the refectory is still as it was before the beginning of the 

restoration -- not only because the Italian state government pays little attention to its 

artistic inheritance, but also because the studies themselves had indicated that the situation 

is not so dangerous. The only measures to be adopted will be a filtering air system and 

a longer closed passage for the visitors before entering the refectory. 

Hieronymus &sch (attr.), Christ before Pilate. Milan, Chiaravalle Abbey, approx. 1499. 

This painting is a precious fragment I discovered in a little chapel of the ancient 

abbey of Chiaravalle near Milan. This fragmentary picture was made with the fresco 

technique, but it is extremely rare because it is a work of a Flemish painter, whom I 

believe to be Hieronymus Bosch. Flemish painting of the 15th and 16th centuries is 

known almost exclusively through panel paintings, therefore this fragment must be 

considered as an unicum -- so we paid a considerable amount of attention to it after its 

discovery. The fresco, Christ before Pilate, has been studied by the technicians of the 

Opificio delle Pktre Dure of Florence. Their inquiries have clarified that it is a real 

fresco painting, although it is made in a quite different manner from Italian frescoes. 

They have also determined the causes of deterioration of the painting, now that it is no 

longer protected by the plaster that had hidden it previously. The damage is due to the 

presence of salts within the wall; the salts can leach out (in the direction of the painting) 

when the internal temperature is higher than the external temperature. The wall is 

particularly rich in salts (especially nitrates) because it rests on soil which is also rich in 

salts, derived from the decomposition of organic substances. 

To prevent further degradation, we have excavated a deep trench behind the wall. 

This trench helps the evaporation of water, which otherwise have been absorbed by the 

wall. We have also avoided any internal heating. At the end of the restoration, we wiU 

install an air-filtering system, because tests have revealed the presence of airborne 

sulfurous anhydride. 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 197 

Ho\v Norwegian Health 

Authorities Will Handle Indoor 

i;~;i.::~M~~li~~a:C:~g~!~m;~':Ffr::if:::::::ui:ct:::::~;~}:i??iYtff{@:N!'.:::'.1.P::i 

Finn Levy, MD 

Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and 

National Institute of Occupational Health 

Oslo, Norway 

Introduction 

The awareness of the increasing number of complaints regarding indoor air quality 

and the adverse health effects thereof, even in new, well-jnsulated and energy efficient 

buildings, has made maintaining the indoor environment a task for the Norwegian health 

authorities as well as for those technically in charge of building construction and use. In 

Norway, the responsibility for the indoor environment resides in five Ministries: 

• 	 The Ministry of Health and Social Affairsi represented by the Directorate 


of Health, assisted by the National lnstitute of Public Health, the National 


Institute of Radiation Hygiene and the National Council on Smoking and 


Health; 


• 	 The Royal Ministry of Local Government and L1bor, represented by the 


Directorate of Labor Inspection and the National Office of Building 


Technology and Administration; 


• 	 The Ministry of the Environment, represented by the State Pollution 


Control Authority; 


• 	 The Ministry of Consumers Affairs and Government Administration 


assisted by the Consumer Council; and 


• 	 The Ministry of Petroleum. 
198 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

Research Institutes 

Research institutes are working on parts of the indoor environmental factors: 

• 	 Norwegian High School of Technology in Trondheim (ventilation, testing 

of materials); 

• 	 National Institute of Building Research (ventilation); 

• 	 National Institute of Occupational Health (indoor environment problems 

in offices and industrial workplaces); 

• 	 National Institute of Public Health (infectious diseases); 

• 	 National Institute of Radiation Hygiene (radon, electromagnetic fields); 

• 	 Central Institute of Industrial Research (microbiological growth in building 

materials); and 

• 	 Norwegian Institute of Air Research (air pollution). 

The coordination of responsibility and labor and the communication between the 

different organizations has not been optima]. This finding was the conclusion of a report 

"Who Does What" (in the indoor environment) based on two seminars arranged by 

HK-HTI (the Central Committee for Health and Indoor Environment, an interdisciplinary 

committee appointed by the Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers) in 1987-88. 

Policy and Regulations 

The work of the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs in the indoor environmental 

sector is warranted under the Law on Municipal Health Services enacted in 1982. The 

law's goal states that the Norwegian population shall be protected against known adverse 

health effects due to environmenta1 pollution, indoor as well as outdoor, by the year 1995. 

The responsibility is delegated to the local health authorities who are encouraged to 

initiate projects on indoor climate. Most projects up to now have been performed in 

kindergartens. However, very few physicians and hygienists have updated knowledge and 

experience with regard to indoor air quality and sick building syndrome. 

Indoor Air Quality Guidelines - Work Group 

At present, no official indoor air quality guidelines exist in Norway. Different 

practices are used in the evaluation of air quality, mainly based on subjective 

interpretation of various measurements. It is agreed upon that the norm for the industrial 

environment (1LV) is not applicable for residential and non-industrial workplaces, nor for 

kindergartens, schools and health-institutions. With regard to formaldehyde; the TLV in 

the work environment has been reduced from 1.2 mg/m3 to 0.6 mg!m3 in 1989. The 
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAO: Section VI 199 

recommended maximum level for C02 in public place schools and kindergartens is 1,200 

ppm (0.12 percent). C02 is used as an indicator of ventilation efficiency. This 

concentration is often exceeded and the air quality· is regarded as sub-optimal. 

The Directorate of Health financially supported the publication "Indoor Climate - a 

Guide" in 1986 (published on]y in Norwegian). The same year, a \Vorking Group was 

appointed by the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs to prepare "criteria documents" 

that should serve as bases for health-based recommendations on indoor air quality with 

regard to air contaminants. The Working Group selected the following components as 

most relevant for Norwegian indoor air quality: CO, C02, formaldehyde, VOCs, ETS, 

particles (combustion products other than ETS), MMMFs, and biological particles 

(primarily allergenic and irritant-like mites and molds, but, if possible, infectious biologicals 

as well). The drafts should be ready in April 1990. 

A separate criteria document on asbestos has not been developed. Asbestos is 

regarded as a carcinogenic substance and by law (1986) prohibited from use in new 

construction. Hence, asbestos is not acceptable in the indoor environment. 

The first draft of a "Radon Guide" was prepared by the Forum for Technical 

Hygiene and the National Institute of Radiation Hygiene, and is being circulated for 

comments. The Radon Guide recommends an action level of 800 Bq/m3 radon gas (not 

radon daughter products) in existing homes (one-year average), and moderate remedial 

action in the case of levels hetween 200 and 800 Bq/m3

• In new construction, the goal 

is an average annual radon level of less than 200 Bq/m'1. 

Tobacco Regulations 

Tobacco advertising is prohibited by law ("Act relating to prevention of the harmful 

effects of tobacco" -- an English translation is available from the National Council on 

Smoking and Health). The Act was extended in July 1988 to protect non-smokers from 

ETS exposure. Smoking is prohibited in public rooms and indoor workplaces. Alternative 

facilities must be provided for smokers. Smoking is also prohibited on national airplane 

flights, and beginning November 1, 1989, on intra-Scandinavian flights. The ''Norway 

smoke-free year 2000" goal was presented by the Norwegian Medical Association in 1986. 

Official Responsibility 

In October 1989, the Directorate of Health of the Department of Preventive Health 

began to coordinate IAQ efforts between the different Ministries, including the Directorate 

of Labor Inspection. The latter has the responsihility for the Norwegian TLVs 

("Administrative norms of air pollution in workplace atmosphere") in industrial as well as 

non-industrial indoor workplaces, and published guidelines for office climate in 1983. 

The National Office of Building Technology and Administration is continually revising 

the building regulations. 111C recent edition ( 1987) states that "the indoor air quality shall 

be satisfactory," without stating specifically the air exchange, temperature, and humidity in 
200 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 

the regulations. These levels are, however, mentioned in an appendix. A common Nordic 

basis will be used for the new Norwegian building regulations planned for 1992. 

Activities initiated by the State PoJJution Control Authority include the following: 

• 	 Work with regulations for formaldehyde emissions from materials 

(chip boards), 

• 	 "Datasheet" on toxic materials that are used in building materials and for 

surface treatment, and 

• 	 Composition of water-based paints with regards to emissions that may 

cause adverse health effects. 

'(:{ US GOVEANME"lT PP.lo,jT!r.JCi OFFICE· 1990 ··2 6 1 -() 6 9 2 4 l 3 5