TANZANIA

Expeditionary Culture

Field Guide

LEGISLATIVE

Dodama

EXECUTIVE Dar es Salaam

Mwanza

Mbeya

Zanzibar City

Arusha

Tanzania
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural 

dimension of your 

assigned location and 

gain skills necessary 

for success. 

The guide consists of 

2 parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the 

foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any 

global environment. 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” Tanzania, focusing on 

unique cultural features of Tanzanian society and is designed 

to complement other pre-deployment training. It applies culturegeneral concepts to 

help increase your 

knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force 

Culture and Language 

Center (AFCLC) 

website at 

http://culture.af.mil/ or contact AFCLC’s Region Team at 

AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil. 

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

ECFG Tanzania

About this Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story – 

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

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PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL
nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture. 

Social Behaviors Across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For 

example, all societies obtain 

food for survival, although

agrarian societies generally 

produce their own food for 

limited consumption using 

very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

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market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing most 

of what was traditional 

and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form of 

bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness,

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers. 

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life. 

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual. 

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection and 

widespread poverty caused 

by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions. 

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Tanzanian society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The United Republic of Tanzania resulted from the union of two 

regions with distinct but intertwined histories: mainland 

Tanganyika and the archipelago of Zanzibar. Although both

regions were subject to the same foreign powers throughout 

much of recent history, they were settled by different ethnic 

groups which adopted different types of economic activity.

Early Tanganyika

Footprints discovered in the Great 

Rift Valley indicate that hominids 

were present in Tanzania as early 

as 3.6 million years ago. The first 

modern humans to inhabit the 

region were hunter-gatherers who 

closely resembled the Khoe-San of 

southern Africa in appearance, 

culture, and language. The dwellings, rock art, and stone tools 

which these hunter-gatherers left behind indicate that they 

were present in Tanzania by 1000 BC at the latest, and 

probably much earlier. Around that time, Cushitic-speaking 

pastoralists (animal herders) with stone tools began migrating 

from present-day Ethiopia and Somalia into the area and 

settling among the hunter-gatherers. 

However, it was not until the early centuries AD that Bantuspeaking farmers and the ancestors of most modern 

Tanzanians began to arrive in East Africa from the Niger Delta. 

Although these Bantu-speakers had iron tools, their limited 

range of crops confined them to only the most fertile regions.

Later, Sudanic and Nilotic peoples who filtered into Tanzania 

between the 11th and 18th centuries introduced the Bantuspeakers to cattle and cereal crops, allowing them to expand 

more widely. The new migrants probably assimilated to the 

culture of the Bantu-speakers over an extended period of time.

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
Early Zanzibar and the Coast 

Little verifiable history of the coast exists prior to the 9th and 

10th centuries AD. The Egyptians may have reached the coast 

of East Africa as early as 2,500 BC, followed by Phoenicians 

from the eastern Mediterranean about 2,000 years later. Based 

on Arab texts and Islamic-style 

architecture from that period, it is 

clear that Persian Gulf Arabs had 

trading ties with coastal East Africa. 

Arab traders were mainly interested in 

gold, although they also bought large 

amounts of ebony, ivory, and spices, 

bringing in return a wide variety of 

goods from Arabia and the Far East. They also imported Islam, 

which became well-established in coastal East Africa (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Although the Cushitic-speakers appear to have been the first 

African inhabitants of the coastal region, by the 14th century 

nearly all non-Arab inhabitants of the coast and islands were 

Bantu-speakers. These Bantu languages later mixed with the 

Arabic spoken by traders to form Swahili, a coastal lingua 

franca (national language, see Language and Communication). 

Swahili City-States: By the 12th century both the East African 

coast and nearby islands were dotted with trading posts. Many

of the most important; such as Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, and 

Kilwa Kisiwani; were located in present-day Tanzania. By the 

15th century, about 30 of these trading posts had developed 

into independent and culturally Islamic Swahili city-states.

Although full-blooded Africans probably comprised a majority in 

the Swahili city-states; most artisans, landowners, merchants, 

and religious leaders were of mixed Afro-Arab descent. Most of 

the sultans who ruled Swahili city-states were Shirazi Persians 

who originated in the Shiraz region of present-day Iran.

Kilwa Kisiwani, an island located about 150 miles south of Dar 

es Salaam, was initially the most prominent Swahili city-state. 

By the 16th century both the island of Zanzibar and the port of 

Mombasa in present-day Kenya had surpassed Kilwa Kisiwani 

and remained powerful until the arrival of the Portuguese.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Portuguese Rule

The first Europeans to visit the East African coast arrived in 

1498 as part of a voyage led by Portuguese explorer Vasco da 

Gama. Because the Swahili city-states ultimately were unable 

to unite against the cannon-armed invaders, it took just eight

years for the Portuguese to claim control over the entire coast.

Despite this rapid conquest, the Portuguese made no 

systematic attempt to administer all the land they claimed.

Portuguese control began to weaken in the 1580s as several 

Swahili city-states rebelled and a roving band of 5,000 warriors 

from present-day Malawi swept up the coast. The situation 

worsened in the mid-17th century, 

when Arabs from the Persian Gulf 

Sultanate of Oman began to help 

the Swahili city-states rebel. 

Portuguese control north of presentday Mozambique, which borders 

Tanzania to the south, ended

entirely in 1698, when the Omanis 

captured Mombasa, Kenya. 

Omani Sultanate

Although the Shirazi sultans were just as reluctant to cede 

autonomy to the Omanis as they had been to the Portuguese, 

they were unable to unite in resistance. Because the Omanis 

had their own internal divisions, neither side took decisive 

control of the coast and islands during the first century of 

Omani rule: the Omanis nominally held political power, while 

the Shirazis continued to dominate the regional economy.

Links to the Interior: There were few links between the coast 

and interior Tanganyika before 1741, when the Busaidi dynasty 

took power in Oman. The second half of the 18th century saw a 

revival of coastal trade and greater demand for goods from the 

interior. Hunters who explored the hinterlands communicated 

this demand from coastal traders to the people of interior 

Tanganyika; who responded by supplying ivory, iron, salt, and 

pottery in exchange for trade goods. By the beginning of the 

19th century Zanzibar had become an important port, and 

coastal towns like Bagamoyo had come to rely upon it. Farther 

south, Kilwa Kisiwani had also returned to prominence due to 

the booming ivory and slave trades.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Political Development in Tanganyika

Although a shared ethnic identity and cohesion did not emerge 

until the 19th century, most ethnic groups in modern Tanzania 

had arrived in the region by the end of the 18th century. At that 

time most parts of interior Tanganyika were inhabited, though

sparsely populated. Nevertheless, population growth was 

significant enough to stimulate political development.

Ntemi Chiefs: One of the most widespread 18th-century

political structures was the ntemi (chief) system, which was 

common in western and central Tanzania. Each chief and his 

advisory council ruled over about 1,000 subjects. Chiefs 

functioned more like religious leaders than dictators, and it was 

the chief’s responsibility to ensure the health and prosperity of 

his people. Although some chiefs enjoyed ritual superiority over 

others, most chiefs did not seek to establish political authority 

beyond their own people. By some estimates there were about

200 ntemi chiefdoms at the beginning of the 19th century.

Other Political Systems: The 

early political organization of 

northwestern Tanzania was 

largely imported from presentday southern Uganda, where 

states comprising a mix of nonBantu pastoralists and Bantu 

farmers probably began to form

in the 15th century. Despite the 

diverse origins of their inhabitants, these states eventually

became exclusively Bantu-speaking and managed to avoid the 

sharp class divisions which later plagued neighboring Rwanda 

and Burundi. As with the ntemi chiefdoms, some of the states 

enjoyed ritual but not political supremacy.

Although there were cultural differences, political structures in

eastern and southern Tanganyika were similar to those of the 

Northwest, while the Southeast remained sparsely populated 

and largely inhabited by hunter-gatherers. The Northeast was 

mainly inhabited by Bantu farmers until the Maasai migrated 

south from present-day Ethiopia, Kenya, and South Sudan

during the 17th-18th centuries. Although relations were not 

always peaceful, the Maasai largely got along with the Bantu 

and often traded cattle in exchange for iron products. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Slave Trade

These societies and their political structures were altered 

greatly by the East African slave trade, which dominated the 

economy of Tanganyika for the first half of the 19th century. 

Although farther from key markets in the Americas and 

therefore not as large as the West African slave trade, the East 

African slave trade grew in significance after 1807, when 

Britain banned the slave trade 

throughout the British Empire 

and began policing West African 

seas – the heart of the slave 

trade – more heavily (Photo: 

Memorial to slaves in Zanzibar). 

Omani traders derived the 

greatest benefit from the rise of 

the East African slave trade 

because the Omani Sultan controlled Zanzibar and Mombasa, 

ports near the eastern end of slave routes from the interior. 

Although some ethnic groups such as the Yao of neighboring 

Malawi and Tanzania’s prominent Nyamwezi grew powerful by 

helping slave traders, weaker ethnic groups were devastated

as their villages were destroyed and their working-age 

populations were kidnapped for export. 

Although Britain originally exerted influence in East Africa in 

order to check the colonial ambitions of Napoleonic France, it 

later focused more on keeping African slaves out of British 

India. Consequently, in 1822 Britain negotiated a treaty with the 

Omani Sultan which made it illegal to sell slaves to Christian 

powers. Despite the terms of this treaty, the East African slave 

trade flourished during the 19th century as Britain was more 

concerned about disrupting the West African slave trade.

End of the Slave Trade: Britain increased trade with Zanzibar 

during the 19th century, and it was through a treaty between 

Britain and France that Zanzibar gained its independence from 

Oman in 1862. Britain eventually leveraged these trading ties, 

along with its naval power, to ban the East African slave trade: 

in 1876 Britain blockaded Zanzibar and promised the Zanzibari 

Sultan full protection against other foreign powers in exchange 

for a ban on the slave trade. The Sultan had little choice but to 

agree, and Zanzibar effectively became a British protectorate.

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Colonial Era

Although the Portuguese and the British established a relatively 

early presence in Zanzibar and coastal East Africa, Europeans 

remained unfamiliar with the interior until missionaries, traders, 

and explorers began to traverse the region during the 19th 

century. One of these explorers, a young German named Karl 

Peters, signed treaties with African chiefs thereby establishing

a basis for German colonization in East Africa.

German Rule: Although Peters initially 

lacked the support of his government, 

German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck 

later approved his treaties retroactively 

in order to gain a bargaining chip in 

negotiations with Britain. Specifically, 

Bismarck was interested in gaining 

control over the British possession of 

Heligoland, a small but strategically 

important archipelago off the northern 

coast of Germany. Bismarck’s move 

was shrewd, as it forced Britain to choose between straining 

ties with Germany by challenging its East African claims or 

endangering trading ties with Zanzibar and dishonoring its 

commitment to protect the Sultan against foreign powers.

In 1886 Britain and Germany reached an agreement whereby 

Germany gained most of Tanganyika, Britain retained Kenya, 

and the Sultan retained the coast and islands. Germany placed 

its new colony under the control of Karl Peters and the newly 

created German East Africa Company (GEAC), which promptly 

dispatched a gunboat to Zanzibar harbor and forced the Sultan 

to sign away his rights to the coast. Germany did not gain 

control of Heligoland until another treaty with Britain in 1890.

For the most part German rule over Tanganyika was a disaster. 

After suppressing two separate coastal rebellions in 1888 and 

1891, the Germans spent the next decade trying to contain an 

interior rebellion led by Chief Mkwawa of the Hehe ethnic 

group. Concurrently, Tanganyika was beset by natural 

disasters: rinderpest (cattle) and locust epidemics, a smallpox 

outbreak, and a surge in African sleeping sickness. By 1891 

the situation had deteriorated to the extent that the GEAC sold 

German East Africa back to the German government.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Maji Maji Rebellion: Mainly interested in making Tanganyika

financially self-sufficient, the Germans imposed harsh labor 

policies for the cultivation of cash crops (see Economics and 

Resources). One policy relating to cotton cultivation led to the 

Maji Maji Rebellion of 1905-1907, during which Tanganyikans 

rebelled under the mistaken belief that maji, a holy mixture of 

water and grain, would make them impervious to bullets (see 

text next page). 

Germany quelled the rebellion through brutal total war tactics 

which by some estimates killed as many as 250,000 Africans. 

Partly due to the reaction of an appalled German public, the 

German government reformed many of its colonial policies.

British Rule: Germany lost control of Tanganyika when 

defeated by the Allies in World War I, and the newly created 

League of Nations made the territory a British protectorate. 

British rule was considerably less eventful than German rule. 

The British employed agricultural development methods and 

indirect rule, an administrative system 

which used indigenous African authorities 

to implement colonial policy. 

The British chose not to develop the 

manufacturing sector in Tanganyika in 

order to preserve the market for British 

exports. Instead, Britain experimented with 

large-scale, highly regulated agricultural 

schemes intended to increase production of 

cash crops such as coffee. As food became scarce during 

World War II, the British adjusted these policies to promote 

food self-sufficiency in Tanganyika rather than profits from cash 

crops.

Post-War Nationalism

After World War II the United Nations assigned Tanganyika to 

Britain as a trust territory, thereby obligating Britain to prepare 

the territory for independence. As part of its efforts to fulfill that 

mandate, Britain strictly enforced a development plan which 

required farmers to use prescribed land management and 

cultivation techniques. Resenting these rules and the way in 

which they were enforced, Tanganyikans grew more receptive 

to groups pushing for a swift transition to independence.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Legend of Maji Maji

In ancient times, African legends and myths were oral 

traditions used to preserve history and wisdom across 

generations and ethnic boundaries (see Learning & 

Knowledge), teach moral lessons, and entertain. 

Even in contemporary times, many African societies 

continue to perpetuate these oral customs through 

fables, songs, and proverbs.

A unique Tanzanian legend centers on the Maji Maji 

Rebellion which began south of Dar es Salaam in 

1905 (see “Maji Maji Rebellion” previous page). As the 

story goes, the German command general during the 

rebellion arrested two Tanzanian sorcerers who 

allegedly incited the rebellion. One of the men, 

Kinjikitile "Bokero" Ngwale, had been selling a maji 

(holy mixture) to his fellow countrymen, which he 

supposedly received from the Snake God known as 

Koleo (literally means ‘a pair of tongs,’ suggesting that 

the serpent was a python which squeezed its victims 

to death and widely worshiped in Africa). 

When the Germans hanged Bokero and his colleague, 

Bokero’s last words revealed that his dawa (referring 

to the famous spiritual powers) would spread carrying 

with it the spirit of independence. This dawa could be 

manifested in various forms: sprinkled over a person, 

carried around the neck or in a bottle made from 

bamboo, or ingested as medicine. Once administered 

the dawa was suppose to render the consumer 

immunity to German bullets: they would become 

harmlessly muddy (majimaji) and unable to penetrate 

the body. Despite the professed immunity, the 

rebellion affected almost 1⁄4 of the country, resulting in 

over 100,000 casualties. A Swahili poet, Abdul Karim 

Bin Jamaliddini who resided in the Tanzanian region 

of Lindi, wrote an epic defending those oppressed 

during the Maji Maji rebellion. The epic was translated 

and published in Berlin in 1933. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
TANU: In 1953 a young teacher named 

Julius Nyerere (pictured) became the 

leader of the newly renamed Tanganyika 

African National Union (TANU), which had 

grown out of an earlier group formed to 

protest colonial policy. The key elements

of the TANU platform were to move 

Tanganyika towards self-government, to 

forge a strong national identity while 

discouraging ethnic tribalism, and to alter 

the composition of government bodies to 

reflect Tanganyika’s African majority. 

By the mid-1950s Britain was open to self-government in 

Tanganyika, although its vision differed sharply from that of 

TANU. Whereas Britain favored a gradual transition to equal 

racial representation, TANU preferred an immediate transition 

to proportional racial representation. Although Nyerere was

willing to consider a guaranteed minority representation plan, 

he suspected that guaranteed racial parity was nothing more 

than a ploy to preserve the power of former colonial elites. 

Elections: The first election in Tanganyika was held in 1958 in 

accordance with the British vision. There were three seats in 

each constituency – one each for whites, Asians, and Africans. 

However, because TANU backed white and Asian candidates 

in addition to African candidates, TANU ended up controlling 

2/3 of the Legislative Council. Bowing to this clear support for 

TANU, Britain reduced guaranteed minority representation and 

relaxed voting requirements for the 1960 election, in which 

TANU won 70 of 71 seats. 

Independence and Union: Tanganyika achieved internal selfgovernment in May 1961 and independence just seven months 

later. Nyerere became the first Prime Minister. Meanwhile, the 

residents of Zanzibar voted in a series of elections in which the 

Arab elite jockeyed for power against the numerically superior 

Shirazis and Africans. Although the Arab elite retained power 

as Zanzibar gained independence in December 1963, the 

Sultan fell to an armed coup just one month later that was 

followed by considerable violence. On April 26, 1964, 

Tanganyika and Zanzibar combined to form what would soon 

be renamed the United Republic of Tanzania. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
The United Republic of Tanzania

As Prime Minister of a new, poor, and underdeveloped country;

Nyerere took office with two goals: to improve the lives of rural 

Tanzanians and to forestall the formation of a money-grabbing

class of elites. Despite having these priorities, Nyerere avoided

radical change during Tanzania’s early years. Although his first 

cabinet consisted of African ministers, Nyerere rarely 

empowered them to make decisions. He also heeded Britain’s 

advice and chose a British-style Parliament for Tanzania.

African Socialism: In 1962 Nyerere wrote an essay called

“Ujamaa,” or “Familyhood,” in which he denounced the 

accumulation of personal 

wealth and advocated a more 

equal distribution of economic 

and political power. Inspired 

by his idea of “African 

socialism,” Nyerere explained 

that he still believed in free 

speech and public debate, but 

noted that “the only socially 

defensible use of ‘we’ is that which includes the whole society” 

(see Political and Social Relations).

The Arusha Declaration: A more complete articulation of 

African socialism emerged with the Arusha Declaration of 1967,

a mission statement authored by the top leaders of TANU. The 

declaration outlined a series of policies intended to promote 

good governance, reduce Tanzania’s dependence on foreign 

aid, protect domestic industries, nationalize land ownership, 

expand access to education, and foster a sense of national 

pride regardless of ethnic background.

Foreign Policy: Although Tanzania remained resolutely nonaligned during the Cold War, African socialism did not sit well 

with Western donors. Many of them feared that Tanzania would 

align with socialist governments such as China and the USSR. 

Tanzania’s vocal opposition to British support for white-ruled 

Rhodesia and to US involvement in the Congo also did little to 

help matters. At the same time, Tanzania’s foreign policy within 

Africa became even more expensive as Nyerere vigorously 

supported militants fighting for independence in Mozambique, 

South Africa, and Zimbabwe.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Villagization: In hopes of increasing agricultural production 

through communal farming, Nyerere introduced a policy known 

as “villagization” in 1967. This strategy encouraged rural 

Tanzanians to relocate to collective farms and create “Ujamaa” 

villages. Although villagization was initially voluntary, the 

government began to forcibly relocate 80% of the population in 

1974. The scheme turned out to be unsustainable both for 

practical reasons, such as infertile land and lack of equipment, 

and for more fundamental reasons, such as the difficulty of 

large-scale economic planning and the desire of most people to 

feed their families before feeding the community. 

Economic Problems: Villagization, drought, rising fuel prices, 

and a costly invasion of Uganda to topple its tyrant leader Idi 

Amin all combined to leave Tanzania in a desperate economic 

situation at the end of the 1970s. The international community 

called for structural adjustments to the Tanzanian economy, 

although Nyerere resisted. His declining 

health eventually led Nyerere to resign in 

1985 and transfer power to Vice President Ali 

Hassan Mwinyi (pictured, courtesy of 

Wikimedia). 

Tanzania after Nyerere

In 1986 the Mwinyi government and the 

International Monetary Fund (IMF) initiated 

an Economic Recovery Program (ERP) 

which loosened currency restrictions and promoted private 

business. Although supporters argue that the ERP stimulated 

the economy, critics point to thousands of public sector layoffs, 

local industries harmed by the elimination of tariffs, and stateowned businesses sold for pennies on the dollar.

As part of the ERP, Tanzania transitioned to multiparty 

elections in 1995. However, the existence of multiple parties 

has done little to introduce competition into Tanzanian politics. 

Since the change was introduced, Chama Cha Mapinduzi

(CCM), the successor party to TANU, has won every election. 

Mwinyi’s successors, Benjamin Mkapa and Jakaya Kikwete, 

have never received less than 60% of the vote. Some 

opposition parties such as the Civic United Front have accused 

the ruling party of rigging elections and have organized largescale protests (see Political and Social Relations). 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

United Republic of Tanzania

Political Borders

Kenya: 478 mi

Coastline: 885 mi

Mozambique: 470 mi

Malawi: 295 mi

Zambia: 210 mi

Democratic Republic of the

Congo: 285 mi

Burundi: 280 mi

Rwanda: 135 mi

Uganda: 246 mi

Capital: Dar es Salaam (executive) and Dodoma (legislative)

Demographics

Tanzania’s population of 51 million is growing about 3% per 

year. With only 32% of the population living in cities in 2015, 

Tanzania is one of Africa’s least urbanized countries. Although 

Tanzania as a whole has a moderate population density of 149

persons/sq mi, Zanzibar, a semi-autonomous archipelago off the 

Tanzanian coast, is densely populated at 1,036 persons/sq mi. 

Except for Dar es Salaam, notably few people live along the 

coast. About 44% of Tanzanians are under age 15. 

Flag

The centerpiece of the flag is a 

thick, yellow-edged black band 

which connects the lower left and 

upper right corners. There is a 

green triangle above the band 

and a light blue triangle below 

the band. The colors of are 

meant to symbolize several aspects of Tanzania: green 

represents lush vegetation, gold signifies mineral wealth, black 

symbolizes the Tanzanian people, and light blue represents 

rivers, lakes, and oceans.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Including Zanzibar, which 

comprises the Indian Ocean 

islands of Mafia, Pemba, and 

Unguja (often itself referred 

to as Zanzibar); the United 

Republic of Tanzania has a 

total area of 365,755 sq mi, 

making it about twice the size 

of California. The main 

topographical features include a low-lying coastal plain, a large 

central plateau, and mountainous highlands in the North and 

West. Average elevations range from sea level along the coast 

to 6,900-9,900 ft in the highlands, with the central plateau 

averaging about 3,300-4,600 ft. At 19,341 ft, Mount Kilimanjaro 

(pictured) is the highest point in both Tanzania and Africa. 

Water: Water accounts for slightly less than 6.5% of Tanzania’s 

total area. Although lakes Nyasa, Victoria, and Tanganyika 

comprise the bulk of this area, Tanzania’s waterways include 

many rivers, the most important of which are the Pangani in the 

North, the Ruvuma in the South, the Rufiji in the East, and the 

Malagarasi in the West.

Climate

Tanzania’s tropical climate varies by season and altitude. Due to 

monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, the warm and humid 

coast gets two rainy seasons per year: masika from mid-March 

to May and mvuli from November to December. The arid central 

plateau is cooler than the coast, while the mountains are even 

cooler and evening temperatures occasionally drop below 60°F.

The mountains receive rain throughout the year. Despite these 

variations, all of Tanzania is at its warmest from December to 

March and coolest from June to October.

Natural Hazards

Tanzania’s location between 2 fault lines and a low-lying 

coastline leaves the country vulnerable to earthquakes and 

follow-on tsunamis, although the country’s major natural hazard 

is drought. Apart from these acute natural threats, longer-term 

environmental concerns include deforestation, soil degradation, 

and the destruction of coral reefs.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Government

The United Republic of Tanzania was formed in 1964 by the 

union of 2 republics: Tanganyika, comprising the mainland part 

of Tanzania, and Zanzibar, comprising the islands of the 

Zanzibar Archipelago (see History and Myth). Although all of 

Tanzania is ruled by the united government, Zanzibar is semiautonomous and retains authority over its own internal affairs.

Tanzania consists of 26 regions: 21 on the mainland and 5 in 

Zanzibar. These regions jointly subdivide into 130 districts. Each 

region has its own Parliament, while each district has its own 

council. Local chiefdoms were abolished at independence in 

order to promote a singular national 

identity. In rural areas, political authority 

continues to be administered at the local 

level through village structures.

Executive Branch

The President, currently John Magufuli

(pictured, photo licensed under 

Wikimedia Commons), is head-of-state, 

head-of-government, and commanderin-chief of the armed forces. The 

President is also responsible for 

appointing the Prime Minister and selecting a Cabinet from 

among the members of Parliament. The President is elected by 

direct popular vote for a maximum of two 5-year terms, and the 

constitution requires that the President and Vice President come 

from different parts of the union: for example, if the President is 

from the mainland, then the Vice President must be from 

Zanzibar. Although Zanzibar is subject to the Tanzanian 

President, it also has its own President who oversees internal 

affairs.

Legislative Branch

Tanzania has a 1-chamber Parliament composed entirely of the 

National Assembly (Bunge), which varies in size but currently 

has 357 members serving 5-year terms:

• 239 members elected to represent single constituencies

• 102 female members appointed by the political parties in

proportion to their share of elected representatives

• 10 members appointed by the President

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
• 5 members appointed by the House of Representatives of 

Zanzibar

• the Attorney General

Laws passed by the Bunge apply to Zanzibar only with regard to 

specifically designated union matters. The Zanzibar House of 

Representatives has authority in all other matters. The House of 

Representatives also varies in size and currently is composed of 

81 members serving 5-year terms:

• 50 members elected to represent single constituencies

• 15 female members appointed by the political parties in 

proportion to their share of elected representatives

• 10 members appointed by the President of Zanzibar 

• the Attorney General of Zanzibar

Judicial Branch

Tanzania’s legal system is based on British common law and 

incorporates aspects of customary law, which includes the legal 

practices of native ethnic groups. Tanzania has 4 types of courts: 

primary courts, district and resident 

magistrates’ courts, the High Court, and the 

Court of Appeal. The Chief Justice, currently 

Augustino Ramdhani (pictured), appoints all 

judges except those on the High Court and 

the Court of Appeal, who are appointed by 

the President.

Unlike mainland Tanzania, Zanzibar 

recognizes Islamic law (Shar’ia) in cases of 

domestic dispute such as divorce or 

inheritance in addition to British common law and customary law. 

Zanzibar has three types of courts: people’s district courts, 

Islamic courts (kadhis), and a High Court. Any case heard in 

these courts which does not concern the Zanzibari constitution 

or Islamic law can be appealed in the union Court of Appeal. 

Political Parties

Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM): Since its formation in 1977 from 

TANU (see History and Myth) and the Afro-Shirazi Party, the 

CCM has dominated Tanzanian politics. Although nominally a 

socialist party, the CCM has embraced capitalism in recent 

years. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Opposition: Although they are not nearly as well-represented 

as the CCM, there are two main opposition parties in Tanzania: 

the Civic United Front (CUF) and the Party for Democracy and 

Development (Chadema). Catering to a predominantly Muslim 

base, the CUF has had trouble expanding its appeal beyond the 

islands of Pemba and Unguja. Conversely, Chadema has 

experienced a surge in recent years outside of its traditional 

stronghold in the far northwest.

Political Climate

Tanzania is politically stable by East African standards and

continues to be the only successful union of two African states. 

However, its stability has been threatened in recent years by 

rising discontent among some Zanzibaris, especially residents 

of Pemba. This discontent has found political expression in the 

form of conflict between the CCM and the CUF.

In all elections since the introduction of multiparty democracy in 

1995, the CUF has protested the results and accused the CCM 

of election fraud. The situation reached a low point in 2000, when 

a demonstration on Pemba prompted a government crackdown 

in which 35 people were killed and more than 600 were injured. 

Although elections in 2005 and 2010 were less violent, both the 

CUF and Chadema continue to protest CCM dominance. The 

situation could change in coming years due to the passage of a 

power-sharing agreement in 2010.

Defense

The Tanzania People’s Defense 

Force (TPDF) was established in 

1964 after a mutiny by Tanzania’s 

original defense force (Photo: Maj 

Gen Wynjones Matthew Kisamba, 

land forces commander of the 

TPDF). Modeled on the Chinese

People’s Liberation Army, the 

TPDF is responsible for both 

defense and development and consists of about 27,000 activeduty troops split between an army, navy, and air wing. The TPDF 

mission includes the defense of Tanzania’s sovereignty, border 

security, officer training, natural disaster assistance, public 

health education, and other social services. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Army: With over 22,000 troops, the army is by far the largest 

branch of the TPDF. Because the TPDF has not fought a war 

since the overthrow of Idi Amin in 1979 (see History and Myth), 

the army focuses more on internal affairs and border security 

than it does on external threats. The army’s current priority is to 

control the flow of refugees and prevent infiltration by guerilla 

groups near the borders with Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda. 

Navy: With over 1,000 personnel and a basic array of attack, 

patrol, and landing craft; the navy is not resourced adequately to 

protect the 885-mile Tanzanian coast against threats such as 

maritime piracy, drug trafficking, water pollution, and illegal 

fishing. Because Tanzania’s neighbors face similar challenges, 

East African navies are seeking efficiencies through cooperative 

efforts (Photo: Ugandan and 

Tanzanian sailors at the

Tanzania Naval Training 

School). 

Air Wing: With 2,500 airmen, 

the air wing serves primarily as 

a transport unit having a small 

contingent of fixed- and rotarywinged aircraft. The air wing also possesses about 25 Chinesebuilt fighter aircraft whose operational condition is unknown. 

Cooperation: The TPDF cooperates in peacekeeping missions 

across Africa, with about 1,000 personnel deployed in 2010 to 

places such as Cote d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the 

Congo, Liberia, and Sudan. Tanzania also contributes to the 

Southern African Development Community Standby Brigade, 

which is part of the African Standby Force, a continental crisis 

force overseen by the African Union.

Training: The TPDF frequently trains with foreign militaries. 

Instructors from Britain, China, France, and South Africa often 

visit Tanzania, while personnel from Kenya, South Africa, 

Uganda, and Zambia have studied at Tanzanian military 

schools. In the second half of the 20th century Tanzania aided 

independence movements in South Africa, Mozambique, and 

Zimbabwe by harboring and training militants. More recently 

Tanzania has strengthened military ties with China, specifically 

with regard to equipment and training. 

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Security Issues

Islamic Extremism: As confirmed by the 1998 bombings of US 

embassies in Dar es Salaam 

(pictured) and Nairobi, Kenya, 

Islamic extremism is a threat in 

Tanzania and East Africa. The 

Islamic extremist groups based

in Tanzania tend to operate in 

coastal areas and have been 

linked to actions ranging from 

armed assaults on mosques to 

bombings in Zanzibar. Some 

analysts have speculated that Al Qaeda sleeper cells are 

present in the country.

Trafficking: Because three of Tanzania’s neighbors – Burundi, 

Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo – are or 

have recently been conflict zones, a steady stream of small arms 

has flowed through Tanzania in recent years, especially in the 

Northwest. Tanzania also serves as a transshipment point for 

South Africa-bound Asian heroin and methaqualone (a sedativehypnotic drug similar to barbiturates) and Europe-bound 

shipments of South American cocaine. In addition, Tanzania is 

a major producer of cannabis.

Refugees: Regional conflict has left Tanzania with one of the 

largest, if not the largest, refugee population of any country in 

Africa. With the last Rwandan refugees having been repatriated 

in 2003, most refugees still in Tanzania are from Burundi or the 

Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2010 the Tanzanian 

government naturalized over 162,000 Burundian refugees who 

had been living in Tanzania since 1972. Although the presence 

of refugees has not resulted in serious ethnic tensions, it has

increased pressure on already strained national resources.

Crime: Crime is a serious problem in Tanzania, particularly in 

densely populated areas where armed robbery, burglary, 

mugging, and car theft are common. Tourists are sometimes

targeted for such crimes, as demonstrated by armed robberies 

of tour buses, dive boats, and hotels in Zanzibar.

Political Violence: See “Political Climate” above.

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Diplomatic Relations

As a bastion of relative stability in a turbulent region, Tanzania 

has served as a diplomatic broker in recent years between the 

various warring factions in neighboring countries, including 

Burundi, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 

Despite suffering significant collateral damage from these 

conflicts, Tanzania has maintained a firmly neutral position.

Consequently, Tanzania maintains cordial or good relations with 

all neighboring countries.

Much of Tanzania’s recent diplomacy has been conducted 

through regional and continental organizations. Tanzania has 

partnered with Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda to form

the East African Community (EAC), a body which seeks to 

increase regional cooperation on migration, trade, security, and 

other matters. Although there are plans to establish a common 

currency for the EAC and form a federated state in the next few 

years, these plans have yet to materialize. 

Tanzania is also active in the Southern African Development 

Community (SADC), a 15-country organization which seeks to 

establish political and economic stability in southern Africa, and 

the African Union (AU), a 54-country organization founded in 

2002 to promote African unity and seek solutions to shared 

challenges. Of note, 

Tanzanian President 

Jakaya Kikwete was 

chairman of the AU during 

2008 and into 2009.

US-Tanzania Relations: 

Due to former President 

Nyerere’s socialist views

(see History and Myth), 

relations between the US and Tanzania were limited before the 

end of the Cold War. Relations improved as Tanzania adopted 

a more market-oriented approach in the mid-1980s, and grew 

stronger after the bombing of the US Embassy in Dar es Salaam 

in 1998 – an event which horrified Tanzanians and Americans

alike. Since then, the US has provided Tanzania financial aid for 

its anti-terrorist efforts and several other programs (see 

Economics and Resources) (Photo: US President Barack 

O’Bama with previous Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete).

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Ethnic Groups

Although it is home to at least 120 ethnic groups from all 4 of 

Africa’s major ethnolinguistic categories (Bantu, Cushitic, NiloHamitic, and Khoe-San), Tanzania has seen little interethnic 

conflict. To some extent this peaceful coexistence is due to the 

fact that a distinctive ethnic identity (see History and Myth) did 

not truly emerge until the 19th century, nor was ethnic or 

religious identity politicized (see Religion and Spirituality). 

Today, about 95% of Tanzanians belong to Bantu-speaking 

ethnic groups which share extensive cultural and linguistic ties.

Political factors also played a role. Beginning with the Maji Maji 

Rebellion (see History and Myth), Tanzanians of all ethnic 

groups struggled side-by-side against foreign rule. After 

independence, the government implemented policies intended 

to promote a singular national identity and discourage tribalism. 

One of the most notable policies was the designation of Swahili 

as the national language (see Language and Communication).

Bantu-speaking Ethnic Groups

Sukuma: Encompassing about 

16% of the population, the 

Sukuma are Tanzania’s largest 

ethnic group. They occupy an

area south of Lake Victoria 

centered in Mwanza, the second

largest city in Tanzania. 

Emerging from a variety of 

different backgrounds, the 

Sukuma have organized

historically into small, 

independent chiefdoms. The 

Sukuma are famous throughout the country for their innovative 

and competitive dance tradition. One ritualistic performance 

involves the Buyeye (snake dance) with live pythons.

Nyamwezi: Closely related to the Sukuma, the Nyamwezi live in 

the western part of central Tanzania and are Tanzania’s second

largest ethnic group. While the Nyamwezi organized traditionally 

in small, independent, and agrarian chiefdoms; the emergence 

of trade routes led them to form larger trade states.

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Chaga: Living mainly in the surroundings of Mount Kilimanjaro 

and Mount Meru, the Chaga are the country’s 3rd largest ethnic 

group. Although the Chaga traditionally had a tendency towards 

social independence, today they are an integral part of the 

country’s social fabric. They were among the first Tanzanians to 

grow cash crops and embrace Western religion and education.

Haya: Next in size are the Haya who are centered in the town of 

Bukoba near Lake Victoria and live alongside members of 

closely related ethnic groups. The Haya historically have formed 

centralized states rather than small, independent chiefdoms. 

The Haya are known for emphasizing education, participating in 

the coffee trade, and growing bananas as their main food crop. 

Gogo: Although the Gogo primarily live near the legislative 

capital of Dodoma in central Tanzania, they have been heavily 

exposed to the influence of coastal culture through inland trade 

routes. Historically they were pastoralists, although today many 

are agriculturalists. As with the Haya the Gogo live alongside 

several small, closely related ethnic groups. 

Other Ethnic Groups

Maasai: The Nilotic-speaking Maasai are a 

nomadic people who live in southern Kenya 

and northern Tanzania. Although most Maasai 

live in Kenya, there are still about 600,000 living 

in Tanzania. The Maasai are known for having 

a strong communal culture in which resources 

are shared and dwellings are organized around 

a central space. Much of their land is legally 

protected as part of Serengeti National Park, a 

world heritage site which is the flagship of the 

country’s tourism industry. Consequently, the 

traditional Maasai way of life has come under 

strain as land resources have become scarcer

in order to preserve the indigenous wildlife. 

Iraqw: About 500,000 Cushitic, Iraqw-speaking pastoralists live 

to the west of the Maasai. Related to the Somali and the Oromo

ethnic groups found in the Horn of Africa, the Iraqw-speakers are 

one of the few groups outside of Ethiopia and Somalia to speak 

a Southern Cushitic language. Among the Iraqw live about 

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100,000 Sandawe, a group related to the Khoe-San of southern 

Africa. The Sandawe, and perhaps the Hadzapi (a small group 

residing in north-central Tanzania), are the only ethnic groups 

still speaking a Khoe-San language outside of southern Africa.

Makonde: The Makonde live in an area where Tanzania, 

Malawi, and Mozambique join. As with the Chaga, the Makonde 

are known for their independence, absorbing relatively few 

influences during the colonial era. The Makonde are known for 

carvings and masks as well as a variety of body art, including 

facial scarring for men and lip plugs for women.

South Asian Descent: As of 2000, about 90,000 people of 

Indian origin lived in Tanzania. Some are descendants of Sikh 

settlers brought to Africa on labor contracts in the 1860s. Others 

are both Hindu and Muslim descendants of emigrants who 

arrived in the following decades to run trading posts as the 

interior opened to settlement. Today, Tanzanians of Indian, 

Pakistani, Lebanese, 

and Palestinian 

descent play a 

significant role in 

Tanzania’s economy 

as business owners.

Social Relations

The foundation of 

Tanzanian society is 

family, as expressed in 

the concept of ujamaa, or “familyhood.” Family is the basis for 

all social life, and visits to family homes are common. Family 

hood extends beyond one’s immediate relatives to encompass 

the extended family and entire communities (see Family and 

Kinship). 

A few years after he became Tanzania’s first President, Julius 

Nyerere proposed that ujamaa should be extended to the entire 

nation through “African socialism” (see History and Myth).

According to the Arusha Declaration, African socialism 

embodied the notion that society is an extension of the family.

Interactions: Tanzanians value politeness, courtesy, and 

respect which are embodied in ujamaa. They prefer a long 

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RELATIONS
greeting ritual which involves pleasantries and inquiries into 

each other’s well-being (see Language and Communication). 

Visits: Tanzanians are enthusiastic and hospitable hosts. When 

approaching a Tanzanian home, it is customary to yell “Hodi!”

(May I enter?) and wait for the response “Karibu!” (welcome). All 

visitors, even those 

who arrive 

unannounced, are 

invited to dine if the 

visit occurs during 

a mealtime. 

Foreign nationals 

should avoid 

mealtime visits in 

order to sidestep

their host having to 

share typically 

meager food supplies. Also, foreign nationals visiting rural areas 

are advised to consult with the local leader, such as the village 

chairman or district commissioner, in order to announce their 

presence and obtain permission to stay.

Gifts: Having scarce resources, Tanzanians emphasize the 

necessities of life. First time visitors to a home customarily bring 

along a small gift, 

such as sweets or 

cookies, or among 

poorer families, food 

staples. While 

flowers are usually 

used only to express 

condolences, money 

is also an acceptable 

gift at weddings. 

Gifts should be 

presented and 

received with the 

right hand supported 

by the left at the elbow. When presenting gifts, do not expect 

acknowledgement as Tanzanians do not always express thanks 

overtly (see Language and Communication). 

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Overview

Tanzania is a secular state whose religious freedom is 

guaranteed in its constitution. Since the government does not 

collect information on religious affiliation, reliable statistics are 

difficult to obtain. It is estimated that 30-40% of Tanzanians are 

Muslims, while 35-60% are Christians. About 2% claim affiliation 

with traditional African religions, and less than 1% are Buddhists, 

Hindus, Sikhs, or Baha’is (Baha’i is a monotheistic religion 

founded by Bahá'u'lláh in 19thcentury Persia.) 

Most Tanzanians, even those

individuals who are deeply 

committed Christians or Muslims, 

profess a belief in aspects of 

traditional religion such as the 

power of witchcraft and ancestral 

spirits. About 1/3 of the population incorporates traditional 

beliefs into their daily lives by participating in rituals or consulting 

religious healers.

Although Muslims and Christians occasionally accuse one 

another of enjoying special political treatment, the Tanzanian 

government has been largely successful in maintaining policies 

conducive to religious freedom. Religion generally is not taught 

in public schools, and national holidays include both Christian 

festivals such as Easter and Christmas and Muslim holidays 

such as Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Hajj, and Maulid (the Prophet’s 

birthday.) 

Traditional Beliefs

Traditional religious beliefs vary in Tanzania even within single 

ethno-linguistic groups, although almost all followers of 

traditional religions believe in a remote supreme being who 

created all things. Although this creator presides over daily life, 

he does not exercise strong influence over daily events.

Instead, it is subordinate spirits such as deceased ancestors 

who are deeply concerned with daily events and influence 

humans in both positive and negative ways. Consequently, 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
people honor and seek to placate these spirits through libations

(liquid poured on the ground as an offering) or other rituals 

performed under the supervision of family heads, chiefs, and 

healers who use traditional myths to help explain the creation 

and order of the world. 

Individuals who neglect their familial and social responsibilities 

are believed to bring hardship and suffering upon themselves 

and their communities, although illness and bad fortune can also 

be the result of witches practicing evil magic. Religious 

specialists such as healers and diviners may be called upon to 

diagnose the root causes of illness and hardship and may 

prescribe rituals or medicines to restore social order or 

counteract the workings of 

witches. The island of Pemba is 

an important center of traditional 

medicine for the region (Photo: 

Tanzanians performing a 

traditional religious ritual). 

Healers: Religious healing 

practitioners vary widely among 

Tanzania’s different ethnic 

groups. Among the Haya, ancestor spirits or wazee, 

communicate with the omufumu, the healer, to indicate the 

source of illness or misfortune and prescribe herbal cures. In 

some parts of northwestern Tanzania, an omufumu will inspect 

a soccer field before a match for objects that may influence the 

course of a game.

Among some Swahili people, ritual specialists or waganga

combine their knowledge of Islamic texts and prayers with 

indigenous African healing practices. For example, Qur’anic 

passages may be written on a plate then washed off for the 

patient to drink or bathe with, or Arabic words or numbers are 

inscribed onto an amulet for the patient to wear or hold. Other 

waganga use a variety of dancing, singing, or drumming to 

contact particular spirit types or use special plants to concoct 

medicines.

Witchcraft: Despite opposition by both Christian and Islamic 

religious authorities, belief in witchcraft and in the powers of evil 

spirits continues to be widespread in Tanzania, primarily in the 

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Sukuma tribe. The media frequently report cases of alleged 

witches killed by their supposed victims. Those accused of 

witchcraft are generally elderly people, most often women.

Recently, albinos have been especially targeted and killed for 

their body parts, which are used in traditional medicines to bring 

good fortune. Christian, Muslim, and Hindu religious leaders 

have condemned this practice, preaching against it in sermons 

and organizing outreach concerts and

events to sensitize the population 

against it. 

Islam

This section will first provide a general 

description of the Islamic belief system 

and then outline the introduction of 

Islam to Tanzania.

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th century when God’s final Prophet, 

Muhammad, was born in Mecca in what is today Saudi Arabia. 

Muslims believe that while Muhammad was meditating in the 

desert, the Archangel Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, 

revealing the Qur’an, or the “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday 

life. (The Qur’an represents a core belief that helps shape 

Muslims’ lifelong values) (Photo Pro Quest, 2010). 

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into two sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunni, the 

largest grouping in the world, are distinguished by their belief 

that the leader (Caliph) of the Muslim community (Ummah) 

should be elected. Conversely, members of the Shi’a sect 

believe the Muslim leader should be a direct descendant of the 

Prophet Muhammad.

Sufi Tradition: The Sufi tradition of Islam is characterized by 

mysticism and ritualistic prayer. Many Sufis belong to religious 

brotherhoods whose members adhere to teachings from their 

spiritual leaders. Adhering to Sunni tradition, Sufis are not 

fundamentalists.

Five Pillars of Islam 

There are five basic principles of the Islamic faith that all Muslims 

accept and follow. 

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• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God

(Allah) and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Performed five times a day facing toward the 

Ka’aba (pictured) in Mecca. The Ka’aba is considered the 

center of the Muslim world and a 

unifying focal point for Islamic 

worship.

• Charity (Zakat): An obligatory 

tithe or donation to the poor.

• Fasting (Sawm): Involves 

abstaining from food, drink, and 

sexual relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month 

of Ramadan (30 days).

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Every adult Muslim who is 

physically and financially able is expected to perform the 

pilgrimage at least once in his or her lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel the other two major world religions, 

Judaism and Christianity. In fact, Muslims consider Christians 

and Jews “people of the Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, 

because they share their monotheistic belief in one God. 

Abraham: All three faiths trace their lineage back to Abraham, 

known as Ibrahim in Islam. Christians and Jews trace their line 

back to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims believe that they descend from Abraham and his 

Egyptian concubine, Hagar, and their son Ismail.

Scriptures: The Qur’an contains similar moral teachings as 

those found the Christian Bible’s Old and New Testaments, and

Muslims view Islam as a completion of previous revelations to 

Jewish and Christian prophets. However, Muslims believe the 

Christians distorted God’s word and that Muhammad received 

the true revelation of God.

Jesus: The three religions differ significantly over the role of 

Jesus. While Christians consider Him the divine Messiah who 

fulfills the Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for the 

Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as having been a 

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prophet, but do not acknowledge the Christian view of His 

divinity. They do not believe in the Christian Trinity. 

View of Death: Muslims believe that the time of death, like birth, 

is determined by Allah. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death itself as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven.

Concept of Jihad

The concept of Jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental element 

within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral pursuit 

of God’s will to lead a virtuous life. It should not be confused with 

the publicized violence often associated with Jihad. Most 

Muslims are strongly opposed to 

terrorism and consider it to be contrary 

to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long time for 

inner reflection, self-control, and focus 

on God. During this time, Muslims who 

are physically able are required to fast 

from dawn to sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their 

hunger tempers them to learn self-control, appreciate the 

difficulties of the poor, and gain spiritual renewal – by fasting, 

one learns to appreciate the good in life. It is common for 

Muslims to break their fast at sunset with a light meal of dates 

followed by prayer and then dinner. Ramadan is observed during 

the 9th month of the Islamic calendar (see Time & Space) and 

includes three holy days. 

• Lailat ul-Qadr: Known as “The Night of Power,” this holy day 

commemorates Muhammad receiving the first verses of the 

Qur’an. 

• Eid-al-Adha: This “Festival of Sacrifice” commemorates 

Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (Isaac 

according to the Christian faith), as proof of his loyalty to God. 

It is celebrated the same day the Hajj ends. 

• Eid-al-Fitr: This 3-day “Festival of Fast-Breaking” is 

celebrated at Ramadan’s end.

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Introduction of Islam to Tanzania

The earliest evidence of Islam in East Africa is the foundation of 

a mosque which dates to 830 AD, and the oldest intact building 

in East Africa is a mosque in Zanzibar which dates to 1007. By 

1332 Muslims populated many coastal settlements, and Arabic 

was spoken throughout the region. Unlike the purposeful 

expansion of Christianity through the efforts of missionaries and 

imperialists, the spread of Islam in East Africa was a byproduct 

of contact between Africans and 

Muslim traders. Consequently, Islam 

was confined to the coast for many 

years. As trade links strengthened 

under the rule of Omani Arabs in the 

17th and 18th centuries, Islam began to 

extend into the interior along trade 

routes.

Although Muslims on the coast retained 

a significant degree of political 

autonomy under German and British 

rule (see History and Myth) and were even initially favored for 

administrative jobs, both powers eventually began to prefer

Christian converts. This change, along with increased Christian 

missionary activity and perceived disparities in education and 

healthcare, resulted in protests by some Muslims. It was not until 

the struggle for independence in the mid-20th century that 

Muslim political consciousness became widespread.

Christianity

Introduction of Christianity to Tanzania

The first successful missionaries in present-day Tanzania were 

representatives of three Catholic organizations – the White 

Fathers, the Holy Ghost Fathers, and the Benedictine monks – 

who arrived in the 1860s. These groups worked in the largely 

hostile interior region, where several were instrumental in 

bringing attention to the devastating effects of the slave trade.

Many early Protestant missionaries were also explorers whose 

accounts of their adventures generated great interest in Europe. 

For example, David Livingstone and the Universities Mission to 

Central Africa established several mission stations in the 1860s 

RELIGION & 

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that were intended both to convert Africans and introduce 

legitimate commerce as an alternative to slavery.

German Protestants arrived a few years later with the institution 

of German rule. Because German policy stressed education, 

missionaries founded schools and educational institutes, and by 

1914 they were educating over 150,000 Tanzanians. Most 

mission schools used Swahili as the language of instruction, 

contributing to its diffusion throughout the country (see Learning 

and Knowledge and Language and Communication).

Religion Today Although both Christianity and Islam are thriving in modern 

Tanzania, neither faith is expanding. Because most Tanzanians 

continue to practice the faith in which they were raised, there are 

no more than a handful of potential converts. In interreligious

marriages, it is socially more 

acceptable for a Muslim woman to 

convert to Christianity than it is for 

a Muslim man. 

There have been instances of

Christian and Muslim leaders

disparaging the other religion in 

“open-air sermons.” For the most 

part, religious conflict is generally seen as less of an issue than 

crime, corruption, and unemployment. The state’s recognition of 

both Islamic and customary law in issues of marriage, divorce, 

and inheritance (see Political and Social Relations), and its 

emphasis on a shared national identity across social boundaries

has contributed to a climate of religious tolerance.

Christianity: Slightly more than half of Tanzania’s Christians are 

Roman Catholic, and the remainder are Protestant, mostly

Lutheran or Anglican. A much smaller number of Tanzania’s 

Protestants belong to Pentecostal churches which emphasize 

the Holy Spirit, divine prophecy, and speaking in tongues.

About 5% of Tanzania’s Christians belong to African 

Independent Churches, which grew out of European mission 

churches and later incorporated healing practices and other 

aspects of traditional African religion into their services. Other 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
denominations, including Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, 

and Jehovah’s Witnesses, are also represented.

Islam: Tanzanian Muslims 

mostly live in cities, along the 

coast, or in the Zanzibar 

archipelago, which is over 98% 

Muslim (pictured: Zanzibar’s 

Kizimkazi Mosque, courtesy of 

Wikimedia). The majority of 

Tanzania’s Muslims follow Sunni 

Islam, while about 20% belong to 

the Shi’a sect. About 15% follow the Ahmadiyya Muslim Mission, 

which originated in India and while part of an international 

network, is considered heretical by other Muslims. Smaller 

numbers belong to Muslim Brotherhoods having ties to Saudi 

Arabia or associate with loosely organized and less orthodox 

Sufi whose practices are more mystical. 

The National Muslim Council of Tanzania is very active, recently 

calling for the creation of Islamic courts (kadhis – see Political 

and Social Relations) and the appointment of a mufti, or Islamic 

religious leader, on the mainland. 

Interfaith Cooperation: Both Muslim and Christian leaders 

participate in the Commission on Peace, Development, and 

Reconciliation in order to encourage dialogue and unity across 

religions. Tanzania also has a Minister for Social and Political

Affairs who is charged with promoting social understanding 

among Tanzania’s diverse political and religious groups. 

Religion and Politics: The country’s relatively peaceful postindependence history (see History and Myth) is in large part due 

to respect for religious freedom and a conscious effort to 

separate religion and politics. The Political Parties law of 1992 

forbids parties to form base on religion, race, tribe, or region. 

Consequently, Tanzanians do not generally vote along ethnic or 

religious lines. Although Tanzania’s first President Julius 

Nyerere was a member of the Roman Catholic Church, his party 

found its initial support among urban Muslims. The former

President Jakaya Kikwete is a Muslim who was elected with 80% 

of the vote, while his predecessor was a Christian who received 

72% of the vote in his defeat of a Muslim candidate. 

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Overview

The importance of family and kinship in Tanzanian society is 

best captured by the concept of undugu, which connotes a 

sense of compassion and generosity towards others. Undugu 

underscores the role of the large extended family unit, which 

consists of multiple nuclear families (parents and their 

offspring) within a lineage (discussed below). The extended 

family functions as a social safety network in which connected 

family members help relatives secure education, employment, 

healthcare, and other necessities. 

However, this system has been strained by the effects of 

urbanization and ongoing economic hardship (see Economics 

and Resources). Modern trends promoted by Westernization 

have caused many Tanzanians to seek employment in fastpace urban centers where time and space constraints have 

reduced the large extended family 

network to a single nuclear family 

model.

Family Structure

Kinship is traced differently 

among the respective ethnic 

groups. Some coastal groups 

such as the Makonde and Yao 

are “matrilineal,” meaning that they trace kinship through the 

mother’s lineage. The majority of groups – an estimated 80% – 

are “patrilineal” and therefore trace kinship from father to son.

Clans: Clans are defined by shared descent from a common, 

though perhaps mythical, ancestor who lived many generations 

ago. Members of the same clan generally do not live in a single 

location, and membership is largely symbolic but nevertheless 

significant. In most ethnic groups, members usually marry 

outside the clan. 

Lineages: Lineages are defined by shared descent from a 

common, non-mythical ancestor. They are smaller than clans 

and their members usually group together in a particular place. 

Thus, lineages can fulfill political and economic functions such 

as having authority over the land cultivated by its members. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
The importance of lineage varies by ethnic group and region. 

For example, the Sukuma and Nyamwezi ethnic groups place 

little importance upon lineage and instead rely upon the local 

community to fill many of the same social roles. Even in 

communities where lineage is important, multiple lineages 

usually live side-by-side and cooperate with one another.

Residence

Designed to protect against 

heat and rain at minimum cost, 

housing in Tanzania tends to 

be inexpensive and practical.

Houses are generally built from

mud brick or a mixture of sticks 

and brush, with concrete or 

mud floors and corrugated 

metal or thatched grass roofs. Although items which serve a 

functional purpose tend to be the only decorations, some 

households also display a picture of the President. Due to 

Tanzania’s rapid urbanization, the housing supply in cities has 

failed to keep pace with demand, leading to a lack of affordable 

housing.

Marriage

In the context of Tanzania’s social system, marriage joins two 

lineages and provides for their continuation through their 

offspring. Although individuals have some degree of choice in 

selecting a spouse, dating in the Western sense is rare, and 

final approval of any match rests with representatives of the 

lineages involved. This approach reflects the Tanzanian view 

that marriage is mainly a union between lineages rather than 

individuals.

Bridewealth: Among patrilineal ethnic groups a newly married 

woman becomes a member of her new husband’s family. 

Consequently, in order to compensate for the loss of a 

productive worker and loved family member, a groom pays 

bridewealth to the bride’s father’s family. Although cattle are 

the most common and traditional form of bridewealth, goods 

such as beer, cloth, meat, and money are also used.

Weddings: Tanzanian weddings tend to be large, extravagant, 

and expensive; therefore, it is both common and acceptable for 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
wedding expenses to drive families into debt. In order to defray 

costs, some families collect donations or plan joint weddings in 

which multiple couples are married at the same ceremony.

Christian weddings begin with a church ceremony, followed by 

a reception where guests eat, drink, and dance to live music

and often enjoy a ride home at the expense of the host. Guests 

are expected to bring gifts. 

Polygyny: About 20% of Tanzanian women are married to 

men who engage in polygyny, the practice of having multiple 

wives. Although polygyny is permitted by most ethnic groups 

and by Islamic law, it has declined in popularity due both to the 

cost of supporting multiple families and to the rise of 

Christianity, which prohibits polygyny. Tanzanians who still 

practice polygyny live mainly in rural areas.

Children

Tanzanians treasure their children and on average expect to 

raise about five of them. In general, Tanzanian parents tend to 

be strict disciplinarians who discourage excessive selfexpression, do not tolerate misbehavior, and assign children 

household chores beginning at a very young age.

Rites-of-Passage 

The following rites-of-passage ceremonies mark life’s various 

stages or transitions.

Islamic Weddings

Muslims usually wed in the Islamic tradition regardless 

of their ethnic background. Islamic weddings differ from 

Christian weddings in several key respects. First, 

Islamic weddings typically occur during Sawwal, the 

10th month of the Islamic calendar. Second, devout 

Muslims will never serve or consume alcohol at the 

reception. Third and most notably, the bride undergoes 

an extensive preparation ritual prior to the ceremony: 

female members of the groom’s family first bathe the 

bride then decorate her with henna (dye made from an 

indigenous plant) and apply a scent by wafting incense.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Birth: The birth of a child is particularly significant for new 

mothers because a Tanzanian female is not seen as a mature 

woman until she has given birth to a healthy child. 

Furthermore, after reaching this milestone, a mother is often 

referred to in terms of her child’s name. For example, the 

mother of Jakaya would be called “Mama Jakaya.” This 

practice underscores the degree to which women are identified 

with the duties of motherhood and derive social respect from 

childrearing (see Sex and Gender). 

Tanzanian children traditionally have been delivered at home 

with the help of trusted older females experienced in assisting 

with childbirth. Despite the increasing availability of Westernstyle medical care in Tanzania, many women still prefer the 

emotional comfort provided by this traditional system. 

Consequently, the government now trains some traditional birth 

attendants to perform clean and hygienic deliveries and to 

recognize complications requiring professional attention.

Development: With the help of a kanga (pictured), or colorful 

rectangular shawl, infants remain strapped to the back of their 

mother nearly constantly for the initial period following birth. 

Daughters are expected to begin caring for younger siblings at 

a very early age, and both boys and girls 

may be expected to herd livestock or 

perform other chores as early as age 3 or 

4. Some ethnic groups observe puberty 

ceremonies for boys, girls, or both. These 

ceremonies sometimes involve female 

genital mutilation (see Sex and Gender) 

and male circumcision.

Death and Funerals

Tanzanians tend to view death as a 

serious but not necessarily depressing 

event. Funeral services often involve a parade, complete with a 

brass band, and the receptions which follow involve lots of 

eating and music. Tanzania is particularly noted for its funeral 

dances, in which mourners dance in silence to an austere 

drumbeat punctuated only by the soft lament of wind 

instruments. Tanzanians believe that ancestors can impact 

daily events and continue to honor the deceased for years to 

follow (see Religion and Spirituality). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Gender equality remains a distant ideal in Tanzania. Women 

generally have a lower standard of living, and some forms of 

gender-based violence are common and even socially 

acceptable to both men and women. Although the government 

has begun to establish a legal framework which promotes 

gender equality, many challenges still remain.

Gender Roles and Work

The division of labor common 

in traditional Tanzanian society 

still applies in many rural areas. 

Under this system, men are 

responsible for tending 

livestock, marketing produce, 

making decisions on behalf of 

the family, and performing 

heavy labor such as preparing 

fields for cultivation. Women are responsible for everything else, 

including childcare, most agricultural labor, and all domestic 

work.

Generally, women aged 25-34 spend a larger share of their time 

working than any other segment of the population. Traditionally 

inferior in status, females earn only 96% the income of males for 

similar duties. 

Women in Politics

Holding 36% seats in 2015, women comprise roughly 1/3 of the 

Bunge or National Assembly (see Political and Social Relations) 

– almost twice the proportion in the US House of 

Representatives (19%). Most of those women were not elected 

directly but hold seats created specifically to increase female 

representation and filled by the political parties. 

Nevertheless, women are well represented in other ways. 

Women account for 5 of 29 Cabinet Ministers, including the Vice 

President, Minister of State in the President’s Office, and the 

Minister of State in the Prime Minister's Office. In addition, 

SEX &

GENDER

5. SEX AND GENDER
women account for 25 of 62 High Court judges and 5 of 16 Court 

of Appeal judges.

Gender-Based Violence

Violence against women is a major problem in Tanzania. 

According to one study, nearly 40% of Tanzanian women have 

suffered from physical violence since age 15, and for more than 

80% of those women the violence was perpetrated by a current 

or former male companion. Young women are particularly at risk 

of gender-based violence when they leave home to attend 

secondary school (see Learning and Knowledge). Women 

whose husbands drink 

alcohol were more than twice 

as likely to suffer from 

physical or sexual violence.

Although the Sexual 

Offenses Special Provisions 

Act of 1998 makes most 

forms of gender-based 

violence illegal, it requires a 

high burden of proof and 

provides for extreme 

punishments. These factors 

tend to discourage victims from pressing charges, particularly

when the victim is related to or economically dependent upon 

the perpetrator.

There is no law specifically prohibiting domestic violence, which 

usually must be prosecuted under standard anti-assault 

statutes. In addition, many victims of domestic violence are 

reluctant to seek assistance likely because some police, judges, 

and hospital staff appear insensitive to victim’s situation. 

Sex and Procreation

Tanzanians engage in sexual relations relatively early. 

According to one survey, about 58% of females and 41% of 

males in the 25-49 age group were sexually active by the time 

they were 18. Over 5 times as many men (21%) as women (4%) 

reported having multiple partners within the past year, and less 

than 25% of those men used contraception, a troubling trend in 

a country which has declared HIV/AIDS a “national disaster” 

(see Sustenance and Health).

SEX &

GENDER
Tanzanian women also begin to bear children relatively early

(see Family and Kinship). Although the median age at which 

women have their first child is 19.5, almost 25% of women age 

15-19 have already begun to have children. The average woman 

gives birth to 4.9 children. Women who are poor, uneducated, or 

live in rural areas are much more likely 

to have many children and begin 

bearing them earlier than their 

wealthy, educated, or urban 

counterparts.

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

FGM is the practice of deliberately 

modifying the female sex organs in 

order to decrease a woman’s ability to 

experience sexual pleasure. FGM is 

practiced by about 20 of Tanzania’s 

130 ethnic groups and is most 

prevalent in the Dodoma and Manyara regions to the northeast. 

According to the Tanzanian Ministry of Health, about 5-15% of 

Tanzanian females have undergone FGM. Although FGM is 

illegal in Tanzania and declining in popularity, some groups have 

expressed concern that it is still being practiced in secretive and 

unsanitary conditions, sometimes resulting in severe 

complications or death. 

Homosexuality 

Homosexual activity is taboo in Tanzania and illegal in most 

cases. In Zanzibar, homosexual activity is punishable by up to 

25 years in prison when between two males, or up to 7 years in 

prison when between two females. Because of the difficulty of 

establishing proof, the law is rarely enforced. Only homosexual 

activity between males is prohibited in mainland Tanzania, and

it is punishable by at least 30 years in prison. 

Modesty Among Islamic Women 

According to Islamic tradition, women should cover all parts of 

their body except the face and hands when they are in public by 

wearing a bai-bui (Islamic gown) and hijab (veil). This style of 

dress is designed to demonstrate modesty. Although some 

Tanzanian Muslim women follow this tradition devoutly, others 

have adapted it (see Aesthetics and Recreation).

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Like many African countries, Tanzania has a complex linguistic 

landscape which includes a colonial language (English), an 

indigenous majority language (Swahili), and a large number of 

indigenous minority languages. Unlike many African countries, 

Tanzania is home to speakers from each of Africa’s four major 

language families: Afro-Asiatic, Khoe-San, Niger-Congo, and 

Nilo-Saharan.

Indigenous Minority Languages

Tanzanians currently speak more than 100 minority languages 

as their first language, most of which are associated with 

particular ethnic groups. Because young and urban Tanzanians 

prefer to use Swahili and English, many minority languages are 

at risk of extinction. Although early language policies accused 

minority languages of “spreading subversive, anti-unity 

propaganda,” the government revised its policy in 1997 to 

recognize officially the cultural value of minority languages. 

However, this policy change was not accompanied by 

programs designed to encourage the use of these languages.

Swahili

Instead, the Tanzanian government has 

been notably successful in establishing 

Swahili as the national language. This 

achievement is impressive because 

African governments historically have 

found it difficult to impose the language 

of a single ethnic group on a diverse 

population (Photo: A Swahili man, 

courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Swahili, also known as Kiswahili, belongs 

to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family and is 

written in the Latin alphabet. As both a national and official 

language of Tanzania, Swahili is the primary language of 

interpersonal interaction, especially between members of 

different ethnic groups. Swahili is also a popular language of 

trade and commerce and serves as the language of instruction 

in primary schools.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Although grammatically derived from the Bantu dialects spoken 

by inhabitants of the East African coast, Swahili absorbed 

many new words from Arabic, which was first introduced by

Arab traders near the end of the first millennium (see History

and Myth). These traders also left a lasting cultural legacy 

which resulted in the emergence of a unique Afro-Arab group

known as the Swahili people. Numbering about 500,000 and 

living primarily in the Zanzibar archipelago and along the coast, 

the Swahili are Muslim in both aesthetics and spirituality.

Learned by most Tanzanians as a second language, Swahili 

owes much of its present popularity to President Nyerere (see 

History and Myth). As part of his efforts to forge a strong 

national identity for Tanzania, Nyerere chose Swahili as the 

national language. He later pursued a language policy which 

promoted Swahili through educational decrees, national radio 

programming, and other avenues.

English

Introduced by British colonists in 

the late 19th century, English is 

the primary language of business, 

government, and post-primary 

education and is spoken as a third 

language by about 1.5 million 

Tanzanians. Many Tanzanians

speak a variant of English which 

uses non-standard grammar and 

syntax.

Language Choice

Although English is common in cities, Swahili is the preferred 

language in most social settings. In rural areas English is 

spoken only by a minority and generally is not used. 

Tanzanians appreciate when foreign nationals attempt to learn 

and use even a small amount of Swahili. Older Tanzanians are 

more likely to use minority languages, although even parents 

who speak a minority language among themselves generally 

speak Swahili to their children. Because they are multilingual, 

Tanzanians are known to repeat sentences or ideas in multiple 

languages. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Tanzania requires not just 

knowledge of Swahili or other languages, but also the ability to 

use those languages effectively. This broader conception of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, intonation, 

volume), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures – see Time and Space), and interaction management 

(conversation initiation, turn-taking, and termination). When 

used appropriately, these aspects of communication ensure 

that statements are interpreted as the speaker intends. 

Communication Style

Tanzanian culture is high-context, meaning that Tanzanians 

rely heavily on paralanguage, nonverbal communication, and 

interaction management to convey meaning. The significance 

of spoken words is closely linked to the speaker’s tone of voice 

and facial expression, and even the length of an interaction or 

the location in which it takes place can contribute to meaning.

Unlike many Westerners, 

Tanzanians generally prefer to 

communicate indirectly

because they view public 

confrontation humiliating. For 

example, Tanzanians prefer 

not to say “no,” so they often 

say Kesho (“tomorrow”) to 

refuse a request politely. 

Similarly, Tanzanians often 

use metaphors, proverbs, and stories to make a request or 

provide a critique. Tanzanians frequently avoid overt conflict 

through avoidance, silence, or restraint.

Listening: Active listening skills are critical when 

communicating in a high context society. Foreign nationals 

must be keenly aware of both verbal and nonverbal context 

cues and be prepared to respond by smiling, nodding, laughing 

when appropriate, or touching the speaker’s arm. It is best not 

to interrupt a Tanzanian who is speaking. 

Status and Respect: In line with the concept of Ujamaa (or 

“familyhood”, see History and Myth), protecting relationships 

and preserving the community are important goals of 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
communication in Tanzania. Consequently, foreign nationals 

should avoid behavior which could damage a Tanzanian’s 

reputation in the eyes of the group.

For example, to avoid public humiliation, foreign nationals 

should always deliver criticism privately. Similarly, foreign 

nationals should suppress extreme emotion, as Tanzanians 

consider such behavior to be highly offensive.

Because many Tanzanians are highly conscious of status, it is 

important to communicate respect to people in positions of 

authority, generally through titles (see “Titles” below and Time 

and Space). In addition, elders or people of high status are 

usually greeted first, followed by men, and finally by women.

Greetings

Greetings are very important in 

Tanzania, and it is considered 

offensive to skip or rush a greeting. 

The minimum greeting is an exchange 

of hellos and inquiries about wellbeing, although Tanzanians generally 

prefer to engage in small talk for 

several minutes to establish a basic 

relationship before discussing 

business or professional matters.

When beginning a conversation with an elder or high-status

person, the greeting Shikamoo (“I show my respect”) should be 

used and usually followed by the response Marhaba (“I am 

delighted”). For all others, the standard greeting is Hujambo for 

one person and Hamjambo for two or more people. These 

greetings usually are followed by questions about family life, 

such as Habari sa nyumbani? (“How are things in your 

home?”), to which a common reply is Salama (“Peaceful”).

As part of the standard greeting process, foreign nationals 

should be prepared to discuss their family, religion, homeland, 

reason for coming to Tanzania, and expected duration of stay. 

Although these personal questions may seem intrusive, they 

are usually based on good-natured curiosity and are vitally 

important to building trust and relationships in Tanzania.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Titles

Although some Tanzanians are comfortable with informality, 

foreign nationals should address a Tanzanian by his title and 

last name until he requests otherwise. Even Tanzanians who 

know each other well often use age-specific titles. For example, 

young women are called dada (“sister”), mature women are 

called mama (“mother”), and elderly women are called bibi

(“grandmother”). Young men are called kaka (“brother”), adult 

men are called baba (“father”) or bwana, and elderly men are 

called babu (“grandfather”) or mzee (“dignified person”). In a 

practice which reflects their outgoing nature, Tanzanians 

generally refer to strangers as ndugu (“comrade” or “cousin”).

Conversational Topics

The socially acceptable range of topics for conversing with new 

acquaintances in Tanzania is similar to what it would be in the 

US, encompassing matters such as family, health, work, sports, 

and current events. In addition, compliments about Tanzania, 

its government, or the Swahili language are always welcome. 

Foreign nationals should refrain from asking Tanzanians about 

employment status, money, or controversial topics such as 

politics. Finally, although many Tanzanians have a great sense 

of humor, foreign nationals should refrain from making jokes 

about a Tanzanian’s family members.

Gestures

Tanzanians never gesture with 

the index finger. Instead, they 

summon people by extending 

an arm with the palm down and 

then repeatedly scooping all 

four non-thumb fingers toward 

the palm. Similarly, Tanzanians 

indicate things or people by 

holding out an open hand with 

the palm facing up and then 

motioning with closed fingers in the appropriate direction. 

Tanzanians also indicate direction with the head and chin.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English Swahili

Do you speak English? Unasema kiingereza?

Hello/Good day Hujambo (singular)/Hamjambo

(plural)

How are you? Habari yako?

I am fine Sijambo

I show my respect (as a greeting) Shikamoo

Yes Ndiyo

No Hapana

OK Sawa/Mzuri (fine)/Poa (cool)

Good day (AM) Habari ya asubuhi?

Good day (PM) Habari ya mchana?

Goodbye Kwaheri

Please Tafadhali

Thank you (very much) Asante (sana)

You’re welcome Karibu

Sorry Pole

Today Leo

Tomorrow Kesho

Yesterday Jana

What is your name? Jina lako ni nani?

My name is ___ Jina langu ni __

I am happy to meet you Nimefurahi kukutana nawe

Who? Nani?

What? Nini?

When? Lini?

Where? Wapi?

Why? Kwa nini?

How much does it cost? Kiasi gani?

How far? Jinsi mbali?

Help! Saidia!/Msaada!

Stop! Ngoja!/Simama!/Kuacha!

How are things in your home? Habari sa nyumbani?

Peaceful Salama

I feel hungry Mimi nasikia njaa

I understand Naelewa

I don’t understand Sielewi

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 70.6% 

• Male: 75.9% 

• Female: 65.4% (2015 census)

Traditional Education

Although traditional educational methods in Tanzania varied by 

ethnic group, the uniform purpose of education was to help 

young people adapt to their physical and social environment by 

passing on traditional knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs. All 

methods combined an emphasis on practical instruction with a 

wide variety of songs, dances, games, and stories which 

recounted historical events and illustrated moral principles.

The subjects taught through traditional educational methods 

were both wide-ranging and relatively fixed. All students 

received lessons in topics 

essential to group survival

such as agriculture, medicine, 

morality, civics, and history.

Some young people also 

received lessons in 

specialized skills such as 

leadership, rainmaking and 

other rituals, construction,

fishing, and metalworking.

As children matured and advanced through certain life stages 

such as puberty or marriage, they also received increasing levels 

of instruction about courtship, behavior codes, and social 

responsibilities. Each level of instruction was accompanied by 

an initiation intended to familiarize young people with the duties 

and privileges associated with their new stage of life.

Introduction of Formal Education

Formal education began in Tanzania with the arrival of Arab 

traders who founded schools which primarily taught Arabic and 

Qur’an studies. Although Qur’anic schools were initially confined 

to the coast, they spread inland as Arab influence expanded (see 

History and Myth). 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Christian missionaries began arriving in the region in the second 

half of the 19th century (see History and Myth). One important 

aspect of their conversion efforts was the education and training 

of Africans (see Religion and Myth).

Education under German Rule

In 1891 administrators in German East 

Africa (see History and Myth) designed

a government education system in 

order to win African hearts and minds 

while creating a supply of interpreters, 

tax collectors, clerks, and craftsmen. 

They chose Swahili as the language of 

instruction, and lessons included

reading, writing, and arithmetic 

followed by vocational training. To 

further promote the education of 

Africans, the Germans also continued to encourage 

missionaries to establish their own schools, so that by World War 

I the mission schools were educating about 25 times as many

students as the government schools (see Religion and 

Spirituality). 

Education under British Rule

When the British took control of present-day Tanzania in 1914 

(see History and Myth), they left the government education 

system largely intact, while mission schools continued to 

predominate with a Swahili-language curriculum of religion, 

ethics, hygiene, literacy, and mathematics. The British instituted 

vocational training in agriculture, although many Africans saw 

education as a way to escape agricultural labor and therefore

preferred an expansion of post-primary education. 

The British response was small-scale and slow. Although they 

opened a special school at Tabora in 1924 to train artisans, 

administrators, and clerks; admission was limited to the sons of 

chiefs. The first secondary school did not open until 1930, and 

by 1945 there was still only one school in all of Tanganyika which 

provided a 12th grade education. Academically inclined

Tanganyikans had to acquire university studies in either Uganda 

or Kenya, and on the eve of independence there were only 70 

Tanganyikans with university degrees.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education in Independent Tanzania

A primary concern of the Tanzanian government in the years 

immediately following independence was to boost secondary 

school enrollment so that Africans could replace ex-colonial 

officials. With the Arusha Declaration of 1967 (see History and 

Myth), President Nyerere instead refocused the nation on 

primary education as a means of providing Tanzanians with the 

practical skills necessary for an agricultural lifestyle.

In the mid-1970s the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) political 

party (see Political and Social Relations) pursued Nyerere’s

vision by abolishing primary school fees and setting a goal of 

universal primary education by 1984. Although Tanzania nearly 

hit this target in the early 1980s, economic circumstances forced 

the government to reintroduce 

partial school fees beginning in 

1978, forcing many students to 

drop out and causing literacy rates 

to plummet.

The government began to reverse 

this decline by abolishing school 

fees again in 2001 and

implementing the Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP). 

Although enrollment has soared since, there remain concerns 

that quantity of education has been prioritized over quality, as 

budgetary constraints have led to reduced school hours and 

increased student/teacher ratios. 

Modern Education System

Although few students receive a complete formal education, the 

Tanzanian model includes two years of pre-primary school, 

seven years of primary school, four years of junior secondary 

school, two years of senior secondary school, and at least three 

years of tertiary education

Tanzania’s education system suffers from significant disparities 

between rural and urban areas. For example, although the ratio 

of students/teachers for Tanzania as a whole is around 49:1, the 

rate in rural areas tends to be much higher. In addition, rural 

areas are less likely to have properly trained science and 

mathematics instructors. Because girls usually are needed for 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
domestic work or are expected to marry young, the Tanzanian 

education system also has a significant gender gap.

Primary Education: Primary education is both compulsory and 

free in Tanzania. Students generally enter at age 7 and finish at 

age 13, and there are 194 school days-per-year. Although the 

genders are most equally represented in primary schools with 

48.7% females, boys still outperform girls on examinations. 

Secondary Education: Secondary education is neither free nor 

compulsory in Tanzania. Only about 60% of students who 

complete primary school attend junior secondary school, and 

only 45% of those students attend senior secondary school. 

Secondary schools are far more common now as the availability 

of secondary schools more than quadrupled from mere 927 

schools in 2001 to 4451 schools by 2013. However, secondary 

school-age youth in urban areas were more likely to attend 

secondary school than their counterparts in rural areas (44 % 

and 19%, respectively).

Tertiary Education: Between 2005 and 2012 enrolment in 

universities and university colleges grew significantly from 

40,009 to 204,175, an increase of more than 200%. While the 

proportion of females in universities and university colleges has 

consistently increased at a faster pace than that of male 

students, less than 40% of those attending universities and 

university colleges are women.

Vocational Training: Vocational

training is delivered through a mix of 

public sector training centers, private 

sector schools, and Folk Development 

Colleges. In contrast to standard private 

schools, private vocational schools have 

a strong record of job placement.

HIV/AIDS Education

The Ministry of Education is seeking to use schools to combat 

the HIV/AIDS epidemic (see Sustenance and Health). This effort 

includes parental involvement, after school programs, increased 

educational opportunity for girls, and distribution of HIV/AIDS 

information. A number of non-governmental organizations have

focused on bringing prevention education into rural areas. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concept of Time and Space

Tanzania is a high-context society, meaning its members have 

close and enduring connections forged through years of 

interpersonal interactions. Consequently, they are accustomed 

to implied social behaviors and do not have to rely on explicitly 

expressed rules. Life generally moves at a slow pace in 

Tanzania, so patience and a willingness to form relationships 

are essential for foreign nationals who hope to adapt 

successfully. 

Concept of Time

The Tanzanian concept of 

time differs sharply from those 

of most Western cultures. 

Rather than viewing time as a 

scarce resource, Tanzanians 

tend to consider time as a gift 

to be enjoyed with friends and 

family, placing less emphasis 

on planning for the future.

Swahili Time: Swahili Time” is a method of timekeeping which 

divides the 24-hour day into two 12-hour periods marked by 

“midnight,” which occurs at dawn or 6am, and “noon,” which 

occurs at dusk, or 6pm. For example, 1 hour after “midnight” 

would be 7am to Swahili speakers and 1am for most others. 

Most Tanzanians are comfortable using both the international 

timekeeping system and Swahili time and alternate between 

them as necessary. Scheduled events need to be confirmed to 

avoid confusion.

Lunar Islamic Calendar: Tanzanian Muslims use the Islamic 

calendar to determine dates for holidays and festivals (see 

Religion and Spirituality). The Islamic calendar consists of 12 

lunar months that last for the length of time between full 

moons, approximately 29.53 days. Thus, the Islamic calendar 

is only 354.36 days long, 11 days shorter than the Western 

calendar. As a result, Islamic holidays fall 11 days earlier, 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
according to the Western calendar, than the previous year. 

Weeks in the Islamic calendar begin at sunset on Saturday.

Time and Work: Most businesses open at 8:30am and close 

around 5:00pm-6:00pm, with banks closing at 3:00pm or 

4:00pm. Government offices are usually open from 8:00am4:00pm. Some banks, shops, and post offices also open on 

Saturday from 8:30am-1:00pm. Businesses in primarily Muslim 

areas often close on Fridays, the Islamic day of worship, in 

order to accommodate prayer services.

Punctuality: Tanzanians generally 

place more importance on people and 

relationships than on schedules and 

tasks, so they are not always punctual in 

the Western sense.

Personal Space

Tanzanians generally require less 

personal space than people from 

Western cultures. In their society, it would be acceptable to sit 

together in a nearly empty bus or theater. Although the amount 

of personal space that Tanzanians require varies by gender, 

ethnic group, religion, and class; an arm’s length is generally 

appropriate. Tanzanians of the same gender tend to prefer to 

be closer than Tanzanians of different genders.

Touch: As with personal space requirements, touch 

preferences vary by gender, familiarity, and social status. 

Physical contact between people of the same gender is

acceptable, and males who are close friends often walk handin-hand or kiss each other on the cheek or forehead.

Physical contact between people of different genders is 

traditionally taboo, particularly among Muslims, although nonMuslim men and women typically shake hands. Among 

Muslims, women normally do not shake hands with men, 

although adherence to this custom in Tanzania varies widely.

Similarly, Muslims do not touch elders at all or others’ heads, 

as they consider the head the holiest part of the body.

Handshakes: Handshakes are a standard part of greeting in 

Tanzania, especially among men, and tend to be prolonged, 

SPACE

TIME &
enthusiastic, and gentle to demonstrate humility and 

consideration. Additionally, grasping the right elbow with the 

left hand signals an additional degree of respect.

There are three types of handshake in Tanzania. The first type 

is the Western-style handshake, which is common in business, 

government, and education. The second type is the fist-bump, 

which is usually used between friends. The third type is the 

informal handshake (pictured), which begins with a Westernstyle handshake but is then 

followed by each person

grasping the other person’s 

thumb, and ends in a second 

Western-style handshake. 

Eye Contact: Direct eye contact 

indicates attention and trust 

between colleagues and friends 

and is essential for building 

business relationships. However, 

many Tanzanians avoid eye contact when speaking with an 

elder or foreign national as a way to signify respect. Male 

foreign nationals should avoid prolonged eye contact with 

female Tanzanians because it may indicate harassment. 

Similarly, female foreign nationals should avoid prolonged eye 

contact with male Tanzanians because it can be viewed as 

flirtation.

Gestures: Foreign nationals should generally be mindful of the 

gestures they use, as some movements may be perceived 

differently than intended. For example, Tanzanians consider

standing with hands on the hips as aggressive. Other 

movements considered rude include slouching, leaning against 

objects, beckoning with the index finger, yawning without 

covering the mouth, and exposing the sole of a foot or shoe to 

another person.

Left Hand: Traditionally, many Tanzanians reserved the left 

hand for personal hygiene and did not use it for eating, shaking 

hands, or giving and receiving gifts. In contemporary society, 

this practice appear to be changing, although foreign nationals 

are still advised to conform to the traditional practice unless 

advised to do otherwise.

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

The aesthetics and recreation of Tanzania are a unique blend 

of contemporary Western culture and traditional influences from 

Africa and the Middle East. From clothing and sports to music 

and dance, Tanzanians have combined aspects of these 

different traditions to create dynamic new trends and customs.

Dress

Tanzanians who live in urban areas tend to wear conservative, 

Western-style clothing imported from China, India, Europe, or 

the US, and this style of dress is often seen as an indicator of 

social status. In contrast, Tanzanians who live in villages tend 

to wear traditional attire which varies by ethnic group.

Men: Most urban men wear at least a button-down shirt with 

trousers and a jacket if not a full suit and tie. Despite the warm 

climate, shorts are acceptable only for young boys because 

they are considered too revealing for mature adults.

Many men who live in rural areas still wear traditional garments 

such as the kanga, a large, colorful rectangle of cloth which is 

tied into a toga-like wrap. Other men, especially Muslims, wear 

the kanzu, an embroidered, floor-length white gown which is 

worn with a matching kofia, or cap. Many Muslims wear the 

kanzu and kofia only for attending mosque. 

Women: Tanzanian women

traditionally wear several

kangas, or a variant, kitenges. 

Both of these items are colorful 

rectangles of cloth which can 

be used to form many different 

garments, from skirts and tops

to head coverings and slings 

for carrying infants. Muslim women often wear head coverings 

such as the baibui, a type of large black scarf, in order to 

conceal their hair. Tanzanian women also wear jewelry as an 

indicator of style and social status. The Maasai are especially 

well known for their fondness for jewelry, and they often wear a 

dazzling array of necklaces, rings, earrings, and headbands.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation

Sports: The most popular sports in Tanzania are soccer, track 

and field, and boxing. As the national sport, soccer is widely 

played and followed throughout the country, and the most 

popular clubs are Simba (meaning “lion” in Swahili) and the 

Young African, both based in Dar es 

Salaam. 

Games: Tanzanians enjoy socializing over 

board games in coffeehouses and homes. 

One of the most popular board games is 

bao (pictured), a variant of the board game 

mancala which is popular throughout 

Africa. In the West, the game is known as 

Kalah and Oware. The game consists of 

two players who try to capture all of the game pieces, usually 

pebbles, by moving them around a carved wooden board or a 

grid scratched into the ground.

Music and Dance

Traditional Music: Traditional music known as ngoma

remains popular throughout the country. Drums are the main 

instrument and are often accompanied by others such as bells, 

rattles, xylophones, whistles, and tambourines. Choral singing 

and the Tanzanian marimba, a percussion instrument played 

by stroking metal strips with the thumb, are also common 

accompaniments.

Traditional Dance: In addition to musical components, ngoma 

involves an accompanying dance of the same name which is 

designed to complement its drum music. Many dancers use 

elaborate props such as live snakes during performances of 

ngoma. Other traditional dance forms include the expressive 

and dynamic dances of the Maasai and the masked dances of 

the Makonde and Makua.

Bendingoma Hybrids: The influence of German and British 

soldiers led to the creation of bendingoma, a fusion of 

European brass (bendi) and Tanzanian drums and marimbas 

which is a popular choice for weddings. Modern Tanzanian 

musicians also blend ngoma with choir music, reggae, and 

jazz.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Modern: One of the strongest influences on modern Tanzanian 

music is lingala, a musical tradition which traces its roots to the 

Democratic Republic of the Congo. This influence began when 

Congolese musicians brought rumba and soukous music to 

Tanzania and blended it with the heavy drumbeats of traditional 

Tanzanian music. As exemplified in the work of late Tanzanian

musician Remmy Ongala, 

lingala places a lyrical emphasis 

on themes such as HIV/AIDS, 

hunger, and poverty.

Another style of music popular 

in modern Tanzania is bongo 

flava, which is named for the 

Swahili words bongo, meaning

intelligence or brain, and flava, 

meaning cutting-edge. Growing out of Tanzanian hip-hop of the 

early 1990s, bongo flava blends rap, hip-hop, rhythm and 

blues, traditional African music, and taarab (see “Zanzibari” 

below) into a unique rhythm which is popular throughout East 

Africa.

Zanzibari: Zanzibar has its own unique musical tradition known 

as taarab. Reflecting the influence of Asian and Arab traders, 

taarab uses a variety of instruments, including ngoma drums, 

electric keyboards, the Japanese taishokoto, the Indian tabla, 

and the Middle Eastern oud. Taarab is renowned for its lyrics, 

which resemble Swahili poetry.

Film

Although the Tanzanian film industry has a short history, it has 

expanded since the International Film Festival was first held in 

Zanzibar in 1998. Widely regarded as one of the most 

important events in the Tanzanian arts industry, the festival 

hosts both international and Tanzanian films.

Theater

Tanzanian theater incorporates a variety of performance styles, 

including dance, drama, poetry, and storytelling. The diversity 

of Tanzanian theater reflects a range of African influences, and 

different ethnic groups tend to have their own distinct themes. 

For example, the Sukuma perform the Bugobogobo, or “snake 

dance,” in which a performer feigns a fight with a python before 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
disentangling himself to the rhythm of drumbeats. Prior to the 

colonial era, theater represented a platform for social 

commentary and played a key role in events such as 

marriages, initiation ceremonies, war preparations, and 

religious rituals. In modern Tanzania, non-governmental 

organizations use theater as a medium for public service 

messages about social issues such as HIV/AIDS. 

Literature

Tanzania has a rich and diverse literary tradition in Swahili and 

works by Tanzanian authors include poems, novels, textbooks, 

and historical treatises. Known as the “Father of Swahili,” 

Shaaban bin Robert probably had the greatest impact on 

Tanzanian prose. Other famous Swahili-language writers 

include Shafi Adam Shafi, Ebrahim Hussein, Joseph Mbele, 

and Muhammed Said Abdulla.

Tanzania also has an English-language literary tradition which 

includes well-known authors such as Abdulrazak Gurnah, Peter 

Palangyo, William Kamera, and Tolowa Marti Mollel. Although 

works in indigenous minority languages also have their place in 

Tanzania’s literary canon, they are almost always in oral form.

Arts and Crafts

Tourism generates the most artistic revenue, and as a result, 

the best known Tanzanian arts and crafts are fine works 

designed for tourists and expatriates. These include paintings, 

wood carvings, baskets, and 

decorative items made from 

local materials such as banana 

fibers and coconut shells. 

Painting: The most popular 

painting style in Tanzania is 

called tingatinga. Created in 

the 1950s by Edward Saidi

Tingatinga, a local artist who 

catered to Europeans, tingatinga uses small, brightly colored 

dots to depict natural scenery and local wildlife. The bright

animals and landscapes in tingatinga paintings are often 

placed against a monochrome background and finished with a

glossy seal (Photo: Wall painting in village where artist 

Tingatinga’s father resided, courtesy of Wikimedia). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sculpture: The best known artworks produced in Tanzania are 

probably the masks, figurines, and household objects which the 

Makonde people carve out of ebony. Ujamaa carvings, which 

represent the spirit images, are also popular. In addition, 

Tanzanians practice shetani, a fantastical form of carving 

which lures viewers into considering a work from several 

different angles. Zanzibari artists are well known for their door 

carvings, which merge African and Arab motifs. 

Festivals

In addition to religious holidays, Tanzanians observe traditional 

festivals such as Sauti za Busara, a six-day festival of Swahili 

music and dance, and Mwaka Kogwa, a celebration marking 

the Shirazi Persian (see History and Myth) New Year. Modern 

festivals in Tanzania generally occur during the summer and 

showcase arts both local and international. Some of the most 

prominent include the Bagamoyo Arts Festival, the Festival of 

the Dhow Countries, the Music Crossroads of Southern Africa, 

and the Zanzibar International Film Festival (see “Film”).

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 12: Zanzibar Revolution Day

• March – April (Variable): Good Friday

• March – April (Variable): Easter Monday

• April 7: Heroes Day

• April 26: Union Day

• May 1: Labor Day

• July 7: International Trade Fair Day

• August 8: Farmers Day

• October 14: Mwalimu Julius Nyerere Day

• December 9: Independence and Republic Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

• (Variable): Maulid

• (Variable): Eid al-Fitr

• (Variable): Eid al-Adha

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Customs

Tanzanian dining customs vary by religion and ethnic group, 

although some practices are observed by all Tanzanians. For 

example, Tanzanians typically eat with the right hand (see Time 

and Space) without utensils and always wash their hands before 

meals. 

The most notable variations in Tanzanian dining customs are 

found in the Muslim community. Although many Tanzanians sit 

with one leg under them and the other leg stretched out, Muslims 

sit cross-legged to avoid exposing the sole of the foot (see Time 

and Space). Men and women also dine separately in Muslim 

households.

Hospitality: When Tanzanians receive a guest in their home, 

they typically serve food prior to socializing which may include 

meat if the host family can afford it. Tanzanians do not consider 

it rude for guests to leave a small amount of food on their plate, 

as this is a sign of satisfaction. 

Traditional Diet

The original Tanzanian diet largely 

consisted of millet (pictured), 

sorghum, fish, fruit, and vegetables. 

Contact with Arab traders near the end 

of the first millennium led to the 

introduction of citrus fruit and the rice 

dishes known as pilau and biryani. 

Hundreds of years later, the 

Portuguese brought cassava (a starchy root) and peanuts, while

the British introduced tea and boiled vegetables.

Typical Meals: Tanzanians usually begin the day with a small 

breakfast which typically consists of chai (tea) and mandazi

(fried bread) or chapati (flatbread). Kahawa (coffee), biscuits, 

sweet rolls, buttermilk, and chicken broth are also sometimes 

included. Lunch is the main meal of the day and nearly always 

includes ugali, a thick porridge made from corn, cassava, millet, 

or sorghum. Side dishes served with ugali include slices of 

pumpkin or sweet potatoes, beans, and leafy greens.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Meat: Chicken, lamb, and goat are all popular in Tanzania, 

although many households cannot afford meat regularly. 

Instead, sheep, cattle, and goats are kept as a source of milk or

a symbol of wealth (see Economics and Resources) and are 

slaughtered only for special occasions. When Tanzanians do eat 

meat, they particularly enjoy preparations such as nyama 

choma (grilled meat) and ndafu (roasted young goat).

Dessert and Snacks: Dessert most often consists of fresh fruits 

such as mangos, guavas, pineapples, oranges, and jackfruits. 

Tanzanians also enjoy cakes made from potato or honey. 

Popular snack foods include chargrilled corn on the cob, fried 

plantains, fried sweet potatoes, dried fish, peanuts, and popcorn. 

Meat kebabs rubbed with hot peppers, salt, and lime juice are 

popular fare in Tanzanian beer bars.

Special Occasions: Tanzanians consider it disgraceful for a 

guest to leave hungry, especially from a special occasion. 

Consequently, the typical Tanzanian banquet may include a fullcourse meal consisting of pilau, potatoes, and a main dish of 

chicken, meat, or seafood in overabundance. Alcohol also plays 

a central role at many special occasions except among the more 

fundamentalist Muslims whose religious beliefs prohibit alcohol 

consumption. 

Beverages

The most popular beverage in Tanzania is 

tea, which residents drink throughout the day 

in a variety of contexts. Coffee is also 

popular, especially when served in the 

evening with a side of kashata (rolls made 

with coconut or peanuts) (Photo: Tanzanian 

farmers processing coffee beans for specialty 

roasters). 

As noted above, non-Muslims enjoy a variety 

of alcoholic drinks including both spirits and 

beer. Tanzanians who live along the coast 

drink a spirit known both as mnazi and tembo, while residents 

of the Kilimanjaro region prefer mbege. Tanzanians from all 

corners enjoy konyagi, a spirit similar to gin. The most popular 

beers are lagers including Kilimanjaro, Safari, and Serengeti

brands. Tanzanians also enjoy banana wine.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional Medicine

The traditional view of health and disease in Tanzania differs 

sharply from that of modern medicine. Health is seen as a state 

of spiritual harmony, and disease is believed to result from any 

disruption, either physical or non-physical, of that harmony. As a 

consequence of this traditional view, a number of Tanzanians 

still believe that the only way to cure disease is to restore spiritual 

harmony. Healers traditionally perform this task, using herbal 

medicine, acts of reconciliation, and magic to heal the physical 

causes of illness and pacify ancestral spirits (see Religion and 

Spirituality). 

Because they are trusted, inexpensive, and easily accessible, 

traditional healers remain the primary source of medical care for 

most Tanzanians who do not have access to modern healthcare.

The Tanzanian Ministry of Health has been working with 

international organizations since the 1970s to investigate the 

scientific soundness of traditional medicine and to provide 

traditional healers with better training.

Modern Healthcare System

After independence, Tanzania’s government prohibited the 

formation of new for-profit health care services. By 1980 all 

remaining private facilities had been nationalized, and medical 

care was delivered as free or subsidized services through a 

network of clinics and hospitals. Declining standards of care and 

a shortage of healthcare workers led the 

government to allow private services 

again in the 1990s (Photo: Hospital room 

at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Center in 

Moshi, Tanzania). 

In 2000 there were 171 hospitals in 

Tanzania, and nearly half (47%) were run 

by the government. Another 40% were 

run by religious or volunteer 

organizations, and the remaining 13% 

were run by private companies. Tanzania 

also had 479 health centers, of which 85% were run by the

government. Although there is a nearly equal distribution of 

health facilities between urban and rural areas, rural residents 

have very limited access to dental services, as more than 90% 

of all dentists are located in urban areas. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
The Tanzanian healthcare system is organized at different 

levels. At the lowest level, a village health post or clinic is 

typically staffed by two community members who have some 

limited training and provide instruction to villagers on the 

prevention of disease and promotion of health. Such health 

posts usually do not have in–patient or diagnostic facilities, but 

have been very successful in performing Tanzania’s childhood 

vaccination programs. 

At the next level, dispensaries typically service 6,000 to 10,000 

people and are staffed by a nurse and assistant, midwife, a 

woman’s and children’s health aide, and laboratory assistant. 

Dispensaries may be able to perform basic laboratory tests.

Some in-patient services may be available at the next level, the 

health center, which is staffed by a medical officer, roughly 

equivalent to a physician’s assistant, in addition to a midwife and 

nurse. Such health centers may 

also have an ambulance, and 

each is intended to serve about 

50,000 people.

Full hospital services are 

available only at the district 

level, where a district health 

officer oversees several 

physicians, midwives, nurses 

and assistants, pharmaceutical 

and laboratory technicians, and

perhaps a public health nurse. 

District hospitals are usually 

public institutions, although in those areas that lack public 

facilities, the government may fund a hospital run by an NGO.

Specialist services such as pediatrics, obstetrics, and 

gynecology are only available at Tanzania’s four regional 

hospitals.

The Tanzanian healthcare system currently faces a shortage of 

healthcare professionals, especially doctors. In 2012 Tanzania 

had 3 doctors per 100,000 residents, a ratio which falls far short 

of the World Health Organization’s recommendation of 20 

doctors per 100,000 residents.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Tanzania faces a variety of

health challenges, the most 

significant of which are 

HIV/AIDS, malaria, other 

infectious diseases, and 

malnutrition. Because of 

these conditions and many 

other factors, Tanzanians 

have a life expectancy at 

birth of just under 61.7 years – almost 20 years less than the 

average American.

HIV/AIDS: The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania stands at 

5.3% among adults age 15-49, 12th highest in the world, and the 

total number of Tanzanians living with HIV/AIDS is estimated at 

1.5 million. Although prevalence rates have stabilized and begun 

to decline in recent years, HIV/AIDS remains the leading cause 

of mortality in Tanzania, accounting for 46,100 deaths in 2014. 

Malaria: Accounting for 1% of all deaths in 2014, malaria is the 

most common reason that Tanzanians seek medical care. 

Malaria takes a heavy economic toll by reducing worker 

productivity and increasing 

healthcare costs. Malaria accounts 

for roughly 30% of the national 

disease burden.

Other Challenges: Usually 

attributed to poor sanitation and a 

lack of clean drinking water, diseases 

such as meningitis, pneumonia, 

diarrhea, and tuberculosis (TB) are 

common in both Tanzania and Africa 

as a whole. TB is an especially 

pressing challenge for Tanzania, 

which has infection rates nearly 

double those of other high burden 

countries. Malnutrition is also a major problem, especially for 

children and pregnant women. About 10% of Tanzanian adults 

are underweight, compared to 1.8% in the US, and the National 

Nutrition Survey estimates that lack of nutrition has stunted 

growth in 35% of Tanzanian children.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

In order to achieve the vision of “African socialism” articulated in 

the Arusha Declaration of 1967 (see History and Myth), the 

Tanzanian government in the late 1960s imposed controls on 

the economy. These measures included the creation of over 400

state-owned enterprises, the nationalization of banks and 

insurance companies, and villagization - a policy forcing many to 

live in collective farming villages (see History and Myth).

By the mid-1980s it was clear these policies were failing: living 

standards had declined and there were severe shortages of 

goods and services in the national economy. Consequently, 

President Ali Hassan Mwinyi began to liberalize the Tanzanian 

economy by introducing an economic 

recovery program with the sponsorship of 

the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The IMF program initially caused 

widespread economic hardship (see 

History and Myth), yet it demonstrated 

Tanzania’s commitment to sound

economic management and thereby 

allowed the country to attract greater 

levels of private investment and foreign 

aid. Although Tanzania remains one of the 

poorest countries in the world, its economy grew by an average 

of 6.8% per year during the first decade of the 21st century

(Photo: Kariakoo Market in Dar es Salaam). 

Foreign Aid

Although Tanzania’s economic situation has improved in recent 

years, the government still depends upon foreign aid for 30% of 

its budget. In addition to this type of budget support, Tanzania 

has benefited greatly from debt forgiveness programs. After debt 

relief from the World Bank, the African Development Bank, and 

the IMF; Tanzania’s national debt now stands at 37% of GDP, a 

relatively sustainable level. The IMF, the World Bank, and other 

bilateral donors also have provided grants to improve Tanzania’s 

infrastructure (see Technology and Material).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES
Services

Accounting for just under half of GDP (47%), services comprise

the largest sector of Tanzania’s economy. The most important 

sub-sectors are trade and repairs; real estate and business 

services; public administration; and transportation. These subsectors account for over half the output of the services sector.

Agriculture

Most Tanzanians rely upon agriculture for their livelihood, and 

most farming is conducted by very small enterprises: about 2/3 

of Tanzania’s cultivated land belongs to individuals who own 

12.4 acres of land or less. Many of these small plots are 

subsistence farms which produce few crops for market. 

Consequently, although the 

agriculture sector employs about 

80% of the workforce, it only 

contributes about 27% of GDP. 

Nevertheless, agriculture is a 

significant source of export 

earnings. Major cash crops 

include coffee, cotton, cloves, 

cashews, tea, tobacco, sisal (a 

plant yielding a stiff fiber used in making twine and rope), 

sugarcane, and pyrethrum (an insecticide made from

chrysanthemums), while food crops include millet, sorghum, 

lentils, rice, and corn. 

In addition to crops, fishing and livestock are important sources 

of agricultural revenue. Fishing is particularly lucrative, given 

Tanzania’s long coastline and many inland lakes. Commonly 

caught species include dagaas (a type of sardine), Nile perch, 

and tilapia. Tanzania also raises large numbers of cattle, goats, 

and sheep. 

Land Act

Tanzania’s 1999 Land Act was intended to decentralize land 

administration and encourage land registration by empowering 

local village governments to recognize existing rights and issue 

land titles. Slow and uneven implementation has been

complicated further by situations in which communal ownership 

and management is preferred, such as among some pastoralist 

groups seeking grazing rights. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

Contributing 26% of GDP, industry is the smallest primary sector 

of Tanzania’s economy. Most industrial activity is concentrated 

in the manufacturing and construction sub-sectors. 

Manufacturers in Tanzania tend to be small- or medium-sized 

enterprises which specialize in food-processing. In addition, 

some large factories produce building materials; such as 

corrugated iron, rolled steel, and cement, or import commodities, 

such as bottled beverages and cigarettes.

Mining: Although mining still accounts for only a small portion of 

GDP (3.6%), the sub-sector has grown swiftly in recent years as 

the government has attempted to lure foreign investment by 

allowing greater access to the country’s natural resources. 

Tanzania is now Africa’s third-largest gold exporter, and gold 

comprises the bulk of Tanzania’s export earnings. Tanzania also 

has significant reserves of diamonds, nickel, and iron ore.

Tourism

Involving all three broad economic sectors (agriculture, industry, 

and services), tourism is estimated to comprise about 15% of 

GDP. Tanzania is popular among tourists because it has a 

variety of natural attractions, from safari destinations in the 

northern mainland, such as Ngorongoro Crater and Mount 

Kilimanjaro, to beach getaways on the coast and islands. Partly 

due to targeted marketing campaigns by the Tanzanian tourism 

authorities, Tanzania is particularly popular among tourists from 

Italy, the UK, and the USA.

Money

The currency of Tanzania is the 

Tanzanian shilling (TSh), which is 

subdivided into 100 cents. The 

shilling is issued in 5 banknotes 

(TSh 200, 500, 1,000, 5,000, 

10,000) and three coins (TSh 50, 

100, 200). Due to high inflation in 

Tanzania, the exchange rate 

between the shilling and the US 

dollar fluctuates significantly. As a 

general guide, $1 has been worth anywhere from TSh 1,572-

2,039 over the last 5 years. Although the Bank of Tanzania 

managed to keep inflation at moderate levels during the early 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
part of the 2000s, an increase in food prices in 2008 pushed 

inflation into double digits. 

Cash: Although credit cards are accepted at some exclusive

shops, hotels, and restaurants in major cities like Arusha, Dar es 

Salaam, and Mwanza; cash is used for the vast majority of 

transactions in Tanzania. Because it can be difficult to obtain

change for large denomination banknotes, foreign nationals are 

advised to carry a variety of smaller banknotes.

Foreign Trade and Investment

Tanzania’s imports, which amounted to $10.5 billion in 2014, 

primarily consist of consumer goods, machinery, industrial raw 

materials, crude oil, and transportation equipment purchased 

from China (27.6%) and India (24.5%). Tanzania’s exports, 

which totaled $5.319 billion in 2014, mainly comprise agricultural 

products (see “Agriculture”) and manufactured goods sold to

India (21%), China (9.9%), Japan (5.3%), and Germany (4.7%). 

In recent years the Tanzanian government has tried to attract 

foreign investment by addressing hurdles identified by potential 

investors in the past, including Tanzania’s weak justice system 

and complicated bureaucracy. The government has revised the 

tax code, allowed foreign banks to operate, and loosened 

currency rules, although 

concerns about corruption 

and Tanzania’s weak 

infrastructure continue to 

restrain foreign investment.

Standards of Wealth

Cattle have long been 

considered as a medium of 

exchange and a symbol of 

wealth and status. For example, the Sukuma traditionally 

describe their net worth in terms of cattle, even when their wealth 

is stored in some other type of asset.

Perceptions of wealth and power, just like many other aspects of 

Tanzanian society, have shifted in response to urbanization and 

modernity. Especially in cities, social status is now based on 

education and monetary wealth. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Tanzania’s transportation and communication infrastructure is

comparatively small by global standards, although it is 

expanding rapidly. Rural Tanzania continues to lag behind urban 

Tanzania in technological advancement.

Transportation

Vehicles: Although Tanzanians have 

purchased vehicles in greater 

numbers in recent years, Tanzania 

still has only a small number of 

vehicles relative to its population, with 

just 73 vehicles per 1,000 people. This 

low rate of vehicle ownership, 

combined with a concentration of 

vehicles in urban areas, leaves many 

rural Tanzanians remote and isolated 

and contributes to persistent rural 

poverty. Despite this deficient in

vehicle ownership, Tanzania has a high number of traffic deaths 

– over 29 per 100,000 people in 2014, ranking Tanzania number 

21 in the world.

Roadways: Tanzania’s 53,731 miles of roads are the primary 

means of moving both people and freight around the country. 

Major Tanzanian cities such as Arusha, Dodoma, and Dar es 

Salaam are linked to one another and to regional cities by 6,400 

miles of highways, and although Tanzania’s road network fell 

into disrepair during the 1970s and 1980s, many sections are 

now being revitalized with the help of foreign aid.

Railways: The Tanzania Railways Corporation, a state-owned 

company, runs Tanzania’s main rail network, which comprises 

130 stations and 1,690 miles of rail. The main network has two 

lines which run north-south, from port of Tanga to Arusha, and 

east-west, from Dar es Salaam to Lake Tanganyika. Another rail 

network consisting of 53 stations and 1,150 miles of rail links

Tanzania with Zambia and is run by the Tanzania-Zambia 

Railway Authority.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Originally built to help extract the country’s valuable minerals, 

Tanzania’s railways declined as road transportation grew in 

popularity. However, concerns regarding traffic, pollution, and 

road safety have led the government to consider reviving 

Tanzania’s railways as an alternative to road transportation.

Airways: Tanzania has four

international airports located at 

Dar es Salaam, Kilimanjaro, 

Mwanza, and Zanzibar which

provide regular service to cities 

across the Middle East, India, 

Europe, and southeastern 

Africa. In addition to domestic 

carriers such as Air Tanzania 

and Precision Air, foreign carriers including British Airways, Air 

France, Egyptair, Emirates, Swiss Air, and KLM serve

Tanzanian airports. Tanzania also has 22 regional airports 

distributed across the country which provide service for visitors 

to Tanzania’s many tourist destinations (Photo: Air Tanzania 

Boeing 767, courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Ports: In addition to major ports at Mtwara, Tanga, and Dar es 

Salaam, Tanzania has seven minor ports at Zanzibar, Pangani, 

Bagamoyo, Mafia, Kilwa, Lindi, and Mikindani. All 10 ports are 

used to export resources such as oil, minerals, and crops. The 

major ports also import goods such as vehicles and construction 

materials. With the support of regional rail networks and inland 

container depots, Tanzania’s ports serve not just Tanzania but 

also other East African countries, including Malawi, Zambia, 

Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the 

Congo.

Energy

Most of Tanzania’s electricity is generated and distributed by the 

state-owned Tanzania Electricity Supply Company, which 

primarily relies upon hydropower. Tanzania is also a member of 

the Southern African Power Pool, a common grid and market for 

electricity shared by 12 countries. Only 15% of Tanzanians have 

access to electricity, and about 80% of those with access to 

electricity live in urban areas. Backed by US development aid, 

the Irish energy firm ESB International has undertaken a number 

of projects to increase rural electrification. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Although private media have flourished in Tanzania since the 

introduction of multi-party politics in the mid-1990s, the stateowned Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation (TBC) still controls 

major radio and television networks.

Radio: Radio is the most popular form of media in Tanzania. In 

addition to a national radio station run by the TBC, the 

government runs a youth-oriented station known as Parapanda 

Radio Tanzania, and the government of Zanzibar operates 

Voice of Tanzania: Zanzibar. Popular private stations include 

Kiss FM, Radio One, Radio Free Africa, and Radio Uhuru. 

Television: Tanzania is home to six major broadcast television 

stations. Private networks such as Coastal Television Network, 

Independent Television, Dar es Salaam Television, and Star TV 

predate public networks, which were not introduced until 2001. 

The major public stations are TBC and TV Zanzibar.

Print Media: The oldest newspaper in Tanzania is the state-run 

Daily News. Other popular English-language periodicals include 

dailies like The Guardian and the Daily Mail and weekly 

publications like the Arusha Times, The Business Times, and 

The Express. The most popular Swahili-language newspapers 

are Nipashe, Uhuru, Alasiri, and Tanzania Daima. 

Telecommunications

Telephones: The number of landlines

subscribers in Tanzania has reached 

150,000. The number of mobile 

subscribers jumped from just over 

100,000 to nearly 32 million, or about 

half the population. One important result 

of this growth in mobile services is that it 

enabled Tanzanian farmers to check

market prices via text messaging.

Internet: An estimated 7.4 million 

Tanzanians, or about 15% of the total population, were internet 

users in 2014. Over half of those users accessed the internet 

through organizations and institutions, while 40% used 

household subscriptions and 5% relied upon Internet cafés. 

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