U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

1999 National

Report Series

Juvenile Justice Bulletin

John J. Wilson, Acting Administrator

MAY 2000

Children as Victims

As the

Nation

moves into

the 21st

century, the

reduction

of juvenile

crime, violence, and

victimization

constitutes one of

the most crucial challenges of the new millennium. To meet that

challenge, reliable information is essential. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National

Report offers a comprehensive

overview of these pervasive problems

and the response of the juvenile justice

system. The National Report brings

together statistics from a variety of sources

on a wide array of topics, presenting the

information in clear, nontechnical text

enhanced by more than 350 easy-to-read

tables, graphs, and maps.

This Bulletin series is designed to give readers

quick, focused access to some of the most critical

findings from the wealth of data in the National Report.

Each Bulletin in the series highlights selected themes

at the forefront of juvenile justice policymaking and

extracts relevant National Report sections (including

selected graphs and tables).

Administrator’s Message

When we hear the term “juvenile crime” or “youth

violence,” we tend to think of juveniles primarily as

offenders, not victims. This Bulletin, derived from

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report,

documents the impact of crime on society’s most

vulnerable victims—children.

Although the U.S. violent crime rate has decreased

since 1994, homicide remains a leading cause of death

for young people. In 1997 (the most recent year for

which data were available for the Report), an average

of six juveniles were murdered every day. Between

1980 and 1997, three of four murdered juveniles age

12 or older were killed with a firearm.

Juveniles are twice as likely as adults to be victims of

serious violent crime and three times as likely to be

victims of assault. Many of these victims are quite

young. Law enforcement data indicate that 1 in 18 victims of violent crime is under age 12. In one-third of

the sexual assaults reported to law enforcement, the

victim is under age 12. In most cases involving serious

violent crime, juvenile victims know the perpetrator,

who is not the stereotypical “stranger,” but a family

member or acquaintance.

In 1996, child protective services received reports on

more than 3 million maltreated children. In 80 percent

of these reported cases, the alleged perpetrator was

the child’s parent. More than 1,000 children died as

the result of maltreatment in 1996. Three in four of

these victims were children under age 4.

Children with a history of maltreatment experience increased risk factors for delinquency. In addition, maltreatment and victimization can damage self-esteem,

demolish families, and destroy futures. The statistics

highlighted in this Bulletin should act as an urgent

call to communities, schools, juvenile justice agencies, courts, families, and others to make combating

crimes against children a priority.

John J. Wilson

Acting Administrator
2 1999 National Report Series

Between 1980 and 1997, nearly 38,000 juveniles

were murdered in the U.S.

The FBI maintains detailed

records on murders in the U.S.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s

(FBI’s) Uniform Crime Reporting

Program asks local law enforcement

agencies to provide detailed information on all homicides. These

Supplementary Homicide Reports

(SHRs) capture information on victim

and offender demographics, the

victim-offender relationship, the

weapon used, and the circumstances

surrounding the crime. The FBI estimates that 91% of all homicides

committed in the U.S. between 1980

and 1997 were reported to the FBI.

The number of murders in 1997

was the lowest since 1971

Estimates from the SHR data show

that murders peaked in 1991 with

24,700 victims, or a rate of nearly 10

murders for every 100,000 persons

living in the U.S. While the number

of murders was high, rates similar

to the 1991 rate were experienced in

other years since 1970 (e.g., 1974,

1979, 1980, 1981).

Between 1991 and 1997, the number

of murders dropped 26%, to 18,200,

or about 7 murders for every

100,000 persons living in the U.S.

The number of murders had not

been this low since 1971, and the

murder rate had not been this low

since 1968.

Murders of juveniles remain high

In the U.S., one of the leading causes

of death for juveniles is homicide. In

1997, the National Center for Health

Statistics listed homicide as the

fourth leading cause of death for

children ages 1 to 4, third for youth

ages 5 to 14, and second for persons

ages 15 to 24.

Homicides of juveniles peaked in 1993 and by 1997 had fallen to

their lowest level in the decade

■ The FBI’s data had no information on the offenders in 25% of juvenile homicides between 1980 and 1997, largely because police did not identify the

offenders.

■ From 1980 through 1997, juvenile offenders were involved in one of every

four juvenile homicides where the offenders were identified.

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports for the years

1980–1997 [machine-readable data files].

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports for the years

1980–1997 [machine-readable data files].

Until their teenage years, boys and girls are equally likely to be

murdered

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

Homicide victims 1980–1997

Males

Females

Age of victim

1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

Juvenile homicide victims

Adult offender only

Juvenile offender involved

Offender unknown
MAY 2000 3

The number of juveniles murdered

peaked in 1993 at 2,900, about 4 murders for every 100,000 persons under

age 18 living in the U.S. By 1997, this

figure had dropped to 2,100, or about

3 murders per 100,000 juveniles. Unlike the pattern of all murders, however, the number of juvenile murders

in 1997 was still substantially above

the levels of the mid-1980’s, when

about 1,600 juveniles were murdered

annually.

In 1997, about six juveniles were

murdered daily

Of all persons murdered in 1997, 11%

were under the age of 18. Of these

2,100 juvenile murder victims in

1997:

■ 33% were under age 6 and 50%

were ages 15 through 17.

■ 30% were female.

■ 47% were black.

■ 56% were killed with a firearm.

■ 40% (among those whose murderers were identified) were killed by

family members, 45% by acquaintances, and 15% by strangers.

The murders of younger and older

juveniles had different characteristics. Compared with youth under

age 12, older juvenile victims in 1997

were more likely to be male (81% vs.

55%) and black (53% vs. 39%). Family

members killed a greater proportion

of younger rather than older juvenile

victims (70% vs. 10%). Offenders with

firearms killed a larger proportion

of older rather than younger juveniles (83% vs. 16%).

The large increase in overall juvenile homicides between 1986 and

1993 and subsequent decline were nearly all due to changes in the

homicide of older juveniles

■ Between 1980 and 1997, the annual number of juvenile females murdered

has not differed substantially from the average of 700 per year.

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports for the years

1980–1997 [machine-readable data files].

In the 1980’s, males accounted for 62% of juvenile homicide

victims; in the 1990’s, this proportion has averaged 71%

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports for the years

1980–1997 [machine-readable data files].

1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

Juvenile homicide victims

Ages 12–17

Ages 0–5

Ages 6–11

1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Juvenile homicide victims

Males

Females
4 1999 National Report Series

A new view of murder

Some relationships can be summarized

in 2-dimensional graphs; other relationships require a more complex picture.

To provide a more comprehensive representation of murders, Michael Maltz proposed using 3-dimensional plots to show

the relationship between the ages of victims and offenders. Such a plot is presented in the surface graph to the right.

The contours of its surface reveal some

attributes of murder in the U.S. The

large central peak shows that most offenders are between ages 18 and 34, as

are their victims. The smaller peak off

to the left shows that many very young

children are killed by persons in their

twenties and thirties—mostly incidents

of infants being killed by their parents.

There is an area between the two peaks

in which very few murders occur (victim

ages 4 to 12). The diagonal ridge running from the top of the central peak

to the lower right-hand corner shows

that adult offenders tend to kill victims in

their own age group. The ridge running

along the line of 20-year-old offenders shows that older juveniles and young

adults kill victims in a wide age range.

One difficulty with the 3-dimensional

representation is reading the coordinates

of various features, due to the distortion

caused by representing three dimensions

in a 2-dimensional space. Another representation of the same murder data is a

2-dimensional plot that uses color to represent the number of murders in each

victim-offender age pair.

Representing complex data visually can

help a reader grasp the complex interrelationships often lost in more traditional

data presentations.

■ At the point of greatest risk (the top of the highest peak), are 19- and 20-year-olds killing 19- and 20-year-olds.

Note: The age of the oldest offender is used in multiple-offender homicides. In this Bulletin, the 2-dimensional graphs use gradations of two

colors; for full-color graphs, see pages 22 and 23 of Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report.

The landscape of murder shows peaks for young adults

killed by young adults and for infants killed by adults

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports for the years 1980–1997 [machine-readable data files].

Homicide victims,

1980–1997

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1,100

1,000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Age of victim

Age of offender

Number of homicides

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Age of victim

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

1,100

Age of offender Number of

homicides
MAY 2000 5

Females are at greatest risk of murder in their first year of life and in their young adult years

While the numbers of infant males and females murdered are similar, the risk of murder for males in

young adulthood far surpasses that for young adult females

Note: The age of the oldest offender is used in multipleoffender homicides. In this Bulletin, the 2-dimensional graphs

use gradations of two colors; for full-color graphs, see pages 22

and 23 of Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report.

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide

Reports for the years 1980–1997 [machine-readable data files].

Female homicide

victims, 1980–1997

Male homicide

victims, 1980–1997

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Number of homicides

Age of victim

Age of offender

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1,000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Number of homicides

Age of victim

Age of offender

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Age of victim

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

Age of offender Number of

homicides

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Age of victim

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Age of offender Number of

homicides
6 1999 National Report Series

Juveniles ages 12–17 are as likely to be victims of

serious violence as are young adults ages 18–24

Juveniles and young adults have

the greatest risk of victimization

The National Crime Victimization

Survey (NCVS) asks individuals

whether they have been the victim

of a crime, and from their responses

generates victimization rates for

various demographic groups. These

rates reflect the number of victimizations reported per equivalent-size

population units (e.g., aggravated

assault victimizations per 1,000

persons ages 12–17).

In 1995 and 1996, victimization rates

for serious violent crimes (i.e., rape,

robbery, aggravated assault) varied

substantially across age groups. Senior citizens had much lower victimization rates than young adults ages

18–24. In fact, within the adult population, these young adults had the

highest victimization rates for rape,

robbery, and aggravated assault.

The serious violent crime victimization rates for juveniles were roughly

equivalent to those for young adults,

while the simple assault victimization rate for juveniles was triple that

for young adults. Overall, juveniles

were at greater risk of violent victimizations in 1995 and 1996 than even

the most victimized age group of

adults.

Juvenile victims are likely to

know their offender

In 1996, juveniles ages 12–17 who

were the victims of a serious violent

crime knew their offenders in 64% of

these victimizations: 18% of victimizations involved an acquaintance,

34% a friend, and 11% a relative. In

the other 36% of victimizations, the

offender was a stranger. The offender was more likely to be known

to the juvenile victim in simple and

Juveniles were twice as likely as adults to be victims of serious violent

crime and three times as likely to be victims of simple assault

Victimizations per 1,000 persons in age group, 1995 and 1996*

Adult ages

Juvenile ages 35 &

Crime type All ages Total 12–14 15–17 Total 18–24 25–34 older

Serious violent 14 26 24 29 13 29 18 7

 Rape 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 <1

 Robbery 5 9 9 9 4 9 7 3

 Aggravated assault 8 16 14 18 7 17 10 4

Simple assault 26 65 73 56 22 50 32 13

Property 131 149 151 146 129 189 163 106

■ Younger juveniles ages 12–14 were more likely than older juveniles to be victims of a simple assault (73 per 1,000 vs. 56 per 1,000).

■ The property crime victimization rate for juveniles was greater than the adult

victimization rate.

* Two years of data were combined to increase the stability of rates.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Source: Authors’ analysis of data for the years 1995 and 1996 from the Bureau of Justice

Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey [machine-readable data files].

The serious violent victimization rate for juveniles ages 12–17

increased from 1985 to 1993 and then dropped substantially

■ The peak year for the simple assault victimization rate was 1992; by 1996,

the rate had declined to the lowest point in the decade.

■ Victimization rates were consistently higher for male juveniles than female

juveniles between 1980 and 1996. The average difference between male

and female rates during this period was greater for serious violent crime than

for simple assaults (139% vs. 74%).

Source: Authors’ analysis of data for the years 1980–1996 from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey [machine-readable data files].

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Victimizations per 1,000 juveniles ages 12–17

Simple assault

Serious violence
MAY 2000 7

aggravated assaults (73% and 70%,

respectively) than in robberies

(45%).

Victim- Percent of victimizations

offender Aggrav. Simple

relationship Robbery assault assault

Total 100% 100% 100%

Stranger 55 30 27

Acquaintance 9 21 33

Friend 30 37 33

Relative 6 12 7

Most serious violent juvenile victimizations (60%) involved only a single

offender. Multiple offenders were

more likely in juvenile robberies

(46%) and aggravated assaults

(41%) than in simple assaults (22%).

Juveniles were injured in 74% of serious violent victimizations. Juveniles were more likely to be injured

as the result of a robbery (61%) or

aggravated assault (80%) than a

simple assault (45%).

Most victimizations of juveniles

are not reported to police

In 1996, about half (48%) of the serious violent victimizations of juveniles were not reported to police or

any other authority (e.g., teachers,

school principals). Victims reported

33% of serious violent victimizations

directly to police; victims reported

19% to some other authority, and

about one-third of these incidents

were subsequently reported to law

enforcement. Therefore, law enforcement eventually learned of

about 4 of every 10 serious violent

juvenile victimizations, including

about 25% of simple assaults, 40% of

aggravated assaults, and 44% of robberies. Juvenile victims in 36% of

robberies, 50% of aggravated assaults, and 52% of simple assaults

never reported the incident to either police or other officials.

Percent of victimizations

Reporting Aggrav. Simple

status Robbery Assault Assault

Total 100% 100% 100%

To police 44 40 25

By victim 36 34 20

 By other

authorities 7 6 5

To nonpolice

 authorities 20 10 23

To no one 36 50 52

Much of what is known about

the victimization of juveniles

comes from NCVS

The Bureau of Justice Statistics

(BJS) conducts the National Crime

Victimization Survey (NCVS). With

funds from BJS, the Bureau of the

Census contacts a large nationally

representative sample of households and asks their occupants to

describe the personal crimes they

have experienced.

The personal crimes described in the

National Report include serious violent crime (i.e., rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and simple assault.

With all its strengths, NCVS has limitations in describing the extent of juvenile victimizations. NCVS does not

capture information from, or about,

victims below age 12. Designers of

the survey believe that younger respondents are not able to provide

the information requested. Therefore,

juvenile victimizations reported by

NCVS cover only those that involve

older juveniles. In addition, as with

any self-report survey, NCVS has

limited ability to address the sensitive issues of intrafamily violence

and child abuse.

Some official data sources (such as

law enforcement and child protective

service agencies) can provide a partial picture of crime against juveniles,

but such data from such agencies

are limited to those incidents made

known to them.

In 1995 and 1996, victims were ages 12–17 in 1 in 5 serious violent

crime victimizations

Proportion of victimizations in 1995 and 1996

Juveniles

Ages Ages

Crime type Total 12–14 15–17 Adults

Serious violent 20% 9% 11% 80%

Rape 22 6 16 78

Robbery 19 10 9 81

Aggravated assault 21 9 12 79

Simple assault 26 15 11 74

Property 12 6 6 88

Note: Two years of data (1995 and 1996) were combined to increase the stability of rates.

Source: Authors’ analysis of data for the years 1995 and 1996 from the Bureau of Justice

Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey [machine-readable data files].
8 1999 National Report Series

Violent victimizations were

more likely among American

Indian juveniles than other

racial groups

■ Between 1992 and 1996, the average annual number of violent

victimizations per 1,000 youth

ages 12–17 was higher among

American Indians (171) than

whites (118), blacks (115), or

Asians (60). In fact, within each

age group, American Indians

were more likely than were persons of other races to be the

victims of violent crime.

Source: Authors’ adaptation of the

Bureau of Justice Statistics’ American

Indians and crime.

In 1996, about half (48%) of serious violent juvenile victimizations

occurred between noon and 6 p.m.

Percent of juvenile victimizations

Victimization 6 a.m.– Noon– 6 p.m.– Midnight–

characteristics Noon 6 p.m. Midnight 6 a.m.

Serious violence 10% 48% 34% 8%

Rape 9 32 21 38

Robbery 14 51 32 4

Aggravated assault 7 49 37 6

Male 9 51 34 5

Female 10 42 34 13

White 9 50 34 7

Black 11 50 33 7

City 12 47 33 9

Suburban 5 55 34 6

Rural 17 34 39 9

Simple assault 21% 59% 18% 2%

Male 22 58 18 2

Female 18 60 19 2

White 21 61 16 2

Black 20 43 35 2

City 24 54 20 2

Suburban 19 64 15 2

Rural 21 50 25 3

■ More than one-third (38%) of rapes occurred between midnight and 6 a.m., a

proportion higher than any other violent crime for that time period. As a result, the time patterns for serious violent victimizations overall differed slightly

for males and females.

■ Time patterns for serious violent victimizations were similar for white juveniles and black juveniles, with half of all these victimizations occurring between noon and 6 p.m. In contrast, a greater proportion of simple assaults of

black juveniles occurred during the evening hours.

■ Compared with cities and rural areas, suburban areas had the greatest proportion of violent juvenile victimizations occurring in the hours between noon

and 6 p.m.

Note: Detail may not total 100% because of rounding.

Source: Authors’ analysis of data for 1996 from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National

Crime Victimization Survey [machine-readable data file].

55 or 

older

45–54

35–44

25–34

18–24

12–17

0 50 100 150 200 250

Indian

White

Black

Asian

Age

1,000 persons in age group

Violent victimizations per
MAY 2000 9

In one-third of all sexual assaults reported to law

enforcement, the victim was younger than age 12

Incident-based data provide

information on crimes against

persons under age 12

Because the National Crime Victimization Survey does not interview

persons below the age of 12, little is

known about crimes against these

young juveniles. In recent years,

however, a new information resource has developed that can shed

light on this little-known portion of

the crime problem. The FBI’s National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) collects detailed data

on crimes reported to law enforcement, including the demographic

characteristics of victims and offenders, the relationships of victims

to their offenders, and the location

of the crimes. NIBRS data for 1991

through 1996 included data from 12

States: Alabama, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Dakota, South Carolina,

Utah, Virginia, and Vermont. While

relatively few law enforcement agencies report NIBRS data, the data reported for 1991 through 1996 contain information on more than 1.1

million incidents of violence.

1 in 18 victims of a violent crime

known to police is under age 12

NIBRS data indicate that between

1991 and 1996, young juveniles (persons under the age of 12) were the

victim in 5.5% of all violent crime incidents reported to a law enforcement agency. Young juvenile victims

were more common in some types

of crimes than others: kidnaping

(21%), sexual assault (32%), robbery

(2%), aggravated assault (4%), and

simple assault (4%). More than onethird (37%) of these young victims

were younger than age 7. About half

(47%) of these young victims were

female.

Young juveniles are most likely to be sexually assaulted by

persons under age 18—older juveniles by young adults

Age and relationship characteristics of sexual assault offenders

vary with the age of the juvenile victim

Relationship Age of offender

to victim Under 12 12–17 18–24 25–34 35 & older

In a typical 1,000 sexual assaults of children age 6 or younger

Family member 40 126 71 136 125

Acquaintance 93 159 61 77 84

Stranger 3 8 5 7 6

In a typical 1,000 sexual assaults of young juveniles ages 7–11

Family member 16 117 42 109 157

Acquaintance 46 148 68 100 148

Stranger 4 11 7 10 15

In a typical 1,000 sexual assaults of juveniles ages 12–17

Family member 1 26 31 56 121

Acquaintance 5 196 270 122 101

Stranger 0 15 23 19 14

■ Older juvenile acquaintances and family members age 25 and older were the

most common offenders in sexual assaults against very young children.

■ About half of offenders who sexually assaulted juveniles ages 7–11 were older

juvenile acquaintances and family members/acquaintances age 35 and older.

■ Nearly half of all offenders who sexually assaulted juveniles ages 12–17

were acquaintances between ages 12 and 24.

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s National Incident-Based Reporting System master

files for the years 1991–1996 [machine-readable data files].

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s National Incident-Based Reporting System master

files for the years 1991–1996 [machine-readable data files].

6 or younger 7–11 12–17 18–24 25 or older

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

17 or younger 18–24 25–34 35 or older

Offender age

Victim age

Percent of all sexual assault offenders
10 1999 National Report Series

6AM 9AM 12PM 3PM 6PM 9PM 12AM 3AM 6AM

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

9%

Ages 0–11

Ages 18 and older

Ages 12–17

Percent of all sexual assaults in victim age group

Sexual assaults of juveniles peak at 8 a.m., noon, and 3 p.m.;

assaults of older juveniles also peak in the late evening hours

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s National Incident-Based Reporting System master

files for the years 1991–1996 [machine-readable data files].

1 in 3 victims of sexual assault is

under age 12

The NIBRS data are an important

source of information on the sexual

assaults of young children, a crime

that is hard to assess through victim surveys. These data point to

large differences between the

younger and older victims of sexual

assault. For example, while just 4%

of adult sexual assault victims were

male, as were 8% of victims ages 12

to 17, 26% of sexual assault victims

under age 12 were male. Younger

sexual assault victims were also

far more likely to have juvenile

offenders.

Percent of

sexual assault

Victim victimizations with

age group a juvenile offender

Age 6 and younger 43%

Ages 7–11 34

Ages 12–17 24

Ages 18–24 7

Age 25 and older 5

Crime locations also differed by victim age. For adult victims, 57% of

sexual assaults occurred in a residence or home, compared with 71%

of the sexual assaults against older

juveniles and 84% of the sexual assaults of children under age 12.

The relationship of victim to offender also differed by victim age. In

sexual assaults of adults, the offender was a stranger in 25% of incidents, a family member in 12%, and

an acquaintance in 63%. In contrast,

for victims under age 12, the offender was a family member in 47%

of incidents, an acquaintance in

49%, and a stranger in just 4%.

The location of a sexual assault of a juvenile is related to the type

of offender involved

Offender’s relationship to victim

Location Family member Acquaintance Stranger

In a typical 1,000 sexual assaults of children age 6 or younger

Residence 458 398 19

Nonresidence 36 77 13

In a typical 1,000 sexual assaults of young juveniles ages 7–11

Residence 405 402 22

Nonresidence 33 109 29

In a typical 1,000 sexual assaults of juveniles ages 12–17

Residence 214 474 29

Nonresidence 19 214 49

■ Strangers are least likely to be the offenders in sexual assaults of very young

juveniles, regardless of where the crime occurs.

■ For very young victims of sexual assault, when the crime occurs in a residence, the most likely offender is a family member.

■ Family members are as likely as acquaintances to be the offender in sexual

assaults of juveniles ages 7–11 when the assault occurs in a residence.

■ Sexual assaults of juveniles ages 12–17, regardless of where they occur, are

most likely to be committed by an acquaintance.

Source: Authors’ analyses of the FBI’s National Incident-Based Reporting System master

files for the years 1991–1996 [machine-readable data files].
MAY 2000 11

The likelihood of victims reporting crime to police

varies by victim age and the nature of the incident

Juveniles are less likely to report

violent crimes than adults are

Finkelhor and Ormrod’s analysis of

the National Crime Victimization

Survey for 1995 and 1996 studied

the variations in the proportion of

crime victims reporting to police or

other authorities (e.g., guards,

school principals). The study revealed that adults were more likely

than juveniles to report both completed and attempted violent crime

to some authority regardless of the:

■ Location of the incident.

■ Presence of a weapon.

■ Degree of injury.

■ Age of the perpetrator.

■ Relationship between the victim

and perpetrator.

Their analysis also revealed that

adults and juveniles generally report completed theft offenses to

some authority in equal proportions. Juveniles, however, were

more likely than adults to report

thefts that took place in school and

thefts of less valuable items (i.e.,

items worth less than $250).

Juveniles are more likely to

report some crimes than others

Certain factors increase the likelihood that juveniles will report a

crime to some official:

■ Violent crimes were more likely

to be reported when the incident took place at school rather

than away from school (49% vs.

41%), resulted in injury rather

than did not result in injury

(57% vs. 40%), or involved an

adult rather than a juvenile

perpetrator (51% vs. 42%).

■ The relationship between the

victim and perpetrator or the

presence of a weapon did not influence the probability of a violent incident being reported.

■ Theft offenses were more likely

to be reported by juveniles when

the incident took place at school

than away from school (51% vs.

22%) or involved a stranger

rather than someone known to

the victim (42% vs. 20%). In addition, thefts of items worth more

than $250 were more likely to be

reported than thefts of items

worth less than $250 (49% vs.

38%).

■ The proportion of theft offenses

reported did not vary by the

victim’s sex or by whether the

perpetrator was an adult or

juvenile.

The proportion of violent crimes

reported by juveniles to the

police increased with victim age

Overall, the proportion of violent

crimes reported to any authority

ranged between 42% and 48% for

each age group between 12 and 17,

but the authority to whom the incident was reported varied with the

victim’s age.

Percent of violent

crime reported to

Victim’s age Police Others

12 20% 28%

13 22 23

14 26 17

15 31 13

16 33 9

17 38 6

The youngest victims of violence

(youth ages 12 and 13) were more

likely to report to authorities other

than the police. By age 14, a greater

proportion of violent crimes were

reported to the police (26%) than to

other officials (17%). The increasing

use of police and the corresponding

reduction in use of other authorities

continued through age 17.

Regardless of age, juveniles are

more likely to report thefts to

authorities other than police

Reporting of theft offenses peaked

at 44% for 14-year-old victims and

declined to 31% for 17-year-old victims. While thefts are more likely to

be reported to officials other than

police, the proportion reported to

the police increased with age, from

7% for 12-year-olds to 14% for youth

age 17.

Percent of

theft reported to

Victim’s age Police Others

12 7% 36%

13 8 35

14 12 32

15 11 30

16 10 23

17 14 17
12 1999 National Report Series

Who are runaways, and what

happens when they are away?

In a 1988 national incidence study,

parents or guardians of runaways

who were gone overnight provided

information about the runaways and

their experiences while gone.

Most runaways were teenage girls

(58%); most were 16 or 17 years old

(68%). Most came from families that

were or had been broken; only 28%

lived with both (natural or adoptive) parents.

Most runaways initially stayed with

someone they knew (66%) or did so

at some time during the episode

(94%). Some had spent time in unfamiliar or dangerous situations: 29%

spent at least part of the episode

without a familiar and secure place

to stay, and 11% spent at least one

night without a place to sleep. Many

runaways returned home within a

day or two, but about half (52%)

were gone for 3 days or more, and

25% were gone for a week or more.

For about half of the runaways, the

caretaker knew the child’s whereabouts more than half of the time

the child was away from home.

Many runaways had run away before, with 34% having run away at

least once before in the past 12

months. Some traveled a long distance; approximately 16% went

more than 50 miles from home during the episode, and about 10%

went more than 100 miles.

Who are thrownaways, and what

happens when they are away?

About half of thrownaway children

were runaways whose parents or

guardians made no effort to recover

them, and about half were directly

Caretakers know the whereabouts of many “missing”

children—the problem is recovering them

Parental/family abduction

354,100 children per year

A family member took a child or

failed to return a child at the end of

an agreed-upon visit in violation of a

custody agreement/decree, with the

child away at least overnight.

Stranger/nonfamily abduction

3,200–4,600 children per year

Coerced and unauthorized taking of

a child, or detention, or luring for purposes of committing another crime.

Runaway

450,700 children per year

A child who left home without permission and stayed away at least

overnight or who was already away

and refused to return home.

Thrownaway

127,100 children per year

A child who was told to leave home,

or whose caretaker refused to let

come home when away, or whose

caretaker made no effort to recover

the child when the child ran away, or

who was abandoned.

Otherwise missing

438,200 children per year

Children missing for varying periods

depending on age, disability, and

whether the absence was due to injury.

Some categories of “missing” children are more numerous than

others

The term “missing children” has been used for many years to describe children

involved in very different kinds of events, making it difficult to estimate the magnitude of these phenomena or to formulate appropriate public responses. A 1988

national incidence study sought to measure the “missing child problem” by examining several distinct problems.

Broadly defined: Defined as serious:

163,200 children per year

A family member took the child out of

State or attempted to conceal/ prevent

contact with the child, or abductor intended to keep child or permanently

change custodial privileges.

200–300 children per year

A nonfamily abduction where the abductor was a stranger and the child

was gone overnight, or taken 50 miles

or more, or ransomed, or killed, or the

perpetrator showed intent to keep the

child permanently.

133,500 children per year

A runaway who during a runaway episode was without a secure and familiar place to stay.

59,200 children per year

A thrownaway who during some part

of the episode was without a secure

and familiar place to stay.

139,100 children per year

An otherwise missing child case

where police were called.

Source: Authors’ adaptation of Finkelhor, Hotaling, and Sedlack’s Missing, abducted, runaway, and thrownaway children in America. First report: Numbers and characteristics, national incidence studies.
MAY 2000 13

forced to leave home. Parents of

thrownaway children reported that

most (84%) were 16 years old or

older. The vast majority stayed with

friends at least part of the time

while they were away (88%), although 13% spent at least one night

without a place to sleep. A majority

(68%) returned home within 2

weeks. For about three-quarters of

thrownaway children, the caretaker

knew the child’s whereabouts more

than half of the time the child was

away from home.

Who are abducted children, and

what happens when they are

taken?

Parents of children abducted by a

family member reported that most

of these children were young: 33%

were 2 to 5 years old, and 28% were

6 to 9 years old. Most were returned

within a week: 62% were returned in

6 days or less, and 28% were returned in 24 hours or less. For just

over half of children abducted by a

family member, the caretaker knew

the child’s whereabouts more than

half of the time the child was away

from home.

Many family abductions appeared to

fall into the “serious” category, with

the abducting parent:

■ Preventing the child from contacting the caretaking parent

(41%).

■ Concealing the child (33%).

■ Threatening or demanding something of the caretaking parent

(17%).

■ Taking the child out of State (9%).

Nonfamily abductions were studied

in the records of a national sample

of police departments. In these

cases, three-quarters of the children

were teenage girls, and half were 12

years old or older. Most of the victims were not missing for long: most

were gone for less than 1 day; an estimated 12% to 21% were gone for

less than 1 hour. Nearly all of the

victims were forcibly moved during

the episode: most were taken from

the street; 85% of the cases involved

force (75% with a weapon). Researchers estimated that, of the

200–300 nonfamily abductions that

fell into the “serious” category (stereotypical kidnapings), about 100

resulted in homicides.

Who are other missing children,

and what happens when they are

missing?

Most lost or otherwise missing children tended to fall into one of two

age groups: 4 years old or younger

(47%) or 16 to 17 years old (34%). Of

those incidences where the reason

was known, most (57%) were missing for “benign” reasons (such as

the child’s forgetting the time or

misunderstandings between parents

and children about when the latter

would return or where they would

be). The next largest group (28%) involved children who had been injured while they were away from

home. Nearly all of these children

had returned within 24 hours.
14 1999 National Report Series

In 1993, nearly 3 million children

were maltreated or endangered

The third National Incidence Study

of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–3)

reported information on children

harmed or believed to be harmed by

maltreatment in 1993. Child maltreatment includes physical, sexual,

and emotional abuse, and physical,

emotional, and educational neglect

by a caretaker. Victims of maltreatment may die as the result of abuse

or neglect or may experience serious or moderate harm. A child may

also be in danger of harm as the result of maltreatment, or harm may

be inferred when maltreatment is

sufficiently severe.

NIS–3 included maltreatment reported to researchers not only by

child protective service agencies,

but by other investigatory agencies

(e.g., police, courts, public health

departments) and community institutions (e.g., hospitals, schools,

daycare centers, and social service

agencies). It did not include cases

known only to family members or

neighbors.

Most maltreated children were

neglected in 1993

NIS–3 counts each incident of abuse

or neglect that occurs. A single child

may experience many types of

abuse or neglect. In 1993, 70% of

maltreated children were victims of

neglect, and 43% were victims of

abuse. More specifically:

■ 47% were physically neglected.

■ Almost equal proportions of maltreated children were physically

abused (22%), emotionally neglected (21%), and emotionally

abused (19%).

■ 11% were sexually abused; 14%

were educationally neglected.

The number of children abused, neglected, or

endangered almost doubled from 1986 to 1993

There are several different

types of child maltreatment

Child maltreatment occurs when a

caretaker (a parent or parent substitute, such as a daycare provider) is

responsible for, or permits, the

abuse or neglect of a child. The

maltreatment can result in actual

physical or emotional harm, or it

can place the child in danger of

physical or emotional harm. The following types of maltreatment were

included in NIS–3:

Physical abuse includes physical

acts that caused or could have

caused physical injury to the child.

Sexual abuse is involvement of the

child in sexual activity to provide

sexual gratification or financial benefit to the perpetrator, including contacts for sexual purposes, prostitution, pornography, or other sexually

exploitative activities.

Emotional abuse is defined as acts

(including verbal or emotional assault) or omissions that caused or

could have caused conduct, cognitive, affective, or other mental

disorders.

Physical neglect includes abandonment, expulsion from the home,

failure to seek remedial health care

or delay in seeking care, inadequate supervision, disregard for

hazards in the home, or inadequate

food, clothing, or shelter.

Emotional neglect includes inadequate nurturance or affection,

permitting maladaptive behavior,

and other inattention to emotional/

developmental needs.

Educational neglect includes permitting chronic truancy or other

inattention to educational needs.

More than half of all victims (55%)

experienced serious or moderate

harm as a result of maltreatment

in 1993

Type of harm Percent of victims

All 100.0%

Fatal 0.1

Serious 20.2

Moderate 35.0

Inferred 8.0

Endangered 36.7

Types of maltreatment were

related to the characteristics

of the child

The incidence of maltreatment varied

by sex and age but not by race or

ethnicity:

■ The incidence of sexual abuse

was almost three times greater

among females than males in

1993. In contrast, emotional neglect was more common among

males than females.

■ The incidence of maltreatment increased more among males than

among females between 1986 and

1993 (102% vs. 68%).

■ Between 1986 and 1993, the incidence of maltreatment grew

among all children except those

ages 15–17.

■ Moderate injuries were more frequent among older than younger

children. Age differences were not

found for other levels of injury.

■ The incidence of endangerment

was greater for younger children

(ages 0–11) than older children

(ages 15–17) in 1993.

■ Children ages 0–2 and 15–17 had

the lowest incidence of maltreatment in 1993.
MAY 2000 15

More maltreatment was reported

among lower-income families

Children from families with an annual income of less than $15,000 had

substantially more maltreatment of

all types in 1993 than children from

families in other income groups. The

abuse rate in these lowest-income

families was two times the rate in

other families, and the neglect rate

was more than three times higher.

Children in lowest-income families

had higher injury rates in every injury category except fatalities.

Children of single parents were

at higher risk of maltreatment

The overall risk of maltreatment in

1993 was twice as great for children

living with single parents as for children living with both parents. Compared with children living with both

parents, children living with single

parents were twice as likely to be

neglected and were marginally more

likely to be abused. Children living

with a single parent of either sex experienced a higher incidence of

physical and educational neglect

than those living with both parents

and were marginally more likely to

experience emotional neglect. Children from single-parent homes were

at greater risk of injury and of being

endangered by maltreatment than

those living with both parents.

Maltreatment was related to

family size

■ Children living in larger families

(with four or more children)

were physically neglected almost

three times more often than

those living in one-child families

and more than twice as often as

those living in families with two

or three children.

■ Serious injuries were equally

likely in families of all sizes.

■ Moderate injury was more frequently experienced by maltreated children in larger families

than those in families with either

two or three children. Children

in these largest families also experienced higher rates of

endangerment.

The majority of maltreated

children were victimized by

their birth parents

Birth parents were responsible for

the largest proportion of maltreatment victimizations in 1993 (78%),

followed by other categories of parents (14%) and other perpetrators

(9%). Children victimized by their

birth parents were twice as likely to

experience neglect as abuse. More

specifically, among children victimized by their birth parents:

■ The most common forms of maltreatment involved educational

neglect (29%), physical neglect

(27%), and physical abuse (23%).

■ 16% were victims of emotional

neglect, 14% were victims of

emotional abuse, and 5% were

victims of sexual abuse.

Emotional abuse and neglect increased more than other forms of

maltreatment between 1986 and 1993

Number of victims of maltreatment

Maltreatment type 1986 1993 Percent change

Total 1,424,400 2,815,600 98%

Abuse 590,800 1,221,800 107

Physical 311,500 614,100 97

Sexual 133,600 300,200 125

Emotional 188,100 532,200 183

Neglect 917,200 1,961,300 114

Physical 507,700 1,335,100 163

Emotional 203,000 584,100 188

Educational 284,800 397,300 40*

*Indicates that increase did not reach statistical significance.

Note: Victims were counted more than once when more than one type of abuse or neglect

had occurred.

Source: Authors’ adaptation of the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect’s The third

National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–3).
16 1999 National Report Series

In contrast to children victimized by

their birth parents, those maltreated

by other categories of parents were

almost twice as likely to be abused

as to be neglected. For example:

■ Physical abuse was the most

common form of maltreatment

(37%).

■ One-quarter of these children

were victims of sexual abuse.

■ One-fifth were victims of educational neglect.

■ The least common forms of maltreatment involved physical neglect (9%) and emotional abuse

(13%).

Fatal or serious injury was more

likely for children maltreated by

birth parents than by others

Severity of injury

Fatal or

serious Moderate Inferred Total

All 36% 53% 11% 100%

Birth

parents 41 54 5 100

Other

parents 20 61 19 100

Others 24 30 46 100

Most maltreatment cases were

identified by schools

Because of the large volume of children attending schools, more maltreated children were identified by

schools in 1993 than by all other

community agencies and institutions combined:

Schools 54%

Police/sheriff 10

Hospitals 6

Social services 6

Daycare centers 5

Mental health 3

Juvenile probation 2

Public health 2

All others 12

1 in 3 alleged maltreatment

cases was investigated by child

protective service agencies

Child protective service agencies investigated 33% of the cases known

to community agencies and institutions in 1993. The remaining cases

either were not reported to child

protective service agencies or were

reported but not investigated. The

highest investigation rates occurred

among cases identified by police

and sheriff departments (52%), hospitals (46%), and mental health

agencies (42%). In contrast, the lowest investigation rates occurred

among cases identified by daycare

centers (3%) and public health agencies (4%).

Investigations were more likely

in cases involving abuse than

neglect

Cases in which children were alleged to be physically or sexually

abused were investigated by child

protective services more frequently

than other maltreated children.

Percent

of reports

Maltreatment type investigated

Abuse 39%

Physical 45

Sexual 44

Emotional 28

Neglect 28

Physical 35

Emotional 22

Educational 7
MAY 2000 17

What are child protective

services?

The term “child protective services”

generally refers to services provided by an agency authorized to

act on behalf of a child when parents are unable or unwilling to do

so. In all States, these agencies are

mandated by law to conduct assessments or investigations of reports of

child abuse and neglect and to offer

rehabilitative services to families

where maltreatment has occurred

or is likely to occur.

While the primary responsibility for

responding to reports of child maltreatment rests with State and local

child protective service agencies,

prevention and treatment of abuse

and neglect can involve professionals from many disciplines and organizations. Although variations exist

among jurisdictions, community response to child maltreatment typically includes the following sequence of events:

Identification. Individuals likely to

identify abuse are often those in a

position to observe families and

children on an ongoing basis. This

may include educators, law enforcement personnel, social service personnel, medical professionals, probation officers, daycare workers,

mental health professionals, and the

clergy, in addition to family members, friends, and neighbors.

Reporting. Some individuals, such

as medical and mental health

professionals, educators, childcare

providers, social service providers,

law enforcement personnel, and

clergy, are often required by law to

report suspicions of abuse and neglect. Some States require reporting

by any person having knowledge of

abuse or neglect.

Child protective service or law enforcement agencies usually receive

the initial report of alleged abuse or

neglect, which may include the identity of the child, information about

the nature and extent of maltreatment, and information about the

parent or other person responsible

for the child (caretaker). The initial

report may also contain information

identifying the individual causing

the alleged maltreatment (perpetrator), the setting in which maltreatment occurred, and the person making the report.

Intake and investigation. Protective

service staff are responsible for determining whether the report constitutes an allegation of abuse or neglect and how urgently a response is

needed. The initial investigation involves gathering and analyzing information from and about the child

and family. Protective service agencies may work with law enforcement

and other agencies during this period. Caseworkers generally respond to reports of abuse and neglect within 2 to 3 days. A more

immediate response may be required if it is determined that a

child is at imminent risk of injury

or impairment.

If the intake worker determines that

the referral does not constitute an

allegation of abuse or neglect, the

case may be closed. If there is substantial risk of serious physical or

emotional harm, severe neglect, or

lack of supervision, a child may be

removed from the home under provisions of State law. Most States require that a court hearing be held

shortly after the removal to approve

temporary custody by the child protective service agency. In some

States, removal from the home requires a court order.

Following the initial investigation,

the protective service agency generally concludes one of the following:

(1) sufficient evidence exists to support or substantiate the allegation

of maltreatment or risk of maltreatment; (2) sufficient evidence does

not exist to support maltreatment;

or (3) maltreatment or the risk of

maltreatment is indicated, although

sufficient evidence to conclude or

substantiate the allegation does not

exist. Should sufficient evidence not

exist to support an allegation of maltreatment, additional services may

still be provided if it is believed

there is risk of abuse or neglect in

the future.

Assessment. Protective service staff

attempt to identify the factors that

contributed to the maltreatment

and to address the most critical

treatment needs.

Case planning. Case plans are

developed by protective services,

other treatment providers, and the

family in an attempt to alter the conditions and/or behaviors resulting in

child abuse or neglect.

Treatment. Protective service and

other treatment providers implement a treatment plan for the family.

Evaluation of family progress. After

the treatment plan has been implemented, protective services and

other treatment providers evaluate

and measure changes in family behavior and the conditions that led

to child abuse or neglect, assess

changes in the risk of maltreatment,

and determine when services are no

longer necessary. Case managers often coordinate the information from

several service providers when assessing the case’s progress.

Most abuse and neglect cases enter the child welfare

system through child protective service agencies
18 1999 National Report Series

Case closure. While some cases are

closed because the family resists intervention efforts and the child is

considered to be at low risk of

harm, others are closed when it has

been determined that the risk of

abuse or neglect has been eliminated or sufficiently reduced to a

point where the family can protect

the child from maltreatment without

further intervention.

If it is determined that the family

will not be able to protect the child,

the child may be removed from the

home and placed in foster care. If

the child cannot be returned home

to a protective environment within a

reasonable timeframe, parental

rights may be terminated so that

permanent alternatives for the child

can be found.

One option available to child

protective services is referral to

juvenile court

Substantiated reports of abuse and

neglect do not necessarily lead to

court involvement if the family is

willing to participate in the child

protective agency’s treatment plan.

The agency may, however, file a

complaint in juvenile court if the

child is to be removed from the

home without parental consent

or if the parents are otherwise

uncooperative.

Adjudicatory hearings primarily

focus on the validity of the allegations, while dispositional hearings

address the case plan (e.g., placement, supervision, and services to

be delivered). Typical dispositional

options include treatment and services provided by protective service

agencies, temporary custody

granted to the State child protective

agency, foster care, termination of

parental rights, permanent custody

granted to the State child protective

agency, and legal custody given to a

relative or other person. Both adjudicatory and dispositional hearings

are held within a timeframe specified by State statute.

Although not all abuse and neglect

cases become involved with the

court, the juvenile court is playing

an increasingly significant role in determining case outcomes. The Federal Adoption Assistance and Child

Welfare Act of 1980 (Public Law 96–

272) required greater judicial oversight of the child protective service

agency’s performance. This legislation was passed in an attempt to

keep children from being needlessly

placed in foster care or left in foster

care indefinitely. The goal of this legislation was to enable the child to

have a permanent living arrangement (e.g., return to family, adoption, or placement with other relatives) as soon as possible.

Courts often review decisions to remove children from home during

emergencies, oversee agency efforts

to prevent placements and reunite

families, approve agency case plans

designed to rehabilitate families,

periodically review cases, and decide whether to terminate parental

rights in cases involving children

unable to return home. Courts review case plans of all court-involved

cases prior to implementation and

maintain ongoing involvement until

the child is either returned home or

placed in a permanent, adoptive

home.
MAY 2000 19

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

National Study on Child

Neglect and Abuse Reporting

Annual 50-State Survey

NCANDS

Number of child reports (in thousands)

Child protective service agencies received reports on

more than 3 million maltreated children in 1996

A national data system monitors

the caseloads of child protective

services

The National Center on Child Abuse

and Neglect (NCCAN) annually collects child maltreatment data from

child protective service agencies.

The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) employs both a summary and a caselevel approach to data collection.

Summary data provide national information on a number of key indicators of child abuse and neglect

cases in 1996. Case-level data provide descriptive information on

cases referred to child protective

service agencies during the same

year.

About 1.6 million child abuse

and neglect investigations were

conducted in 1996

Child protective service agencies

conducted investigations on 80% of

the estimated 2 million reports of

child abuse and neglect in 1996. In

35% of these investigations, the allegation was either substantiated (i.e.,

the allegation of maltreatment or

risk of maltreatment was supported

or founded) or indicated (i.e., the allegation could not be substantiated,

but there was reason to suspect the

child was maltreated or was at risk

of maltreatment). More than half

(58%) of all investigations were not

substantiated or indicated. The remaining 7% were closed without a

finding or resulted in another disposition. Detailed data from 11 States

indicated that reports from professionals were more likely than those

from nonprofessionals to be substantiated or indicated (51% vs.

35%).

Most perpetrators were related to

the victim

The 1996 national summary data on

substantiated or indicated maltreatment found the following:

■ 52% of victims were female.

■ 55% of victims were white, 28%

were black, 12% were Hispanic,

and 5% were other races.

■ 19% of victims were age 2 or

younger, 52% were age 7 or

younger, and 7% were age 16 or

older.

■ 80% of perpetrators were parents of the victim.

■ An estimated 1,077 children died

as the result of maltreatment in

1996.

■ About 16% of victims in substantiated or indicated cases were removed from their homes.

Maltreatment reports may involve more than one child—in 1996

over 3 million children were the subjects in 2 million reports

■ Reports of alleged maltreatment increased 161% between 1980 and 1996.

The increasing trend in child maltreatment reports is believed to be the result, at least in part, of a greater willingness to report suspected incidents.

Greater public awareness both of child maltreatment as a social problem and

of the resources available to respond to it are factors that contribute to increased reporting.

Note: Child reports are counts of children who are the subject of reports. Counts are duplicated when an individual child is the subject of more than one report during a year.

Sources: Authors’ analyses of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Child maltreatment: Reports from the States to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System

for the years 1992–1996 and the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect’s National

Child Abuse and Neglect Data System: Working paper 2, 1991 summary data component.
20 1999 National Report Series

Case-level data from States

provide a profile of victims

Detailed information from States reporting case-level data on victims of

substantiated or indicated maltreatment in 1996 found the following:

■ Neglect was the most common

form of maltreatment found

among all age groups (58%).

■ Younger children (under age 8)

were more likely than older children (age 8 and older) to have

been neglected (65% vs. 49%).

■ Older victims were more likely

than younger victims to have

been physically abused (29%

vs. 19%) or sexually abused

(15% vs. 7%).

■ Female victims were three times

more likely than males to have

experienced sexual abuse (16%

vs. 5%) and less likely to have experienced neglect (54% vs. 62%).

■ More than half (56%) of fatalities

were male.

■ White youth were more likely

than black youth to be victims of

Professionals were the most

common source of reports of

abuse and neglect in 1996

Percent

Source of referral of total

Professionals 52%

Educators 16

Social service 12

Law enforcement 13

Medical 11

Family and community 25%

Friends/neighbors 9

Relatives—not parents 10

Parents 6

Other sources 23%

Anonymous 12

Victims 1

Other* 10

*Includes childcare providers, perpetrators, and sources not otherwise

identified.

Source: Authors’ adaptation of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’

Child maltreatment 1996: Reports from

the States to the National Child Abuse

and Neglect Data System.

sexual abuse (13% vs. 7%) and

less likely to be victims of some

form of neglect (58% vs. 70%).

■ Death due to child abuse and neglect was found mostly among

very young children. Three in

four deaths (76%) involved children under age 4.

As the primary provider of childcare, females were the perpetrators

in most maltreatment

Percent of perpetrators

Mixed:

Male only Female only male and female All

Victim age

0–17 22% 54% 24% 100%

Younger than 1 5 70 25 100

1–5 16 58 25 100

6–11 25 52 24 100

12–17 35 42 23 100

Maltreatment type

All 22% 54% 24% 100%

Physical abuse 33 41 26 100

Neglect 10 64 25 100

Medical neglect 5 70 25 100

Sexual abuse 62 9 29 100

Psychological abuse 26 37 37 100

■ In 1996, over one-half (54%) of maltreatment cases involved only female

perpetrators, and about one-quarter (24%) involved both male and female

perpetrators. As a result, at least one female was identified as a perpetrator

in more than 3 in 4 maltreatment cases (78%). In contrast, at least one male

was identified as a perpetrator in about 1 in 2 cases (46%).

■ Male perpetrators were more common in maltreatment cases involving older

victims. For example, at least one male was identified as the perpetrator in

30% of cases involving victims under the age of 1, compared to 58% of

cases involving victims ages 12–17.

■ For most maltreatment types, females were more likely than males to be

identified as a perpetrator. The one exception is sexual abuse. At least one

male was identified in 91% of these reports. In contrast, at least one female

was identified in 38% of cases involving sexual abuse.

Note: Detail may not total 100% because of rounding. The male proportion includes cases

with at least one male perpetrator and no females. The female proportion includes cases

with at least one female perpetrator and no males. The mixed proportion includes cases

with at least one male and one female perpetrator. It should be noted that cases identifying

multiple perpetrators do not imply equal involvement of each perpetrator.

Source: Authors’ analysis of unpublished data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau, on the detailed case component of the National Child

Abuse and Neglect Data System.
MAY 2000 21

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Percent of cases

Male perpetrator

Male and female perpetrators

Age of victim

Female perpetrator

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Percent of cases

Male perpetrator

Female perpetrator

Male and female perpetrators

Age of victim

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Percent of cases

Male perpetrator

Male and female perpetrators

Age of victim

Female perpetrator

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Percent of cases

Male perpetrator

Male and female perpetrators

Age of victim

Female perpetrator

■ In cases of sexual abuse, male-only perpetrators were more common than female-only perpetrators. The majority of

sexual abuse cases involving female perpetrators also involved male perpetrators.

Note: Data are for 1996. The male proportion includes cases with at least one male perpetrator and no females. The female proportion includes cases with at least one female perpetrator and no males. The male and female perpetrators proportion includes cases with at least

one male and one female perpetrator. It should be noted that cases identifying multiple perpetrators do not imply equal involvement of each

perpetrator.

Source: Authors’ analysis of unpublished data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau, on the detailed

case data component of the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System.

Overall, the proportion of maltreatment involving a

female perpetrator generally declined with victim age

The difference in the number of sexual abuse cases involving male perpetrators and the number

involving female perpetrators grew with victim age

Male victims of sexual abuse Female victims of sexual abuse

Females were reported as the perpetrator of physical abuse against younger victims more often than

males—this pattern reverses in cases of older victims

■ Male-only perpetrators were over three times more common than female-only for cases involving 17-year-old male victims of physical abuse. In contrast, male-only perpetrators were only slightly more common than female-only perpetrators

for 17-year-old female victims. The proportion of cases involving both male and female perpetrators was similar among

male and female victims.

Male victims of physical abuse Female victims of physical abuse
22 1999 National Report Series

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Percent of cases

Male perpetrator

Female perpetrator

Male and female perpetrators

Age of victim

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Male perpetrator

Male and female perpetrators

Percent of cases

Female perpetrator

Age of victim

Between 1992 and 1995, child abuse and neglect rates increased

among American Indians and Asians while declining among other

racial/ethnic groups

Number of abuse and

neglect victims per 100,000

children age 14 or younger Percent change

Racial/ethnic group 1992 1995 1992–1995

All children 1,866 1,724 –8%

American Indian 2,830 3,343 18

Asian 454 479 6

White 1,628 1,520 –7

Black 3,560 3,323 –7

Hispanic 1,486 1,254 –16

■ Between 1992 and 1995, growth in reported incidents of abuse and neglect

was three times greater for American Indian children under age 15 than for

Asian children in that age group.

■ In 1995, child victimization rates for American Indian children and black children were at least twice as high as rates for other racial and ethnic groups.

Note: Rates were calculated on the number of children age 14 or younger because this

group accounts for at least 80% of the victims of child abuse and neglect.

Source: Authors’ adaptation of the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ American Indians and crime.

■ Overall, most neglect cases involving a male perpetrator also involved a female.

Note: Data are for 1996. The male proportion includes cases with at least one male perpetrator and no females. The female proportion includes cases with at least one female perpetrator and no males. The male and female perpetrators proportion includes cases with at least

one male and one female perpetrator. It should be noted that cases identifying multiple perpetrators do not imply equal involvement of each

perpetrator.

Source: Authors’ analysis of unpublished data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau, on the detailed

case data component of the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System.

The disparity in male and female perpetrator proportions was greatest in neglect cases

Male victims of neglect Female victims of neglect
MAY 2000 23

Sources

Information for this Bulletin was

taken from chapter 2 of Juvenile

Offenders and Victims: 1999 National

Report. For a full listing of sources for

this chapter, see pages 49–50 of the

National Report.

Resources

Answers to frequently asked questions about juvenile justice statistics

as well as periodic updates of data

presented in Juvenile Offenders and

Victims: 1999 National Report are

available on the Internet in the

OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book, which

can be accessed through the OJJDP

home page at www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org

through the JJ Facts & Figures

prompt.

Also available from OJJDP is the

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999

National Report CD–ROM. With the 

CD–ROM, users can view the full report

in a portable document format (PDF).

The CD–ROM also provides a comprehensive “educator’s kit” that includes

the following: statistical information

from full-page, presentation-ready

graphs (also available for display in

Microsoft Powerpoint); data for the

graphs (also available in Microsoft

Excel spreadsheets); more than 40

source documents in PDF; and links

to government Web sites to obtain

more information.

For information on OJJDP initiatives

related to the reduction of juvenile

crime, violence, and victimization,

contact the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse (JJC) at www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org

or call 800–638–8736.

Points of view or opinions expressed in this

document are those of the authors and do not

necessarily represent the official position or

policies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department of

Justice.

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention is a component of the

Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the

Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National

Institute of Justice, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

Acknowledgments

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999

National Report, from which this

Bulletin is drawn, was prepared by

the National Center for Juvenile

Justice (NCJJ). The authors are

Howard N. Snyder and Melissa

Sickmund. The National Report

benefited from the assistance of

many individuals in addition

to the authors, including staff at

NCJJ, the Office of Juvenile Justice

and Delinquency Prevention, and

the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse.

How To Get Your

Free Copy

Juvenile Offenders and Victims:

1999 National Report is available

online from the OJJDP Web site

(www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org) under the

JJ Facts & Figures section and the

Publications section or can be ordered from OJJDP’s Juvenile Justice

Clearinghouse (hard copy NCJ

178257, CD–ROM NCJ 178991). Send

an e-mail to puborder@ncjrs.org; call

800–638–8736 (select option 2); or

write to the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse, P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD

20849–6000.
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PERMIT NO. G–91

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Bulletin NCJ 180753