U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

Street 

Prostitution 

by 

Michael S. Scott 

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series 

No. 2 

www.cops.usdoj.gov 

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series 

Guide No. 2 

Street Prostitution

Michael S. Scott 

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #99-

CK-WX-K004 by the Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions 

contained herein are those of the author(s) and do not 

necessarily represent the official position of the U.S. 

Department of Justice. 

www.cops.usdoj.gov 

About the Guide Series i 

About the Guide Series 

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge 

about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific 

crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention 

and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to 

investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. The 

guides are written for police–of whatever rank or assignment– 

who must address the specific problem the guides cover. The 

guides will be most useful to officers who 

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and 

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented 

policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to 

focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the 

problem, and means to assess the results of a problemoriented policing project. They are designed to help police 

decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have 

already identified. (An assessment guide has been produced 

as a companion to this series and the COPS Office has also 

published an introductory guide to problem analysis. For 

those who want to learn more about the principles and 

methods of problem-oriented policing, the assessment and 

analysis guides, along with other recommended readings, are 

listed at the back of this guide.) 

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the 

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to 

spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and 

responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before 

responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is 

most likely to work in your community. You should not 

blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must 

decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation. 

What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what 

works in one place may not work everywhere. 
ii Street Prostitution 

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business. 

The guides describe responses that other police 

departments have used or that researchers have tested. 

While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your 

particular problem, they should help give a broader view of 

the kinds of things you could do. You may think you 

cannot implement some of these responses in your 

jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when 

police have discovered a more effective response, they have 

succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving 

the response to the problem. 

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge. 

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is 

available to the police; for other problems, little is available. 

Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing 

research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more 

research on that particular problem. Regardless, research 

has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you 

might have about the problem. The research may help get 

you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot 

tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the 

particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of 

keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant 

research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed 

to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed 

and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of 

each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a 

complete bibliography of research on the subject. 

• Are willing to work with other community agencies to find 

effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot 

implement many of the responses discussed in the guides. 

They must frequently implement them in partnership with 

other responsible private and public entities. An effective 

problem-solver must know how to forge genuine 
About the Guide Series iii 

partnerships with others and be prepared to invest 

considerable effort in making these partnerships work. 

These guides have drawn on research findings and police 

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, 

Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. 

Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from 

country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere 

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming 

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be 

aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders 

of their own countries. 

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide 

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency's 

experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency may 

have effectively addressed a problem using responses not 

considered in these guides and your experiences and 

knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used 

to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and 

share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to 

cops_pub@usdoj.gov. 

Acknowledgments v 

Acknowledgments 

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series is very much a 

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary author, 

other project team members, COPS Office staff and 

anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by 

proposing text, recommending research and offering 

suggestions on matters of format and style. 

The principal project team developing the guide series 

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, University 

of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, professor of 

criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. Eck, associate 

professor of criminal justice, University of Cincinnati; 

Michael S. Scott, police consultant, Savannah, Ga.; Rana 

Sampson, police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm 

Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State 

University. 

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw the 

project for the COPS Office. Megan Tate Murphy 

coordinated the peer reviews for the COPS Office. Suzanne 

Fregly edited the guides. Research for the guides was 

conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers 

University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze by Gisela 

Bichler-Robertson, Rob Guerette and Laura Wyckoff. 

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members of 

the San Diego, National City and Savannah police 

departments who provided feedback on the guides' format 

and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the line 

police officers, police executives and researchers who peer 

reviewed each guide. 

Contents vii 

Contents 

About the Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Factors Contributing to Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Street Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Street Prostitutes' Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Pimps and Panderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Sexual Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Areas Where Street Prostitution Exists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Links Between Street Prostitution and Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Police and Community Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Street Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Street Prostitutes' Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Pimps and Panderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Sexual Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Drug Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Current Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
viii Street Prostitution 

Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

General Principles for an Effective Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Deterring Prostitutes and Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Using Special Responses To Deter Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Using Special Responses To Deter Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Helping Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Changing the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Responses With Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Other Guides in This Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The Problem of Street Prostitution 1 

The Problem of Street Prostitution 

This guide deals with the problem of street prostitution, 

focusing on female prostitutes and male clients. There are † The information presented in this 

section is drawn from many sources, widely different perspectives on prostitution. Some view the not all of which are cited. Among prostitutes as primarily responsible for the problem; some the sources most heavily relied upon 

view the clients as responsible, and the prostitutes as victims. are Benson & Matthews (1995), 

Cohen (1980), Matthews (1993), May, Others view prostitution as a private matter in which the state Edmunds and Hough (1999), Sterk 

should not intervene. Community morals and beliefs about and Elifson (1990), van Gelder and 

Kaplan (1992), Weidner (1999) and how the law should regulate morality will affect how any 

particular community addresses street prostitution. This guide Weitzer (2000). 

does not adopt any particular moral perspective: It is intended 

to objectively inform you about the effectiveness and 

consequences of various approaches to controlling street 

prostitution. Before discussing response options, a general 

understanding of the problem is presented.† 

Street prostitution varies with the type of prostitutes involved 

and their commitment to prostitution, the market size, the 

community's tolerance levels, the degree to which prostitutes 

are organized, and the relationship of prostitution to drug use 

and trafficking. Street prostitution accounts for perhaps only 

10 to 20 percent of all prostitution, but it has the most visible 

negative impact on the community. 

Among the many reasons why the police should be concerned 

about street prostitution are: 

Moral concerns 

• Prostitution offends some citizens' moral standards. 

• Prostitution is a nuisance to passersby and to nearby 

residents and businesses. 

• Prostitutes and clients offend uninvolved people in the area 

when they solicit them. 
2 Street Prostitution 

† Contrary to popular belief, 

prostitution has not been 

demonstrated to be a primary means 

of HIV transmission, at least not in 

the United States, largely because 

most street prostitution sex acts are 

oral rather than vaginal (oral 

transmission is less likely), most 

prostitutes insist that clients use 

condoms (less true of drugdependent prostitutes), and 

transmission is more difficult from 

female to male. Of course, fear of 

contracting HIV has likely changed 

the sex practices of some prostitutes 

and clients. HIV transmission among 

prostitutes is more likely to occur 

from sharing needles for drug 

injections (Weitzer 2000). 

• Juveniles, who are less capable of making informed choices, 

may become prostitutes. 

Public health concerns 

• Prostitutes and clients may spread sexually transmitted 

diseases such as syphilis, herpes and AIDS.† 

• Used condoms, syringes and other paraphernalia left on the 

ground are unsightly and potentially hazardous. 

Bob Heimberger 

Used condoms and syringes commonly found on the ground in street

prostitution areas are unsightly and potentially hazardous.

• Prostitutes who do not have access to proper facilities may 

urinate, defecate or bathe in public. 

Personal safety concerns 

• Clients may harm prostitutes. 

• Clients may be assaulted, robbed or defrauded. 

• Pimps may financially and physically exploit prostitutes. 
The Problem of Street Prostitution 3 

Spillover effect concerns 

• Street prostitution and street drug markets are often linked. 

• Prostitution may provide the seedbed for organized crime. 

• Prostitutes create parking and traffic problems where they 

congregate. 

• Prostitution attracts strangers and criminals to a 

neighborhood. 

Economic concerns 

• Legitimate businesses may lose customers who avoid the 

area because of prostitution. 

• The presence of prostitutes may negatively affect the area 

economy, reducing property values and limiting property 

use. 

Civil rights concerns 

• Prostitutes, as citizens, have rights that need to be 

protected.1 

Related Problems 

Street prostitution is only one of a number of problems 

related to commercialized sex or sex in public places that the 

police must address. Related problems that call for their own 

analysis and responses include: 

• consensual, unpaid sex in public places, including meeting 

places for anonymous sex among homosexuals; 

• homosexual prostitution, also known as "hustling" (young 

homosexual prostitution is also known as the "chicken 

hawk trade"); 
4 Street Prostitution 

• illegal immigration and forced prostitution (international 

trafficking in women and girls); 

• juvenile runaways who are drawn into prostitution; 

• organized crime connections to prostitution; 

• prostitution at truck stops or motels; 

• prostitution through call girls, escort services, Internet 

listings, and massage parlors, and at bars, hotels and 

conventions; 

• serial murders of prostitutes; 

• solicitation by leaving calling cards in conspicuous public 

places (e.g., phone booths); 

• strip clubs in which strippers also engage in prostitution; 

and 

• transvestite prostitution. 

Factors Contributing to Street Prostitution 

Understanding the factors that are known to contribute to 

your problem will help you frame your own local analysis 

questions, determine good effectiveness measures, recognize 

key points of intervention and select an appropriate set of 

responses for your particular problem. The literature on street 

prostitution provides a general picture of street prostitutes, 

clients, pimps, the sexual transactions, areas where street 

prostitution thrives, and the link between street prostitution 

and drugs. 

Street Prostitutes 

Street prostitutes have lower status than prostitutes who work 

indoors. They are often in some state of personal decline (e.g., 

running away from abusive situations, becoming drug-
The Problem of Street Prostitution 5 

dependent, deteriorating psychologically, and/or getting less 

physically attractive).2 Most have social, economic and health 

problems. Most first turn to prostitution at a young age, often 

before they are 18. 

Street prostitutes are not equally committed to prostitution: 

Some are deeply committed for financial and lifestyle reasons; 

some are committed only due to drug dependency; and some 

are weakly committed, engaging in prostitution because it is 

the easiest way for them to make some money. 

The typical street prostitute works six to eight hours a day, 

five to six days a week, and has three to five clients a night.3 

Street prostitutes' lives are organized principally around 

prostitution itself, and around maneuvering through the legal 

system. It is a cycle of engaging in prostitution, getting 

arrested, going to jail, paying fines, and returning to the street. 

Some street prostitutes are highly mobile, traveling from one 

city to another, sometimes on a regular circuit, or when they 

think the risks are too high in one city or the money is better 

in another. 

Although most sexual encounters do not involve violence, 

most street prostitutes report having been criminally assaulted 

at least once by clients. A small percentage of clients are likely 

responsible for most of the violence committed against 

prostitutes. The pattern of violence in pimp-prostitute 

relationships is similar to that of domestic violence. 

Prostitutes do not report most assaults to the police because 

they either fear retaliation by pimps or believe the police will 

not take the matter seriously, or will charge them for 

soliciting. 
6 Street Prostitution 

† Two notable exceptions are 

Hodgson (1997), who describes in 

detail the nature of the pimpprostitute relationship and how 

pimps exercise control, and May, 

Harocopos and Hough (2000) who 

examine the pimp-prostitute 

relationship in the U.K. and effective 

ways to police pimps. 

Street Prostitutes' Clients 

Prostitution clients, typically referred to as "johns" or "tricks," 

are attracted to the illicit nature of the encounter, desire 

varieties of sex that regular partners do not provide, view sex 

as merely a commodity, and/or lack interest in or access to 

conventional relationships. Clients' decision to solicit a 

prostitute is influenced by the availability of prostitutes, 

knowledge of where to find them, access to money, perceived 

risk of getting caught or contracting disease, and ease of 

securing services. Clients gather such information in a variety 

of ways: from trial and error; from personal 

recommendations from others (including friends, bartenders, 

taxi drivers, and hotel workers); and, increasingly, from 

information posted on Internet websites. 

Somewhere around 10 to 20 percent of men admit they have 

paid for sex, but only about 1 percent pay for sex regularly.4 

While this is still a large number of potential clients, it is 

considerably lower than some earlier estimates based on 

flawed research methods. 

Clients are more easily deterred than prostitutes. They are 

more readily ashamed of their behavior, and fear harming 

their public reputation or their standing in their personal lives. 

Consequently, they fear being identified publicly more than 

being fined for their conduct. 

Pimps and Panderers 

There is relatively little research knowledge about pimps and 

other panderers.† It is unclear what percentage of street 
The Problem of Street Prostitution 7 

prostitutes have pimps; prostitutes are reluctant to talk to 

anyone about their pimps, and it is difficult for police to make 

cases against pimps. Pimps recruit and socialize prostitutes 

into the prostitution subculture by appealing to either their 

desire for money or their desire for what they believe will be a 

glamorous and exciting lifestyle. Pimps seldom procure clients 

for prostitutes, because clients do not typically want to 

associate with anyone other than the prostitute. Pimps do not 

offer prostitutes much protection against violence by clients, 

but do offer them protection against assault by other pimps. 

Pimps use violence and drug dependency as means to control 

prostitutes. By some estimates, pimps take 60 to 70 percent of 

prostitutes' earnings. 

Sexual Transactions 

The prices for sex acts vary a little from community to 

community. Depending on how desperate the prostitutes are 

for money, they typically charge $20 to $50 for oral sex, and 

$50 to $100 for sexual intercourse. Among crack-addicted 

prostitutes, the price can be as low as the market price for a 

single rock of crack cocaine. The typical sexual transaction 

takes around 10 minutes in a vehicle (usually oral sex), and 

around 25 minutes indoors. 

Areas Where Street Prostitution Exists 

Street prostitution markets go through stages of 

development–they emerge, expand, stabilize, and disappear.5 

Sometimes they emerge by accident, when a few prostitutes 

happen upon a new location; sometimes they emerge because 

of changes in an area's traffic or commercial patterns (e.g., 

new roadways or new businesses such as adult entertainment 

establishments); and sometimes they emerge because police 
8 Street Prostitution 

enforcement displaced them. It is important that an area be 

known for street prostitution so clients will know where to 

look. 

Street prostitution is more prevalent in run-down 

neighborhoods. Those that are populated heavily by 

unattached males are more vulnerable to street prostitution 

than those with a lot of women, families or elderly residents, 

because the likelihood of vocal community opposition is 

lower. For street prostitution to thrive, the surrounding 

neighborhood cannot be too crime-ridden or appear too 

threatening to potential clients. Consequently, it is often found 

in areas that are marginal or in transition, rather than in 

thoroughly blighted areas. However, the emergence of street 

prostitution will almost certainly speed up the decline. 

Neighborhood redevelopment or gentrification frequently 

prompts strong community opposition to street prostitution, 

and clearly drives much of the pressure on the police to 

control it. 

Street prostitution areas are typically small, less than a square 

mile. Larger cities usually have several such areas. They are 

typically industrial, declining residential, near major 

thoroughfares (including tunnels, bridges or airport access 

roads), or near transportation hubs such as train and bus 

stations. Street prostitution flourishes around convention 

centers and hotels, especially when mostly male conventions 

are held. 

Street prostitution thrives in areas where it does not conflict 

with legitimate business, but rather, supports and is supported 

by that business. The following foster street prostitution: 

• places where sexual transactions can occur, such as cheap 

motels and hotels, dimly lit parking lots, alleys, and 

abandoned buildings; 
The Problem of Street Prostitution 9 

and hotels. 

Street prostitution often thrives in areas where there are cheap motels 

Bob Heimberger 

• places where prostitutes can take a break, such as coffee 

shops or bars; 

• places near a street drug market, so prostitutes and clients 

can readily buy drugs; 

• places offering escape avenues from the police and 

dangerous clients; and 

• roads that allow drivers to slow down or stop, ideally where 

the driver's side of the vehicle is closest to the curb. 

Bob Morris 

Street prostitution thrives along roads where prostitutes can talk to 

drivers from the curbside. 
10 Street Prostitution 

Links Between Street Prostitution and Drugs 

Street prostitution and street drug markets are often closely 

linked, supporting and reinforcing one another.6 Many street 

prostitutes use illegal drugs, mainly cocaine or heroin, or both. 

Many female serious drug users turn to prostitution at some 

point to finance their habit. Some prostitutes develop drug 

habits before turning to prostitution, while others start using 

drugs as part of the street prostitution lifestyle. 

Crack cocaine markets drive down the price of street 

prostitution, as prostitutes, desperate to buy drugs, sell sex 

cheaply. Other prostitutes resent them for driving down prices 

or permitting sex without condoms, and pimps punish them 

for withholding their earnings to buy drugs. Drug-dependent 

prostitutes are more vulnerable to violence and more likely to 

rob their clients. In summary, where crack cocaine and street 

prostitution are linked, street prostitution becomes less 

predictable and more dangerous. 
Understanding Your Local Problem 11 

Understanding Your Local Problem 

The information provided above is only a generalized 

description of street prostitution. You must combine the 

basic facts with a more specific understanding of your local 

problem. Analyzing the local problem carefully will help you 

design a more effective response strategy. 

Asking the Right Questions 

The following are some critical questions you should ask in 

analyzing your particular problem of street prostitution, even 

if the answers are not always readily available. Your answers 

to these and other questions will help you choose the most 

appropriate set of responses later on. 

Police and Community Members 

• How concerned is the police department about street 

prostitution? How concerned is the community? What 

groups are particularly concerned and why? What specific 

concerns are expressed? 

• How organized and active are community members who 

oppose street prostitution? What level of street prostitution 

are they willing to tolerate? 

Street Prostitutes 

• Does street prostitution take only one form (e.g., female 

prostitutes and male clients), or are there several different 

forms (e.g., homosexual or transvestite prostitution)? 

• What is known about the prostitutes (e.g., age, gender, race, 

criminal history, social service history, substance abuse 

history, residence)? 

• Do street prostitutes commit crimes against clients (e.g., 

robbery or theft)? Are street prostitutes the victims of 

crime? 
12 Street Prostitution 

• How committed are prostitutes to prostitution? How 

committed are they to a particular location? 

Street Prostitutes' Clients 

• What is known about the clients (e.g., age, race, occupation, 

socio-economic status, marital status, criminal history, 

residence)? 

• How committed are clients to prostitution? How 

committed are they to soliciting prostitutes on the street or 

in a particular area? 

Pimps and Panderers 

• Do the prostitutes work for pimps or others who profit 

from their income? 

Sexual Transactions 

• How, specifically, do street prostitutes and clients negotiate 

and complete sexual transactions? Do clients solicit 

prostitutes on foot or from a vehicle? Where do the sexual 

transactions take place? 

• Do prostitutes and clients take precautions to prevent 

sexually-transmitted disease? 

Environment 

• Does street prostitution take place in more than one area? 

What conditions make the area(s) attractive for street 

prostitution? If street prostitution occurs in several areas, 

how are they similar and different? 

• What area businesses are harmed by the presence of street 

prostitution? 

• What area businesses support and/or benefit from street 

prostitution? 
Understanding Your Local Problem 13 

• Is the street prostitution market in each area old or new? 

Has it changed in size recently? If so, why? 

• Do street prostitution areas have a reputation as being 

dangerous or safe for clients? 

• Are street prostitution areas isolated, or busy with other 

activities? 

• What other types of crime occur in the area? How much is 

related to street prostitution? 

• If street prostitution were forced out of a target area, 

where would you predict it might reappear? 

Drug Links 

• To what extent are street prostitutes, clients and pimps 

engaged in the sale or use of drugs? 

• Are street prostitution and street drug markets near each 

other? 

• Do street prostitutes exchange sex directly for drugs? 

Current Response 

• What is the police department's current policy in dealing 

with street prostitution? What is the prosecutor's current 

policy regarding prostitution-related offenses? What are the 

typical sentences handed out to those who are convicted? 

Do the prostitutes and clients complete those sentences? 

What effect, if any, does the imposition of a sentence have 

on subsequent involvement in prostitution? 

• What responses do police officers use, other than arrest and 

prosecution? Are any of these responses especially 

effective? 

• What social, health and substance abuse treatment services 

are available to assist prostitutes? Are prostitutes using 

available services? 
14 Street Prostitution 

Measuring Your Effectiveness 

Measurement allows you to determine to what degree your 

efforts have succeeded and suggests how you might modify 

your responses if they are not producing the intended 

results.You should take measures of your problem before you 

implement responses to determine how serious the problem 

is, and after you implement them to determine whether they 

have been effective. For more detailed guidance on measuring 

effectiveness, see the companion guide to this series, Assessing

Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police ProblemSolvers. The following are potentially useful measures of the 

effectiveness of responses to street prostitution: 

• number of citizen complaints about street prostitution; 

• number of prostitutes visible on the streets at particular 

times; 

• difficulty decoy officers have trying to negotiate acts of 

prostitution; 

• arrests of repeat offenders (both prostitutes and clients); 

• traffic congestion in areas where curb-crawling (or "kerbcrawling," in the United Kingdom) is a problem; 

• volume of discarded condoms, syringes and other 

prostitution-related paraphernalia; and 

• total reported crime in target areas compared to control 

areas (keeping in mind that changes may be due to other 

factors and reported crime does not always correlate with 

actual crime). 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 15 

Responses to the Problem of Street 

Prostitution 

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better 

understanding of the factors that are contributing to the 

problem. Once you have analyzed your local problem and 

established a baseline for measuring effectiveness, you should 

consider possible responses to address the problem. The 

following response strategies provide a foundation of ideas 

for addressing your particular problem. These strategies are 

drawn from a variety of research studies and police reports. 

Several of these strategies may apply to the particular problem 

in your community. It is critical that you tailor responses to 

local circumstances, and that you can justify each response 

based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy 

will involve implementing several different responses. Law 

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing 

or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering 

what police can do to better address the problem: give careful 

consideration to who else in your community shares 

responsibility for the problem and can help police better 

respond to it. 

General Principles for an Effective Strategy 

You should consider a few general principles when developing 

your response strategy. Which particular responses you adopt 

should depend on what you learn from a careful analysis of 

your local problem. Strategies that exclusively focus on 

arresting prostitutes are unlikely to be effective.7 Strategies 

that seek to reduce the harms caused by street prostitution 

rather than those that seek to eliminate prostitution altogether 

are more likely to work. At a minimum, both prostitutes' and 

clients' conduct should be addressed. An effective strategy not 

only must force prostitutes off the streets and get them to 
16 Street Prostitution 

stop their offensive behavior, but also must give them viable 

alternatives: either to get out of prostitution altogether, or to 

operate in less offensive locations, times or ways. This usually 

requires greater cooperation between the police and various 

service organizations.8 

Deterring Prostitutes and Clients 

1. Enforcing laws prohibiting soliciting, patronizing 

and loitering for the purposes of prostitution. The 

main strategy police use to control street prostitution is 

enforcing laws prohibiting soliciting, patronizing and 

loitering for the purposes of prostitution. Street 

prostitutes can be valuable informants to police about 

other crimes, and the threat of enforcement gives the 

police leverage for information. In some jurisdictions, 

controlling street prostitution is left to the vice squad. 

Limiting patrol officers' involvement is intended to reduce 

corruption, but it can give the public the impression that 

only corrupt officers would ignore the problem. 

Historically, the police have arrested far more prostitutes 

than clients, although some police agencies have shifted 

toward a more balanced enforcement strategy, targeting 

clients as well as prostitutes. To promote a consistent 

response and improve the chances for successful 

prosecutions, police agencies should prepare written 

guidelines to govern how and under what circumstances 

they will enforce prostitution laws. 

Enforcement strategies are expensive; each arrest costs 

thousands of dollars to process. By themselves, they are 

ineffective at either controlling street prostitution or 

protecting prostitutes from harm.9 Increased police 

enforcement temporarily reduces the number of 

prostitutes on the street, but they usually reappear in new 

areas. This may actually increase street prostitution in the 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 17 

long term by creating new opportunities for prostitutes 

and potential clients to meet. While the severity of the 

penalties against prostitutes does appear to affect the 

volume of prostitution, modest fines against prostitutes 

may actually force them to commit more prostitution to 

pay the fines. Prostitutes who are prosecuted are usually 

convicted, but many of them fail to show up for court 

hearings. Most prostitutes consider the costs of being 

arrested as a business expense and an inconvenience, and 

not as a significant deterrent. 

1a. Enforcing laws prohibiting prostitution and the 

solicitation thereof. Enforcing laws prohibiting 

prostitution usually requires undercover police officers to 

pose as clients to gather the necessary evidence, which 

can be difficult to obtain from street-savvy prostitutes.† 

Enforcing prostitution laws against clients typically 

requires the police to pose as prostitutes to obtain 

evidence. Some police agencies still do not have enough 

female officers to conduct effective solicitation 

enforcement campaigns. Moreover, decoy arrests of 

clients are open to legal entrapment defenses if officers 

are not careful. 

1b. Enforcing laws prohibiting conduct associated with 

prostitution and the solicitation thereof. Many 

jurisdictions have enacted laws that prohibit conduct 

associated with prostitution and the solicitation thereof, 

such as loitering for the purposes of prostitution, 

loitering in search of a prostitute, and curb-crawling. 

These laws are designed to allow the police to charge 

prostitutes and clients without having to prove there was 

a proposed or actual exchange of money for sex. Charges 

of loitering for the purposes of prostitution are difficult 

to prove in some jurisdictions, so even if arrest rates are 

high, prosecutions may not be. 

† The particular statutory and 

evidentiary requirements vary across 

jurisdictions. U.K. police do not use 

this strategy because neither 

prostitution itself nor proposing the 

exchange of sex for money is illegal. 

Prostitutes use a variety of methods 

to determine if a prospective client is 

an undercover police officer, 

including exposing themselves or 

asking the client/officer to expose 

himself. The city of St. Petersburg, 

Fla., passed an ordinance that 

specifically mentioned prostitutes' 

efforts to identify police officers as 

among the behaviors that constitute a 

"verified pattern of solicitation 

activity." 
18 Street Prostitution 

1c. Intensively enforcing prostitution laws against 

prostitutes and/or clients for short periods. In 

addition to routinely enforcing prostitution laws, the 

police often conduct intensive arrest campaigns against 

prostitutes, clients or both. These campaigns significantly 

increase the risks of arrest, at least temporarily, bringing 

large numbers of prostitutes and clients into the formal 

justice system. When combined with media coverage, the 

campaigns are intended to deter those arrested from 

offending again, and to deter potential clients. The 

campaigns' deterrent value wears off after time, however. 

In high-volume arrest campaigns, the chances that police 

will arrest innocent people increase, unless they take 

special precautions. Without some follow-up court 

intervention or measures to change the environment, 

intensive enforcement campaigns only temporarily 

interrupt street prostitution, or move it elsewhere; they do 

not shut down a street prostitution market entirely. 

2. Establishing a highly visible police presence. A highly 

visible police presence, typically with extra uniformed 

officers, is intended to discourage area street prostitution. 

Extra police presence is expensive, of course, and is 

effective only if the police follow it up with more 

permanent strategies. It can also create the perception 

that the area is unsafe. Alternative methods to establish a 

police presence are to open a police station (e.g., a 

storefront office, mobile office or kiosk) in the area, or 

affix antiprostitution warning signs to police vehicles 

patrolling the area. Private security forces might also be 

deployed to supplement a police presence. 

3. Relaxing the regulation of indoor prostitution 

venues. Whether changes in enforcement levels against 

indoor prostitution venues (e.g., massage parlors, call girls, 

bar girls, and escort services) will affect street prostitution 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 19 

depends on how easily prostitutes can move back and 

forth between the streets and indoors. The conventional 

wisdom is that there is little movement between them. 

But, within limits, prostitutes do have some mobility. The 

laws related to indoor prostitution are likely to affect the 

degree of mobility (it is legal in the United Kingdom, and 

illegal in the United States). Prostitutes who work indoors 

seem able to work on the streets when they have to more 

easily than street prostitutes can move indoors. 10 Relaxing 

the regulation of indoor prostitution may be perceived as 

condoning prostitution. 

4. Enhancing fines/penalties for prostitution-related 

offenses committed within specified high-activity 

zones. Some communities have enhanced penalties for 

prostitution-related offenses committed within specific 

geographic areas. These penalty enhancements are 

intended to move the street prostitution market to other 

locations so the target area can be redeveloped. You 

should be careful that the problem is not displaced to 

areas where the impact will be even worse. 

5. Banning prostitutes or clients from geographic areas. 

Many courts order prostitutes and clients to stay out of 

specifically defined areas where street prostitution is 

prevalent, as a condition of either bail or probation.11 

This practice is commonly referred to as "mapping" 

offenders out of areas. This practice may, however, 

displace prostitutes to more remote areas outside the 

prohibited zone, areas which may prove more hazardous 

to the prostitutes. 
20 Street Prostitution 

6. Imposing community service sentences in lieu of 

incarceration or fines. Community service sanctions, 

when properly monitored and enforced, have been shown 

to be more effective than jail time or fines alone.12 

7. Encouraging community members to publicly 

protest against prostitutes or clients. Direct 

community activism in the form of organized marches, 

rallies or confrontations of prostitutes and clients has 

proved effective in disrupting and moving street 

prostitution markets.13 This response is intended to 

intimidate prostitutes and clients, and to demonstrate the 

community's resolve against street prostitution. You must 

guard against overzealous community conduct that 

violates prostitutes' rights. 

8. Educating and warning high-risk prostitute and 

client populations. Working with other institutions, you 

can target education and warning messages to groups 

especially likely to become involved in prostitution, as 

either prostitutes or clients. 

Certain groups are especially vulnerable to being recruited 

or drawn to street prostitution, among them juvenile 

offenders, juvenile runaways and juveniles in group 

homes (residential custody). Young people who are at 

high risk for being recruited into prostitution usually have 

multiple critical social and psychological problems that 

require attention if they are to be kept out of 

prostitution. 

Among the high-risk client groups are male 

conventioneers, male soldiers and previously arrested 

clients. The education and warning information can be 

conveyed through letters, lectures, video presentations, 

billboards, warning signs, or media outlets. A growing 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 21 

number of jurisdictions have established court-ordered

education programs for convicted clients. These so-called

"john schools" confront prostitution clients about the

consequences of their behavior. They usually include

information about the legal and health consequences for

clients, the impact of street prostitution on the

community, and the negative effects of prostitution on

prostitutes. Recidivism rates for clients who participate in

court-ordered education programs are low (around 2% to

7%).14 It is less clear what added deterrent value there is

in the education program beyond what is achieved by any

official intervention, from a warning to an arrest.

Using Special Responses to Deter Prostitutes 

9. Identifying and targeting the worst offenders. A small 

percentage of prostitutes and pimps may be responsible 

for most of the complaints in a prostitution area. If you 

can establish this, you might more productively target 

your efforts at those few, rather than at the larger 

population of offenders. Bob Heimberger 

Habitual street prostitutes are usually well-known to 

police vice units. 
22 Street Prostitution 

10. Serving restraining orders/civil injunctions against 

habitual prostitutes. In several jurisdictions, the police 

have coordinated with merchants whose business is 

negatively affected by street prostitution to obtain 

restraining orders against prostitutes, prohibiting them 

from engaging in specific behavior within a specific area.15 

In San Bernardino, Calif. certain existing municipal codes 

have been incorporated into court-ordered civil 

injunctions against known prostitutes (see box below). 

The specific prohibitions mentioned in a San Bernardino, Calif., restraining 

order are: 

• approaching or signaling to any vehicle in any street, alley or other public 

passage area, thus causing the vehicle to stop, unless a legitimate emergency 

so requires; 

• blocking the passage of any person or vehicle in any street, walkway, 

sidewalk, driveway, alley, or other public passage area; 

• being on, or causing others to be on, private property, except (1) with the 

property owner's prior written consent, or (2) in the property owner's 

presence and with his or her voluntary consent; 

• being on the premises of an uninhabited or abandoned building; 

• making, causing or encouraging others to violate noise restrictions; 

• fighting in public or any place open to public view or hearing; 

• drinking any alcoholic beverage in public or any place open to public view; 

• urinating or defecating in public or any place open to public view; 

• littering, including discarding cans, bottles, cigarettes, condoms, or 

hypodermic needles other than in a proper waste receptacle; 

• damaging or vandalizing another's property, including any light fixture, 

fence, gate, wall, or window; 

• applying graffiti to any public or private property, including any building, 

fence, wall, garage door, street sign, tree, pole, or vehicle; 

• congregating in any public place for the purpose of engaging in any 

conduct prohibited by this injunction, or any criminal activity; and 

• intimidating, provoking, harassing, challenging, or carrying out any acts of 

retaliation, including, but not limited to, using abusive or vulgar language to 

harass any person (San Bernardino Police Department 1999). 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 23 

Violations of the restraining orders result in jail time and

fines that exceed the usual penalties. You should consult

with legal counsel about the requirements for obtaining

restraining orders. It may also take a lot of time and

effort to obtain the documentation necessary for a

restraining order.

11. Mediating conflicts between prostitutes and the 

community. While negotiating with offenders is not 

common for the police, street prostitutes have responded 

positively in several communities where the police and 

community have requested that they stay away from 

certain areas or reduce their nuisance behavior in 

exchange for some tolerance.16 In one Vancouver 

community, community groups posted signs and maps 

requesting that prostitutes stay out of certain areas.17 

Obviously, it can be difficult to get prostitutes to comply 

with agreements. 

12. Suspending or revoking government aid to 

prostitutes. Many street prostitutes receive government 

aid in one form or another (e.g., for housing, dependent 

children, unemployment insurance, and/or disability), but 

would not qualify for such if they reported their 

prostitution income. You might share arrest and 

intelligence information with government agencies 

providing the aid.18 The threat of losing government aid 

might compel some prostitutes to quit. For this approach 

to be viable, adequate social services must be available to 

help them do so. You should take care not to unduly 

harm any dependent children. 
24 Street Prostitution 

13. Imposing curfews on prostitutes. Curfews can be 

imposed on prostitutes as a condition of either bail or 

probation. The purpose is to deny prostitutes the 

opportunity to work during the hours of peak demand. 

To be effective, police or corrections officials must 

monitor and enforce the curfews. 

Using Special Responses To Deter Clients 

Clients are generally more easily deterred than prostitutes.19 

Almost any form of official or community intervention in 

clients' behavior is sufficient to deter most clients from 

patronizing street prostitutes, at least at a particular location. 

This offers some justification for focusing responses on 

clients. However, since there are many more potential clients 

than street prostitutes, deterring individual clients does not 

necessarily reduce the overall demand for street prostitution.20 

To deter potential clients, they must believe there is a high 

likelihood they will be caught and publicly identified. 

14. Exposing clients to publicity. Community groups have 

organized to expose prostitution clients' identity to either 

the general public or the clients' families or employers. 

This can be done by photographing or videotaping 

clients, calling clients' families or employers, writing down 

license plate numbers of vehicles seen driving around 

prostitution strips, mailing warning letters or postcards to 

registered vehicle owners, or posting clients' names or 

photographs on street posts, billboards, telephone hotline 

fliers, and Internet sites. Some police agencies have sent 

official letters or postcards warning prostitution clients 

about the legal and health consequences of patronizing 

prostitutes.21 In some instances, they send these warnings 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 25 

only to those arrested for soliciting prostitutes; in other 

instances, they send them to the registered owners of 

suspicious vehicles seen driving through street 

prostitution areas. In some areas, police use closed-circuit † See Persons (1996) for a 

thorough discussion of the TV cameras to discourage potential clients from hanging effectiveness and legality of 

around.22 publicizing prostitution clients' 

names. 

Some police agencies and local governments have

publicized the names and photographs of clients who are

either arrested for and/or convicted of prostitutionrelated offenses.† The names and photographs may

appear on television, in newspapers or on Internet

websites. Many media outlets, however, refuse to

participate, deeming it unnewsworthy and not wanting to

appear to be an agent of the government. Some local

governments have purchased advertising space to publish

the information. There should be safeguards so that

innocent persons are not unfairly accused or implicated in

illegal activity.

15. Notifying those with influence over clients' conduct. 

Employers, schools, the military, convention organizers,

and other individuals or groups often exert significant

informal influence over prostitution clients' conduct. You

can leverage this influence by seeking such third parties'

cooperation to discipline clients who come to police

attention. This strategy is not intended merely to shame

clients, but rather, to change their behavior through

disciplinary systems outside the formal justice system.

Keep in mind that some forms of discipline, such as

employment termination, can be severe.
26 Street Prostitution 

16. Restricting clients' ability to drive. The city of 

Portland, Ore., is widely credited for pioneering the use of 

vehicle forfeiture laws against prostitution clients. In 

Portland, most vehicles were returned to the owners 

under deferred prosecution arrangements, with low levels 

(about 1%) of clients reoffending.23 Some jurisdictions 

have passed laws that allow judges to suspend or revoke 

the driving privileges of those convicted of patronizing 

prostitution.24 This approach is intended to deter both 

potential clients and those who regularly search for, and 

have sexual transactions with, prostitutes in cars. Many 

drivers continue to drive without valid licenses, however, 

so some enforcement will likely be necessary. 

Helping Prostitutes 

17. Helping prostitutes to quit. Street prostitutes typically 

need help if they are to quit prostitution. They often need 

drug and alcohol treatment, mental health treatment, 

transitional housing, case management, peer 

support/mentoring, child care, job training, health care, 

confidential HIV testing, psychological counseling, 

transportation, self-defense training, legal aid, and 

employment assistance. Some communities offer a 

service-and-support network through either precharge or 

postcharge diversion programs, and some even offer 

these programs on the street, with no formal connection 

to the criminal justice system.25 Although these programs 

do not necessarily persuade many prostitutes to quit, they 

seem essential for those who are motivated to do so, and 

they can be effective in reducing some of the risks to 

street prostitutes, such as sexually transmitted disease and 

assault.26 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 27 

18. Encouraging prostitutes to report serious offenses to 

the police. Police in some jurisdictions work hard to 

develop a good rapport with street prostitutes to persuade 

them to report juvenile prostitutes, violent clients, client 

robbery, etc., and to give evidence against pimps. 

Prostitutes who assist the police may require extra 

protection because they risk violent retaliation. 

19. Distributing information about known dangerous 

clients to prostitutes. Police in some jurisdictions 

distribute so-called "bad dates" lists to street prostitutes, 

warning them to stay away from clients who are known to 

assault prostitutes. Some people may view this as 

condoning prostitution, however. 

Changing the Environment 

20. Closing streets and alleys, diverting traffic or 

regulating parking. Traffic flow and patterns influence 

potential clients' perceptions about their chances of 

negotiating a transaction and their risks of getting caught. 

Traffic-related factors are especially significant where sex 

acts take place in vehicles. Many clients stop to solicit 

prostitutes while on their way somewhere else–commonly 

to or home from work. Responses that make it more 

difficult or risky for clients to negotiate a transaction will 

either discourage them from soliciting street prostitutes or 

encourage them to seek prostitutes in indoor venues.27 

Under some circumstances, the traffic changes may lock 

the problem into an area rather than force it out. You 

should also be careful that any traffic changes do not 

cause undue harm to legitimate commerce in the area. 
28 Street Prostitution 

21. Enforcing zoning, nuisance abatement and business 

license regulations against properties used for 

prostitution. As noted previously, street prostitution 

markets depend on other businesses to support them. 

The police and other enforcement agencies can exert 

pressure on those businesses to discourage their support 

of street prostitution by enforcing civil laws and business 

regulations. Some communities prohibit motels and hotels 

from renting rooms for short periods (i.e., at hourly 

rates), and require them to record guests' identities 

through positive proof of identification, thus 

discouraging their use by prostitutes and clients.28 Zoning 

regulations that restrict the sorts of businesses that 

support street prostitution, such as adult entertainment, 

can be effective. Zoning restrictions have been key in the 

major redevelopment of Times Square in New York City, 

where street prostitution has significantly declined.29 The 

police and private parties can file nuisance abatement 

actions against businesses that support prostitution. You 

should get advice and support from legal counsel to 

pursue these options. 

22. Warning property owners about the use of their 

premises for prostitution. Many property owners 

unwittingly support street prostitution because they do 

not appreciate how their business practices enable it to 

flourish. You can remind them of their legal obligations, 

and provide them and their employees with specific 

training to help them prevent their properties from being 

used for prostitution.30 

23. Redeveloping the area economy. Because street 

prostitution markets flourish under marginal economic 

conditions, economic redevelopment is often necessary to 

permanently eliminate street prostitution from the area. 
Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 29 

New businesses emerge to replace those that supported

street prostitution. Economic redevelopment usually

requires a substantial investment of government and

private resources. Street prostitution may be displaced to

even more vulnerable areas.

24. Securing abandoned buildings. Street prostitutes and 

clients sometimes use abandoned buildings for sexual 

transactions. If demolishing or rehabilitating the buildings 

is not feasible, securing them can help reduce street 

prostitution and other offenses in the area.31 

25. Enhancing lighting. Improved lighting reduces the 

attractiveness of certain areas for street prostitution 

because it reduces the level of privacy prostitutes and 

clients seek to negotiate and complete their transactions.32 

Motion-sensitive lighting is useful for secluded areas like 

alleys and doorways. 

Responses With Limited Effectiveness 

26. Conducting sweeps. Sweeps are large-scale arrest 

campaigns targeting suspected prostitutes without the 

intent to prosecute. Sweeps have long been a police 

strategy to control street prostitution, particularly when 

they have had few legal alternatives for dealing with the 

problem, yet have been pressured to do something about 

it. There is little evidence that sweeps are anything other 

than temporarily effective at removing prostitutes from 

the street, and they do considerable harm to the integrity 

of the criminal justice system. It is not uncommon for 

police to arrest innocent people during sweeps. 
30 Street Prostitution 

† Legalization implies that the 

government will regulate various 

aspects of prostitution, just as it 

regulates other forms of commerce. 

Decriminalization implies no 

government regulation. 

†† Prostitution itself is not illegal in 

either Canada or the United 

Kingdom, as it is in most of the 

United States, but nearly all forms of 

soliciting prostitution on the street 

are illegal, so the net effect is 

substantially the same–street 

prostitution is outlawed. Prostitution 

has been legalized in the Netherlands, 

but recently criminalized in Sweden. 

Some forms of indoor prostitution 

have been made legal in Victoria, 

Australia, but street prostitution 

remains illegal. The legalization of 

prostitution in several Nevada 

counties has not eliminated the 

problems associated with street 

prostitution in the cities of Reno and 

Las Vegas. 

27. Harassing and intimidating prostitutes. When police 

have been placed under intense pressure to control street 

prostitution, yet have lacked adequate legal alternatives for 

doing so, some have turned to harassing and intimidating 

prostitutes, in some instances forcing them to relocate to 

another jurisdiction. There is no evidence that this is at all 

effective, and it undermines police integrity. 

28. Establishing formal or informal red-light districts 

where street prostitution is tolerated. In most cases, 

the existence of red-light districts has not reduced the 

volume of street prostitution, the level of nuisance 

complaints or the harm to prostitutes.33 Creating 

tolerance zones for street prostitution implies some 

official approval. As is true with respect to most vices, 

official disapproval has at least a marginal deterrent effect. 

In many jurisdictions this response is not viable because 

of legal restrictions or public opposition. 

29. Legalization and decriminalization of prostitution. 

The two most radical responses to street prostitution are 

legalization and decriminalization.† Whatever their merits 

and drawbacks, neither approach is likely to be politically 

feasible in the foreseeable future in the United States, 

Canada or the United Kingdom.†† 
Appendix 31 

Appendix: Summary of Responses to 

Street Prostitution 

The table below summarizes the responses to street 

prostitution, the mechanism by which they are intended to 

work, the conditions under which they ought to work best, 

and some factors you should consider before implementing a 

particular response. It is critical that you tailor responses to 

local circumstances, and that you can justify each response 

based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy 

will involve implementing several different responses. Law 

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing 

or solving the problem. 

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

Deterring Prostitutes and Clients

1. 16 Enforcing laws 

prohibiting

soliciting,

patronizing and

loitering for the

purposes of

prostitution 

Temporarily 

removes 

prostitutes and

clients from the 

streets 

...there are 

follow-up 

programs to help

prostitutes quit or

switch to indoor 

venues, and 

enforcement is 

combined with 

other effective 

responses 

Strategy is

expensive; has 

only a short-term 

impact; may 

increase 

prostitution by

displacing the

problem to new

locations, and by 

compelling

prostitutes to

work more to pay 

fines 

1a. 17 Enforcing laws 

prohibiting

prostitution and

the solicitation 

thereof 

Temporarily 

removes 

prostitutes and

clients from the 

streets; increases 

the costs of 

business; deters 

arrested clients 

from reoffending 

...a prosecution

will result in 

meaningful

sanctions against 

the prostitute, 

and the pool of

potential clients is

relatively small 

Strategy is

expensive; 

difficult to obtain 

admissible 

evidence; jail time

is usually limited 

or none; 

discourages 

prostitutes from

calling police

when they are

victims; creates 
32 Street Prostitution

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

1a. (cont’d) additional incentives 

to engage in 

prostitution to pay 

fines; prosecutors 

may elect not to 

prosecute; the 

population of

potential clients is

large enough that 

general deterrence 

is difficult to 

achieve solely by 

arrest strategies; 

arresting clients

requires a sufficient

number of female 

police officers 

1b. 17 Enforcing laws 

prohibiting

conduct 

associated with 

prostitution and

the solicitation 

thereof 

Deters prostitutes

from soliciting

and clients from 

searching for

prostitutes on the

streets, without 

requiring proof

of actual sexual 

transactions 

...a prosecution

will result in 

meaningful

sanctions against 

the prostitute, and 

the pool of

potential clients is

relatively small 

Legality (courts 

have struck down 

some such laws for 

being either vague 

or overly broad);

the population of

potential clients is

large enough that 

general deterrence 

is difficult to 

achieve solely by 

arrest strategies 

1c. 18 Intensively

enforcing

prostitution laws 

against prostitutes

and/or clients for

short periods 

Temporarily 

removes 

prostitutes from

the streets; deters 

potential clients

from frequenting

the area 

...there is media 

coverage, and the 

campaign is

followed by 

changes to the 

environment 

where the street 

prostitution 

occurs 

Media coverage can 

have the opposite

effect of promoting

prostitution by 

advertising the

location of 

prostitution strolls 

2. 18 Establishing a

highly visible

police presence 

Discourages both 

prostitutes and

clients from 

negotiations 

...followed by 

changes to the 

environment 

where street 

prostitution 

occurs 

Labor intensive; 

creates the 

perception that the

area is unsafe 
Appendix 33 

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

3. 18 Relaxing the

regulation of

indoor 

prostitution 

Gives street 

prostitutes some

incentive to 

relocate to indoor 

...street 

prostitutes are

able to work in 

indoor venues 

May be perceived as 

condoning

prostitution 

venues venues 

4. 19 Enhancing

fines/penalties

for prostitutionrelated offenses 

committed within 

specified highactivity zones 

Displaces the

street prostitution

market from a 

particular area 

...followed by 

changes to the 

environment 

where street 

prostitution 

occurs 

Displacement may

be to areas where 

the impact is even 

worse 

5. 19 Banning

prostitutes or

clients from 

geographic areas 

Reduces the 

opportunities for 

prostitutes and

clients to solicit 

and patronize 

...there is 

adequate

monitoring of

bans 

Requires legal 

authority; may

displace prostitutes

to new areas outside 

the prohibited zone, 

which, if remote, 

may prove more 

hazardous to them 

6. 20 Imposing

community 

service sentences 

in lieu of 

incarceration or 

fines 

Creates 

meaningful

consequences for

prostitutes'

offending; 

consumes 

...there is 

adequate

monitoring of

compliance with 

sentences 

Requires monitoring 

by the court and 

corrections officials 

prostitutes' time 

7. 20 Encouraging

community

members to 

publicly protest

against prostitutes

or clients 

Creates the 

impression that

offenders will be 

constantly

monitored and 

reported; 

increases the 

...the community 

is willing to

sustain protests

and remain lawful 

Risks of 

overzealousness 

(vigilantism);

displacement to

other locations 

pressure on

public officials to

address the 

problem 
34 Street Prostitution

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

8. 20 Educating and

warning high-risk

prostitute and

client populations 

Deters young

people from

getting into

prostitution;

discourages 

potential clients;

education 

programs for 

arrested clients 

deter repeat

offending 

...there is 

evidence of the 

recruitment of 

prostitutes from 

target 

populations, the 

messages are 

carefully tailored

to the target 

audience, and 

there are adequate 

resources to run 

education 

programs 

Young people at

seriously high risk

usually have several 

critical social 

problems that

require attention if

they are to be kept 

out of prostitution;

costs of running 

programs; adequate 

deterrence may be 

achieved by any 

form of official 

intervention 

Special Responses to Deter Prostitutes

9. 21 Identifying and

targeting the 

worst offenders 

Deters the most 

problematic

offenders; 

conserves police 

resources 

...there are a 

small number of 

chronic offenders 

There may be too

many offenders to 

target 

10. 22 Serving

restraining

orders/civil 

injunctions

against habitual 

prostitutes 

Effectively

controls and 

deters the 

activities of large 

numbers of 

prostitutes

working in a 

particular area 

...complainants

are willing to file

for court orders 

Labor-intensive and 

costly to document

individuals and 

activities; legality 

varies by

jurisdiction 

11. 23 Mediating

conflicts between 

prostitutes and

the community 

Keeps prostitutes 

away from the 

areas of highest

citizen complaints, 

or from engaging 

in the most 

offensive 

behaviors 

...the community 

is willing to

tolerate some 

level of street 

prostitution 

Difficult to get 

prostitutes to

adhere to 

agreements 
Appendix 35 

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

12. 23 Suspending or

revoking 

government aid 

to prostitutes 

Encourages 

prostitutes to quit 

...prostitutes are

receiving

significant

amounts of aid 

without reporting 

prostitution

income, and aid 

agencies are 

willing to take 

action 

Implications for

dependent children; 

requires adequate

social service 

follow-up; may have 

opposite effect of

promoting more

prostitution to

replace lost income 

13. 24 Imposing curfews

on prostitutes 

Restricts 

prostitutes'

working hours 

...there are short 

periods during

which street 

prostitution is

most prevalent 

Requires judicial

order as a condition 

of bail or 

probation; requires

monitoring by 

police or

corrections officials 

Special Responses to Deter Clients

14. 24 Exposing clients

to publicity 

Shames clients to 

deter them from 

reoffending;

discourages 

potential clients 

...the community 

and media 

support public

shaming, and 

most clients 

solicit from 

vehicles 

Media reluctance to 

publicize

information deemed 

unnewsworthy; risks 

arousing suspicions

against innocent 

people; legal 

restrictions; privacy 

concerns; the 

potential for

geographic

displacement 

15. 25 Notifying those

with influence 

over clients' 

conduct 

Creates 

meaningful

consequences for

clients' conduct 

...clients are 

influenced by 

informal social 

controls 

The penalty may be

harsher than some 

believe is fair (e.g., 

termination from 

employment) 
36 Street Prostitution

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

16. 26 Restricting clients'

ability to drive 

Deters curbcrawling 

...most clients 

solicit from 

vehicles 

Legal challenges 

and restrictions; low 

rates of compliance

with license 

suspensions and

revocations 

Helping Prostitutes

17. 26 Helping

prostitutes to quit 

Provides 

prostitutes with

support services 

to enable them to 

leave prostitution;

health screening

and education 

prevents the 

spread of sexually

transmitted 

diseases 

...there are 

adequate and

effective social 

services available, 

and there are 

sufficient 

sanctions for 

noncompliance 

Street prostitutes, 

especially juveniles 

and those managed 

by pimps, are 

difficult to 

persuade; privacy

considerations; 

prostitutes can be

hard to reach 

and/or reluctant to 

accept treatment 

(e.g., for fear of 

losing custody of

their children) 

18. 27 Encouraging

prostitutes to

report serious 

offenses to the 

police 

Improves the 

police ability to

investigate serious 

offenses that 

might otherwise

go unreported 

and/or unsolved 

...police can

establish a 

sufficient level of 

trust among

prostitutes 

Prostitutes' giving 

evidence against 

pimps increases the

risks of violent 

retaliation 

19. 27 Distributing

information about 

known dangerous 

clients to 

prostitutes 

Reduces the risk 

of physical

assaults to 

prostitutes 

...police can

establish a 

sufficient level of 

trust among

prostitutes 

Police can be 

accused of 

condoning

prostitution 

Changing the Environment 

20. 27 Closing streets

and alleys, 

diverting traffic or

regulating parking 

Increases the 

difficulty for

clients to find and 

negotiate with 

prostitutes 

...the community 

the changes affect 

supports them, 

and most clients 

solicit from 

vehicles 

Potentially costly;

can harm legitimate

commercial traffic;

may lock the 

problem in rather

than forcing it out,

by creating an

inaccessible enclave;

slowing traffic may 

be conducive to 

curb-crawling 
Appendix 37 

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

21. 28 Enforcing zoning,

nuisance 

abatement and 

business license 

regulations

against properties 

used for 

prostitution 

Restricts the 

availability of

locations for 

sexual activities; 

discourages the 

use of motels and 

hotels for 

prostitution 

...sexual 

transactions take 

place on

properties subject

to regulation 

Civil law processes

can be cumbersome 

and unfamiliar to 

police; requires 

support from 

government lawyers 

22. 28 Warning property 

owners about the 

use of their 

premises for

prostitution 

Improves 

property owners' 

capacity or

willingness to

prohibit

prostitutionrelated activities 

on their property 

...sexual 

transactions take 

place on those

properties 

Some property 

owners may feel

they are being

unfairly accused 

23. 28 Redeveloping the 

area economy 

Promotes 

legitimate activity 

to displace

illegitimate activity 

...improvements 

will substantially

change the 

conditions that 

allow street 

prostitution to

flourish 

Costly in the short 

term; potential

displacement to

more vulnerable 

areas 

24. 29 Securing

abandoned 

buildings 

Keeps prostitutes

and clients from 

having private 

places for sexual

transactions 

...sexual 

transactions take 

place in

abandoned 

buildings 

Costs of securing

buildings; potential

displacement to

other locations 

25. 29 Enhancing

lighting 

Improves the 

area's appearance;

improves natural 

surveillance to 

...lighting is

inadequate, and 

sexual 

transactions take 

Costs of lighting 

deter prostitution place in dark,

secluded places 

Responses with Limited Effectiveness

26. 29 Conducting 

sweeps 

Temporarily 

removes 

prostitutes and

clients from the 

streets 

Undermines the 

criminal justice

system and police

integrity; risks 

arresting innocent

people 
38 Street Prostitution

Response Page No. Response How It Works Considerations 

No. Works Best If... 

27. 30 Harassing and

intimidating

prostitutes 

Discourages 

prostitutes from

offending 

Undermines police 

integrity; 

geographically

displaces the

problem 

28. 30 Establishing

formal or 

informal red-light

districts where 

street prostitution

is tolerated 

Reduces nuisance 

complaints;

increases the 

police ability to

monitor street 

prostitution and

related crime 

...the community 

is willing to

tolerate some 

level of street 

prostitution, and 

the red-light

district can be 

adequately policed

and will not 

attract additional 

clients from other 

communities 

Legality (ruled 

unconstitutional in 

Canada as a local 

option); the 

expansion of street 

prostitution out of

the tolerance zones;

lack of public 

support; ineffective 

in reducing nuisance 

complaints or harm 

to prostitutes under

some conditions;

implies that police

condone 

prostitution 

29. 30 Legalization and 

decriminalization 

of prostitution 

Legalization 

subjects

prostitution to

administrative 

regulation 

Not politically

feasible in 

foreseeable future 

in U.S., U.K. and 

Canada 
Endnotes 39 

Endnotes 

1 Goldstein (1990).

2 Benson and Matthews (1995); Hodgson (1997); Matthews (1993); van Gelder and Kaplan

(1992). 3 Cohen (1980); May, Edmunds and Hough (1999); van Gelder and Kaplan (1992). 

4 Weitzer (2000). 

5 Cohen (1980). 

6 May, Edmunds and Hough (1999); Sterk and Elifson (1990). 

7 Weitzer (1999). 

8 Benson and Matthews (2000). 

9 Matthews (1997); Lowman (1992). 

10 Weitzer (1999). 

11 Eck and Spelman (1987); Sampson and Scott (2000); Benson and Matthews (2000); 

Lowman (1992); Larsen (1996); Getz (1996). 12 Weidner (1999); Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999); Weitzer (1999). 

13 Hubbard (1998). 

14 Weitzer (2000). 

15 San Diego Police Department (1994); San Bernardino Police Department (1999). 

16 Larsen (1996). 

17 Lowman (1992). 

18 Sampson and Scott (2000). 

19 Benson and Matthews (1995). 

20 Canada Department of Justice (1989). 

21 Getz (1996). 

22 Benson and Matthews (2000). 

23 Weitzer (1999). 

24 Sampson and Scott (2000). 

25 Golding (1994); Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999); Sampson and Scott (2000). 

26 Benson and Matthews (1995); Weidner (1999); Weitzer (1999). 

27 Matthews (1997); Larsen (1996). 

28 Sampson and Scott (2000). 

29 Weidner (1999). 

30 Portland Police Bureau and Campbell Resources Inc. (1991). 

31 Spelman (1993); Sampson and Scott (2000). 

32 Sampson and Scott (2000). 

33 Benson and Matthews (1995); Golding (1994). 

References 41 

References 

Benson, C., and R. Matthews (2000). “Police and Prostitution: 

Vice Squads in Britain.” In R. Weitzer (ed.), Sex for Sale: 

Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry. New York: 

Routledge. 

–––– (1995). "Street Prostitution: Ten Facts in Search of a 

Policy." International Journal of the Sociology of Law 23(4):395-

415. 

Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999). "Workable Solutions 

to the Problem of Street Prostitution in Buffalo." Report. 

Buffalo, N.Y.: Buffalo Prostitution Task Force. 

Canada Department of Justice Research Section (1989). 

"Street Prostitution: Assessing the Impact of the Law." 

Synthesis report. Ottawa: Canada Department of Justice. 

Cohen, B. (1980). Deviant Street Networks: Prostitution in New 

York City. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books. 

Eck, J., and W. Spelman (1987). Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented 

Policing in Newport News. Washington, D.C.: Police Executive 

Research Forum. 

Getz, R. (1996). "High-Profile Program Successfully Drives 

Prostitutes Out of Town." Community Policing Exchange 

November/December:6. 

Golding, R. (1994). "Prostitution in Holland." Policing 

10(1):48-57. 

Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem-Oriented Policing. New York: 

McGraw-Hill. 

Hodgson, J. (1997). Games Pimps Play: A Qualitative Analysis of 

Street Prostitution. Toronto: Canadian Scholar's Press. 
42 Street Prostitution 

Hubbard, P. (1998). "Community Action and the 

Displacement of Street Prostitution: Evidence From British 

Cities." Geoforum 29(3):269-286. 

Larsen, N. (1996). "The Effect of Different Police 

Enforcement Policies on the Control of Prostitution.” 

Canadian Public Policy–Analyse de Politiques 22(1):40-55. 

Lowman, J. (1992). "Street Prostitution Control: Some 

Canadian Reflections on the Finsbury Park Experience." 

British Journal of Criminology 32(1):1-17. 

Matthews, R. (1997). "Developing More Effective Strategies 

for Curbing Prostitution." In R. Clarke (ed.), Situational 

Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (2nd ed.). Guilderland, 

N.Y.: Harrow and Heston. 

Matthews, R. (1993). Kerb-crawling, Prostitution and Multi-agency 

Policing. Crime Prevention Unit Series, Paper 43. London: Home 

Office. 

May, T., A. Harocopos and M. Hough (2000). For Love or 

Money: Pimps and the Management of Sex Work. Police Research 

Series, Paper 134. London: Home Office. 

May, T., M. Edmunds and M. Hough (1999). Street Business: 

The Links Between Sex and Drug Markets. Police Research Series, 

Paper 118. London: Home Office. 

Persons, C. (1996). "Sex in the Sunlight: The Effectiveness, 

Efficiency, Constitutionality, and Advisability of Publishing 

Names and Pictures of Prostitutes' Patrons." Vanderbilt Law 

Review 49:1525-1575. 

Portland Police Bureau and Campbell Resources Inc. (1991). 

Crime Prevention in Overnight Lodging: A Guide to Preventing 

Drug Activity, Prostitution and Other Illegal Behavior in Hotels and 

Motels. Portland, Ore.: City of Portland. 
References 43 

Sampson, R., and M. Scott (eds.) (2000). "A Prostitution 

Problem in National City, Calif." Tackling Crime and Other 

Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice. 

San Bernardino (Calif.) Police Department (1999). 

"Prostitution Restraining Order Program." Submission for 

the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in ProblemOriented Policing. 

San Diego Police Department (1994). "Temporary Restraining 

Order Keeps Prostitutes Off Streets." Problem Solving 

Quarterly 7(3/4):3,10-11. 

Spelman, W. (1993). "Abandoned Buildings: Magnets for 

Crime?" Journal of Criminal Justice 21:481-495. 

Sterk, C. and K. Elifson. (1990). "Drug-Related Violence and 

Street Prostitution." In M. De La Rosa, E. Lambert and B. 

Gropper (eds.). Drugs and Violence: Causes, Correlates and 

Consequences. NIDA Research Monograph 103. Rockville, 

Md.: U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 

van Gelder, P. and C. Kaplan. (1992). "The Finishing 

Moment: Temporal and Spatial Features of Sexual 

Interactions Between Streetwalkers and Car Clients. Human 

Organization 51(3): 253-263. 

Weidner, R. (1999). "'I Won't Do Manhattan': A Study of the 

Causes and Consequences of a Decline in Street 

Prostitution." Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University. 

Weitzer, R. (ed.) (2000). Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography 

and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge. 

Weitzer, R. (1999). "Prostitution Control in America: 

Rethinking Public Policy. Crime, Law & Social Change 32:83-

102. 

About the Author 45 

About the Author 

Michael S. Scott 

Michael S. Scott is an independent police consultant based in 

Savannah, Ga. He was formerly chief of police in Lauderhill, 

Fla.; served in various civilian administrative positions in the 

St. Louis Metropolitan, Ft. Pierce, Fla., and New York City 

police departments; and was a police officer in the Madison, 

Wis., Police Department. Scott developed training programs 

in problem-oriented policing at the Police Executive Research 

Forum (PERF), and is a judge for PERF's Herman Goldstein 

Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. He is the 

author of Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 

Years, and coauthor (with Rana Sampson) of Tackling Crime 

and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case Studies in Problem-Solving. 

Scott holds a law degree from Harvard Law School and a 

bachelor's degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 

Recommended Readings 47 

Recommended Readings 

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their 

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This 

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners 

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying 

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It 

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys. 

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory 

Guide for Police Problem Solvers, by John E. Eck (U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, 2001). This guide is a companion to the 

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It provides basic 

guidance to measuring and assessing problem-oriented 

policing efforts. Available at www.cops.usdoj.gov. 

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel 

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with 

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic 

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The 

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs. 

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke 

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of 

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing 

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of 

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems. 
48 Street Prostitution 

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing: The 1999 

Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This document 

produced by the National Institute of Justice in 

collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum 

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the 

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A 

similar publication is available for the award winners from 

subsequent years. The documents are also available at 

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij. 

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime 

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office 

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and 

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or 

ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in 

England and Wales. 

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for 

Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V. Clarke 

(Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98, 1998). 

Explains how crime theories such as routine activity theory, 

rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have 

practical implications for the police in their efforts to 

prevent crime. 

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein 

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990). 

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented 

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses 

how a police agency can implement the concept. 
Recommended Readings 49 

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 

Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000). 

Describes how the most critical elements of Herman 

Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have 

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes 

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report 

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov. 

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport 

News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman (Police 

Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the rationale 

behind problem-oriented policing and the problem-solving 

process, and provides examples of effective problemsolving in one agency. 

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and 

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships by 

Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy 

Rinehart, and Meg Townsend (U.S. Department of Justice, 

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 1998) 

(also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides a brief 

introduction to problem-solving, basic information on the 

SARA model and detailed suggestions about the problemsolving process. 

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, 

Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke (Harrow and 

Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and methods of 

situational crime prevention, and presents over 20 case 

studies of effective crime prevention initiatives. 
50 Street Prostitution 

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case 

Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson and 

Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available 

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective 

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder 

problems. 

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for 

Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, 2001) (also available at 

www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides an introduction for police 

to analyzing problems within the context of problemoriented policing. 

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement 

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G. 

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains 

many of the basics of research as it applies to police 

management and problem-solving. 
Other Guides in the Series 51 

Other Guides in This Series 

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series (available at 

www.cops.usdoj.gov): 

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes. 

Rana Sampson. 2001. 

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001. 

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. 

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V. 

Clarke. 2002. 

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. 

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. 

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. 

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. 

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. 

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002. 

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002. 

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 

2002. 

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002. 

Companion guide to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series: 

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for 

Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002. 
52 Street Prostitution 

Other Related COPS Office Publications 

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for Law 

Enforcement. Timothy S. Bynum. 

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years. 

Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case 

Studies in Problem-Solving. Rana Sampson and Michael S. Scott. 

2000. 

• Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative 

Justice: Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced 

Approach to Public Safety. Caroline G. Nicholl. 1999. 

• Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing 

Community Policing. Caroline G. Nicholl. 2000. 

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and 

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships. Karin 

Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and 

Meg Townsend. 1998. 

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series 

and other COPS Office publications, please call the Department of 

Justice Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or check our website at 

www.cops.usdoj.gov. 

FOR MORE INFORMATION: 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services 

1100 Vermont Avenue, NW 

Washington, D.C. 20530 

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the 

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770

Visit the COPS internet web site by the address listed below. 

e05011552 Created Date: June 13, 2002 

www.cops.usdoj.gov