U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Shoplifting

by

Ronald V. Clarke

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

No. 11

Shoplifting

Ronald V. Clarke

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #99-

CK-WX-K004 by the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions

contained herein are those of the author(s) and do not

necessarily represent the official position of the U.S.

Department of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series

Guide No. 11

About the Guide Series i

About the Guide Series

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge

about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific

crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention

and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to

investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. The

guides are written for police–of whatever rank or

assignment–who must address the specific problem the guides

cover. The guides will be most useful to officers who

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and

methods. The guides are not primers in problem-oriented

policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to

focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the

problem, and means to assess the results of a problemoriented policing project. They are designed to help police

decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have

already identified. (An assessment guide has been produced

as a companion to this series and the COPS Office has also

published an introductory guide to problem analysis. For

those who want to learn more about the principles and

methods of problem-oriented policing, the assessment and

analysis guides, along with other recommended readings, are

listed at the back of this guide.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to

spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and

responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before

responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is

most likely to work in your community. You should not

blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must

decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation.

What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what

works in one place may not work everywhere.
ii Shoplifting

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business.

The guides describe responses that other police

departments have used or that researchers have tested.

While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your

particular problem, they should help give a broader view of

the kinds of things you could do. You may think you

cannot implement some of these responses in your

jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when

police have discovered a more effective response, they have

succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving

the response to the problem.

• Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is

available to the police; for other problems, little is available.

Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing

research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more

research on that particular problem. Regardless, research

has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you

might have about the problem. The research may help get

you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot

tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the

particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of

keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant

research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed

to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed

and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of

each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a

complete bibliography of research on the subject.

• Are willing to work with other community agencies to find

effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot

implement many of the responses discussed in the guides.

They must frequently implement them in partnership with

other responsible private and public entities. An effective

problem-solver must know how to forge genuine
About the Guide Series iii

partnerships with others and be prepared to invest

considerable effort in making these partnerships work.

These guides have drawn on research findings and police

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,

Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.

Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from

country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be

aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders

of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide

feedback on this guide and to report on your own agency's

experiences dealing with a similar problem. Your agency may

have effectively addressed a problem using responses not

considered in these guides and your experiences and

knowledge could benefit others. This information will be used

to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback and

share your experiences it should be sent via e-mail to

cops_pubs@usdoj.gov.

Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series is very much a

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary author,

other project team members, COPS Office staff and

anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by

proposing text, recommending research and offering

suggestions on matters of format and style.

The principal project team developing the guide series

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, University

of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, professor of

criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. Eck, associate

professor of criminal justice, University of Cincinnati;

Michael S. Scott, police consultant, Savannah, Ga.; Rana

Sampson, police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm

Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State

University.

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw the

project for the COPS Office. Megan Tate Murphy

coordinated the peer reviews for the COPS Office. Suzanne

Fregly edited the guides. Research for the guides was

conducted at the Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers

University under the direction of Phyllis Schultze by Gisela

Bichler-Robertson, Rob Guerette and Laura Wyckoff.

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members of

the San Diego, National City and Savannah police

departments who provided feedback on the guides' format

and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the line

police officers, police executives and researchers who peer

reviewed each guide.

Contents

About the Guide Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Factors Contributing to Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Goods Sold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Seasonal and Temporal Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Retail Policies, Staffing and Stock Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Store Layout and Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Understanding Your Local Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Locations/Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Conditions Facilitating Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Current Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

General Considerations for an Effective Response Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

Specific Responses to Reduce Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Retailing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Contents vii
viii Shoplifting

Shoplifting Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Shoplifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Other Guides in This Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
The Problem of Shoplifting 1

The Problem of Shoplifting†

This guide discusses measures to reduce shoplifting (theft of

store merchandise during business hours). It focuses mainly

on the usual shoplifting method of concealing items in

clothing or bags. It does not cover unusual forms of theft

involving trickery, as occasionally practiced in jewelers' shops.

In many cases, the preventive techniques discussed will also

apply to "price switching" (switching price tags from less

expensive to more expensive items) and refund fraud

(returning stolen or fraudulently acquired items for cash

refunds). Due to the lack of available research, the guide

makes few distinctions between (1) casual, opportunistic

shoplifting and (2) shoplifting committed by "professionals,"

or gangs of thieves who sometimes descend on a particular

mall or shopping center to take advantage of lax security or

unsuspecting shop owners.

The guide begins by reviewing factors that increase the risks

of shoplifting. It then lists a series of questions that might

help you analyze your local shoplifting problem. Finally, it

reviews responses to the problem, and what is known about

them from evaluative research. It will be apparent that there

are many gaps in knowledge, and that particularly lacking is

information about the market for goods stolen by shoplifters.

Police data seriously under-represent the extent of shoplifting

–one of the most common but least detected and reported

crimes. This is shown by studies in which researchers have (1)

asked people to report whether they have shoplifted, (2)

followed people into shops to see if they steal anything, and

(3) compared counts of marked items with sales of those

items. All three methods have revealed very high rates of

undetected and unreported thefts. For example, one careful

† Sometimes known as retail theft.
2 Shoplifting

review of the evidence suggested that only about one in 150

shoplifting incidents leads to the offender's apprehension and

subsequent police action.1

It is perhaps not surprising that shoplifting is so widespread.

Shops contain new goods, temptingly displayed. Self-service

sales methods, now so common, provide ample opportunity

for shoppers to handle goods (many of which are

prepackaged) and conceal them in clothing or bags. People

seem to have fewer inhibitions about stealing from shops than

from private individuals. They know they have little chance of

getting caught, and, if caught, they can often produce

plausible excuses such as forgetting to pay.

The stock control in shops is so deficient that few retailers

know how many goods they lose to shoplifters, or even to

their own staff. So long as theft and damage of goods, known

in the retail industry as shrinkage, does not rise above 2 to 3

percent of goods sold, retailers may pay little attention to

shoplifting. Indeed, they have certain incentives to do so:

Stolen goods may be taken as tax write-offs; detection and

prosecution of shoplifters takes time and energy; mistaken

apprehensions can result in lawsuits; and the store could

acquire a reputation for crime if it continually reports

shoplifting.† This means retailers may be unwilling to take

official action against shoplifters, especially those who claim it

is their first offense, show fear or remorse, and/or agree to

pay for the items stolen.

In addition, some retailers believe that the police can do little

about the problem and may be unwilling to get involved.2

Others see the role of the police as simply to take charge of

thieves whom store detectives or security staff have caught,

and to decide on their subsequent handling. When particularly

blatant shoplifting occurs, or when "professional" shoplifters

are thought to be operating, merchants may call upon the

† In some cases, especially for small

shops in transitional neighborhoods,

fear of retaliation by the thief might

also prevent retailers from reporting

offenses to the police.
The Problem of Shoplifting 3

police to take some kind of preventive action, usually in the

form of increased presence or patrols. This may be of little

deterrent value, since shoplifting takes place inside the store,

away from police view. Consequently, this guide focuses on

other preventive actions police might take. In many cases,

their most important task is to persuade store owners and

managers to improve their security. This is difficult, because

many retailers believe that the police should protect them

from dishonest people, people who should be caught and

punished.† As mentioned, others are content to ignore the

problem until it seriously affects profits.3 Whatever the

reasons, the police may have an uphill task convincing retailers

that their sales practices and lack of security may be

contributing to the problem.

Faced with these attitudes, it is tempting for police to wash

their hands of shoplifting and let the shops bear the

consequences. But there are many reasons why this may be

shortsighted, including the following:

• Shoplifting is often regarded as an entry crime, from which

juveniles graduate to more serious offenses.

• Shoplifting can be said to fuel the drug trade, because it

provides the income some addicts need to buy drugs.

• For stores in deprived neighborhoods, shoplifting can

seriously erode profits and result in store closures. This can

depress employment prospects and further erode the

amenities in such neighborhoods.

• Shoplifting can consume a large proportion of police

resources in processing offenders whom store security staff

have detained. Indeed, the main police role in regard to this

offense is to channel shoplifters caught by private security

into the criminal justice system. In this regard, the police are

at the mercy of merchants who may avoid changing their

business practices in favor of simply relying on security

staff and police to handle shoplifters. Unfortunately, there

is little hard evidence that this results in reduced shoplifting

by those arrested or by others who learn about the arrests.††

† British retailers, in particular, have

sought to avoid the term

"shoplifting" on grounds that it

suggests a less serious form of theft.

They prefer "shop theft." However,

"shoplifting" has been in use since

the 17th century (Walsh 1978).

†† Studies of criminal sanctioning

have consistently failed to show any

clear deterrent effects. In regard to

shoplifting, the chances of getting

caught are so low, and the risks of

severe punishment so small, that

most researchers believe offenders

pay little attention to the possible

costs (Bamfield 1997; Burrows 1988).
4 Shoplifting

For all these reasons, police cannot ignore shoplifting. The

challenge facing them is to conduct a thorough analysis of the

local problem, guided by the information presented here, to

put together a combination of preventive responses.

Related Problems

Shoplifting is only one of the crimes that occur in the retail

environment. Other problems requiring their own analyses

and responses include:

• employee thefts (usually thought to account for more

shrinkage than shoplifting);

• credit card and check frauds;

• burglaries (see related guide in this series);

• smash-and-grabs;

• thefts from open-air or covered market stalls;

• thefts and frauds by delivery personnel;

• vendor frauds, shortchanging and other offenses; and

• harassment of immigrant shopkeepers.

Factors Contributing to Shoplifting 

Understanding the factors that contribute to your problem

will help you frame your own local analysis questions,

determine good measures of effectiveness, recognize key

points of intervention, and select an appropriate set of

responses. Many of the factors contributing to a heightened

risk of shoplifting are under management control, while

others, such as seasonal and temporal patterns, are not; even

in the latter case, however, knowledge of those patterns can

assist in framing a preventive response.
The Problem of Shoplifting 5

Goods Sold 

Perhaps the principal factor determining a store's shoplifting

rate is the type of goods sold.4 For obvious reasons, furniture

stores have much lower shoplifting rates than, say,

convenience or drug stores. The following table shows the

most common items stolen in the United States. These

include tobacco products (particularly cigarettes), health and

beauty products (such as over-the-counter analgesics,

decongestants, popular remedies, and birth control products),†

recorded music and videos, and apparel ranging from athletic

shoes to children's clothing, with an emphasis on designer

labels.††

† Clarke (1999) has noted that

certain analgesics contain ingredients

that can be used in making other

drugs, and that decongestants help to

produce a high when taken together

with some illegal drugs. He has also

noted that some frequently stolen

products, such as hemorrhoid

remedies and condoms, can be

embarrassing to buy, and has

suggested that stores find

embarrassment-reducing ways to sell

these products. The self-checkout

system recently introduced by some

supermarkets might provide a

solution. It allows customers to scan

and bag their own goods. A

conspicuous camera is mounted to

monitor the transactions, and a

software system detects irregularities.

†† These are national data and are

subject to local variations. Some

jurisdictions may experience local

fads for stealing particular items.

††† These items seem to have

displaced meat, which many police

still believe is the most common item

stolen from grocery stores and

supermarkets.

Store Type Merchandise

Auto parts Small accessories: dash covers,

compact disc players, driving 

gloves

Book Cassette tapes, magazines 

Consumer electronics/ CDs

Computer

Department Clothing: shirts, particularly 

Hilfiger and Polo 

Discount Clothing, undergarments, CDs

Drug/pharmacy Cigarettes, batteries, over-thecounter remedies

General merchandise Earrings

Grocery/supermarket Over-the-counter remedies,

health and beauty aids,

cigarettes†††

Home center/hardware Hand tools

Music CDs

Shoe Sneakers

Specialty Bed sheets

High-Risk Merchandise, by Store Type

(based on items recovered from shoplifters)
6 Shoplifting

The acronym CRAVED captures the essential attributes of

these "hot products": they are concealable, removable,

available, valuable, enjoyable, and disposable. The last of these

attributes, disposability, may be the most important in

determining the volume of goods shoplifted. Those

shoplifting for a living or to support a drug habit–who

account for a disproportionate share of items stolen–must be

able to sell or barter what they steal. Unfortunately, little is

known about the market for shoplifted goods.5

Store sections carrying hot products are the most vulnerable

to shoplifting. One study of shoplifting in a large London

music store found that the highest theft rates were in the

Store Type Merchandise

Specialty apparel Assorted clothes with designer 

labels

Sporting goods Nike shoes

Theme park Key chains, jewelry 

Toy Action figures

Video Video games

Warehouse Pens, movie videos 

Source: Adapted from Hayes (1997), pp. 236, 242-245.

Ronald Clarke

Self-checkout systems such as the one shown on the left are a new alternative to the

standard clerk checkout seen on the right and might reduce theft of products that

some shoppers find embarrassing to buy.
The Problem of Shoplifting 7

sections carrying rock and pop recordings (nowadays, it would

probably be rap or hip-hop). Equally expensive recordings in

the classical music department were rarely stolen.6

Customers 

Much shoplifting is opportunistic, which means that

shoplifters are often little different from a store's regular

customers. Stores that attract younger people in general, and

males in particular, are more likely to experience shoplifting:

research has consistently shown these groups are more often

involved in theft. It is beyond the scope of this guide to

discuss all the social and psychological reasons for theft,†

though it should be noted that some thieves believe

shoplifting harms no one except an anonymous business that

can take the losses as a tax write-off.

Apart from these factors, researchers have identified some

personal characteristics related to shoplifting, and they have

also developed typologies of shoplifters.7 Most of this work

has little relevance for policing strategies, beyond the fact that

in many communities, the groups most involved appear to be

juveniles and substance abusers.8

Seasonal and Temporal Patterns 

Most shoplifting occurs when stores are busiest, with the

majority of incidents occurring late in the week, between

Wednesday and Saturday.9 Seasonal shoplifting corresponds

with the demand for goods, which means that much

shoplifting occurs during pre-Easter, pre-summer and preChristmas periods. As mentioned, juveniles commit much

shoplifting, and consequently, high-risk times include nonschool days, late mornings and afternoons into the evening.10

† See Klemke (1993) for a

comprehensive review.
8 Shoplifting

Location 

Research does not provide a clear indication of the risk

factors related to a store's location, but shoplifting rates tend

to be higher for stores located:

• in city centers and other busy places, with a large number of

casual customers;

• near schools, with many juvenile customers; and

• in deprived areas, with large concentrations of impoverished

or addicted residents.

Research also provides evidence that stores that "front onto

the open-street appear more likely to attract shoplifting than

those in enclosed malls due to greater 'opportunity' to escape

from the former."11

Retail Policies, Staffing and Stock Control

To some degree, retail policies, staffing and stock control are

management's responsibility, but they are heavily influenced

by the broader retail environment: competitive, profit-driven

and technology-dependent. For example, stock control has

been deficient in the past because the time and effort required

to keep proper track of stock have barely been justified by

any resulting improvements in profit due to reduced theft.

However, increased competition is continually eroding retail

profit margins, and thus the incentive to reduce shrinkage is

increasing. The more widespread use of merchandise bar

coding and point-of-sales technology at checkout is resulting

in big improvements in stock control. These improvements

can be expected to increase with further technological

developments.12

Similarly, sales policies and staffing are partly determined by

the broader retail environment. It would be impossibly

expensive for most stores to abandon self-service and rely
The Problem of Shoplifting 9

instead on armies of helpful, attentive sales clerks, even

though this would substantially reduce shoplifting. The

savings in reduced theft would be greatly outweighed by

increased staff wages and, possibly, by sales lost as a result of

shoppers' being unable to inspect goods at their leisure.

Marketing considerations might also limit the scope for

tightening up return policies, which, if too liberal, can

encourage theft of goods to be returned for cash refunds. For

example, some clothing stores do not have changing rooms

because the staff costs of monitoring them to prevent

shoplifting may be too great, or because there is no room for

them. Such stores must allow the return of clothes that do

not fit or are otherwise unsuitable.

Store Layout and Displays

Research provides little guidance, but common sense suggests

certain store layout and display features contribute to

shoplifting.13 Most of these relate to the staff's ability to

supervise shoppers, and stores at greater risk include those

with:

• many exits, particularly where they are accessible without

passing through the checkout;

• passageways, blind corners and hidden alcoves;

• restrooms or changing rooms;

• high displays that conceal shoppers (and shoplifters) from

view;

• crowded areas around displays of high-risk items; and

• aisles that staff cannot easily survey from one end.

Store areas at greater risk of shoplifting include, as

mentioned, those with the most desirable goods. In addition,

goods on the ground floor and near entrances are at greater

risk of theft, because the shoplifter is in the store for less

time and is thus at less risk of getting caught.

Understanding Your Local Problem 11

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized

description of shoplifting. You must combine the basic facts

with a more specific understanding of your local problem if

you are to develop an effective response. In most cases, your

problem is likely to involve a group of stores, such as those in

a town center, mall or shopping precinct. If it involves a

single store (unless the store is very large), it is more

appropriate to offer routine crime prevention advice than to

undertake a full-scale problem-oriented policing project.

Accordingly, your analysis is likely to focus on differential

risks of shoplifting among the stores in your group, and the

reasons for those differences. In any case, the measures

appropriate to deal with the problem will vary with the nature

of the stores at risk.

Knowing who is committing the offenses, and why, will help

you decide how difficult they will be to stop. You will also

need to understand how the offenses are committed. This will

require a careful study of shop security practices.

Comparisons between shops can greatly assist in

understanding the conditions that facilitate theft.

Analysis of shoplifting is made difficult by low rates of

reporting, and by the fact that police records rarely permit

shoplifting offenses to be readily identified among reported

thefts. There are other ways to gather information about your

local problem, but these, too, have their difficulties:

• Store apprehensions may provide some useful information,

but the data tend to say more about surveillance and

apprehension practices than about the "typical" offender, or

even the most targeted goods.
12 Shoplifting

• Observational studies–in which randomly selected shoppers

are followed around the store–can produce some useful

results, but they are labor-intensive and ethically

problematic. If followed by police or security, those

observed stealing would have to be apprehended; if

followed by researchers, the police or the store might be

criticized for permitting this approach.14

• Identifying "hot" items among paying customers may also

reveal those likely to be targeted by thieves. However, such

items may already be well protected by the store's security,

and theft might be concentrated on less popular but still

desirable goods.

• The most accurate way to assess retail theft is repeated

systematic counting of items on display, but this, again, is

labor-intensive.† It is also difficult to determine whether

losses are due to theft by customers or by staff, or whether

they are the result of innocent clerical error.

In some cases, store stock-control records or staff may be

able to provide information about items particularly

vulnerable to theft. However, whenever possible, you should

check such information by gathering additional data, as

discussed above. The effort required to obtain accurate

information about problems is almost always justified by the

improved responses that result.

Asking the Right Questions 

The following are some critical questions you should ask in

analyzing your particular problem of shoplifting, even if the

answers are not always readily available. Your answers to these

and other questions will help you choose the most

appropriate set of responses later on.

† McNees et al. (1976) pioneered an

effective method of conducting

routine shrinkage assessments that

can be used on a large scale to

evaluate the success of measures

designed to reduce shoplifting

(Buckle et al. 1992). Small tags, colorcoded by type of item, were attached

to the price tag of each high-risk

item in a store. An inventory of all

items was taken before opening the

store for business. When items were

sold, the clerks removed the tags, and

they were counted at the end of the

day. The store manager then added

the number of tagged items sold to

the number of items left on the

floor. If the total did not match the

initial inventory, then the residual

number of items were presumed

stolen. See also Farrington et al.

(1993) and Farrington (1999) for a

description of this process.
Understanding Your Local Problem 13

Incidents 

• How many incidents are detected?

• How much is typically lost (dollar value of goods, lost

profit)?

• What proportion of shrinkage does shoplifting account for?

Compared with employee theft or delivery fraud?

• How do targeted stores' shrinkage rates compare with those

of similar-size stores of the same type?

• Which items do shoplifters target most frequently? 

• Do the goods stolen fit the CRAVED model? (See the

"Factors Contributing to Shoplifting/Goods Sold" section

above.)

• Are they sold or kept for personal use?

• If sold, how so?

Offenders

• What is known about offenders? Do they tend to belong to

any particular demographic group? What proportion are

juveniles? 

• What proportions of offenders are casual/opportunistic,

professionals or addicts? Are organized rings involved? 

• Do some types of offenders use particular shoplifting

methods or target particular goods? 

• Are there repeat offenders?

Locations/Times

• What is the nature of the surrounding neighborhood?

• When do thefts mainly occur (time of day, day of week,

month, season)? Are certain items more commonly stolen

during certain seasons (e.g., batteries for toys at

Christmastime)?

• Is the problem concentrated at particular stores, or does it

affect a cluster of stores? If concentrated at particular

stores, what do they have in common?
14 Shoplifting

Conditions Facilitating Shoplifting

• How large is the store? What type of store is it? What

market segment does it target?

• What are the store's hours? Is it open at night? Are nearby

businesses open at night and on weekends? 

• Does the store have a security department or set of policies

on apprehending shoplifters?

• Does it treat shoplifting as a business cost? Or does it invest

resources in prevention?

• Does it report shoplifting incidents to the police? 

• How adequate is stock control? 

• Where are targeted goods located in the store?

• Is lack of natural surveillance a contributory factor? Can

thieves conceal goods without being seen?

• After stealing, can thieves evade store employees?

• Is there more than one escape route?

• What security hardware does the store have? Mirrors?

Electronic tagging? Closed-circuit television (CCTV)

cameras? 

• What other prevention measures are in place?

Current Responses

• How do police currently handle shoplifting incidents?

• Do police train or regulate private security forces?

• How do prosecutors handle shoplifting charges?

• What sentences do courts typically hand down for convicted

offenders? Do offenders comply with the sentences?

Measuring Your Effectiveness

You should take measures of your problem before you

implement responses, to determine how serious the problem

is, and after you implement them, to determine whether they

have been effective. Measurement allows you to determine to

what degree your efforts have succeeded, and suggests how

you might modify your responses if they are not producing
Understanding Your Local Problem 15

the intended results. For more detailed guidance on measuring

effectiveness, see the companion guide to this series, Assessing

Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police ProblemSolvers. 

Potential indicators of an effective response to shoplifting

include:

• fewer repeat offenders,

• decreased shrinkage,

• increased sales, and

• increased profits.

If you suspect that shoplifting is currently underreported to

police, increased reporting might be a positive indicator of

your efforts, at least temporarily. If you suspect too few

shoplifters are getting caught, a temporary increase in

apprehensions might also be a positive indicator. Ultimately,

though, the number of reported thefts and apprehensions

should decline as the number of actual shoplifting incidents

declines.

Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 17

Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting

Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better

understanding of the factors contributing to it. Once you

have analyzed your local problem and established a baseline

for measuring effectiveness, you should consider possible

responses to address the problem.

The following response strategies provide a foundation of

ideas for addressing your particular problem. These strategies

are drawn from a variety of research studies and police

reports. Several of them may apply to your community's

problem. It is critical that you tailor responses to local

circumstances, and that you can justify each response based

on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will

involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering

what police can do: give careful consideration to who else in

your community shares responsibility for the problem and can

help police better respond to it.

This section reviews what is known about the effectiveness of

various practices in dealing with shoplifting. Unfortunately,

the information is severely limited because few of the

common preventive practices have been evaluated. Retailers

have been reluctant to undertake the necessary studies, and to

share the results of any studies they do complete.

Government has funded little research in this field, generally

regarding it as the private sector's domain.

In the absence of research, you cannot assume that retailers

have learned through long experience what does and does not
18 Shoplifting

work. For example, hiring store detectives is a staple response

to shoplifting, but as will be seen below, their effectiveness is

questionable. Hiring them usually seems to be an economic

choice dictated by the need to do something about

shoplifting.

General Considerations for an Effective Response

Strategy 

Police can do little on their own to prevent shoplifting, and

you will have to persuade the retailers themselves to act. You

may have to explain why police can achieve little through

more patrols, and why heavier court sentences are of limited

value. You may want to explain how the store's goods and

sales practices may be contributing to the problem. You may

have to convince retailers that they cannot ignore the

problem, due to the costs to the community and, in the long

run, the stores themselves. Finally, you will have to offer them

guidance on preventive measures they can take to reduce the

problem.

It is important that shoplifting responses be selective and

based on a thorough understanding of the risks. For example,

the highest-risk goods should be given the greatest

protection.15 Trying to provide equal protection to all goods

is inefficient and could lead to a loss of focus. In addition, it

might be better to concentrate on preventing shoplifting by

young or casual shoplifters, who are easier to deter and who

may account for many thefts, than to focus on the much

smaller number of "professionals," who are harder to defeat.

As explained, in framing advice, you must think carefully

about the nature of the risk, which varies greatly with the

kind of store and the goods offered. These factors also
Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 19

determine the nature of the remedies. The security approach

required for a self-service supermarket is quite different from

that required for a jewelry store. Department stores with huge

turnovers of expensive goods can afford to spend much more

on security than small retailers can. In all cases, you must

appreciate stores' need to make a profit. This determines

selling practices and how much money is available for

preventing shoplifting.

Even when shops can afford more for security, they are likely

to resist this expenditure. In making your case, you may need

to:

• calculate the likely cost of measures such as installing CCTV

or hiring security guards;

• convince owners that they can recoup the cost of increased

security through reduced losses associated with

shoplifting–item replacement, profit and lawsuit losses;

• enlist the support of the chamber of commerce or other

business organizations in persuading owners to improve

security; and

• brief the local media on the problem and the proposed

solutions.

Effective prevention often depends on well-rounded strategies

encompassing good retailing practices, appropriate staffing,

carefully articulated shoplifting policies, and selective

technology use.16 These components are reviewed below and

are summarized in the appendix. Many depend on retailers'

actions, but police may also have to collaborate with others in

the community, including loss prevention specialists, business

associations and court officials.
20 Shoplifting

Specific Responses To Reduce Shoplifting

Retailing Practice 

Good management is the first line of defense against

shoplifting. Managers must ensure that stores are properly laid

out, have adequate inventory controls and follow standard

security practices.

1. Improving store layout and displays. Store layout and

displays must make it easier for staff to exercise effective

surveillance. This includes:

• reducing the number of exits, blind corners and recesses;

• carefully placing mirrors;

• providing good, even lighting;

• eliminating clutter and obstructions;

• placing goods away from entrances and exits;

• creating clear sight lines in aisles and reducing the height of

displays;

• reducing crowding near displays of high-risk items;

• moving hot products into higher-security zones with more

staff surveillance; and 

• speeding up checkout to reduce congestion and waiting,

which provide the opportunity for concealment.
Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 21

2. Tightening stock controls. Inventory control procedures

must permit shoplifting trends to be detected, and shoplifting to

be distinguished from employee theft.

3. Upgrading retail security. Standard security must make

shoplifting more difficult. This may include:

• restricting the number of unaccompanied children allowed in

small neighborhood stores;

• establishing clear rules for use of changing rooms in clothing

stores;

• displaying only the cassette, CD and video cases in music and

video stores (and only one shoe per pair in shoe shops);

• keeping high-value items in locked displays, or securing them

through cable locks and security hangers;

• encouraging shoppers to use supermarket-type baskets for

purchases (which removes the excuse for putting things in

their own bags or pockets);

Properly placed mirrors like this "fish-eye" mirror, allow staff to keep

watch over customers and goods that might otherwise be hidden from view.

Kip Kellogg
22 Shoplifting

• sealing bags of legitimate purchases to reduce impulse

stealing;

• giving receipts and, where there is a high risk of shoplifting,

checking them against goods on exit; and

• requiring proof of purchase for refunds.

4. Posting warning notices on high-risk merchandise.

Many stores display signs reminding customers that

shoplifting is a crime, and warning that shoplifters will be

prosecuted. Some stores display these signs alongside a lifesize cardboard cutout of a police officer. Nothing is known

about the effectiveness of these generalized warnings, and

since most shoplifters know they might get caught and

punished, it is doubtful that such warnings have more than a

marginal deterrent effect on a few susceptible people.

However, one well-known study showed that when specific

merchandise was prominently marked with large red stars as

being frequently taken by shoplifters, shoplifting was virtually

eliminated. The researchers explained that publicly identifying

specific items made the threat of detection and apprehension

tangible.17 

Kip Kellogg

Cluttered merchandise displays make it harder for staff to monitor

shoplifting.
Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 23

Staffing 

5. Hiring more and better-trained sales staff. Stores

should hire sufficient numbers of staff to properly oversee

goods and customers, especially at high-risk periods for

shoplifting. Stores must train staff to be attentive to

customers and alert for thieves. They also need to train staff

in procedures for dealing with shoplifting incidents.†

6. Hiring store detectives. Though certain kinds of stores

widely employ store detectives, research suggests detectives

may have only a limited impact on shoplifting. When

researchers have followed random samples of people entering

stores, few of those they have observed shoplifting have also

been seen by the store detectives.18 A study in a large London

music store, with four store detectives on duty at any one

time, suggested that the store would need to hire 17 times this

number to be able to catch all the shoplifters likely to enter

the store–clearly not an economic proposition.19 Most stores

do not advertise store detectives' presence, but some do.

Advertising their presence may provide a greater deterrent,

but it may also mean that shoplifters exercise greater caution.

No research has evaluated these possibilities.

While it must be assumed that store detectives have some

deterrent value, it is possible that they lower other staff's

vigilance. It is also important that store detectives spend as

much time as possible on the shop floor, and not have their

time consumed in court attendance or police liaison work.

† Walsh (1978) quotes Fiber's

(1972:250-251) essential advice: "To

sustain a legal action against a

customer for shoplifting, it is usually

necessary to prove that the goods

were taken away, that no payment

was offered and that there was intent

to avoid payment. It is therefore

always advisable to wait until the

suspect has left the shop before

making the accusation; otherwise,

they may claim they intended to pay

before leaving." 

ATTENTION:

SHOPPERS AND SHOPLIFTERS

The items marked with a red star

are frequently stolen by shoplifters.
24 Shoplifting

7. Hiring security guards. Little is known from research

about the effectiveness of uniformed security guards in any

environment–and retail is no exception. Only one small study

has been published, and it suggested that security guards had

less value than electronic article surveillance (EAS) or store

redesign in decreasing the risk of theft. However, only two

stores with guards were studied, and "[o]ne [guard] had never

been a guard before and asked the staff what he should do,

while the other was aged over 60 and relatively small, so it was

thought that he was unlikely to deter shoplifters."20

In general, guards who continually move around, creating an

active, visible presence, are likely to be more effective. To

maximize guards' surveillance, it may be necessary to pay

attention to layout and design, including mirror placement.

Security guards who move around, creating an active, visible presence, are likely

to be more effective at preventing shoplifting.

Kip Kellogg
Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 25

Shoplifting Policies

It is important that stores develop clear shoplifting policies,

and that staff understand those policies. Most stores routinely

refer apprehended shoplifters to the police. For persistent and

blatant offenders, this is clearly necessary. In the case of more

opportunistic shoplifters, many of whom show shock at

getting caught, it is doubtful that police arrest has any

additional deterrent value.† It is also possible that an inflexible

policy of referring shoplifters to the police could result in

reduced staff enthusiasm for apprehending them.21 Stores are

probably best served by a flexible shoplifting policy that

includes formal and informal avenues and, perhaps, civil

recovery.

As mentioned earlier, there is little evidence that prosecuting

ordinary shoplifters is an effective preventive measure. Even

so, belief in the efficacy (and desirability) of prosecution is so

strong among storekeepers and the general public alike that

there is little chance the police will be relieved of this

burden.†† Consequently, there is considerable value in making

the arrest process more efficient. Ways of doing so fall

outside the scope of this guide, but some police forces have

developed systems whereby private security officers are

authorized and trained to write criminal summonses

themselves (after first checking with the police by phone for

outstanding warrants and arrest histories). This obviates the

need for patrol officers to process arrests, but gets the cases

into the formal criminal process, nonetheless.

8. Using civil recovery. In nearly every state, retailers can use

civil law to collect restitution from shoplifters, and many

retailers take advantage of this.22 Civil recovery is designed to

operate quickly, with little recourse to the courts. The typical

sums sought are $250 for adult shoplifters and $120 for

† Sherman and Gartin (1986), in a

randomized experiment, found that

recidivism rates did not differ for two

large groups of apprehended

shoplifters: those released and those

arrested.

†† Not only is shoplifter prosecution

of doubtful preventive value, but

also, practice in this area is fraught

with difficulties: Merchants may see

the police as being at their beck and

call; private security staff may expect

the police to take cases that are not

"good," or that reflect a lack of

discretion (e.g., a 12-year-old stealing

a candy bar) off their hands; and

there are issues regarding obtaining

proper evidence, identifying alleged

offenders, using force, targeting

minorities, imposing burdens on the

criminal justice system, using statutes

or ordinances/summonses or

physical arrests, etc.
26 Shoplifting

juveniles, and in nearly half the cases, these sums are paid.

Civil recovery is not meant to be a substitute for criminal

proceedings. Rather, it is meant to provide an additional

shoplifting deterrent (though of unknown effectiveness). Civil

recovery also allows retailers to defray some of the costs of

loss prevention.

In some states, such as Florida, statutes permit police to help

retailers obtain civil recovery on the spot. With proper

procedural safeguards and reports, the offender can pay the

set civil recovery amount–around $200–directly to the retailer

in the presence of the police, and thereby be spared arrest.

This might cost offenders considerably more than the item

stolen is worth, but it spares them an arrest record.

9. Using informal police sanctions. In many jurisdictions,

large proportions of shoplifters referred to police are dealt

with informally and not brought before the courts. In the

United States, this often entails "first offender" programs.

Upon arrest, first offenders are given the option, as an

alternative to prosecution, of participating in programs in

which they are instructed about the harms of shoplifting. If

the offender completes the program, which usually translates

into attending the required meetings, the initial charge is

dismissed and, sometimes, upon petition, can be erased from

the records, so that the person does not have a "criminal"

record.† In Britain, similar police programs are called

"cautioning." A recent program introduced by the Thames

Valley Police combines counseling modules and a formal

caution, and claims to have substantially reduced re-offending

among juvenile shoplifters. The counseling modules are

selected according to the offender's specific circumstances.

Modules include meetings with store managers, informational

sessions with youth workers about available leisure activities,

and group work to learn about resisting peer pressure to

offend.23

† As an alternative to prosecution,

police sometimes also refer first

offenders to structured programs like

the Stop Shoplifting Education

Program, operated by the Better

Business Bureau of WNY Inc., or the

program offered by Shoplifters

Alternative, a nonprofit organization

based in New York. The Stop

Shoplifting Education Program claims

to reduce recidivism (Better Business

Bureau of WNY Inc. 1993). In

addition, stores themselves sometimes

run first-offender warning programs,

without extensive police involvement.

Stores might check with police to

determine whether the offender has

been charged before and, if not, issue

their own warning, without having an

arrest made.
Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 27

10. Establishing early warning systems. Merchants in

some areas have found it useful to establish a same-day early

warning system whereby they notify one another about the

presence of mobile gangs of shoplifters, but there have been

no formal evaluations of this practice.24

11. Banning known shoplifters. A related but more

controversial practice entails banning offenders from, and

posting their pictures in, stores. Little is known about the

effectiveness of this practice, but if it publicizes shoplifters'

identity, it might have some limited value. Where courts have

not convicted those identified, both the merchants and the

police engaged in the practice are vulnerable to criticism and

legal challenge.

12. Launching public information campaigns. Some

communities have launched media campaigns to inform the

public about the harms of shoplifting, encourage people to

report it, and increase knowledge about the consequences of

apprehension. Posters, pamphlets, classes, and public service

announcements have all been used to get the message across.25

Evaluations of these programs have produced little evidence

that they reduce shoplifting.26

Technology

13. Installing and monitoring CCTV. Improvements in

quality and reductions in cost have resulted in the widespread

use of CCTV to prevent shoplifting. Few evaluations have

been published, though one careful study of 15 clothing

stores in England found that the value of CCTV was directly

related to the sophistication of the system used. Effectiveness

was quite marked in the first few months after installation, but

declined rapidly thereafter, which the researchers explained by
28 Shoplifting

arguing that "would-be offenders became progressively inured

or desensitized to CCTV's deterrent potential."27

Little is known about the value of CCTV in other kinds of

stores, and there is "a raft of unanswered questions about its

impact. These questions relate to:

• the detection of offenders;

• the deterrence of would-be offenders, and possible

displacement of criminal activities elsewhere;

• the relative value of video recordings and real-time images;

• the ability of operators to monitor and make sense of

multiple images;

• the impact on customers (who may be reassured, even when

there are no measurable benefits); and 

• the effect on shop staff (who may become less vigilant

about crime following its installation)."28

Surveillance cameras and CCTV are increasingly used to prevent shoplifting, but more

study is needed to determine their effects.

Kip Kellogg
Responses to the Problem of Shoplifting 29

14. Using electronic article surveillance. Electronic article

surveillance (EAS) is often known as electronic tagging. A tag

is either pinned onto a garment or fixed with adhesive to an

item's packaging. Exit gates detect tags that have not been

removed or deactivated, and sound an alarm. The tags have

been made progressively smaller and more versatile, and the

detectors have become more reliable.† These systems are in

widespread use, but only recently have any evaluations been

published.29 The most comprehensive of these evaluations

used comparisons between stores with and without EAS

systems, and before-and-after studies, in a variety of retail

settings. The authors concluded that EAS could reduce

shoplifting and total inventory shortage from 35 to 75

percent.30 The considerable costs of buying and running EAS

systems must be set against these benefits. Moreover,

knowledgeable offenders can sometimes defeat EAS systems

(see Box).

† Increasingly, tags are now being

included in the packaging of goods at

manufacture (Hobson 2001). This "source

tagging" helps to reduce the costs of using

this method.

Ways of Trying To Beat EAS Systems

• Removing and discarding product packaging in the

store, thereby removing the tag and giving the

appearance that the item is "used." Thieves then may

wear the item in plain view, or conceal it.

• Peeling off the tag, which can sometimes be done

despite strong adhesives–large stores afford offenders

plenty of cover for this.

• Holding the item–and the tag–tightly against the

body.

• Walking out in a group, or closely behind someone.

• Holding items outside the reach of the electronic

surveillance, i.e., lower than a foot above ground

(with shoes, for example), or above shoulder height.

• Using products to deactivate tags.

• Running through the electronic gates and trying to

escape before staff can respond.

• Putting items in insulated bags; the insulation can

prevent the tag from being activated.
30 Shoplifting

15. Attaching ink tags to merchandise. Retailers may attach

ink tags to clothing; such tags are quite different from

electronic tags. Rather than sounding an alarm when removed

from the store, and thus increasing the offender's risk of

getting caught, ink tags remove the rewards of theft by

ruining the garments to which they are affixed when the thief

tries to detach them. To date, only one rigorous evaluation has

been reported; it concluded that ink tags might be more

effective than EAS when used in the same retail

environments.31 Devices are now available that combine the

advantages of both electronic and ink tags, but with the

inevitable disadvantage of increased costs. Other devices not

containing ink are also available, such as small clamps that

cannot be removed from items such as jewelry or eyeglasses.

Electronic tags affixed to goods activate alarms when passed through exit gates.

Electronic tagging has demonstrated effectiveness in preventing shoplifting,

although knowledgeable offenders can sometimes defeat the systems.

Kip Kellogg
Appendix 31

Appendix: Summary of Responses to

Shoplifting

The table below summarizes the responses to shoplifting, the

mechanisms by which they are intended to work, the

conditions under which they ought to work best, and some

factors you should consider before implementing a particular

response. It is critical that you tailor responses to local

circumstances, and that you can justify each response based

on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will

involve implementing several different responses. Law

enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing

or solving the problem.

1.

2.

20

21

Improving store

layout and

displays

Tightening stock

controls

Makes it easier

for staff to

exercise effective

surveillance

Helps managers

to detect changes

in amounts or

patterns of

shoplifting 

...staff are

trained and

motivated to

detect shoplifting

...managers have

incentives to

reduce shoplifting

May be a

relatively

inexpensive

option, but some

stores' basic

design makes it

hard to eliminate

all opportunities

for shoplifters to

conceal their

activity

Increases in

source tagging

and electronic

point-of-sales

systems will

gradually lead to

improvements in

stock control

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Retailing Practice
32 Shoplifting

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

21

22

23

23

24

Upgrading retail

security 

Posting warning

notices on highrisk merchandise

Hiring more and

better-trained

sales staff

Hiring store

detectives

Hiring security

guards

Makes it harder

for shoplifters to

operate

Alerts potential

thieves that the

identified

merchandise may

be subject to

special

surveillance

Makes it harder

for shoplifters to

operate 

Provides a

deterrent,

especially to

casual shoplifters

Provides a

deterrent to

shoplifters who

might otherwise

believe they could

escape if

apprehended by

sales staff

...staff and

managers have

incentives to

reduce shoplifting

...notices identify

the most

frequently

targeted items

...staffing levels

are increased at

high-risk periods 

...stores are large,

so that the

detectives' identity

does not become

known, and the

detectives spend

considerable time

on the shop floor 

...guards are

properly trained,

are physically

imposing and

have an active,

visible presence

Some security

practices may be

unpopular with staff

and customers alike,

and consequently

have the effect of

reducing sales;

sometimes carries

costs in terms of

staff time 

A low-cost measure;

might alarm some

innocent shoppers

Can be a relatively

expensive way to

reduce shoplifting

May not be an

effective deterrent

to "professional"

shoplifters who can

spot store detectives

Guard

characteristics and

behavior are

extremely

important; poor

guards have no

effect on shoplifting 

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Staffing
Appendix 33

8.

9.

10.

11.

25

26

27

27

Using civil

recovery

Using informal

police sanctions

Establishing early

warning systems

Banning known

shoplifters

May not deter

shoplifting, but

provides retailers

with a practical

means of

recovering some

of the costs of it

Saves time for

retailers, police

and the criminal

justice system,

though its

deterrent value is

unknown 

Eliminates the

element of

surprise

shoplifting gangs

often rely on 

Alerts staff to the

presence of

known

shoplifters, whom

they may then ask

to leave the

premises; deters

known shoplifters

from entering the

store; deters

shoplifting by

others

...administrative

procedures are

clear and

uncomplicated,

and shoplifters

are able to pay

restitution 

...combined with

efforts to change

offenders'

attitudes about

shoplifting 

...the systems are

operated by stores

whose

merchandise is

targeted by gangs

of shoplifters 

... the identities

of those who

have been

convicted of

shoplifting are

publicized 

May not be an

option for small

retailers who lack

the time and

resources to pursue

it

Usually used only

with first-time

offenders; often

limited to juveniles

A low-cost, sensible

precaution for

stores vulnerable to

shoplifting gangs

May have some

limited value in

deterring

shoplifting, but

where those

identified have not

been convicted by a

court, both the

merchants and the

police engaged in

the practice are

vulnerable to legal

challenge

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Shoplifting Policies
34 Shoplifting

12.

13.

27

27

Launching public

information

campaigns 

Installing and

monitoring

CCTV

Informs the

public about the

harms of

shoplifting;

encourages people

to report

shoplifting;

increases

knowledge about

the consequences

of apprehension

Increases

surveillance of

vulnerable

merchandise and

locations; can also

be used to identify

offenders after the

act and/or

provide evidence

for charges

...used to

advertise new

anti-shoplifting

measures 

...CCTV cameras

are located close

to key areas (but

retailers should

guard against

offenders'

sneaking off to

conceal goods

elsewhere, such as

around blind

corners, in

elevators and in

stairwells)

Little evidence

exists that these

campaigns reduce

shoplifting, but they

might change

community attitudes

Employees must be

properly trained to

use the equipment;

the equipment must

be of good enough

quality to enable

close watch to be

kept on suspicious

individuals; those

who watch the

monitors quickly

become fatigued

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Technology
Appendix 35

14.

15.

29

30

Using electronic

article

surveillance 

Attaching ink tags

to merchandise

Detects

shoplifters trying

to leave the store

with concealed

goods 

Removes the

rewards of

shoplifting by

rendering stolen

goods unusable

...tags are

difficult to

remove without

damaging goods 

...combined with

EAS

Staff may become

complacent about

other antitheft

policies and

procedures;

equipment may be

compromised, so

staff must maintain

vigilance; not all

merchandise can be

easily tagged; an

expensive option,

though costs are

being

reduced–source

tagging will reduce

costs even more

Not all merchandise

can be easily tagged;

it is important that

the security of ink

tags not be

compromised by

the theft of tagremoval equipment 

Response

No.

Page No. Response How It

Works

Works

Best If...

Considerations

Endnotes 37

Endnotes

1 Farrington (1999). 2 Nelson and Perrone (2000), citing Ocqueteau and Pottier (1996) and Williams et al.

(1987). 3 Walsh (1978). 4 Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996); Hayes (1997); Clarke (1999). 5 Clarke (1999). 6 Ekblom (1986). 7 Krasnovsky and Lane (1998). 8 Klemke (1992). 9 Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996); Hayes (1997). 10 Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996); Hayes (1997); Lo (1994). 11 Nelson, Bromley and Thomas (1996). 12 Hope (1991). 13 Ekblom (1986). 14 Farrington (1999). 15 Ekblom (1986). 16 Hayes (1993). 17 McNees et al. (1976). 18 Burrows (1988). 19 Ekblom (1986). 20 Farrington (1999). 21 Bamfield (1998). 22 Bamfield (1998); Budden (1999). 23 McCulloch (1996). 24 Walsh (1978). 25 Klemke (1992). 26 Sacco (1985). 27 Beck and Willis (1999). 28 Beck and Willis (1999). 29 Farrington et al. (1993); Handford (1994); DiLonardo (1996). 30 DiLonardo (1996). 31 DiLonardo and Clarke (1996).

References 39

References

Bamfield, J. (1998). "Retail Civil Recovery: Filling a Deficit in

the Criminal Justice System?" International Journal of Risk,

Security and Crime Prevention 2:257–267.

(1997). Making Shoplifters Pay. London: The Social

Market Foundation.

Beck, A., and A. Willis (1999). "Context-Specific Measures of

CCTV Effectiveness in the Retail Sector." In K. Painter and

N. Tilley (eds.), Surveillance of Public Space: CCTV, Street

Lighting and Crime Prevention, Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 10.

Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press.

Better Business Bureau of WNY Inc. (1993). "Stop

Shoplifting Education Program." Annual report. Buffalo,

N.Y.: Better Business Bureau of WNY Inc.

Buckle, A., D. Farrington, J. Burrows, M. Speed, and T. BurnsHowell (1992). "Measuring Shoplifting by Repeated

Systematic Counting." Security Journal 3(3):137–146.

Budden, M. (1999). Preventing Shoplifting Without Being Sued:

Practical Advice for Retail Executives. Westport, Conn.:

Quorum Books.

Burrows, J. (1988). Retail Crime: Prevention Through Crime

Analysis. Crime Prevention Unit, Paper 11. London: Home

Office Crime Prevention Unit.

Clarke, R. (1999). Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and

Reducing the Demand for Stolen Goods. Police Research Series,

Paper 112. London: Home Office.

DiLonardo, R. (1996). "Defining and Measuring the

Economic Benefit of Electronic Article Surveillance."

Security Journal 7(1):3–9.
40 Shoplifting

DiLonardo, R., and R. Clarke (1996). "Reducing the Rewards

of Shoplifting: An Evaluation of Ink Tags." Security Journal

7(1):11–14.

Ekblom, P. (1986). The Prevention of Shop Theft: An Approach

Through Crime Analysis. Crime Prevention Unit, Paper 5.

London: Home Office Crime Prevention Unit.

Farrington, D. (1999). "Measuring, Explaining and Preventing

Shoplifting: A Review of British Research." Security Journal

12(1):9–27.

Farrington, D., S. Bowen, A. Buckle, T. Burns-Howell, J.

Burrows and M. Speed (1993). "An Experiment on the

Prevention of Shoplifting." Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 1.

Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press.

Handford, M. (1994). "Electronic Tagging in Action: A Case

Study in Retailing." In M. Gill (ed.), Crime at Work: Studies in

Security and Crime Prevention, Vol. 1. Leicester, England:

Perpetuity Press.

Hayes, R. (1999). "Shop Theft: An Analysis of Shoplifter

Perceptions and Situational Factors." Security Journal

12(2):7–118.

(1997). "Retail Theft: An Analysis of Apprehended

Shoplifters." Security Journal 8(3):233–246.

(1993). Retail Security and Loss Prevention. Boston:

Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hobson, K. (2001). "Hey, Security Tag Makers: You're It."

U.S. News & World Report, May 14, p. 34.

Hope, T. (1991). "Crime Information in Retailing: Prevention

Through Analysis." Security Journal 2(4):240–245.
References 41

Klemke, L. (1992). The Sociology of Shoplifting: Boosters and

Snitches Today. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers.

Krasnovsky, T., and R. Lane (1998). "Shoplifting: A Review of

the Literature." Aggression and Violent Behavior 3(3):219–235.

Lo, L. (1994). "Exploring Teenage Shoplifting Behavior: A

Choice-and-Constraint Approach." Environment and Behavior

26(5):613–639.

McCulloch, H. (1996). Shop Theft: Improving the Police Response.

Crime Detection and Prevention Series, Paper 76. London:

Home Office.

McNees, M., D. Egli, R. Marshall, J. Schnelle, and T. Risley

(1976). "Shoplifting Prevention: Providing Information

Through Signs." Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

9(4):399–405.

Nelson, A., R. Bromley and C. Thomas (1996). "The

Geography of Shoplifting in a British City: Evidence From

Cardiff." Geoforum 27(3):409–423.

Nelson, D., and S. Perrone (2000). "Understanding and

Controlling Retail Theft." Trends and Issues in Criminal Justice.

Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Criminology.

Sacco, V. (1985). "Shoplifting Prevention: The Role of

Communication-Based Intervention Strategies." Canadian

Journal of Criminology 27(1):15–29.

Sherman, L., and P. Gartin (1986). Differential Recidivism: A

Field Experiment on the Specific Sanction Effects of Arrest for

Shoplifting. Washington, D.C.: Crime Control Institute.

Walsh, D. (1978). Shoplifting: Controlling a Major Crime. London:

Macmillan Press Ltd.

About the Author 43

About the Author

Ronald V. Clarke

Ronald V. Clarke is a professor at the School of Criminal

Justice, Rutgers University. He previously headed the British

government's criminological research department, where he

had a significant role in developing situational crime

prevention and the British Crime Survey. Clarke is the

founding editor of Crime Prevention Studies, and his publications

include Designing Out Crime (HMSO 1980), The Reasoning

Criminal (Springer-Verlag 1986), Business and Crime Prevention

(Criminal Justice Press 1997), and Situational Crime Prevention:

Successful Case Studies (Harrow and Heston 1997). Together

with Herman Goldstein, he has recently been working on

problem-oriented policing projects for the CharlotteMecklenburg (N.C.) Police Department. Since 1998, he has

chaired the selection committee for the annual Herman

Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented

Policing. Clarke holds a docorate in psychology from the

University of London.

Recommended Readings 45

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers, by

John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide is

a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It

provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing

problem-oriented policing efforts.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
46 Shoplifting

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing:The 1999

Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This document

produced by the National Institute of Justice in

collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A

similar publication is available for the award winners from

2000. The documents are also available at

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or

ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in

England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for

Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V.

Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98,

1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity

theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have

practical implications for the police in their efforts to

prevent crime.

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990).

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses

how a police agency can implement the concept.
Recommended Readings 47

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the

First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of

Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services,

2000). Describes how the most critical elements of

Herman Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman

(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the

rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the

problem-solving process, and provides examples of

effective problem-solving in one agency.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime

and Disorder Through Problem-Solving

Partnerships by Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott

Phillips, Tammy Rinehart, and Meg Townsend (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 1998) (also available at

www.cops.usdoj.gov). Provides a brief introduction to

problem-solving, basic information on the SARA model

and detailed suggestions about the problem-solving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case

Studies, Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke

(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and

methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over

20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.
48 Shoplifting

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems:

Case Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson

and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder

problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook

for Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S.

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented

Policing Services, 2001). Provides an introduction for

police to analyzing problems within the context of

problem-oriented policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G.

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains

many of the basics of research as it applies to police

management and problem-solving.
Other Guides in This Series 49

Other Guides in This Series

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes.

Rana Sampson. 2001.

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001.

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V.

Clarke. 2002.

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002.

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002.

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel.

2002.

19. Misuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

Companion guide to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series:

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for

Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002.
50 Shoplifting

Other Related COPS Office Publications

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook for Law

Enforcement. Timothy S. Bynum. 2001.

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years.

Michael S. Scott. 2001.

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: Case

Studies in Problem-Solving. Rana Sampson and Michael S.

Scott. 2000.

• Community Policing, Community Justice, and Restorative

Justice: Exploring the Links for the Delivery of a Balanced

Approach to Public Safety. Caroline G. Nicholl. 1999.

• Toolbox for Implementing Restorative Justice and Advancing

Community Policing. Caroline G. Nicholl. 2000.

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing Crime and

Disorder Through Problem-Solving Partnerships. Karin

Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott Phillips, Tammy Rinehart, and Meg

Townsend. 1998.

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series

and other COPS Office publications, please call the Department of

Justice Response Center at 1-800-421-6770 or check our website at

www.cops.usdoj.gov.

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center at 1.800.421.6770

Visit the COPS internet web site at the address listed below.

e10011345 Created Date: January 24, 2002

www.cops.usdoj.gov