Ankara

TURKEY

• Istanbul

Expeditionary Culture 

Field Guide 
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location and 

gain skills necessary for 

success (Photo: A US 

Senior Airman at a fruit 

stand in Adana). 

The guide consists of 2 

parts: 

Part 1 is the “Culture 

General” section, which 

provides the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2 is the “Culture Specific” section, which describes unique 

cultural features of Turkish society. It applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase your knowledge of your assigned 

deployment location. This section is designed to complement 

other pre-deployment 

training (Photo: 

President Obama meets 

with Turkish President 

Erdoğan).

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC 

Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Turkey
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a 

culture share a general set of 

beliefs and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is when 

one thing – an image, word, 

object, idea, or story – 

represents another thing. For 

example, the American flag is 

a physical and visual symbol of a core American value –freedom. 

At the same time, the story of George Washington admitting to 

having chopped down a cherry tree is also symbolic because it 

represents the premium Americans place on personal honesty 

and leadership integrity (Photo: Airmen from the 90th 

Expeditionary Air Refueling Squadron visit with members of the 

local community outside the gates of Incirlik Air Base).

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for nearly 

half a century, today the US military is operating in what we 

classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our 

engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature 

in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
constructive change through peaceful means where possible. 

We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to 

focus on developing stable political, social, and economic 

institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence 

their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational 

institutions, help us to live 

in a manner that is 

appropriate to our culture 

and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into 

the future (Photo: A 

Turkish man sells oranges 

at a stall in Cappadocia). 

We can organize 

behaviors and systems into categories—what the Air Force 

refers to as “cultural domains”—in order to better understand the 

primary values and characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains–which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools 

for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a US 

military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture. 

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for 

limited consumption using very basic techniques.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent. 

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see the 

world and understand our place in it. Your worldview functions 

GENERAL

CULTURE
as a lens through which you see and understand the world. It 

helps you to interpret your experiences and the values and 

behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your 

worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong 

behavior, and assigns a value of meaningful or meaningless. 

Our beliefs form the fundamental values we hold to be true—

regardless of whether there is evidence to support these ideas.

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed.

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have helped

shape our characters. Likewise, these values are ingrained in 

our personalities and shape our behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of 

their activities. We will use the 

iceberg model for classifying culture

to illustrate 2 levels of meaning, as 

depicted. Beliefs and values, 

portrayed by the deeper and greater 

level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom visible, but are 

indicated / hinted at / referenced by our behaviors and symbols

GENERAL

CULTURE
(top level). It is important to recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the waterline) are informing 

and shaping what is being made visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand 

another perspective is 

essential to establishing 

relationships with your 

host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold 

your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from 

a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: US General Dunford signs a guest book with 

Turkish General Akar in Ankara).

As you travel throughout Turkey, you will encounter cultural 

patterns of meaning that are common across the country. What 

follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains which can 

be used to frame those cultural patterns of meaning. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the 

past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act

as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain community origins or 

important events that are not verifiable or which occurred prior 

to written language. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also 

create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals 

peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional 

bonds that influence them to treat each other like family 

members (often called “fictive kin”). 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept that 

refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to 

represent ideas. 

Communication is defined 

as the cultural practice of 

sharing meaning in an 

interaction, both verbally 

and non-verbally (Photo: 

US Army General 

Dempsey discusses 

mutual integration capacities with Turkish Lt Gen Ozturk on Joint 

Base Andrews, Maryland).

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health 

requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, 

and symbols that have meaning to the community). This 

GENERAL

CULTURE
knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized 

systems such as schools or through informal learning by 

watching adults or peers. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are 

not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, 

people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, 

devoting less effort to relationship-building. By contrast, in 

Turkish culture, establishing and maintaining relationships with 

others often takes precedence over accomplishing a task in the 

most efficient manner. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences 

the development and use 

of technology (Photo: A 

freeway outside of 

Istanbul).

Now that we have 

introduced general 

concepts that can 

characterize Turkish society, we will focus on the specific 

features of society in Turkey. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Located at the strategic crossroads of Europe and Asia, Turkey 

has seen the rise and fall of empires since its recorded history 

began in the 2nd millennium BC. Today, Turkey is a 

parliamentary republic, a member of the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO), and a candidate for membership in the 

European Union (EU). 

Note: A small part of modern-day Turkey, the northwestern 

region of Thrace, lies in Europe (see map on p. 1 of Political 

and Social Relations). It is separated from the rest of the 

country by the Bosporus Strait and the Sea of Marmara. This 

part occupies the Anatolian Peninsula, a part of Asia previously

known also as “Asia Minor.” 

Early History

Archaeological finds, including stone 

tools and animal bones, indicate early 

humans lived in Anatolia beginning

about 20,000 BC. Between 10,000-

8,000 BC, humans began to 

congregate in settlements, where they 

grew crops and kept domesticated 

animals. Around 9,000 BC, inhabitants 

in southeastern Anatolia erected large

pillars, some decorated with elaborate 

animal carvings (pictured). Scientists 

believe this place, called Göbekli 

Tepe, is the world’s oldest site of religious worship. Another 

site, Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, was home to about 5,000 

people as early as 7,000 BC and is considered one of the 

world’s earliest cities. Primarily farmers and traders, these 

inhabitants also produced decorative textiles and pottery while 

living in brick and timber houses decorated with intricate 

paintings and reliefs.

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC
HISTORY &

MYTH

Regional occupants then learned to smelt copper and make 

bronze, allowing them to manufacture tools which facilitated the 

growth of agriculture. By about 3,000 BC, the region was 

experiencing significant economic growth based on residents’ 

increased agricultural output and enhanced seafaring skills. 

Improved metalworking techniques allowed production for 

export, stimulating the development of vast trading networks.

Early Empires

Starting around 3,000 BC, a succession of empires ruled parts 

of Anatolia. At other times, local groups vied for control.

Rise of the Assyrians: Around 3,000 BC, the Assyrian Empire 

arose in northern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and Syria). 

By about 2,000 BC, Assyrian merchants had assembled a 

network of trading colonies across Anatolia. To track their 

transactions, the Assyrians adopted a writing system consisting 

of wedge-shaped marks called cuneiform. Commercial records 

on clay tablets discovered at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh 

(present-day Kültepe) represent Anatolia’s earliest examples of 

writing.

Rise and Fall of the Hittites: 

By the 2nd millennium BC, 

waves of invaders from the 

North and East crossed into 

Anatolia, subjugating and 

assimilating local groups. 

From one of these groups, the 

Hatti, the invaders derived 

their name, the Hittites, and 

established the first empire to 

arise within Anatolia. The Hittites mastered iron forging, a skill 

which made them a powerful military force. By about 1400 BC, 

they controlled almost all of the Anatolian Peninsula. At the 

empire’s height around 1260 BC, the Hittite rulers competed 

with the ancient Egyptian pharaohs for regional influence. 

Expert craftsmen, the Hittites built walled cities with impressive 

temple and palace complexes and produced elegant pottery 

and other decorative arts. Further, the Hittites adopted 

cuneiform for their own language (Photo: Hittite seal from ca. 

1400 BC with cuneiform writing).
HISTORY &

MYTH

By about 1200 BC, other groups threatened the Hittites’ 

domination. While the Assyrians pushed north and annexed 

Hittite kingdoms, a group of maritime marauders known as the 

“Sea People” attacked the Mediterranean coast. A 3rd group 

called the Phrygians moved south from Thrace. For several 

centuries, no single group could dominate Anatolia. Some 

order returned to the peninsula when the Lydians, a warrior 

group from Thrace, conquered much of western Anatolia in the 

7th century BC. Noted metalworkers, the Lydians are credited 

with the invention of 

coinage (Photo: 6th-century 

BC vase depicting Lydian 

King Croesus).

Other Groups: During this 

early period, many other 

groups also settled in the 

region. The Kurdish people 

began entering the region 

from the Eurasian steppes 

as early as the 2nd

millennium BC. After first settling eastern Anatolia in the 7thcentury BC, Armenians united as a large kingdom in far 

eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus by the 1st century BC. 

The Greeks

Meanwhile, western Anatolia had been in intensive contact with 

the Greeks since about 3,000 BC. Between 2,600-1200 BC, 

Anatolia’s Aegean coast was an integral part of Greek MinoanMycenaean civilization. After the 8th century BC, a particularly 

large wave of Greeks settled in Anatolia, establishing important 

city-states. One Greek settlement was the colony of Byzantium, 

established in the 7th century BC at the site of Turkey’s 

present-day capital, Istanbul (see “Myth” below). 

The Persians

From its base in modern-day Iran, the Persian Achaemenid 

Empire absorbed most of Anatolia in the 5th century BC, 

conquering the Assyrians, Lydians, and Phrygians. In the West, 

the Greeks initially welcomed the Persians but then rebelled, 

calling on mainland Greece for aid. The revolt was defeated but 

led to decades of conflict between Persia and Greece.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Hellenistic Age: Alexander the Great

In 334 BC, Macedonian leader Alexander the Great defeated 

the city-states of Greece and then the Persians in Anatolia. 

Over the next 4 years, Alexander continued his campaign into 

Africa and South Asia, in the process establishing the world’s 

largest empire at the time. Following Alexander’s death in 323 

BC, the Anatolian holdings were divided among several 

generals. During the subsequent Hellenistic (Greek) period, 

many Anatolian residents adopted Greek culture and language 

as rival city-states jostled for dominance. In the 3rd century BC, 

the Hellenistic city of Pergamum (near modern-day Bergama) 

was a renowned center of learning (Photo: 19th-century 

depiction of 

Pergamum).

The Romans 

Meanwhile, the 

Romans had begun 

building their empire 

in central Italy around 

500 BC. During the 2nd century BC, the Romans pursued rapid 

expansion eastwards. Following territorial conquests in Greece, 

the Romans acquired many Greek attributes, such as adopting 

Greek as the empire’s language in their new Anatolian

territories. In 133 BC, Pergamum’s king relinquished his 

holdings to the Romans without a fight. Shortly thereafter, the 

empire reorganized its Anatolian territories as the province of 

“Asia.” By 43 AD, all of Anatolia was integrated into the Roman 

imperial system, ruled by emperors from their capital in Rome.

Inclusion in the empire brought various advantages, such as

relative peace, a comprehensive legal system, and improved 

infrastructure, namely an elaborate network of roads and water 

distribution systems. Further, Anatolia’s multi-ethnic residents

shared a common identity as Greek-speaking Roman citizens.

The Byzantine Empire 

In 285, Roman emperor Diocletian reorganized the empire, 

dividing it into western Latin- and eastern Greek-speaking 

halves. In 330, his successor, Constantine, moved the empire’s

capital from Rome to Byzantium – a settlement on the 

Bosporus founded by the Greeks some 1000 years earlier. 
HI

MYTH

STORY &

Renamed Constantinople, the city would remain the capital of 

the eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, 

for the next 1100 years.

The 313 Edict of Milan (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality) 

established freedom of religion across the empire. Following 

Emperor Constantine’s conversion and the late 4th-century 

establishment of Christianity as the state religion, Anatolia 

became a center of Christian thought (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality).

The Byzantine Empire 

reached its height under 

Emperor Justinian (r. 

527-565), who 

conquered territories in 

North Africa, Italy, and 

southern Spain. In 

addition, he ordered the 

construction of palaces, 

churches, and other buildings across the empire. Justinian’s 

most famous construction was the Hagia Sophia Church. 

Converted to a mosque in the 15th century, the building today 

is a museum and one of Istanbul’s most popular tourist 

attractions (Photo: Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia depicting the 

Virgin Mary flanked by Constantine and Justinian).

The Byzantine Empire’s Slow Decline

Over the next centuries, religious disputes (see p. 3 of Religion 

and Spirituality) rocked the empire. In addition, the Byzantine 

rulers faced challenges in defending the vast empire. 

Rise of the Turks: While the Turks’ early history is unclear, the 

first historical records referring to Turkic groups are Chinese 

accounts from 200 BC. Between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, 

nomadic Turkic tribes in Central Asia began to organize. With 

their significant horsemanship and military skills, they were 

soon expanding their holdings through conquest. By the 7th

century, the Turks were using written language and 

occasionally allying with the Byzantines against a common 

enemy. Starting in the 9th century, Turkic tribes began to raid

Anatolian territory. Many converted to Islam around the same 

time (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Great Seljuk Turks: In the late 10th century, a Turkic leader 

named Seljuk Bey established his dynasty in Central Asia. In 

1055, a subsequent Seljuk ruler captured Baghdad (Iraq) and 

forced the caliph, the Islamic spiritual leader, to grant him the 

title of sultan (leader). After establishing control over Persia 

(modern-day Iran), the Seljuk Turks began their expansion 

west, contesting control of various Byzantine territories.

In the 1071 Battle of Manzikert near Lake Van in Anatolia’s 

East, Seljuk Sultan Alp-Arslan led Turkic horsemen known as 

gazis in a decisive victory over the Byzantines. Over the next 

decades, Turkic generals established numerous principalities 

called beylikler (singular: beylik) throughout Anatolia. 

Sultanate of Rum: The most significant of these beylikler was 

the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (1077-

1308) with its capital at Konya in 

southwestern Turkey. Gradually, 

some Anatolian residents began to 

adopt the Turks’ language and 

religion while some Greeks and 

Armenians maintained their own 

traditions. 

At the height of Seljuk rule, 

science, literature, art and 

architecture flourished. This 

flowering of the arts was in part 

due to the influx of skilled and 

educated people fleeing the 

advance of the Mongols from the East (Photo: Entrance to the 

Sultan Han caravanserai or roadside inn built by a Seljuk 

sultan).

Christian Crusaders: The Turks soon faced challenges to 

their power and authority. Their success particularly concerned 

the Byzantines and their brethren in Rome. Despite significant 

religious conflict between the 2 halves of the empire earlier in 

the century (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality), the Byzantine 

ruler requested support from Rome in defeating the Seljuk 

Turks in 1095. In response, the Pope as leader of the Roman 

Catholic Church declared a religious crusade against Muslim

control of the Holy Land. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The European crusaders passed through Anatolia in several 

waves. In 1097, they seized several important sites, altering 

the balance of power in Anatolia and allowing the Byzantine 

Empire to regain some of its influence. By 1176, however, the 

Turks had re-grouped and defeated the Byzantines in a major 

battle. The Empire faced another blow in 1204 when crusaders 

on their way to battle Islamic forces in Jerusalem decided 

instead to sack and loot the Byzantine capital of 

Constantinople. The Catholic crusaders destroyed several 

Orthodox Christian (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality) 

churches and 

monasteries while 

killing thousands. 

The Byzantine 

Empire never fully

recovered from 

this blow, and by 

1261, it was 

reduced to Thrace 

and northwestern Anatolia (Illustration: 14th-century depiction 

of Crusaders).

Mongol Invaders: In 1243, Mongol forces led by Genghis 

Khan invaded Anatolia, destroying the Seljuk army at the Battle 

of Köse Dağ. By 1308, the Seljuk Sultanate was reduced to a 

Mongol vassal state. Despite this swift conquest, Mongol 

control of Anatolia proved to be short-lived. Within a few 

decades, the Mongols withdrew, leaving several Turkic 

beylikler competing for dominance. 

Rise of the Ottomans

According to semi-mythical accounts, a Turkic leader named 

Ertuğrul founded a beylik in western Anatolia. His son, Osman I 

(r. 1284-1326), proceeded to rapidly expand territorial control of 

his Osmanlı, or Ottoman principality, in the process founding a 

dynasty that would create one of the world’s greatest empires.

Besides acquiring the title “sultan,” Osman became known as 

the “Bone-Breaker” for his determination to conquer new lands. 

The Ottomans acquired territory in Thrace beginning in 1354 

and moved their capital from Bursa to Edirne, north of 

Constantinople, directly threatening the Byzantines. The 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ottomans then proceeded to conquer the Balkans while 

requiring the Byzantine emperor to pay them tribute. 

Ottoman troops first besieged Constantinople in 1397 but fell 

short of taking the city before having to divert troops to respond 

to a renewed threat from the East. In 1402, notorious Central 

Asian warlord Timur (also known as Tamerlane) crushed 

Ottoman forces near Ankara (the present-day Turkish capital) 

and even captured the Ottoman sultan. Even though their 

attackers quickly withdrew, the Ottomans required several 

years to recover from this defeat before attempting to take 

Constantinople again. 

Capture of Constantinople: Detached by land since 1365, 

Constantinople was very vulnerable. In 1453, Ottoman sultan 

Mehmet II (also known as “the Conqueror”) besieged the city 

again, effectively trapping city residents from positions in 2 

forts. The subsequent 

50-day siege included 

impressive offensive and 

defensive acts. Among 

these were the 

Ottomans’ transport of 

warships across land on 

greased runners and the 

Byzantine blockage of 

Constantinople’s harbor 

with thick iron chains. 

Despite their massive 

resistance, the Byzantines could not withstand the Ottomans’ 

superior force, and the city fell (Photo: Rumeli Hısan fortress in 

Istanbul, built by Sultan Mehmet II).

Immediately, Mehmet took steps to make the city his own, 

converting the Hagia Sophia church to a mosque. Over the 

years, the city, now named Istanbul, became even more 

diverse due to certain Ottoman policies. For example, the 

sultan resettled thousands of Albanians, Turks, Greeks, and 

Armenians to the city and accepted certain refugee populations 

into the empire, such as the Jews of Spain after their 1492 

expulsion.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In subsequent decades, the Ottomans continued to acquire 

new territory, expanding both eastward and westward. They 

conquered Syria, Egypt, and the Islamic world’s 2 holiest cities, 

Mecca and Medina in present-day Saudi Arabia in 1517. 

Thereafter, the Ottoman sultan added “caliph” to his title, 

claiming his status as spiritual leader of the Islamic world and

replacing Baghdad with Istanbul as the center of Sunni Islam.

For the next 3 centuries, until the mid-1700s, the Ottoman 

Empire was the region’s most powerful state. It effectively 

controlled the entire Balkans, parts of central and southern 

Europe, and the Middle East from Egypt to the Persian border, 

while its ships ruled the Mediterranean, Black, and Red Seas. 

Height of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire reached its height under Süleyman the 

Magnificent (r. 1520-66), when it attained its greatest territorial 

size and was supported by an efficient governmental 

administration and an immense military. A melting pot of 

Central Asian, Middle Eastern, North African, and European 

peoples, the Empire provided its citizens an all-encompassing 

social and political system in exchange for their loyalty. 

Besides overseeing a groundbreaking revision of the Empire’s 

legal code, Süleyman pursued further expansion into Europe, 

taking Belgrade (Serbia) in 1521 and Budapest (Hungary) in 

1526, though his 1529 

and 1532 sieges of 

Vienna (Austria) were 

unsuccessful. As patrons 

of the arts, Süleyman and 

his wife Hürrem Sultan 

sponsored artistic and 

architectural projects 

throughout the Empire as 

well as the restoration of 

Islamic holy sites in Jerusalem (Photo: Istanbul’s famed 

Süleymaniye mosque was designed by 16thcentury architect 

Mimar Sinan).

When Süleyman died in 1566, the Ottoman Empire was a 

world power. To maintain its governmental bureaucracy as well 

as its powerful standing infantry, cavalry, and navy, the Empire 
HISTORY &

MYTH

relied on the devşirme. Within this system, rural Christian 

subjects were required to give a son in service to the sultan. 

After conversion to Islam and education, the young men 

became civil servants or 

Janissaries (professional 

soldiers) (Illustration: 16th-century 

depiction of registration of 

Christian boys for the devşirme).

Long Decline of the Ottomans

A series of weak sultans in the 

late 16th and early 17th centuries 

coincided with the rise and 

expansion of other European 

powers. Consequently, the 

Ottoman economy began to falter 

in the face of increased competition. Local rulers in far-away 

Ottoman provinces took advantage of the Empire’s weakness 

while the Janissaries’ loyalty to the Empire gradually became 

secondary to their own interests. 

Decline was temporarily halted in the 17th century when a 

series of grand viziers (similar to a Prime Minister) overhauled 

the bureaucracy and instituted military reforms. Following the 

acquisition of Ukrainian territory, the Empire resumed its 

attempt to take Vienna in 1664 and again in 1683 before 

withdrawing. With this defeat, the other European powers 

recognized the Empire’s fragility. Russia united with Austria, 

Poland, and Venice in a 16-year war to try and drive the 

Ottomans out of Europe. Under the resulting 1699 Treaty of 

Karlowitz, the Empire lost half its European possessions.

Rebellious Janissaries continued to contribute to the Empire’s 

instability. Meanwhile, the Ottomans’ decline coincided with the

Russians’ rise. In the late 18th century, Russian troops 

mobilized by Catherine the Great invaded the Empire, gaining 

access to the Black Sea and annexing the Crimean region. 

In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II suppressed a major Janissary revolt

in a massacre known as the “Auspicious Event.” Consequently, 

the Empire dissolved the Janissaries and reorganized the 

bureaucracy, though the reforms were largely unsuccessful. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The early 19th century also saw the first of several waves of 

nationalism sweep the Empire, bringing rebellion and demands 

for independent rule. First, the Greeks revolted. Following 

several years of conflict, the European powers forced the 

Ottomans to recognize Greek independence in 1832. As other 

ethnic and nationalistic groups clamored for self-rule, the 

Empire became known as “the sick man of Europe.”

Attempts at Reform: By the mid-19th century, it was obvious 

that the Empire must implement major reforms in order to 

survive. In a decades-long effort called the Tanzimât

(“reorganization”), reformers aimed to modernize the Empire 

along the lines of other European powers. They pursued this 

goal by affirming the 

equality of all Ottoman 

subjects before the law, 

abolishing certain 

taxes, devising a new 

military recruitment 

system, and changing 

the legal system. In 

1876, the Empire 

adopted a new 

constitution that created a representative Parliament and 

guaranteed religious freedom. It quickly became apparent that 

the sultan’s support for the reforms was superficial: within a 

year, he had dissolved the Parliament and withdrawn the 

constitution (Photo: Istanbul’s Dolmabahçe Palace, 19thcentury Ottoman administrative center). 

Territorial Loss: Multiple European powers sought to gain 

territory at the expense of the weakened Ottoman Empire. To 

thwart Russian expansion, France and Britain backed the 

Ottomans in the Crimean War (1853-56). Although the 

Russians were defeated, the Ottomans were forced to grant

access to the Dardanelles Straits to Russia as well as give up 

control of Bulgaria. These events, combined with France’s 

acquisition of Algeria and Tunisia and Britain’s occupation of 

Egypt, meant the Ottoman Empire was steadily losing its

regional influence. Further, the Empire’s 19th-century

repression of revolutionary activities in Armenia aroused 

significant European public opinion against the Ottomans. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Young Turks

Unhappy with the slow pace of reforms and with the military’s 

lack of success on the battlefield, young military officers began 

to rally for real change. These men came to be known as the

“Young Turks,” a term now commonly used to refer to any new 

generation of reformers. In 1907, several reform groups came 

together to form the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). 

Seeking to restore the 1876 constitution, the CUP also strived

to unify the Empire’s diverse elements. 

In 1908, the CUP took power in a coup. When Sultan 

Abdülhamid II refused to accept a constitution, the CUP forced 

him to abdicate and installed his brother on the throne. Taking 

advantage of the Empire’s instability, several European powers 

claimed Ottoman territory. Weakened, the Empire lost all of the 

rest of its European holdings except Thrace in the 1912-13 

Balkan Wars. Although the 

sultan still ostensibly ruled the 

Empire, the CUP actually 

governed as a military 

dictatorship (Photo: The 

sultan and Young Turk 

leaders in 1908).

World War I (WWI) 

The Empire entered the war at its 1914 beginning as an ally of 

Germany, Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary fighting against the 

Allies consisting of France, Britain, Russia, and later the US. 

Armenian Atrocities: In winter 1915, the Ottomans mounted 

an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus. In a 

counteroffensive that pushed the Ottomans back into Anatolian 

territory, the Empire suffered staggering losses. Fearing that 

the Christian Armenian residents of eastern Anatolia would 

support the Christian Russians, the CUP government ordered 

the deportation of some 2 million Armenians from the area. 

Deportation quickly turned into a massacre: between 600,000 

and 1 million Armenians lost their lives as Turkish and Kurdish 

forces attacked villages and slaughtered Armenians seeking 

refuge. This action engendered revulsion across Europe and 

still influences Turkey’s foreign relations today (see p. 10 of 

Political and Social Relations).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Gallipoli: In spring 1915, the Allies mounted an offensive 

intended to end the Ottomans’ participation in the war and 

open the Dardanelles strait for the passage of supplies to 

Russia’s ports on the Black 

Sea. To this end, Australian 

and New Zealand (ANZAC) 

and British troops landed on 

the Gallipoli Peninsula, 

about 180 mi south of 

Istanbul where they found 

Ottoman troops waiting 

within fortified trenches. 

The subsequent 9-month 

battle ended in a stalemate but ultimately cost a combined 

500,000 casualties, including over 100,000 dead (Photo: Allied 

soldiers guard a captured Turkish sniper in 1915).

These losses, combined with the effects of British-supported 

revolts in Palestinian, Arabian, and Egyptian Ottoman 

territories, were devastating. With the war winding down in 

1918, the CUP leadership fled the country and the sultan

petitioned the Allies for peace. In 4 years of war, the Ottoman 

Empire mobilized around 2.8 million men, losing 325,000 of 

them in battle. Further, some 2 million Turkish and Armenian 

civilians died of war-related causes. 

War of Independence

Following their victory in WWI, Allied forces occupied Istanbul

and took Sultan Mehmed VI captive. During the 1919 Paris 

peace talks, France, Britain, Italy, and Greece presented 

claims to Ottoman territory. Further, all peace-talk participants 

agreed to an autonomous Kurdistan but before the treaty could 

be ratified, conflict flared again. In mid-1919, Greek troops 

invaded Izmir on the Aegean coast and marched inland toward 

Ankara. In response, a simmering nationalist movement flared 

under the leadership of Ottoman military officer Mustafa Kemal.

Mustafa Kemal: An ardent nationalist since his youth, Mustafa 

Kemal had taken part in the coup that toppled the sultan a 

decade earlier and was a well-known leader from the Gallipoli 

campaign. Supervising Ottoman demobilization when the 

Greeks invaded, Mustafa Kemal rallied support for the
HISTORY &

MYTH

nationalist cause and raised an army. Soon, Mustafa Kemal’s 

troops were engaging the Greeks. In July 1919, Mustafa Kemal 

organized a nationalist congress to adopt a National Pact 

calling for an independent Turkish state. After some initial 

reluctance, the Ottoman government approved the Pact in 

January 1920. At a Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük 

Millet Meclisi or TBMM) convened in April, the nationalists 

elected Mustafa Kemal their President.

While fighting between the Greeks and Turkish nationalists in 

1920 was inconclusive, by 1921 the tide began to turn with a 

series of Turkish victories. Discouraged by the Turks’ success, 

France and Italy withdrew from Anatolia. In 1922, the Turks 

recaptured Izmir from the Greeks. With only Istanbul remaining 

in Allied control, Mustafa Kemal accepted a British-proposed 

truce that ended the fighting. The TBMM then abolished the 

office of sultan, claiming the TBMM was the sole governmental 

authority. Mehmet VI, the last Ottoman sultan, went into exile. 

The Treaty of Lausanne: In the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, the 

Allies recognized the present-day territory of Turkey while 

abandoning their demand for an independent Kurdish state. 

Further, the treaty reaffirmed the equality of Muslim and nonMuslim citizens. Significantly, it also mandated an exchange 

between Turkey and Greece of most of their ethnic minorities. 

With some exceptions, such as Greeks living in Istanbul, most 

were compelled to move. 

Consequently, some 1.25 

million Greeks 

permanently left Turkey, 

while some 450,000 Turks 

from Greece resettled in 

Turkey.

The Republic of Turkey

On October 29, 1923, the 

TBMM proclaimed the 

Republic of Turkey with 

Ankara as its capital and Mustafa Kemal (pictured in 1923) as 

its President and head-of-state. Emerging from almost a 

century of continuous conflict and instability, the new nation 

faced a weak economy and an infrastructure in ruins. Further, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

the new state had no history of stable democratic governance 

to draw upon. While ethnic Turkish identity and nationalism 

were well established among the peasants of Anatolia, they 

were as yet unconnected to the new country called “Turkey.” 

Kemalist Reforms: President Mustafa Kemal promoted

modernization and westernization as solutions to these 

challenges. Consequently, he aimed to transform Turkey into a 

state patterned on those of Western Europe. Over the next 

decade, the new government enacted sweeping reforms 

intended to support the “Six Arrows” of his philosophy, known 

as Kemalism: republicanism, nationalism, populism, reformism, 

etatism (state control of economic policy), and secularism.

These reforms transformed Turkish society. Besides abolishing 

the caliphate (see p. 6-7 of Religion and Spirituality), the 

government closed religious schools, banned all Islamic 

brotherhoods, outlawed all headgear indicating religious 

affiliation, and discouraged women from wearing a veil. 

Further, the country adopted the Western calendar, shifted the 

workweek to comply with Western European standards, 

developed new penal 

codes based on 

European models, and

introduced a new, 

Latin-based alphabet 

(see p. 1 of Language 

and Communication). 

Atatürk: Kemalist 

reforms also abolished 

Ottoman titles and 

required all citizens to adopt a last name, which Turks 

traditionally did not have. As his new last name, Mustafa Kemal 

took “Atatürk,” meaning “Father of the Turks.” The TBMM 

subsequently prohibited the name’s use by anyone else. Over 

the course of his 15-year Presidency, Atatürk allowed just 1 

political party, the Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet 

Halk Partisi or CHP). Founded by Atatürk in 1923, the CHP 

continues to advocate Kemalism today (see p. 6 of Political and 

Social Relations) (Photo: Atatürk and TBMM members in the 

early 1930s).
HISTORY &

MYTH

World War II (WWII)

Following Atatürk’s death in 1938, the TBMM elected his chief 

aide, İsmet İnönü, President. Intent on continuing Atatürk’s 

policies, İnönü initially maintained single-party rule. Despite 

pressure to the contrary, 

İnönü managed to keep 

Turkey neutral throughout 

WWII. In the closing days of 

the war in 1945, Turkey did 

declare war on Germany in 

order to participate in 

subsequent peace 

negotiations. Consequently, 

Turkey became a founding member of the United Nations (UN) 

(Photo: Machine gun on top of the Hagia Sophia in 1941). 

Multiparty Politics

As postwar policies strengthened Turkey’s ties with the West, 

diverse groups began demanding greater political freedoms. In 

response, the government allowed new political parties to 

participate in the 1946 elections. Founded by former CHP 

leaders and committed to the same Kemalist ideology, the 

Democrat Party (Demokrat Partisi or DP) emerged as the 

main opposition party. By 1950, the DP gained the majority of 

seats in the TBMM. 

Over the next decade of DP political control, Prime Minister 

(PM) Adnan Menderes pursued greater economic privatization 

and less rigid secularism. Growth was initially robust and living 

standards rose significantly. Further, the DP gained popularity 

due to its relaxation of certain restrictions on Islamic 

institutions. By the mid-1950s, high inflation and massive debt 

severely weakened the economy. To silence growing 

opposition, the government introduced several repressive 

measures, further destabilizing the situation. Following violent 

demonstrations in 1960, the Menderes government suspended 

all political activity and imposed martial law.

The Military Steps In

While Atatürk himself believed that the military should stay out 

of politics, the Turkish military typically has viewed itself as the 

guardian of Kemalism and the state’s secular order. When 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Menderes imposed martial law, the Turkish military concluded 

that the government had discarded Kemalist principles. 

Consequently, Turkish army units seized power in a coup in 

mid-1960, arresting most political leaders, including Menderes. 

In 1961, an interim legislature ratified a new constitution that 

reduced the government’s centralized powers. The military 

committee tried some 600 former officials, finding most guilty

and sentencing Menderes to death. In October, the military 

oversaw new multiparty elections which returned CHP leader 

Inonu to power as the head of a coalition government. 

Instability and Violence in the 1960s

For the next 2 decades, power alternated between the Justice 

Party (Adalet Partisi or AP) and the CHP in a series of 

unstable government coalitions. The Justice Party of PM 

Suleyman Demirel extolled right-wing populism, supporting 

open expression of Islam and encouraging the development of 

a private sector. Alternatively, the CHP continued to support 

Kemalist principles of secularlism and statist economics. In this 

polorized situation, organizations on both the far right and left 

encouraged student demonstrations, 

physical attacks on political opponents, 

and other violent acts. Among the 

general population, social unrest was 

also fueled by economic hardship, 

social inequalities, and the slowness of 

reforms (Photo: US Vice President 

Johnson and Demirel in 1962).

Military Intervention Again

Concerned about ongoing instability, 

the military intervened again in spring 

1971 by issuing a memorandum 

demanding the government’s replacement. PM Demirel 

immediately resigned. As in 1960, the military arrested political 

and militant group leaders then withdrew again from politics

relatively quickly. The 1973 elections brought the CHP back to 

power.

Invasion of Cyprus: The historical conflict between Turkey 

and Greece flared in the 1960s when fighting between Greek 

and Turkish residents on British-ruled Cyprus was quelled by 
HISTORY &

MYTH

UN peacekeepers. Following a Greek coup attempt in 1974, 

some 30,000 Turkish forces invaded the island. After taking 

control of about 1/3 of the 

island, the Turks 

established the Turkish 

Republic of Northern 

Cyprus (TRNC). To date, 

Turkey is the only country 

that has officially 

recognized the TRNC (see 

p. 10 of Political and Social 

Relations) (Photo: The 

Selimiye mosque in 

Nicosia, Cyprus displays the flags of Turkey and the TRNC). 

Instability and Violence in the 1970s

Stability proved elusive in the 1970s as political infighting 

continued. Besides political instability, rapid urbanization and 

triple-digit inflation coupled with sky-high unemployment 

caused social and economic upheaval. In an attempt to curb 

the violence, the government unlawfully detained thousands, 

subjecting some to torture. 

Although the CHP retained power in the 1977 elections, 

various radical and militant groups continued their violent 

protests. In late 1978, the government proclaimed martial law, 

then in 1979 curbed union activities and restricted public 

assembly. Meanwhile, the military voiced its objection to the 

growing influence of religious sectarianism on politics. In 1979, 

the AP and PM Demirel returned to power, initiating a largescale economic stabilization plan with substantial international 

support. Still, recovery lagged and unrest continued.

Military Intervenes for a 3rd Time

In summer 1980, political violence and sectarian unrest brought

governance to a standstill due to political infighting. In 

September, activists demanded the reinstatement of Islamic 

law at a massive rally in Konya. Frustrated by the government’s 

inability to stabilize the economy and maintain public order, the 

military used the rally as a pretext to intervene. Proclaiming the 

rally a direct challenge to its authority and to Kemalism, the 

armed forces seized control for the 3rd time in 20 years.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Seeking to reestablish law and order, the military remained in 

power for 3 years, dissolving the TBMM and outlawing political 

parties. Further, it extended martial law across the country 

while arresting some 30,000 suspected militants, political party 

leaders, union organizers, and student activists. Critics charged 

the military government with political repression, arbitrary 

arrest, imprisonment without trial, torture, and other human 

rights violations. 

Return to Civilian Rule

A new 1982 constitution vested more power in the office of 

President rather than the TBMM and stipulated that political 

parties must receive at least 10% of the national vote to be 

represented in the TBMM. As the military prepared for a return 

to civilian rule, the military approved the participation of just 3 

political parties in the 1983 elections. In a rebuke to the military

and the CHP, voters gave the center-right Motherland Party 

(Anavatan Partisi or ANAP) their support. ANAP leader Turgut 

Özal became PM, a post he would hold through the 1980s 

before becoming President in 1989. The stable political 

situation of the 1980s and early 1990s accompanied a period 

of economic reform and growth (see p. 1 of Economics and 

Resources) coupled with a population boom. 

Resurgent Kurdish Nationalism

Because the Republic of Turkey was founded as a homeland 

for Turks, any recognition of linguistic, ethnic, or religious rights 

for minority populations was considered threatening to the 

nation’s unity. Consequently, the Turks ensured that the 1923 

Treaty of Lausanne denied 

the minority Kurds an 

autonomous homeland, 

while granting minorities no 

recognition in the early 

Republic. Resentful of the 

government’s efforts to 

forcibly assimilate them, the 

Kurds rebelled in 1925, 1930, and 1937-8. While the military 

regularly suppressed these uprisings, often with enormous loss 

of life, the place of the Kurds in Turkish society remained a 

controversial topic over the decades (Photo: Kurdish protestors 

in Istanbul in 2014). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 1984, the Kurdish movement became more militant. Some 

activists continued to focus on nonviolent political struggle to 

obtain basic rights for Kurds, yet others began to advocate an 

armed insurrection to achieve an independent Kurdish state.

That year, from a base in neighboring Syria, a group called the 

Kurdistan Workers’ Party (Partiye Karkeren Kurdistan or PKK

founded in 1978 by 

Abdullah Öcalan) 

began sending 

fighters across the 

porous border into 

Turkey. For the next 

15 years, PKK 

militants waged a 

vicious war against 

the Turkish military. The military answered the PKK’s acts of 

terrorism with a brutal counterinsurgency that uprooted 

thousands and encouraged attacks against civilians. In sum, 

the conflicts left 10s of 1000s dead (Photo: Turkish police 

display weapons taken from the PKK in 2015).

Changing Coalition Governments in the 1990s

Following PM Özal’s sudden death in 1993, Tansu Çiller 

became Turkey’s first female PM. Widespread dissatisfaction 

with her economic policies enabled the rise of the Welfare 

Party (Refah Partisi or RP). In 1995 elections, the RP won the 

majority of votes on promises to enact socially responsible 

economic policies, while supporting traditions such as Islam to 

balance globalization and modernization. As the next PM, RP 

leader Necmettin Erbakan attempted to increase the role of 

Islam in politics, public life, and education. His religious stance, 

plus his disinterest in integration with Europe and inability to 

solve Turkey’s economic problems, alarmed the military.

Military Intervention: In 1997, the military published a 

statement demanding adherence to secularism and the

constitution. While the military did not take over the 

government this time, it did force Erbakan to resign. In January 

1998, the Constitutional Court banned the RP. Soon, the 

Islamist movement reconstituted itself into new parties, 

including the Islamic-based Justice and Development Party 

(Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi or AKP). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Capture of Öcalan: Following the conclusion of the First Gulf 

War in 1991, thousands of Iraqi Kurds sought refuge in Turkey. 

The PKK took advantage of the chaos to increase its guerilla 

attacks. In response, the Turkish military mounted a fierce 

retaliation. By 1993, some 10,000 people had died in clashes 

between the military and Kurds.

In 1998, Turkey accused Syria of supporting the Kurds and 

demanded it turn over PKK members. PKK leader Öcalan 

escaped but was captured in Kenya a year later. Following his 

trial, Öcalan called for a ceasefire. In recent years, the 

government has granted some of the Kurds’ demands for 

protection of their human rights, largely to promote Turkey’s 

candidacy for EU membership. Recently, though, there has 

been a resurgence of PKK militancy (see p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations).

The AKP Takes Power

By 2001, Turkey was again facing significant economic 

challenges including inflation over 100% and the collapse of its 

banking system. In the 2002 elections, the AKP won a 

landslide victory with a 

2/3 majority. The 

following year, AKP 

leader Recep Tayyip 

Erdogan became PM

(Photo: President and 

Mrs. Obama with PM

and Mrs. Erdoğan in 

2009).

Upon gaining power,

the AKP pledged to focus on Turkey’s accession to the EU and

growing the economy. In Erdoğan’s first term, the government 

was largely successful: the economy stabilized and sufficient 

human rights reforms resulted in the EU agreeing to re-open 

membership talks (see p. 10-11 of Political and Social 

Relations). Voters rewarded the AKP by electing it with even 

greater majorities in 2007 and 2011.

By 2011, it was clear that Erdoğan strived to remain in power 

following his 3rd term, most likely as President. Other 

developments were cause for concern for many citizens. These 
HISTORY &

MYTH

included the AKP’s renewed efforts to return Islam to public life

and the government’s increasingly repressive actions. In 2013, 

widespread protests occurred across the country. The 

government responded harshly, sending in heavily armed riot 

police to suppress the 

movements (Photo: 2013 

protests in Istanbul’s 

Taksim Square). 

Contemporary Turkey

In 2014, Erdoğan became

Turkey’s first directly 

elected President (see p. 4

of Political and Social 

Relations). In the following 

year, Erdoğan announced his plan to increase the power of the 

Presidency while exhibiting increasingly authoritarian 

tendencies, jailing journalists, purging the judiciary of 

opponents, limiting the activities of opposition parties, and 

attempting to control the military. 

In June 2015 elections, the AKP did not attain a majority of the 

votes. Unable to build the majority coalition needed to name a 

PM, the government scheduled new elections in November.

This time, the AKP attained a majority, naming Ahmet 

Davutoğlu as PM. In a surprise move that revealed a growing 

ideological rift among AKP party leaders, Erdogan forced the 

removal of PM Davutoglu from office 

in late spring, appointing Binali 

Yildirim (pictured) in his place (see p. 

4 of Political and Social Relations). 

Unlike Davutoğlu, Yildirim is a 

subservient and staunch ally of 

Erdoğan, and in his role as PM, has 

pledged to help Erdoğan establish a 

stronger Presidency.

In July 2016, a small renegade 

faction of the Turkish military 

unsuccessfully attempted to 

overthrow the government. Immediately following the failed 

coup, Erdoğan declared a state of emergency, radically 
HISTORY &

MYTH

enhancing Presidential powers and allowing him to bypass the 

TBMM and rule by decree. As of August 2016, Erdoğan had

jailed and purged from their positions thousands of government 

employees, members of the judiciary, military personnel, 

journalists, and academics. His intent h to root out political 

opponents and quell internal dissent. Erdoğan’s government 

has also closed hundreds of private schools, imposed travel 

restrictions on educators and public sector workers, and 

shuttered dozens of media organizations.

Despite Erdoğan’s success in consolidating power, Turkey’s 

political system remains fragile. Some factions remain 

committed to the country’s secular Kemalist roots, while others

such as the AKP, vigorously pursue an enhanced role for Islam 

in society. Turkey’s future and its commitment to democracy, 

freedom of speech, 

secularism, and human 

rights is presently 

unclear. Some 

observers suggest that 

Erdoğan may use the 

2016 failed coup as an 

excuse to rid himself of 

political opposition 

groups, acquire still 

more power for the 

Presidency, and even 

abolish the multi-party system (Photo: US General Dunford 

tours parts of the Turkish Grand National Assembly destroyed 

during the failed coup).

Further, some observers believe that the government’s rollback 

of certain reforms coupled with Erdoğan’s recent 

authoritarianism may weaken Turkey’s bid for EU membership

and diminish Turkey’s standing as a reliable partner to the 

West. However, Turkey’s 2016 agreement with the EU to 

house some migrants and Syrian war refugees has earned it 

certain concessions from the EU. A spate of recent terrorist 

attacks (see p. 12-13 of Political and Social Relations) 

demonstrates Turkey’s vulnerability to spillover of regional 

violence, while renewed fighting between the military and the 

PKK indicates the Kurdish issue remains unresolved. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. 

Turkey’s myths and stories reflect its multicultural history and 

range from Greek-based mythology to Turkic trickster tales. For 

example, ancient Greek myths typically interpret historical 

events through divine intervention and prophecy, while Turkic 

traditions include the stories of Nasreddin Hoca, a practical 

joker who is said to have lived during Seljuk rule. Another wellknown story relates the founding of Byzantium, a settlement 

that would eventually became Turkey’s capital, Istanbul.

The Founding of Byzantium 

King Byzas of the mainland Greek city-state of Megara decided

to build a new city. To attain the gods’ advice, he traveled to 

Delphi to consult the Oracle, a priestess serving the god Apollo

who often delivered prophecies in riddles. Indeed, the Oracle 

told Byzas to build his city “opposite the blind.” 

Byzas traveled far and wide in search of “the blind.” Arriving at 

a place where the ocean flowed through a narrow passage, he 

noticed an unoccupied peninsula. It appeared to be an ideal 

place for a city: it was 

well above the sea so 

inhabitants could easily

spot enemies, while the 

water surrounding it on 3 

sides made it defensible. 

Across from this prime 

location was a small 

settlement. Because its 

residents had apparently 

overlooked the much 

superior location for their village, Byzas concluded that they

must be “the blind” mentioned by the Oracle. He quickly 

claimed the peninsula as the site for his new city which he 

named after himself: Byzantium (Photo: Ruins at the ancient 

Greek site of Ephesus on Turkey’s Aegean coast).
Official Name

Republic of Turkey

Türkiye 

Cumhüriyeti

 

Political Borders

Georgia: 170 mi

Armenia: 193 mi

Azerbaijan: 11 mi 

Iran: 312 mi

Iraq: 228 mi

Syria: 558 mi

Greece: 119 mi

Bulgaria: 139 mi

Coastline: 4,473 mi

Capital

Ankara

Demographics

With a population close to 80 million, Turkey is the world’s 18th 

most populous country. The population is growing at a rate of 

1.26% annually, similar to rates in the Middle East and South 

Asia but higher than the US rate of 0.8%. Turkey is primarily 

urban: almost 75% of residents live in metropolitan areas. 

Notably, approximately 

15 million people 

reside in Istanbul, 

continental Europe’s 

largest city. 

Flag

The Turkish flag 

consists of a white 

vertical crescent moon

and a 5-point star 

centered outside the crescent’s opening, set against a red 

backdrop. The flag’s design and colors resemble the banner of 

the Ottoman Empire, Turkey’s predecessor state. The moon 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
and star serve as traditional symbols of Islam, while 

simultaneously representing the Turkish people. In an alternate 

interpretation, the flag symbolizes a pool of Turkish warriors’ 

blood reflecting the 

moon and a star. 

Geography

Situated at the nexus of 

Europe and Asia, the 

majority of Turkey’s 

territory, referred to as 

Anatolia, lies in Asia. A 

small region located in 

Europe known as 

Thrace is separated 

from Anatolia by the Sea of Marmara. The Bosporus Strait 

connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea, while the 

Dardanelles Strait connects it with the Aegean Sea. Turkey is 

bordered by the Black Sea to the north, by Georgia and 

Armenia to the northeast, by Azerbaijan and Iran to the east, by

Iraq and Syria to the southeast, by the Mediterranean Sea to 

the south, by the Aegean Sea and the Turkish Straits to the 

west, and by Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest. Turkey’s 

total area is about 302,535 sq mi, making it slightly larger than 

Texas (Photo: An Ottoman fortress on the Bosporus Strait). 

Much of Anatolia is characterized by undulating hills and broad

central plateaus that become mountainous in the East. 

Mountains and forests stretch along the Black Sea to the north, 

while fertile coastal lowlands extend along the southern 

coastlines of the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. With 6 

mountain ranges, Turkey’s highest point is Mount Ararat, rising

16,854 ft. Two of the region’s major rivers, the Tigris and the 

Euphrates, originate in eastern Turkey. Turkey’s largest lake, 

Lake Van, covers 1,434 sq mi and is one of the world’s largest 

saltwater lakes.

Climate

Due to its topography, Turkey’s climate varies, though all 

regions experience 4 distinct seasons. Along the southern 

coasts, winters are mild, with temperatures averaging 42°F, 

while summers are warm and dry, averaging 72°F. Central 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Anatolia experiences a more extreme climate. Summers are 

hot, averaging 86°F, while winters are snowy and cold with 

temperatures dipping as low as 20°F. Rainfall is heaviest along 

the northern coast, where temperatures average 46°F in the 

winter and 72°F in the summer. 

Natural Hazards

Turkey is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, 

including earthquakes, flooding, and landslides. In 1999, 

Turkey suffered 2 devastating earthquakes which destroyed 

portions of the northwestern cities of İzmit and Istanbul, killing 

over 17,000 people. Floods are particularly pervasive along the

Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, regularly inundating 

densely populated areas and damaging regional infrastructure. 

Torrential rains along the Black Sea make the northern coast

particularly susceptible to landslides.

Environmental Issues

Water pollution caused by improper disposal of industrial and 

human waste is a significant concern in Istanbul and other 

large metropolitan areas. In addition, increased oil tanker traffic 

along the Bosporus

Strait, a busy maritime 

passage, raises fears of 

large oil spills and their 

impact on coastal 

marine life. Although 

urban air quality has 

improved in recent 

years following the 

Turkish government’s

regulation of industrial 

activities, air pollution from automobile emissions remains a 

persistent concern in Istanbul, Ankara, and other large urban 

areas. Finally, land degradation from deforestation, 

overgrazing, and the clearing of land for farming results in a 

loss of biodiversity (Photo: Heavy traffic in Istanbul).

Government

Turkey is a democratic republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 81 provinces

administered by governors, which further subdivide into 

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municipalities. The 1982 Constitution disperses powers among 

executive, legislative, and judicial branches. 

Executive Branch

The President, who is the head-of-state, is elected by popular 

vote and may serve up to 2 consecutive 5-years terms. 

Turkey’s current President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, took office 

in 2014. While presidential powers were traditionally largely 

ceremonial, Erdoğan has exercised the power of the 

Presidency to an unprecedented degree. Looking to further 

expand his power and authority, Erdoğan has announced 

controversial plans to alter the Constitution and move Turkey to 

a presidential system of government. 

The Prime Minister (PM) is head-of-government and may serve 

unlimited 4-year terms, though some political parties impose 

limits on the number of terms their members may serve in the 

position. Appointed by 

the President, the PM 

is traditionally the 

leader of the political 

party with the most 

seats in the 

Parliament. With the 

support of a Council 

of Ministers, the PM 

implements domestic 

and foreign policies. 

Turkey’s current PM,

Binali Yildirim, took office in May 2016 following the forced 

resignation of the previous incumbent, Ahmet Davutoğlu (see 

p. 22 of History and Myth) (Photo: Davutoğlu with former US 

Secretary of State Clinton).

Legislative Branch

Turkey’s legislature is the 1-chamber Grand National Assembly 

of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi--TBMM), composed 

of 550 deputies elected through proportional representation to 

serve unlimited 4-year terms. The TBMM has the power to 

draft, amend, and repeal laws, to declare war or martial law, to 

supervise the Cabinet and PM, and to ratify international 

agreements. 

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Judicial Branch

Turkey’s highest court is the Constitutional Court, comprised of 

17 justices serving single 12-year terms. The judiciary also 

includes the Supreme Court of Appeals, which oversees 

criminal and civil cases, and a system of lower courts that 

supervise “administrative” matters, such as bankruptcy, family 

law, taxation, and citizenship. In addition, military courts handle 

matters related to military service and assume control during 

periods of martial law. 

Political Climate

Turkey has a multi-party system in which political parties or 

coalitions of parties compete for power. Although the 

democratic process is generally free and fair, Turkey’s 

constitution outlaws extremist parties and requires parties to

obtain at least 10% of national votes to be represented in the 

TBMM. Of note, Turkey’s military has historically been closely 

involved in the political process, acting as guardian of Turkey’s 

traditionally secular political system (see p. 16-20 of History 

and Myth). Seeking to provide domestic stability in instances of 

political and ideological extremes, the military has successfully 

overthrown 4 elected governments since 1960 and staged a 

5th failed coup attempt 

in July 2016 (see p. 22-

23 of History and Myth). 

Recently, Turkey’s 

political climate has 

been characterized by a 

growing divide between 

conservative Islamic 

groups seeking to 

preserve traditional 

Islamic-Turkish culture and progressive secular groups 

advocating a pro-Western orientation and opposing an overt 

Islamist agenda (Photo: Turkey and US Presidents Erdoğan

and Obama).

Holding 317 seats in the TBMM, Turkey’s current ruling party is 

the Islamist-leaning, socially conservative Justice and 

Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi or AKP). The 

AKP has largely remained in power since the party’s formation 

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in 2002, providing a political voice to Turkey’s more pious 

residents who were ostracized for decades by secular ruling 

parties. The AKP and its founder, President Erdoğan, are 

generally regarded as promoting an Islamist agenda over

secularism. Some of their policies and actions have resulted in 

civil unrest (see p. 21-22 of History and Myth). 

With 133 seats, the secular, moderate, and social-democratic 

Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi or CHP)

is the TBMM’s 2nd largest party. Established in 1923 by 

Turkey’s founder Atatürk, CHP is Turkey’s oldest party and has 

traditionally worked to safeguard the founder’s secular, 

Kemalist vision (see p. 15 of History and Myth). Today, CHP

serves as the AKP’s main opposition. 

Holding 59 seats in the TBMM, the pro-Kurdish People’s 

Democracy Party (Halkların Demokratik Partisi or HDP) is 

the TBMM’s 3rd largest party. HDP emphasizes the rights of 

minorities, participatory democracy, and social equality. The 

4th and final TBMM member is the far-right Nationalist 

Movement Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi or MHP). MHP 

advocates strict secularism and Turkish nationalism and 

currently holds 40 

seats in TBMM. 

Defense

The Turkish Armed 

Forces (Türkiye Silahı 

Kuvvetleri or TSK) are 

a unified military force 

consisting of ground, 

maritime, air, and 

paramilitary branches

having a joint strength of 510,600 active duty troops and 

378,700 reservists. With few exceptions, all men aged 20-41 

must serve from 6-18 months of compulsory military service

(Photo: Turkish soldiers participate in riot training). 

Land Forces: Turkey’s Army is composed of 402,000 activeduty troops with 6 special forces regiments and brigades, 44 

maneuver divisions and brigades (including armored, 

mechanized, light, and aviation), and 11 combat support 

regiments and brigades (including artillery and engineering). 

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Navy: Comprised of 48,600 personnel including 3,100 Marines 

and 2,200 Coast Guard members, Turkey’s Navy is a wellequipped force organized into 18 principal surface combatants, 

61 patrol and coastal combatants, 14 submarine units, 28 mine 

warfare and countermeasures units, 53 amphibious ships and 

craft, and 79 logistics and support units. Turkey’s Marines 

divide into 3 marine battalions and 1 artillery battalion. Finally, 

Naval Aviation has 3 anti-submarine warfare squadrons.

Air Force: Composed of 60,000 active-duty personnel, the Air 

Force comprises 3 fighter squadrons, 10 fighter/ground attack 

squadrons, 3 intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance 

(ISR) squadrons and 

units; 1 each

airborne early 

warning and control 

unit, electronic 

warfare (EW) unit, 

search and rescue 

squadron, and tanker 

squadron; 6 transport 

squadrons, 1 

transport liaison fleet, 

7 training squadrons, 

14 air defense squadrons and units, and 1 air maneuver 

brigade. The Air 

Force is equipped 

with 355 combatcapable aircraft, 40 

helicopters, and 27 

UAVs for ISR 

purposes (Photo: 

Turkish Air Force F4E Phantom II). 

Paramilitary:

Turkish paramilitary forces divide into 100,000 gendarmerie 

personnel and 2,200 Coast Guard members (Photo: Turkish 

soldiers participate in medical training exercises).

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Foreign Relations

Turkey’s strategic geographic position at the junction of Europe 

and the Middle East shapes its foreign relations. In the 

decades following World War II, Turkey sought a predominantly 

Western orientation, successfully building ties with the US and 

the European Union (EU) – a political and economic 

partnership among 28 European nations. In 1952, Turkey 

became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

(NATO) – a political and military alliance of 28 nations that 

promotes its members’ security through collective defense.

More recently, Turkey strengthened its regional presence in 

Central Asia, the Middle 

East, and North Africa by

leveraging its Islamic 

identity to foster diplomatic 

and trade ties with regional

Islamic countries (Photo: 

Turkey donates supplies to 

Afghanistan in 2010).

While Turkey historically

preferred a noninterventionalist foreign policy, recent regional 

conflicts have compelled it to pursue a more aggressive policy

in international affairs. Today, Turkish troops are deployed on 

NATO, United Nations (UN), and other international missions in 

Ukraine, the Balkans, the Middle East, and Afghanistan. A 

relatively stable democratic state with a moderate Islamist 

government, Turkey continues to be a powerful and important 

regional actor.

Relations with Russia: Turkey and Russia share a tense and 

occasionally volatile relationship, as both nations historically 

competed for regional political and economic influence. Most 

recently, opposing interests over the conflict in Syria (see 

“Security Issues” below) have heightened tensions. In late 

2015, Turkey shot down a Russian jet operating from a Syrian 

airbase, accusing it of entering Turkish airspace. While 

immediate tensions quickly subsided, Russia imposed 

temporary economic sanctions on Turkish industries in 

retaliation (see p. 4 of Economics and Resources), further 

souring relations. Following Russia’s condemnation of the 2016 

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coup attempt, tensions have eased somewhat as both nations 

work to restore bilateral economic and political ties.

Relations with Iran: Turkey and Iran share generally cordial

political ties, strengthened since the Islamist-leaning AKP came 

to power in Turkey in 2002. On multiple occasions, Turkey has 

defended Iran in international forums, including voting against 

UN sanctions on Iran in 2010 and hosting UN negotiations to 

resolve Iran’s pursuit of nuclear energy. Recently, however, the 

ongoing crisis in Syria and Iran’s support of the Syrian regime 

has increased bilateral friction. Of note, their mutually profitable 

economic relationship diffuses the occasionally heightened 

tensions. As with Russia, Iran’s condemnation of the 2016 

attempted coup and public support of Erdoğan have further 

improved relations. 

Relations with Armenia: Turkish-Armenian relations remain 

strained following the 

events of WWI (see p. 

12 of History and Myth). 

Although the 2 countries 

engaged in 

reconciliation talks in 

2009, little progress has 

been made to restore 

diplomatic ties. 

Consequently, the

Turkish-Armenian border remains closed (Photo: US Secretary 

of State Kerry and Turkish Foreign Minister Sinirlioglu pose 

with G20 colleagues). 

Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean: Turkey remains the

world’s only country to give official recognition to the Turkish 

Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), a Turkish-majority

territory in the northern 1/3 of the island of Cyprus (see p. 18 of 

History and Myth). A Greek majority inhabits the island’s South, 

an area internationally recognized as the independent Republic 

of Cyprus. Despite multiple attempts at reunification, including 

Turkey’s promise to attend UN-administered negotiations, the 

island remains divided.

Relations with the EU: As a candidate for EU membership, 

Turkey has been undergoing accession negotiations for several 

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years. Of note, Turkey agreed in early 2016 to increase the 

number of Syrian refugees it accepts in return for accelerated 

accession into the EU and an increase in financial aid. 

Membership remains popular among Turkish citizens who 

desire the economic advantages and cultural affinity it offers. 

Outside of the membership process, Turkey and the EU retain 

close economic and political ties. Turkey is a member of the 

European Customs Union, a free trade agreement with the EU

that makes it one of 

Turkey’s largest trading 

partners. In addition, 

Turkey collaborates 

closely with the EU on 

regional security issues. 

Relations with the US:

Historically close allies, 

Turkey and the US 

formally established 

diplomatic relations in 1927. Since then, both nations regularly 

cooperate as members of NATO, with Turkey serving as 

NATO’s vital eastern ally controlling the maritime territory that 

links the Black Sea to the Mediterranean (Photo: Presidents 

Obama and Erdoğan at the G20 Summit in 2012). 

Turkey and the US maintain strong diplomatic, economic, and 

military ties, cooperating on a range of bilateral issues such as 

trade, defense, and counterterrorism. A key partner in 

maintaining regional stability, Turkey participates in a US-led 

coalition to counter the Islamic State (IS). Turkey also provides 

the US access to strategic military facilities, enabling US 

operations in Afghanistan, the Middle East, and North Africa. 

Recent political disagreements – notably US support of Syrian 

Kurdish insurgents involved in hostilities with the Turkish 

government (see p. 20 and p. 21 of History and Myth) – 

threatens to disrupt Turkey-US military cooperation. In addition,

the US has criticized Turkey’s inability to halt the flow of 

insurgents and weapons across its permeable Syrian border

and at times has accused Turkey of actively supporting Syrian 

terrorist groups. Further mistrust has developed in the wake of 

the attempted coup against Erdoğan and Turkish claims of US 

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involvement. Despite these tensions, both nations continue to 

affirm the importance of maintaining a strategic relationship 

and work to deepen bilateral diplomatic and economic 

relations. 

Security Issues

Turkey’s security environment is dominated by escalating 

threats from a long-running, recently renewed, violent Kurdish 

insurgency, internally and externally-based militant Islamist 

groups, and threats resulting from conflicts in neighboring Syria 

and Iraq. Some observers assert that the 2016 attempted coup 

and Erdoğan’s subsequent purging and restructuring of the 

military have left Turkey destabilized, weak, and more 

vulnerable to both domestic and regional security threats.

Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK): Turkey’s most persistent 

security problem is the PKK, which has been participating in an 

intermittent armed insurgency against the Turkish government 

since 1984 (see p. 20 of History and Myth). While the PKK 

began as a separatist movement calling for an independent 

Kurdish state, today the PKK seeks increased autonomy and 

political representation for Kurds within Turkey. 

Generally, the armed conflict has been confined to the 

southeastern portion of 

Turkey, although 

recently both the PKK 

and a splinter group, the 

Kurdistan Freedom 

Hawks (TAK), committed 

several terrorist attacks 

in major western cities. 

In early 2016, TAK 

conducted an attack in 

the capital city of Ankara, killing 37 people. Despite recent 

peace talks, armed and violent confrontations between the 

PKK and Turkish military are ongoing (Photo: A KC-135T takes 

off from Incirlik Airbase). 

The Islamic State Organization (IS): The IS (also known as 

Daesh, ISIS, and ISIL) is a militant radical Islamist group which 

currently controls large swathes of territory in Iraq and Syria 

and seeks to establish an independent Islamic state. Notorious 

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for its brutality in the region, the IS recently conducted several 

terrorist attacks in Turkey. One attack in the capital city of 

Ankara in late 2015 left more than 100 people dead. Later in 

2016, 3 attacks in Istanbul targeted the Atatürk airport and 

popular tourist locations. Some experts suggest IS networks 

have extended into Turkey, making Turkey particularly 

vulnerable to future attacks. 

Tensions with Syria: Turkey’s historically tense and at times 

hostile relations with Syria are particularly intensive along their 

long, porous border. Although the 2 nations sought to develop 

economic and diplomatic ties in the early 2000s, tensions 

escalated following the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011. 

Turkey chose to back Syrian rebels, opposing Syria’s ruling 

government and its violent suppression of opposition groups. 

Since then, Turkey has allowed an armed Syrian insurgency 

group, the Free Syrian Army, to operate within Turkey and 

launch attacks into Syria under the protection of the Turkish 

military. Turkey has also engaged in several military actions 

against Syria, including shooting down a fighter plane in 2014. 

As a direct result of the war, close to 3 million Syrian refugees 

and migrants have settled in Turkey. This influx has stressed 

national resources, increased unemployment, and stirred 

interethnic tensions. To decrease cross-border movement and 

help secure the historically porous frontier, Turkey began 

constructing a wall along the Syrian border in 2014.

Turkey’s membership in NATO and regular military cooperation 

with the US create additional diplomatic rifts with Syria, 

particularly since

Syria is politically 

and economically 

aligned with nonNATO Russia and 

Iran. Finally, other

tensions arise from 

Turkey’s control 

over Syria’s water 

supply: Turkish dam construction projects along major rivers 

flowing into Syria severely limit Syria’s water resources (Photo: 

A Syrian refugee camp on the Turkish border).

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Tensions with Iraq: Turkey-Iraq relations are clouded by 

Turkey’s diplomatic ties to the Kurdish Regional Government 

(KRG), a Kurdish-majority semi-autonomous federal territory in 

northern Iraq currently seeking independence from Iraq’s 

central government. Concerned by the increasing strength of 

the IS in the region, Turkey provides the KRG with economic 

and military aid to help insulate it from growing IS threats. 

Meanwhile, Iraq fears Turkey’s actions in the region will secure 

the KRG’s financial and political independence. 

Further straining relations with Iraq are Turkey’s efforts to 

mitigate and counter threats from PKK factions residing in 

northern Iraq. Iraq opposes Turkey’s incursions into its territory

to combat the PKK, charging that they target Iraqi civilians. To 

calm rising tensions, Turkey withdrew some troops from 

northern Iraq in late 2015. 

Ethnic Groups

The Turkish government collects no information on the ethnic 

composition of its population. As a result, estimates of the size 

of ethnic groups vary widely. Generally, observers agree that 

the majority of the population (about 75%) are ethnic Turks. 

Kurds make up Turkey’s largest minority group at about 18% of 

the population, though some studies suggest the proportion 

might be as high as 30%. 

While Kurds live primarily 

in southeastern Turkey, 

internal displacement from

ongoing violence (see 

“Security Issues” above) 

has prompted many Kurds 

to move west. Today, 

Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir 

are home to sizeable 

Kurdish populations (Photo: Istanbul’s busy İstiklal Avenue, on 

a Friday afternoon, is famous for its Ottoman-era architecture). 

About 10% of the population belongs to other ethnic groups – 

including Arabs, Bulgarians, Greeks, Armenians, Assyrians, 

Tatars, and Roma (or “Gypsy”) – who primarily live in Istanbul 

and other western cities. Turkey is also home to the Laz and 

the Circassians, who live along the northern Black Sea coast. 

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Social Relations

The Republic of Turkey was founded on the notion that its 

citizens were all “Turks,” regardless of their ethnicity, language, 

or religion. Turkey’s founders believed that recognition of any 

minority rights would threaten national solidarity. Consequently, 

Turkey’s constitution and subsequent laws gave no official 

status to the country’s minority populations. Certain regulations 

and policies even infringed on groups’ rights. For example, the 

government long prohibited the use of Kurdish languages (see 

p. 3 of Language and Communication), meddled in the internal 

affairs of non-Muslim religious groups, and restricted the 

activities of non-Sunni Muslim 

groups (see p. 7-8 of Religion 

and Spirituality) (Photo: A 

vendor carries his wares in 

Marmaris).

These issues continue to 

create significant divides in 

Turkish society today. While 

the Kurds have attained some rights (see p. 3 of Language and 

Communication), they continue to press for their claims in both 

violent and non-violent ways. Meanwhile, Turkey’s religious 

minorities pursue their rights in international courts (see p. 9 of 

Religion and Spirituality).

The role of Islam in public and private life is currently the most 

divisive topic (see p. 23 of History and Myth). Societal discord 

over Islam’s place in Turkey often overlaps with discussions 

concerning Turkey’s place within Europe and its general 

orientation to the West. Proponents of secularism maintain that 

it is Turkey’s only path to full and equal membership in the 

European “family.” Islamists counter that only Islamic ethics 

and values can provide the moral and social strength Turkey 

needs to face an uncertain future. This religious rift and 

polarized political climate are compounded by economic and 

geographic divides. Economic development has fueled the 

growth of a new middle class in the Anatolian interior, largely 

comprised of conservative supporters of Sunni Muslim values.

By contrast, Turks living in coastal urban areas historically 

support secularism with the exception of Istanbul, which is 

home to millions of AKP Islamic conservative supporters. 

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Overview 

While its census does not 

record religious affiliation, 

the Turkish government 

estimates that 99% of the 

population is Muslim. In 

line with the 1923 Treaty 

of Lausanne (see p. 14 of 

History and Myth), the 

Turkish government 

officially recognizes 3 

minority religious communities: Greek Orthodox and Armenian 

Orthodox Christians and Jews. Collectively, these minority 

groups are estimated to comprise less than 1% of the 

population. A 2012 survey revealed that about 2/3 of Turks 

consider religion very important in their lives (Photo: Istanbul’s 

Sultan Ahmed Mosque, also known as the Blue Mosque).

Turkey’s 1982 constitution establishes the country as a secular 

state while providing for freedom of religious belief and worship

and prohibiting discrimination on religious grounds. Although

no religious community has full legal status, the government 

promotes Sunni Islam through its Directorate of Religious 

Affairs (Diyanet) and restricts the rights and freedoms of 

followers of other traditions. 

The government exerts control over religious activities in many 

different ways. For example, it oversees compulsory Sunni 

Islamic instruction in public schools (see p. 4-5 of Learning and 

Knowledge) and provides all training for Sunni clerics (imams). 

It further restricts other religious groups within the country from 

training their clergy and regularly interferes in the internal 

affairs of minority religious groups. 

Early Spiritual Landscape 

Turkey’s early inhabitants followed an array of faith traditions. 

The religion of the Hittites (see p. 2 of History and Myth) 

included many gods and objects of worship, including a 

Weather or Storm god and a Sun goddess. During their rule, 

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SPIRITUALITY
the Romans (see p. 4 of History and Myth) introduced other

deities, such as Jupiter, the supreme god; Minerva, the 

goddess of wisdom; and Mars, the god of war, while allowing 

other customs to continue. Consequently, some residents 

performed fertility rites to the ancient mother goddess, Cybele, 

while others were devoted to the Egyptian god, Osiris, or to 

Greek gods or goddesses.

Judaism: Archaeological and textual evidence suggest Jews 

moved into Anatolia as early as the 4th-century BC. Somewhat 

oppressed under Byzantine rule (see p. 4-5 of History and 

Myth), the Jewish communities flourished under the Seljuk 

Turks. The community further expanded under the Ottoman 

Turks, who welcomed Jews expelled from other parts of 

Europe (see p. 8 of History and Myth).

Christianity: Anatolia played an important role in the early 

development of Christianity. The apostle Paul, born in Tarsus 

in southern Turkey around 1 

AD, traveled through the 

region, then a part of the 

Roman Empire, spreading 

Christian teachings. In Antioch 

(near the modern-day southern 

city of Antakya), Roman rulers 

first used the term “Christians”

to refer to followers of Jesus. 

Prior to the Roman Empire’s 

4th-century adoption of 

Christianity (see p. 4 of History 

and Myth), Christians who

refused to make sacrifices to 

the Roman emperor were persecuted. Of note, Armenians in 

eastern Anatolia were among the earliest non-Jews to accept 

the new religion (Photo: The interior of Istanbul’s Hagia Sophia, 

originally built as a Christian church in 537 then converted to 

an Islamic mosque in 1453 and a museum in 1935).

After the Romans converted, Anatolia became an important 

center of Christian thought, including the site of several 

significant doctrinal decisions and disputes. At a council held in 

325 in Nicaea (present-day Iznik in northern Turkey), attendees 

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drafted a declaration of faith, the Nicaean Creed, which is still 

used today. 

In the 8th-9th centuries, a dispute over the use of icons in 

worship rocked the Byzantine Empire. In subsequent centuries, 

philosophical and theological differences between the western

and eastern branches of the Christian movement resulted in 

greater estrangement. In the Schism of 1054, the leaders of the 

2 branches, the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch in 

Constantinople, excommunicated each other. The end result 

was a permanent division between the Roman Catholic and 

Eastern Orthodox churches. 

Islam

Origins of Islam

Muhammad, who Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was 

born in Mecca in 570 in what is today Saudi Arabia. Muslims 

believe that while Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the 

Archangel Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing 

the Qur’an, or “Holy 

Book,” to guide their 

everyday lives and 

shape their values 

(Photo: Late 7thcentury Arabian 

Qur’an).

Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to 

its adherents. The term 

Islam literally means submission to the will of God, and a 

Muslim is “a person who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam 

There are 5 basic principles of the Islamic faith. 

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• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God, 

and Muhammad is His Messenger.” 

• Prayer (Salat or namaz): Pray 5 times a day while facing

the Ka’aba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka’aba (pictured) is 

considered the center of 

the Muslim world and a 

unifying focal point for 

Islamic worship. 

• Charity (Zakat): Donate 

a percentage of one’s 

income to the poor or 

needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): 

Abstain from food, drink, and sexual relations from sunrise to 

sunset during the holy month of Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia once in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in one God. 

Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace their 

descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael.

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments, and Muslims view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God. 

Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for 

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the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as a prophet 

but do not acknowledge his divinity or the Christian Trinity. 

View of Death: Muslims believe that God determines the time 

of death and birth. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven. 

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism and 

consider it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Observed during the 9th month of the Islamic lunar calendar 

(see p. 2 of Time and Space), Ramadan, known as Ramazan

in Turkey, is a month-long time for inner reflection, self-control,

and focus on God. 

During this time, 

Muslims who are

physically able fast 

from dawn to sunset. 

Many Muslims 

believe that denying 

their hunger helps

them to learn selfcontrol, appreciate 

the difficulties of the 

poor, and gain 

spiritual renewal – by fasting, a Muslim learns to appreciate the 

good in life (Photo: Istanbul’s Sultan Ahmed Mosque lit with a 

Ramadan message).

Muslims typically break their daily fast at sunset with a meal 

known as iftar. Ramadan includes several holidays:

• Lailat al-Qadr: Kadir Gecesi in Turkey, this “Night of 

Power” marks Muhammad’s receipt of the first verses of the 

Qur’an.

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• Eid al-Fitr: Ramazan Bayramı or Şeker Bayramı in Turkey, 

this “Festival of Fast-Breaking” celebrates Ramadan’s end 

and is a national holiday. 

Another important holiday is celebrated when the Hajj ends, 

about 70 days following the end of Ramadan.

• Eid al-Adha: Kurban Bayramı in Turkey, this “Festival of 

Sacrifice” commemorates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice 

his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, according to Christians), as proof 

of his loyalty to God. 

The Arrival of Islam in Turkey

Around the 9th century, Turkic tribes began expanding from 

their base in Central Asia, raiding the Caucasus, Persia 

(modern-day Iran), and Anatolia (see p. 5-6 of History and 

Myth). The Turks first encountered Islam while struggling for 

dominance with Arab opponents. Over the course of several 

centuries, many Turkic tribes adopted Islam. By the 11th 

century, the Seljuk Turks became the main champions of Sunni 

Islam against the Shi’a version of Islam practiced in Persia. 

The Ottoman Turks’ capture of Constantinople in 1453 (see p. 

8 of History and Myth) brought permanent change to Anatolia’s 

religious landscape. As head of the Ottoman Empire, the sultan 

was also the caliph

(leader) of the 

Sunni Muslim world

and charged with 

protecting and 

enforcing Islamic 

law and teachings. 

He also pledged to 

protect the Greek 

Orthodox Church, 

which had 

Constantinople as 

its religious center. Thus, the Empire demonstrated significant 

religious tolerance. Further, under the Empire’s millet system, 

subjects were governed according to their religious affiliation. 

In this way, Christian and Jewish leaders led and regulated the 

internal affairs of their own communities (Photo: Late 19thcentury photo of Armenian Christians in eastern Anatolia).

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The central role of Islam in governance as well as the relative 

autonomy of minority religious communities ended with the 

1923 establishment of the Republic of Turkey (see p. 14 of 

History and Myth). Founder Atatürk implemented 

transformative changes to put his Kemalist philosophy into 

practice (see p. 15 of History and Myth). These included 

confiscating all properties from Islamic organizations, 

converting Islamic schools to secular institutions, and closing 

Islamic courts. Instead of separating state and religion, the 

reforms put religion under state control by establishing a 

government agency to administer and oversee all religious 

organizations.

Religion Today

Islam

Beginning in 1950, Turkey slowly liberalized its policies toward 

Islam, lifting certain restrictions and allowing greater religious 

expression. For example, the government has lifted the ban on 

the wearing of headscarves in schools, universities, and

governmental buildings

(Photo: Mosque dome in 

Çankırı).

Sunni Islam: Between 

75%-85% of Turkey’s

Muslims are Sunni 

followers of the Hanafi

school, a generally 

tolerant and liberal school 

of Islamic thought. The governmental Diyanet supports only 

Sunni Muslim imams and institutions.

Alevism: While exact figures are unknown, scholars estimate 

that 15%-25% of Turkey’s population identify as Alevis, a form 

of Islam that has some similarities to the Shi’a branch. The 

Turkish government does not recognize Alevism as a unique 

tradition, instead viewing it as an unorthodox Islamic sect. 

Rather than gathering in mosques for their services, Alevis

worship together in cemevi (gathering places) that the 

government does not recognize as legal houses of worship. 

Consequently, Alevis are ineligible for the types of 

governmental support that Sunni mosques receive. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Sufism: The history of Sufism in Turkey traces to the 8th

century, when followers of charismatic leaders began to 

establish societies or fraternal orders. Characterized by 

mysticism and ritualistic prayer, Sufi traditions typically 

incorporate practices meant to advance personal spirituality 

and connection with divinity. While they enjoyed substantial 

support during the Ottoman era, the Sufi brotherhoods were 

banned in the early Republic. Although some Sunni Muslims 

today still reject Sufism, society generally recognizes the Sufi 

brotherhoods’ deep and important connection to Islamic history 

and Turkish culture and society. 

Christianity

Around 250,000 Christians live in Turkey today. With about

85,000 followers, the Greek Orthodox Church represents the 

largest Christian community. The Turkish government does not 

acknowledge the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople 

seated in Istanbul as the central church authority for the world’s 

300 million Orthodox Christians. Instead, the government only 

recognizes it as the religious leader of Turkey’s Greek 

Orthodox minority population. The government exercises 

substantial control over the Church’s internal affairs by 

requiring its Patriarch to be a Turkish citizen and refusing to reWhirling Dervishes

Based on the teachings of 13th-century Sufi mystic 

and poet Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi, the worship 

service of the Mevlevi order uses music and dance to 

induce a state of universal love and connection with 

the divine. During the service, known as a sema and 

performed at a tekke or lodge, male dancers wear 

full-length white gowns and conical hats. 

Accompanied by music played on a ney or reed flute, 

dancers perform prayers, greetings, and imitations 

while swirling and spinning to create an ecstatic 

experience. While spinning, the whirling dervishes

extend their right arms upward so that divine energy 

enters the right palm, travels through the body, and 

then exits through the left palm that faces the earth.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
open the country’s only Greek Orthodox seminary, despite 

international pressure to do so (Photo: US Secretary of State 

Kerry meets with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

and other church 

leaders in Istanbul).

One of the oldest 

Christian branches, 

the Armenian 

Orthodox Church has 

around 60,000 

followers in Turkey 

today. The Christian 

community also 

counts some Roman 

Catholics, who first arrived with the Crusaders in the Middle 

Ages (see p. 6-7 of History and Myth), several Protestant 

denominations, Syriac Orthodox Christians, and Chaldean 

Catholics.

Judaism

Around 20,000 Jews live in Turkey today, primarily in Istanbul

where 19 synagogues serve about 17,000 people. In the last 

few years, a rise in anti-Semitic rhetoric on the part of the 

government and within the general public has prompted some 

Jews to permanently leave the country.

Religion and Society

In the last decades, the place of Islam in contemporary Turkish 

society has been a major topic of debate (see p. 15 of Political 

and Social Relations). Viewing itself as a protector of Kemalist 

secularism, the military has intervened several times in the 

Turkish political process (see p. 16-20 of History and Myth). 

Some members of Turkey’s religious minorities have pressed 

their cases before the European Court of Human Rights 

(ECHR). Following a recent ECHR ruling, the government has 

begun providing some subsidies to certain Christian and 

Jewish organizations. In a 2016 ruling, the ECHR found that 

the Turkish authorities’ refusal to recognize Alevism and its 

places of worship breached Alevis’ right to freedom of religion.

Nevertheless, it is still unclear if and how the government might 

implement policy changes regarding the Alevis’ status.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Family is at the center of Turkish social life and forms the 

backbone of society. Key family values include respect for 

elders, loyalty, inclusiveness, and sense of community. Turks 

typically exhibit a strong obligation to their kin, maintaining

close relationships with extended family members and 

involving them in all important life events. 

Residence

In recent decades, there 

has been a migration of

Turks to urban areas 

seeking work and 

education, resulting in a 

population boom in

Turkey’s major cities. In 

both urban and rural 

settings, most Turks take 

pride in their homes, 

decorating them with art, ceramics, paintings, and lavish 

carpets while keeping them meticulously clean. Many homes 

feature modern appliances like dishwashers, washing 

machines, stereo systems, and large televisions (Photo: 

Apartment buildings along the Bosporus in Istanbul). 

Rural: In rural areas, most homes include a small bathroom, a 

kitchen, and living room, which doubles as a sleeping area for 

the family at night. While many rural homes are constructed 

from modern materials such as bricks and cement, poorer 

residents in small villages use naturally available materials like

mud bricks, stone, and wood. Many rural homes are equipped 

with solar panels and satellite dishes. In some villages, multistory apartment complexes are increasingly replacing individual 

houses. 

Urban: While most urban residents live in high-rise 

apartments, more middle- and high-income Turks are choosing 

to live in suburban, single-family homes. Typically larger than 

their urban counterparts, suburban dwellings may contain 4-5 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
rooms, including a bathroom, kitchen, family room, and multiple 

bedrooms. Many homes also feature western-style dining and 

living rooms. Turkey’s poorest urban residents live in hastily 

erected slums on city outskirts called gecekondu. Here, 

dwellings are typically simple, single-story unfinished homes, 

often constructed in phases as funds and materials become 

available. 

Home exteriors are usually colorful (Photo: A palace wall in 

Istanbul). Many apartments are equipped with balconies, where 

residents socialize with family and friends, share meals, and 

relax in the summer. 

Wealthier families tend to 

maintain elaborate

gardens around their 

homes. Because they 

consider home ownership 

a sign of success, many 

Turks prefer to purchase 

instead of renting their 

homes. In fact, wealthy 

Turks often purchase a property for each child as an 

investment or to pass on as an inheritance. 

Family Structure

Those Turks who move to urban areas tend to maintain close 

ties with their memleket (home town) and hemşeri (fellow 

countrymen), visiting on weekends and special occasions. In 

urban areas, extended family members often purchase 

residences near each other. 

Urban households typically comprise small nuclear families

consisting of parents and their children. By contrast, 

households in rural areas tend to be larger, averaging 8 or 

more people, including parents, children, grandparents, and 

even great-grandparents. Generally, the father is the head of 

the household and is the primary breadwinner while the mother 

is responsible for household chores, including cooking, 

cleaning, and raising the children. Turks revere their elderly 

family members, physically and financially caring for them as 

they grow older. Nursing homes are uncommon, particularly in 

rural areas. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Children

Families in rural regions may have as many as 5-6 children, 

while urban families generally have just 1-2. Grandparents and

extended family members play a large role in raising children, 

serving as mentors and supporting the parents as needed. In a 

departure from tradition, some wealthy Turkish families employ 

nannies to help in childrearing. In rural areas, children assist

their parents with household chores from a young age. The 

eldest son assumes the responsibility of caring for his younger 

siblings and helping his father complete daily tasks. By 

contrast, urban children have fewer responsibilities (Photo: 

Turkish and US 

officials visit a school 

in Adana). 

Children typically live 

with their parents until 

they marry, though in 

some cases, newly 

married sons remain 

in the family 

residence with their 

brides until the young couple gains financial independence. 

Exceptions include young adults who leave their rural 

hometowns to pursue employment or education opportunities

in urban areas and young urban adults who leave home to live 

with friends.

Birth: Generally, Turkish women give birth in hospitals, though 

some rural women may have their children at home 

accompanied by a midwife. Immediately following a baby’s 

birth, friends and family visit the mother and child, bringing 

gifts. The child’s grandfather or other revered family member 

whispers the baby’s name into his or her ear and recites a 

prayer. In religious families, an imam (a Muslim religious 

leader – see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality) may perform the 

name-giving ceremony instead. For the initial weeks after birth, 

the grandmother may move into the family residence to help 

care for mother and child. In more traditional families, the 

mother and baby do not leave the home in the first 40 days 

following birth. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Male Rites of Passage Ceremonies

Circumcision: Turkish boys undergo circumcision between 

ages 5-8, signifying their passage into adulthood and 

membership in the Islamic community. For the ceremony, boys 

traditionally dress in a white satin suit, a cape trimmed with 

feathers, and a tall crowned cap. Today, some families prefer 

an Ottoman-era costume of brightly-colored trousers, coat, and 

turban. Following the procedure, the family hosts a party during 

which the boy receives presents from family and friends. In 

rural areas, the entire 

village may attend the 

ceremony and festivities.

National Service:

Another important 

symbol of transition into 

adulthood for males is 

the compulsory military 

or national service that 

all men must fulfill (see 

p. 6 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Students

graduate from a Turkish military academy). 

Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically start socializing with each other around 

age 12. Dating in the Western sense is uncommon, except in 

some university settings or in large urban areas. Instead, most 

young adults socialize in groups. Popular group activities 

include visiting coffee shops, restaurants, the cinema, parks, 

shopping malls, and sporting events. 

Once a couple decides to commit to a relationship, their 

families commonly expect marriage to be the next step. In 

some cases, especially in rural areas, a family member 

chaperones the pair throughout the courtship. Some young 

couples may try to see each other in secret to avoid family 

scrutiny. It is traditional in rural areas for parents and other 

relatives to help choose their children’s partners. Single urban 

adults tend to follow their own romantic interests. 

Couples generally spend less than 2 years in courtship before 

marrying, rarely living together during this time. Some Turks 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
prefer to complete their education and/or mandatory military 

service before marrying. Most couples marry in their early 20s. 

Of note, it is unlawful for Turks to marry before age 18, though 

some do (see p. 3 of Sex and Gender). 

Bridewealth: Upon engagement, the groom and his family

traditionally paid başlık parası or a so-called bridewealth to the

bride’s family in exchange for her promise of marriage. 

Although rare, this custom is observed in some rural regions

today.

Weddings: Urban weddings tend to be simple. First, the groom 

collects the bride from her home and proceeds to the wedding 

venue in a car decorated with ribbons and flowers. Upon 

arrival, the bride and groom participate in a civil ceremony that 

involves reciting vows, exchanging rings, and signing a 

marriage contract. The couple then celebrates by dancing, 

singing, and mingling with family and friends throughout the 

day and into the night

(Photo: Turkey’s founder 

Atatürk attends a family 

wedding in the 1930s). 

By contrast, rural 

weddings are usually 

more elaborate, typically 

consisting of a 3-day 

series of parties. The first 

event is a female-only kina gecesi (henna evening) when the 

bride’s relatives apply a henna paste to portions of her hands 

and feet, dyeing them red. Throughout the following day, the 

couple’s families serve simple meals to the assembled guests. 

Held on the last day of celebrations, the actual wedding 

ceremony usually takes place in the village square. The 

groom’s male family members collect the bride from her home 

and bring her to square where the groom awaits. 

Following the ceremony, family and friends gather at a 

reception where they present gifts to the bride and groom while 

enjoying elaborate meals and dances. Traditionally, the 

groom’s family is responsible for the wedding costs while both 

families share the costs of furnishing the newlywed couple’s 

home. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Divorce: Although Turkey’s divorce rate increased by 38% 

over the last decade, it remains quite low at just 1.6 divorces

per 1,000 inhabitants, compared to the US rate of 3.6. Social

stigma linked to divorce is sometimes an issue in rural areas. 

Death

In line with Islamic tradition, Turks bury their loved ones as 

soon as possible after death, usually within 24 hours. After a 

death, the deceased’s 

body is cleansed, 

wrapped in a clean 

white cloth, and 

placed in a coffin. The 

coffin is then draped in 

a green cloth inscribed 

with a prayer. If the 

deceased was a 

government employee

or in the military, the 

coffin typically is

draped in the Turkish flag. Male relatives and friends then 

transport the coffin to a mosque where a cleric offers prayers

(Photo: The Kacatepe Mosque in the capital city of Ankara).

Relatives then transport the deceased to a cemetery for burial.

At the gravesite, family and friends remove the deceased from

the coffin for placement in the grave. Following the burial, the 

family receives mourners 

who bring food, offer 

condolences, and pray, 

usually in the deceased’s 

home. Mourners 

commonly dedicate 

dishes of helva, a dessert 

served on special 

occasions to the 

deceased. Instead of

sending flowers to the 

family, the deceased’s friends and relatives often donate to 

charities in his memory. The family gathers at a mosque for an 

additional memorial service 7 days, 40 days, and 1 year after 

the death (Photo: Cemetery in Konya).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditionally, Turkish society is patriarchal, meaning that men 

hold most power and authority. While this outlook on gender 

roles is changing among some city dwellers, the traditional 

view persists in most rural and some urban areas. Although 

women and men have equal rights before the law, gender 

inequity continues to present challenges to women in economic 

and political spheres. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Turkish women are traditionally responsible 

for household duties and childcare, training their daughters for 

this role from an early age. Girls begin performing household 

chores around age 8, with the eldest sister (abla) also tending 

to the needs of her younger siblings. Women in urban areas 

tend to be active in the public realm and are increasingly 

economically and socially independent. Even if they work 

outside the home, most urban women still perform the majority 

of domestic tasks 

(Photo: Turkish 

women shop in 

Istanbul). 

Labor Force: In 

2014, about 29% of 

Turkish women 

worked outside the 

home, a significantly 

lower rate than the 

European Union average (51%) and in the US (56%) but higher 

than in neighboring Iran (17%), Iraq (15%) and Syria (14%). 

Highly educated Turkish women hold positions in healthcare, 

government, education, and business, including high-paying 

service industries such as banking and finance. By contrast, 

women without a university education generally only have 

access to low-wage jobs without social security benefits. In 

rural areas, women commonly perform a significant amount of 

agricultural labor for a daily wage. In all sectors, men typically 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
receive preferential job placement and earn higher wages than

women with comparable work experience and education levels.

Gender and the Law

In 1923, Turkey’s founder Atatürk (see p. 15 History and Myth) 

initiated a series of sweeping social and economic reforms 

intended to improve the position of women in society. Women 

were granted the right to vote in 1930. Today, the Turkish 

constitution continues to guarantee equal rights to women in 

social welfare, education, healthcare,

and employment (Photo: A Turkish 

doctor speaks at a women’s 

empowerment event held at Incirlik 

Air Base). 

Women and men enjoy equal rights 

within marriage, in divorce, 

inheritance, and in their authority over 

their children. In addition, the 

constitution guarantees special 

protections to single mothers and 

pregnant women, such as requiring absent fathers to help 

financially support their children. The law also protects women 

from differential treatment based on gender and from sexual 

harassment in the workplace. 

Despite this legal framework, laws are not always enforced. For 

example, sexual harassment remains a serious workplace 

issue while women generally experience discrimination in hiring 

and promotion. In addition, certain cultural traditions associated 

with conservative Islam hinder women’s full participation in 

society, especially in Turkey’s rural, eastern regions.

Religiously conservative families in particular often bar their 

female members from entering the workforce. 

Gender and Politics

While Turkey elected its first and only female Prime Minister, 

Tansu Çiller, in the early 1990s (see p. 20 of History and Myth), 

rates of women’s participation in the political process 

historically have been low. Turkish law does not require that 

women receive a certain percentage of political appointments, 

although some political parties choose to apply internal gender 

SEX &

GENDER
quotas requiring a proportion of party seats to be filled by 

women. In 2014, 78 women held seats in the 550-seat 

Parliament (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations), meaning 

just 14% of members were women – lower than the US rate of

20% of women in Congress. Meanwhile, only 1 woman served 

on the 26-member Council of Ministers. Locally, women 

represent less than 1% of mayors and hold less than 1% of 

municipal council seats. 

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Women face a significant level of 

violence in Turkey, mostly related to 

domestic incidents. Although Turkish 

law criminalizes domestic violence, 

some women consider it a private 

matter and are reluctant to seek help. 

Still others are unaware of the law and 

of its reporting mechanisms. Moreover, 

members of ethnic minorities (see p. 

14 of Political and Social Relations) 

may hesitate to seek protection 

because they distrust authorities or face language barriers. 

Generally, even if GBV cases are reported, indictment and 

prosecution of perpetrators is rare. Police sometimes delay the 

prosecution of cases, instead advocating for internal 

reconciliation within the family. In some cases, police refuse to 

respond to domestic violence incidents altogether (Photo: 

Members of a Turkish youth ballet perform at a Children’s Day 

festival at Incirlik Air Base).

While rape is a criminal offense that carries severe penalties,

some victims, particularly those in rural areas, do not report 

these crimes to avoid an accusation of adultery or bring the 

family shame. Despite the Turkish government’s effort to curb

the practice, “honor killings” (the killing of females perceived to 

have brought dishonor to their families) continue to occur in the 

rural Southeast, particularly in conservative families. 

While early (before age 18) or forced marriage is criminalized, 

some studies suggest as many as 45% of women in poor, rural 

regions marry early, some as young as 12. 

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation 

In urban areas, attitudes towards public displays of affection 

have liberalized in recent years. Consequently, some kissing 

and holding hands has been tolerated. By contrast, rural 

residents and religiously conservative Turks tend to be more 

reserved and consider such intimacy a private matter. 

Turkey’s birthrate has steadily declined since the 1960s, from 

5.7 children per woman in 1968 to 2.1 in 2014. This drop is 

primarily due to Turkey’s urbanization and women’s changing 

roles in society. As more Turkish women become better 

educated, work outside the home, and marry later, they have 

fewer children. Concerned about the decreasing birth rate, 

President Erdoğan has recently and controversially 

encouraged Turkish families to have at least 3 children. 

Since 1983, abortion in Turkey has been legal through the first 

10 weeks of pregnancy and in cases of rape, incest, 

malformation of the fetus, and risk of injury to the mother. 

Access to the procedure is somewhat limited – many women 

particularly in rural areas are unaware of the law, few hospitals 

offer non-emergency 

terminations, and 

some doctors refuse to 

perform the procedure

altogether (Photo: A 

Turkish mother and 

her child).

Homosexuality:

Although homosexual 

activity has been legal 

in Turkey since 1923, Turkish law recognizes neither same-sex 

marriages nor civil unions of same-sex couples. Homosexuals 

generally experience significant social stigma and face 

discrimination in the workplace, school, health services, and 

housing. While public displays of affection between same-sex 

couples may be tolerated in large urban areas, homosexual 

activity in rural and religiously conservative areas may provoke 

harassment.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

The official language of Turkey is Turkish, which most citizens

speak as a primary language. While the Turkish government no 

longer collects census information on other languages, 

scholars report that some 36 other languages are spoken in the 

country.

Turkish

A member of the Turkic 

branch of the Altaic 

language family, Turkish

is most similar to 

Azerbaijani and Turkmen. 

Over centuries of contact 

with other cultures and 

languages (see History 

and Myth), Turkish 

speakers incorporated many foreign words into their 

vocabulary. During the Ottoman era, residents of Anatolia used 

a modified version of Arabic script to 

write Turkish (Pictured: A 16thcentury Ottoman miniature painting 

incorporates Arabic script).

Following the Turkish Republic’s 

1923 founding (see p. 14 of History 

and Myth), Atatürk implemented 

comprehensive reforms intended to 

modernize and westernize the new 

country as well as construct a new 

Turkish national identity. An 

important part of these reforms was 

the Turkish language. Consequently, 

a new Turkish alphabet replacing the Arabic script with Latin 

was mandated (Photo: Atatürk introduces the new Turkish 

alphabet in 1928).

Further, Atatürk forbade the use of foreign loanwords in 

Turkish. Established in 1932, the Turkish Language 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Association (TDK) identified Turkish equivalents for commonlyused Persian, Arabic, and French words. The transformation 

was so rapid and comprehensive that few Turks today can

understand Turkish from the Ottoman or early independence 

eras, a situation that sometimes leads to intergenerational 

miscommunication. 

Modern Turkish utilizes a 29-letter Latin alphabet that relies on 

diacritics to indicate pronunciation. For example, symbols

placed over vowels often indicate length, while those placed 

over or under consonants indicate a pronunciation change. 

Thus, the Turkish “s” sound is identical to the English “s”, but 

“ş” sounds like “sh,” and the “ı” (undotted i) sounds like “uh” in 

the word “plus.”

Modern spoken Turkish is soft and melodic, largely due to a 

system of vowel harmony that requires the sounds of suffixes 

to align with preceding vowel sounds. Turkish is an

agglutinative language, meaning it adds suffixes to root words 

to adapt their meaning. For example, the word terbiye (good 

manners) gains a new meaning with the addition of several

suffixes. Terbiyesizliklerindenmis means “I gather that it was 

due to their rudeness.” 

Historically, Anatolian Turks spoke several different Turkish 

dialects, although the TDK chose Istanbul’s dialect as the basis 

for modern standard Turkish. Nevertheless, the several Turkish 

dialects are still spoken

today. Broadly, Turkish 

dialects divide into 

western varieties that are 

somewhat similar to 

modern standard Turkish 

and eastern dialects that 

sound quite different, less 

melodic, and more 

guttural. Two prominent 

eastern dialects are 

Karadeniz, spoken in the 

Black Sea region, and Doğu, spoken in eastern Anatolia

(Photo: Turkish street signs in Diyarbakır during the 2015 

general election).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Kurdish 

An estimated 11-20% of Turkey’s population speaks 1 of 2

Kurdish languages: Northern Kurdish, also known as Kurmanji

or Kermancî, and Zaza. Unlike Turkish, the Kurdish languages 

belong to the Indo-European language family and are most 

similar to Persian. In 1932, the TDK prohibited all spoken and 

written Kurdish in the public sphere, a repressive policy that 

provided fuel for the Kurds’ struggle against the Turkish 

government (see p. 19 of History and Myth). In a significant 

step, President Özal supported the legalization of Kurdish 

speech, song, and music in 1991. Despite this legal change, 

progress has been slow. For example, Turkish courts allowed 

Kurdish testimony for the first time in 2013, and despite a 2012 

decision legalizing education in other languages, few Kurdish 

language schools have opened (see p. 7 of Learning and 

Knowledge).

Other Languages

Some Turks speak languages other than Turkish or Kurdish.

Scholars estimate that Arabic and Circassian each have at 

least 1 million speakers, while Persian has about 600,000 and 

Azerbaijani about 500,000. Other languages with at least 

100,000 speakers include Bosnian, Bulgarian, Chechen, 

Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, Georgian, and Pontic Greek. Other 

languages include 

Albanian, Armenian, 

Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, 

Karakalpak, Ladino, 

Laz, Ossetic, Romani, 

and Turoyo.

English: English is the 

most popular foreign 

language in Turkey. 

Since English 

instruction typically begins in the 4th grade (see p. 5 of 

Learning and Knowledge), Turkish youth are more likely to 

speak English than older generations. In urban areas such as 

Istanbul, many young Turks incorporate English in their slang, 

creating colloquial “Turkinglish” (Photo: Market spices labeled 

in English, Turkish, and German).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Turkey requires not only 

knowledge of Turkish but also the ability to interact effectively 

using language. This broad notion of competence includes 

paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal space, touch, gestures), and 

interaction management (conversation initiation, turn-taking, 

and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends. 

Communication Style

Turkish communication patterns reflect the value Turks place 

on respect, loyalty, community, and hospitality. While Turks 

also appreciate sincerity, they tend to value social harmony 

even more. Consequently, Turks typically avoid direct criticism

and public conflicts, preferring to confront issues in private.

Hierarchy is also important in Turkish society. Accordingly, 

Turks emphasize their respect and deference to religious, 

political, and community 

leaders as well as other 

authority figures by 

listening attentively and 

avoiding interruptions. 

Turks tend to be

outspoken, confident, and 

somewhat more emotional 

than Americans. They use 

conversational touching

(see p. 4 of Time and 

Space), warm facial expressions, and tactful humor to enhance 

their interactions (Photo: President Obama speaks with Turkish 

President Erdoğan and advisors).

Turks typically admire a good sense of humor and often make 

fun of themselves and others in a tactful, gentle way. Other

jokes detail the misfortunes of the popular fictional characters 

Temel and his wife Fatma or the trickster Nasreddin Hoca (see 

p. 24 of History and Myth). Other jokes highlight society’s or 

politicians’ shortcomings.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Greetings

Turks typically greet with great care and respect. When 

meeting or entering a room, they may say merhaba (hello), 

hoş geldiniz (welcome), or nasılsınız (how are you?). The 

respective responses would be merhaba, hoş bulduk (glad to 

be here), or iyiyim, teşekkür ederim (fine, thank you). A 

common greeting among observant Muslims is selam aleyküm 

(peace be upon you), and the 

response is aleyküm selam

(and upon you be peace). 

Following this verbal greeting, 

Turks typically exchange cheek 

kisses, handshakes, or both. 

Greetings between members of 

the opposite sex often depend 

on the setting or the nature of 

the relationship. For example, in

rural areas or religious settings, 

men may avoid touching a woman in greeting, preferring 

instead to nod in acknowledgement. Young Turks often greet 

elders by kissing the elder’s hand then pressing it to the 

younger Turk’s forehead. Of note, some Turks may consider a 

very firm handshake as impolite (Photo: US Secretary of 

Defense Carter shakes hands with Turkish General Bekir 

Ercan Van). 

Forms of Address

Turks use different forms of address to demonstrate respect 

and the nature of the relationship. Turkish adults typically 

address each other using their first name followed by the title 

Hanim (Madam) or Bey (Sir). More informally, children address 

young adults as Abla (elder sister) and Ağabey or Abi (big 

brother). Most Turks use Teyze (aunt) and Amca (uncle) after 

the first name when greeting someone much older.

Turkish has distinct “you” pronouns that reflect different levels 

of formality and respect. Turks typically use the formal “you,” or 

siz, when meeting for the first time, with elders, or authority 

figures. They tend to reserve the informal sen for friends, 

relatives, or close colleagues. Foreign nationals should use 

formal forms of address unless advised otherwise.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Conversational Topics 

Common conversation topics includes participants’ well-being, 

work, and family. Other common topics include culture, history, 

hobbies, and sports. Turks typically appreciate any attempt to 

speak their language even if only a few words. 

Although Turks may criticize aspects of their country or their 

government, foreign nationals should avoid doing so. Topics 

such as religion, politics, and sex may cause offense. Other 

sensitive issues may include the use of women’s headscarves

(see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality) and Turkish relations with 

Kurds, Armenians, and Greeks (see p. 12, 18, 19 of History 

and Myth). Some Turkish men, especially observant Muslims 

and rural-dwellers, never inquire directly about another man’s 

female relations nor should 

foreign nationals (Photo: US 

Ambassador Bass and Joint 

Staff Chairman General Dunford 

meet with Turkish Prime Minister 

Davutoğlu).

Gestures

Turks frequently use gestures to 

augment and sometimes replace

spoken words. For example, 

moving the head back and 

raising the eyebrows means “no,” a gesture that is sometimes 

accompanied by a “tsk” sound. While nodding means “yes,” 

shaking the head signifies “I’m not sure.” To politely indicate 

“No, thank you,” Turks place a palm flat on the chest. Turks

typically use the entire hand to point.

Foreign nationals should avoid showing the soles of feet or 

shoes to Turks, who consider both unclean. Further, foreign 

nationals should avoid walking in front of someone praying and 

making the Western “A-OK” sign, both of which are considered

offensive.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources.

Click on Menu tab in upper right then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Turkish

Hi / Hello Merhaba / Selam

Good morning Günaydın

Good day İyi günler

Good evening / good night İyi akşamlar

My name is ____ Benım adım ____

What is your name? Adınız ne?

How are you? Nasılsınız?

I'm fine, thank you İyiyim, teşekkür ederim

Please Lütfen

Thank you Teşekkür ederim / Sağol

You're welcome Rica ederim

Yes / No Evet / hayır

Goodbye Allahısmarladık

See you later Görüşürüz

I am American Amerikalıyım

Do you know English? İngilizce biliyor musunuz?

I don't understand Anlamıyorum

Sorry Üzgünüm / Affedersiniz

I don't know Bilmiyorum

What time is it? Saat kaç?

Restroom Tuvalet

I'm lost Kayboldum

Help! İmdat!

Cheers! Şerefe!

What? Ne?

Where? Nerede?

Who? Kim?

How? Nasıl?

When? Ne zaman?

Which? Hangi?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 95% 

• Male: 98.4% 

• Female: 91.8% (2015 estimate)

Early History of Formal Education

Formal education came early to ancient Anatolia. During the 

Hellenistic period of the 3rd-2nd centuries BC, the city of 

Pergamum was home to a medical school and a large library 

(see p. 4 of History and Myth). In 425 AD, Byzantine emperor 

Theodosius II founded the Imperial University of 

Constantinople which taught Latin, Greek, law, philosophy, 

math, astronomy, and music. With the spread of Islam during 

the Seljuk era (see p. 6 of History and Myth), religious leaders 

opened medrese, religious schools where Sunni scholars

taught scripture and fikih (canon law) to young men. After 

conquering the Byzantine Empire, Ottoman sultan Mehmet II 

established what would become Istanbul University in 1453.

During the first centuries 

of Ottoman rule, education

of the general population

fell to the individual 

religious communities. 

Under the empire’s millet

system (see p. 6 of 

Religion and Spirituality), 

each religious community 

designed and administered its own educational programs. 

Thus, Muslim religious authorities largely limited education for 

Muslims to medrese that provided men some basic religious 

education and trained imperial administrators in Islamic 

jurisprudence. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the 

Empire faced substantial internal unrest and external threats

(see p. 10-11 of History and Myth). In response, the Ottomans 

created specialized naval, military engineering, military 

science, and medical colleges, as well as training institutes for 

diplomats and civil servants modeled on Western European 

schools (Pictured: Bitolya Ottoman Military School).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
As a part of their mid-19th century reforms (see p. 11 of History 

and Myth), the Ottomans planned for a comprehensive system 

of primary and secondary schools that included compulsory 

and free primary education. Progress towards these goals was 

slow due to a lack of funding, but by 1914, there were 36,000 

Ottoman schools. Most of these were small primary schools 

that provided education to the empire’s Muslims. At the same 

time, some 1,800 Greek Christian and 800 Armenian Christian 

schools respectively served 185,000 Greek and 81,000 

Armenian children. Despite the spread of educational 

opportunities, only about 10% of the population were literate in 

the early 1900s.

Education in Atatürk’s Republic of Turkey

Following the Republic of Turkey’s founding in 1923 (see p. 14

of History and Myth), Atatürk sought to modernize the country 

by transforming it into a Western, secular state. The Ottoman 

education system was an immediate target for reform. Atatürk 

centralized education in the Ministry of National Education

(MEB), which instituted a series of reforms in support of the 

new country’s secular Kemalist values (see p. 15 of History and 

Myth). In 1924, the MEB abolished medrese and all other forms 

of religious education and mandated coeducational instruction

delivered in modern Turkish (see p. 1-2 of Language and 

Communication) (Photo: 1930s Ankara Gazi Mustafa Kemal 

Male Teachers’ Training 

School).

Atatürk sought to extend 

education to every citizen 

by offering free schooling

at all levels and

extending basic literacy

programs to adults. 

Besides developing

practical skills, education 

was intended to socialize students in Turkey’s new secular 

nationalist values. Despite this focus on universal education, 

many rural regions remained underserved for decades. Some 

conservative religious communities also refused to educate 

girls. Nevertheless, with these reforms, the literacy rate 

reached about 33% by 1938.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education after Atatürk

In the decades following Atatürk’s death in 1938, the Turkish

government began to relax certain restrictions regarding the 

role of religion in Turkish society, notably, the place of Islam in

the educational system. In 1949, the government established a 

faculty at Ankara University to train imams (worship leaders –

see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality) and other teachers of 

Sunni Islam. In 1951, the government began to open imam 

hatip okullari (Islamic secondary schools) around the country. 

By the mid-1950s, the government made Sunni Islamic

religious instruction mandatory in all secondary schools. 

In subsequent decades, Turkey built thousands of new secular 

and imam hatip schools. Following the 1980 military coup (see 

p. 18 of History and Myth), support for Islam’s place in 

education increased, as many Turks believed religion could be 

a bulwark against leftist ideologies. By the early 1980s, nearly 

all children aged 6-10 were enrolled in school, and by 1990, the

literacy rate reached 81%. In 1997, the government extended 

compulsory education to 8 years. During this period, the 

government also conducted major literacy campaigns and 

implemented school equivalency programs for adults with a 

focus on women and other marginalized groups. 

Modern Education System

The modern Turkish education system reflects remnants of 

Atatürk’s Kemalist philosophy, late 20th-century reforms, and 

recent trends. 

Besides developing 

capable citizens

with a strong sense 

of national values, 

the system aims to 

produce students

with the skills 

required of a 

modern informationage society. Turkish 

teaching techniques have evolved from traditional rote 

memorization towards applied learning such as student-led 

instruction (Photo: Şehit Tamer Özdemir Anatolian High 

School).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Turkey has continued to reform its education system, making 

12 years of basic schooling compulsory in 2012. The next year, 

the government made several significant changes to Atatürkera policies, including ending the recitation of the Turkish 

pledge of allegiance in primary schools and allowing teachers 

to wear headscarves (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality).

By 2019, state-of-the-art technology, such as tablet PCs and 

smartboards, is forecasted to be fully operational in all schools. 

Known as “movement to increase opportunities and improve 

technology” (FATİH), this program is intended to make 

classrooms more interactive.

Through these and other programs in recent years, literacy 

rates have continuously increased along with student 

enrollments. While significantly improved, Turkish students’ 

academic achievement remains below that of US students on 

international math, reading, and science exams. This gap is

related to low government spending on education. In 2013, the 

government allocated about 11% of its budget to education, 

lower than all government (local, state, and national) spending 

in the US (13%).

The Turkish education 

system faces other 

challenges, particularly 

in gender parity: girls 

in rural areas or from 

conservative families

have less access to 

education than boys. 

In 2013, just 61% of 

girls compared to 67% 

of boys aged 15-19 attended secondary school in 2013. Other 

challenges include gaps in education quality and access

among regions and between urban and rural areas; inadequate

teacher training; and a misalignment between acquired skills 

and labor market needs (Photo: A US State Department 

representative meets with students at the Kartal Anatolian 

Imam Hatip High School in Istanbul).

Religious Education: Turkey’s 1982 constitution requires 

compulsory Sunni Islamic religious instruction at both the 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
primary and secondary levels. Students in grades 4-8 receive 2 

hours of instruction per week, and those in grades 9-12 receive 

1 hour per week. Only students from officially recognized 

minority religions (Greek/Armenian Orthodox Christianity or 

Judaism, see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality) are eligible for an 

exemption to this requirement. 

Since the 1950s, imam hatip schools have expanded to include 

some primary grades. Enrollment at these schools has 

increased significantly: from 65,000 in 2002 to almost a million 

today. This increase was facilitated by the forced conversion of 

some secular schools into imam hatip schools, an act that

caused public protests. In 2014, a new school allocation 

system based on exam scores and residency assigned 40,000

students to local imam hatip schools against their wishes, 

further increasing tensions. 

Pre-Primary: Many private and some public institutions offer 

non-compulsory pre-primary education for children aged 1-5, 

although enrollment is relatively low. In 2013, about 12% of 3-

4-year-olds and 67% of 5-year-olds attended such programs

(Photo: Turkish and 

Syrian students 

participate in a youth 

creativity workshop 

at the Tarlabaşi 

Community Center in 

Istanbul). 

Primary: Consisting 

of 8 grades starting 

at age 6, primary 

education remains compulsory and comprises elementary 

(grades 1-4) and middle (grades 5-8) schools. The curriculum 

includes Turkish language and literature, math, science, social 

science, arts and crafts, music, and physical education. 

Foreign language instruction (typically in English, German, or 

French) begins in grade 4. In 2013, about 93% of children of 

the appropriate age were enrolled in primary schools. 

After completing elementary school, students may attend 

academic, vocational, or imam hatip middle schools, or parents 

may choose to homeschool their children. While academic 

LEARNING &

KNOWLEDGE
schools follow the basic scholastic curriculum, vocational and 

imam hatip schools focus respectively on technical skills and 

Sunni Islam. At the end of grade 8, all students must take a 

placement exam to determine the type of high school they may 

attend. Limited slots in academic high schools force students 

with lower scores to attend vocational, technical, or imam hatip

high schools.

Secondary: High school (grades 9-12) is also compulsory. In

2013, about 1/3 of all secondary students attended academic 

schools where the curriculum includes Turkish language and 

literature, math, science, social sciences, foreign language 

(usually English), religious education, philosophy, and physical 

education. Some specialized academic schools offer programs 

in a particular language or subject. 

Most secondary students attend vocational, technical, or imam 

hatip high schools. While vocational high schools provide 

courses in public health, 

agriculture, business, 

and other fields, 

technical high schools 

offer instruction in 

electronics, chemistry, 

machinery, construction, 

and similar industries. 

Imam hatip schools 

provide instruction in 

Sunni Islamic studies. To graduate and pursue post-secondary 

education, all secondary students must pass an exam that 

determines their placement in a university or in a technical, 

vocational, or other post-secondary institution. Graduation 

rates from all types of secondary schools are much lower than 

the European average (Photo: A vocational school in Muğla). 

Post-Secondary: In 2012, about 20% of Turks aged 25-34 had

attained education at the post-secondary level, compared to 

the US rate of 43%. Turkish institutions offer bachelor’s, 

master’s, and doctoral academic degrees, as well as vocational 

certificates. The government invests significantly in higher 

education, appropriating about 32% of all education 

expenditure to post-secondary institutions in 2012. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Consequently, many public post-secondary institutions are high

quality, offering a large variety of programs of study. 

While 27 universities form the core of Turkey’s post-secondary 

education system, hundreds of smaller institutions provide

supplemental offerings. Istanbul University (pictured) is

Turkey’s oldest and 

largest university, 

with over 80,000 

students. Other 

notable institutions 

include Bilkent 

University, Boğaziçi 

University, Koç 

University, and 

Marmara University. 

The language of 

instruction of most

post-secondary programs is either Turkish or English.

Private Schools: The demand for education in Kurdish was 

one of the Kurds’ ongoing protests against the Turkish 

government in the past few decades (see p. 19-20 and p. 21 of 

History and Myth). In 

2012, PM Erdoğan 

announced that 

private schools were 

permitted to offer

instruction in 

languages other than 

Turkish. By late 2014, 

3 private Kurdishlanguage schools had 

opened. Significant 

hurdles, such as a lack of funding and qualified teachers, have 

prevented more from opening. Generally, private schools, 

particularly those that offer some instruction in languages other 

than Turkish or Kurdish, have high enrollment rates and 

currently serve about 3% of all secondary students (Photo: 

Istanbul’s private Fener Greek High School offers the full 

Turkish curriculum plus Greek language and literature, as well 

as Greek Orthodox religious instruction).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Turks believe that trust, honor, and respect are fundamental to 

building strong personal and professional relationships. They

are typically generous hosts who strive to demonstrate their 

hospitality. 

Time and Work

Turkey’s work week runs from Monday-Friday with most 

business hours from 9:00am-6:00pm. While hours vary by 

store size and location, most shops are open from 9:00am7:00pm MondaySaturday, with some 

closing for an hour 

lunch break [Photo: 

Shoppers at a çarşi 

(bazaar) in Istanbul]. 

Most banks are open 

Monday-Friday from 

8:30am-5:00pm, with

reduced hours on 

Saturdays. Post 

offices typically open 

Monday-Saturday from 8:30am-9:00pm, though a few also 

have limited opening hours on Sunday. Some banks, post 

offices, and shops stay open later in urban areas than in rural 

locations. While many businesses close on Sundays and public 

holidays, some supermarkets, large food stores, and bazaars

in urban areas remain open. 

Working Conditions: The standard Turkish work week is 45 

hours with up to 270 annual overtime hours. In addition to paid 

public holidays, Turkish workers receive 14 days of annual paid 

leave, which is increased incrementally based on the number 

of years worked. Although Turkey has many labor regulations 

to protect workers, lax enforcement means some workers may 

receive no pay for overtime hours, suffer under deficient 

workplace safety standards, or experience abuse or 

discrimination. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Turkey adheres to Eastern European Time (EET),

which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 7 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Turkey observes 

daylight savings from the end of March to the end of October, 

when Turkey is 3 hours ahead of GMT.

Date Notation: Like the US, Turkey uses the Western

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Turks typically write 

the day first, followed by the month and year. 

Lunar Calendar: Turks use the Islamic calendar to track 

Muslim holidays. Since it is based on lunar phases, dates fall 

11 days earlier each year in relation to the Western calendar. 

The Islamic calendar’s 12 months each have 30 days or fewer. 

Days begin at sunset on what the Western calendar would 

show as the previous day. For example, each new week begins 

at sunset on Saturday, and the Muslim holy day of Friday 

begins on Thursday evening.

National Holidays

These holidays occur on fixed dates:

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• April 23: National Sovereignty and 

Children’s Day

• May 1: Labor and Solidarity Day

• May 19: Atatürk Commemoration and Youth 

Sports Day

• August 30: Victory Day

• October 29: Republic Day

These Islamic holidays occur on variable dates 

according to the lunar calendar:

• Ramazan Bayramı: End of Ramadan

• Kurban Bayramı: Festival of Sacrifice

See Religion and Spirituality for more information 

on Islamic holidays.

SPACE

TIME &
Time and Business

Business tends to move somewhat slower in Turkey than in the 

US. Most Turks prefer to build trust and develop personal 

relations before doing business, which often requires extra time 

and communication. While Turks appreciate punctuality, 

arriving late to a meeting is typically acceptable given prior 

notification. Most business discussions occur during scheduled 

office meetings, although informal meetings in other locations 

or during meals are also common. 

When meeting for the first time, Turkish businessmen verbally 

greet then shake hands and may kiss the cheeks (see p. 4 of 

Language and Communication). Most business meetings begin 

with inquiries about health and family, followed by light 

conversation and tea that accompanies almost every meeting. 

Turks conduct themselves in business settings in a way that 

communicates the value they place on honor and respect. 

Maintaining formality is important until the Turkish business 

partner signals 

otherwise. Turks 

value competence 

and flexibility in their 

business partners. 

Since direct or 

candid comments

may cause distress

or loss of face, Turks 

typically use vague 

language and delay 

decisions to avoid disappointing business partners. Turks 

rarely make business decisions during initial meetings or 

without management’s approval (Photo: Former US Secretary 

of Defense Hagel greets Turkish Army General Necdet Özel).

The Turkish workplace is typically hierarchical; senior officials 

or upper management tend to run meetings and make most 

decisions with support from subordinate staff. Managers 

generally deliver feedback and criticism in private in order to 

avoid conflict and embarrassment. While not the norm, some 

businesses follow informal, consultative, and democratic 

decision-making styles. 

SPACE

TIME &
Personal Space

As in most societies, the use of personal space depends on the

nature of the relationship. While Turks often maintain a space

of an arm’s length when conversing with strangers, the 

distance is typically much smaller with family and friends.

Touch

Turks tend to engage in more conversational touching than 

Americans. Similarly, same-sex friends of both genders may 

hold hands to demonstrate their close platonic relationship. Of 

note, observant Muslims or socially conservative Turks may 

avoid touching members of the opposite sex. 

Eye Contact

To a Turk, direct eye contact conveys interest, respect, and 

transparency and is therefore an inherent part of any greeting 

or business meeting. While staring is impolite, Turks may 

consider reluctance to make regular eye contact a sign of 

dishonesty or an attempt to conceal information. Of note, 

prolonged eye contact between members of different genders 

may signal romantic interest. For this reason, some women 

may avoid direct eye contact with unrelated men.

Photographs

Mosques, airports, dams, military zones, and similar places 

often prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should always 

acquire a Turk’s permission 

before taking his photo.

Driving 

Some Turks have 

aggressive driving habits, 

passing vehicles on blind

corners or at high speeds or 

ignoring designated lanes 

and traffic signals. Traffic law enforcement continues to suffer 

from corruption, with drivers paying bribes to avoid fines. 

Nevertheless, Turkey’s rate of traffic-related deaths was 8.9 

deaths per 100,000 people in 2013, lower than the US rate of 

10.6. Drunk driving is a serious offense; first-time offenders 

automatically lose their license, pay a large fine, and may be 

imprisoned for up to 3 years (Photo: the US Vice President’s 

motorcade crossing the Bosporus Bridge in Istanbul).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Turkey’s traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect 

the country’s multi-ethnic and multicultural past. They exhibit

Persian and Arab influences, Ottoman and Islamic traditions, 

20th-century Kemalist values, and modern global trends. 

Dress and Appearance 

Traditional: Some Turks wear traditional clothing for festivals, 

holidays, or special events. While styles and fabric reflect 

distinctive regional variations, most traditional clothing consists 

of several layers of brightly colored silk, velvet, cotton, or linen 

fabric, often enhanced with stripes and embroidery (Photo: A 

Turkish folk dance 

team performs in 

traditional attire).

Women’s attire 

typically includes 

şalvar (light loose 

trousers) or a long 

skirt topped by an

apron. The trousers or 

skirt are paired with a

kaftan (long robe) or a

pardosü (long jacket), which covers a loose, long-sleeved 

shirt. Accessories may include a wide cloth belt, headscarf or 

other head covering, socks, and shoes or slippers. Women 

may wear a distinct headdress or hairstyle to signify marital 

status. Most women wear several pieces of jewelry, some 

incorporating blue and white nazar (evil eye) charms

traditionally worn to ward off evil spirits. 

Men traditionally wear şalvar with a loose, long-sleeved shirt

covered by a kaftan and a yelek (long jacket with hanging 

sleeves) or other jacket. Accessories may include a cloth belt, 

socks, shoes or slippers, and a headdress like a turban or fez

(cylindrical felt hat). During the cold winters, men and women 

typically wear additional kaftan, jackets, and other layers made 

of wool or fur.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Modern: For everyday dress, most Turks wear clothing that

reflects the latest European fashions, sometimes adding

elements of traditional Turkish styles. While Turkish fashion 

tends to be colorful and unique in its design, individual styles 

depend on geographic location, religion, and gender. 

Many residents of Turkey’s western urban areas prefer a 

“smart casual” business look that is more formal than typical 

American styles. Residents of more conservative and 

observant communities and Turkey’s eastern regions prefer 

more traditional looks, with comfort more important than style. 

Some observant Muslim women may wear a headscarf, veil, or 

garments that cover most of the body and head. While the 

government recently lifted the ban on headscarves in schools 

and universities, the appropriateness of religious attire in public 

remains a contentious topic (see p. 7 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Foreign nationals should avoid short skirts, shorts, 

and sleeveless tops unless at the beach, resort, or pool.

Recreation and Leisure 

Most Turks prefer to spend their leisure time with friends and 

family. While women often gather at home, men often meet in a 

kahvehane (coffee 

house) to discuss an 

array of topics, from 

family to politics and 

religion. Private and 

public occasions such 

as weddings, sporting 

events, and religious 

holidays are cause for 

celebration and 

reaffirm social bonds (Photo: Men in a kahvehane in Istanbul in 

1905).

Modern shopping malls have largely replaced traditional 

hamam (public bathhouses) as preferred Turkish socializing 

sites outside the home. Some Turks shop, dine, and socialize

at traditional bazaars and markets, travel to local beaches, or 

enjoy international vacations, particularly during the hot 

summer months. Television and other forms of mass 

entertainment are widely popular year-round.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Festivals: Turkey hosts a variety of public festivals to celebrate 

important cultural, historical, and religious events. Many 

communities celebrate Republic Day and Victory Day with 

parades. Other popular festivals include the Istanbul and 

Ankara International Film and Music Festivals, the Istanbul 

Biennial, the Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival, 

the Izmir International Fair, the Nevruz spring festival 

celebrated all over Anatolia, and the Kırkpınar Oil Wrestling 

Festival (see “Traditional Sports” below).

Other festivals mark Muslim holidays (see p. 5-6 of Religion 

and Spirituality). During the 3-day Ramazan Bayramı (also 

known as Şeker Bayramı), Turks enjoy socializing and 

feasting with relatives and close friends. During the 4-day 

Kurban Bayramı many families sacrifice a sheep then host a 

lavish meal featuring the meat. Both holidays may also include

celebrating with music and 

dance. 

Sports and Games 

Traditional Sports: Yağlı 

güreş (oil wrestling, pictured) is 

a popular sport in which men

wearing leather pants coated in 

olive oil have 40 minutes to pin 

down or lift their opponent. First 

held in the mid-14th century, oil 

wrestling is one of the world’s 

longest-enduring sports. Deve 

güreşleri (camel wrestling or fighting) is popular in 

communities along the Aegean coast. In these matches, 

handlers induce 2 male camels to wrestle, with the winner 

forcing the other to the ground. 

A popular traditional equestrian sport, jereed is played with

teams of 6-8 men on horseback throwing blunt wooden javelins

at each other to score points. With origins in Central Asia, 

jereed is common today in Turkey’s eastern provinces and at 

festivals and weddings across the country. 

Soccer: Soccer, or “football” as it is known to Turks, is the 

most popular sport in Turkey. Besides following European 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
leagues, Turks enjoy their own domestic league, the Süper 

Lig. The league’s favorite and most successful teams are

Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe, and Beşiktaş. At the international 

level, Turkish teams have had success: Galatasaray beat 

Arsenal to win the 

European Cup in 2000, 

and Turkey’s national 

team placed 3rd in the 

2002 World Cup. 

Despite its popularity, 

soccer is still largely a 

male sport: most Turkish 

boys and men play in 

leagues or in informal 

weekend games, although few girls or women participate 

(Photo: US sailors take on a semi-professional Turkish team

during a port visit).

Other Sports: Other popular sports include wrestling, boxing, 

martial arts, basketball, volleyball, baseball, and water sports. 

In the winter, Turks enjoy skiing, especially at a popular resort 

near Bursa. Turkish athletes have had success at the 

Olympics, medaling in wrestling, weightlifting, taekwondo, and 

track and field in 2016. Of note, Turkey is one of a few 

countries that refers to sports in its constitution, encouraging

participation and protecting athletes. 

Traditional Games: Turks enjoy traditional word games like 

riddles, chants, and tongue twisters. Other popular games 

include tavla (similar to backgammon) and mangala, a 2-

person board game in which players try to capture an 

opponent’s game pieces. Popular children’s games include 

Körebe (Blind Man’s Bluff), Birdirbir (Leapfrog), and Aç 

kapıyı bezirgan başı (like London Bridge).

Music

Traditional: For much of history, Turkish music developed 

distinctive styles based on function and place of performance. 

Persian and Arab language and styles influenced the classical

music of the Ottoman courts, while traveling aşiklar (poetmusicians) entertained the peasantry in town centers with 

Turkish-language pieces about mythical heroes and events.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
In the early to mid-20th century, the Turkish government 

collected and archived türkü (folk songs). Although they 

typically have Turkish lyrics, türkü feature distinctive Middle 

Eastern rhythms and sounds. Filled with emotion, türkü lyrics 

tell of heroes, ancestors, military campaigns, hometowns, love, 

anguish, and the seasons. With roots in classical Ottoman 

styles, fasıl is popular in restaurants and taverns, where 

listeners enjoy its use of traditional Turkish percussion, string, 

and wind instruments as well as violins and clarinets.

Turkish music utilizes many traditional instruments, the most 

notable being the saz, a type of lute. Typically wooden, the saz 

is pear-shaped, 3-stringed, and usually 4-5 feet in length. Other 

traditional instruments include

the ney (reed flute), kemençe 

(wooden bowed string 

instrument), tambur (fretted 

string instrument), zurnas (shrill 

pipe), and the darbuka, davul, 

and tef (drums) (Photo: A man 

playing the zurnas at a festival).

Due to their long history of 

contact with Middle Eastern

cultures and musical influences, 

the Turks have adopted some

regionally-popular instruments, 

including the ud (a pear-shaped 

instrument with 11-12 strings), 

kanun (a zither-like instrument 

with 72 strings), and bandir (frame drum). Notable Western

instruments used in Turkish music include guitars, violins, and

bagpipes.

Modern: Turkish pop blends modern Western-style music with 

Turkish and Middle Eastern sounds and traditions. Sezen Aksu 

and Tarkan are popular Turkish pop singers, and Sertab 

Erener won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2003. Inspired by 

Byzantine and Arabic styles, songs in the Arabesque genre 

focus on melancholic themes. İbrahim Tatlıses is the most 

popular Arabesque musician. Many Turks also enjoy

international pop, rock, and jazz.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dance

While each region in Turkey has unique traditional dances, 

they often have commonalities. These include participation by 

both men and women and the use of line or circle formations, 

handholding, traditional instruments, and singing. Dances often 

begin slowly then speed up considerably, climaxing in a 

hypnotic or frenetic state. 

The most well-known

Turkish dance is the 

sema, a religious dance 

performed by members of 

a Sufi Islamic mystical 

order (see p. 8 of Religion 

and Spirituality). In an 

attempt to enter a trance 

state close to God, 

whirling dervishes (pictured) dance in counter-clockwise circles

to music performed on the ney and on drums. Each participant 

may spin up to 2,000 times in 15 minutes. 

Halay is a popular outdoor folk dance native to central and 

southeastern Anatolia. During this dance, 3 or more people 

hold up or link their hands and form lines or semi-circles and 

move to the rhythm of a pipe and drums. Popular in Turkey’s 

Black Sea region, the karşılama is a greeting dance in which 

men and women stand in rows while dancing to a slow rhythm 

played by a variety traditional instruments. As the music

accelerates, the dancers begin to twirl, kneel, clap, and 

embrace. Popular Turkish folk dances are rooted in local 

traditions and also have been influenced by Western, Middle 

Eastern, and other foreign traditions for centuries. Well-known 

throughout the region, göbek dansı (belly dancing) has a long 

history in Turkey and is distinguished from other regional styles 

by its unique rhythm and use of finger cymbals. 

Theater and Cinema

Karagöz is a form of classical Turkish shadow puppet theater

that traces to the 16th century and was a popular form of 

entertainment during the Ottoman era. Performances typically 

feature lead characters Karagöz and Hajeivat who exchange 

witty dialogue contrasting the peasantry with the educated elite.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Often performed during Ramadan festivities (see p. 5 of 

Religion and Spirituality), Karagöz remains popular today. By 

contrast, the traditional orta oyunu is performed with live 

actors. Usually improvised, performances often occur on a 

circular open-air stage and begin and end with dances. 

The British, French, and Italians introduced Western-style 

theater to the Ottoman court in the mid-19th century. Even 

though theater is unpopular among some observant Muslims, 

most major communities have at least one primarily because 

the government supported developing new ones during the 

20th century. 

Turkey produced its first film in 1914, and by the 1930s, nearly 

every town had a movie theater. Turkish movie production

peaked in the 1970s, when the industry released almost as 

many films as Hollywood. Prominent film themes include

traditional village life, social justice issues, the status of 

women, and Turkish urban life. Turkish films and directors have 

won international awards. For example, the film Winter Sleep 

won the coveted Palme d’Or at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.

Literature 

Turkey has a long and rich history of literature, both oral and 

written. The development of poetry and religious writing within 

the Ottoman royal court was heavily influenced by Arab and

Persian culture and literary traditions. Thus, Turkic literature 

adapted themes, plots, symbols, and even characters from 

Persian and Arab classical literature. Poetry, especially, was 

very popular during the Ottoman era, when famous poets 

composed in many 

different forms and styles.

Still popular today, Persian 

poet and Sufi mystic Jalal 

ad-Din Muhammad Rumi 

lived in Konya during the 

13th century, producing 

allegorical lyric poetry that heavily influenced Turkish literary 

and religious traditions (see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) 

(Pictured: Rumi on an old 5000 Turkish Lira note).

By contrast, traveling ozanlar (storytellers) and aşiklar shared 

Turkish-language folklore with peasants and townsfolk. While 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
most folklore and folk poetry was orally transmitted, the 15thcentury Book of Dede Korkut is a unique written collection of

the epic stories of the early Turkic peoples.

In the 19th century, authors Ziya Paşa, İbrahim Şinasi, and 

Namık Kemal helped advance the use of the Turkish language 

in literature, in the process laying the foundation for Atatürk’s 

Turkish language reforms (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). In the 20th century, Nâzim Hikmet influenced

Turkish literature through his rejection of traditional Persian and 

Arab poetic forms and focus instead on social justice, 

patriotism, and depictions of ordinary life. 

Modern Turkish literature comprises all genres. Common 

themes include the adventures of warriors, mysticism, the 

peasantry, social injustices, and Ottoman history. In 2006, 

novelist Orhan Pamuk became the first Turk to win the Nobel 

Prize for literature. His novels explore the Ottoman past, 

including the 20th-century Turkish quest for identity that looks 

for inspiration in both the Eastern and Western traditions.

Visual Arts and Handicrafts

Turkish visual art is notable for its combination of themes and 

artistic traditions from a variety of sources, from Europe to

Central Asia. Ottoman-era paintings, calligraphy, and 

architecture often included geometric motifs and foliage 

designs that are still 

common today (pictured). 

Traditional handicrafts 

include textiles, ceramics, 

wood- and metalwork, 

marbled paper, and 

jewelry. As evident in 

Turkey’s bazaars today, 

woven carpets and 

painted tiles are popular products. The Turks’ history of carpet 

production traces to their roots in Central Asia (see p. 5 of 

History and Myth). Tile production reached its artistic peak

during the Ottoman era, when expert craftsmen in Iznik 

supported a robust industry whose output included the internal

decoration of Istanbul’s Sultan Ahmed Mosque, also known as 

the Blue Mosque for its thousands of blue tiles.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Proper dining etiquette and hospitality towards guests are 

integral parts of Turkish culture. Rural residents and older 

generations typically dine and entertain guests at home. 

Alternatively, younger, urban Turks tend to socialize in bars, 

clubs, and restaurants. Turkish cuisine is diverse and 

extensive, with most dishes incorporating fresh, local 

ingredients accented by bold and aromatic herbs and spices. 

Dining Customs

Most Turks eat 3 daily meals. While lunch may be substantial, 

dinner is usually the largest and 

main meal of the day. Turks 

especially enjoy dining and 

entertaining guests outdoors on 

patios, terraces, and balconies

(Photo: US Marines enjoy openair dining at a restaurant in 

Marmaris). 

In rural areas guests may stop by 

a friend’s or relative’s home 

unexpectedly. By contrast, guests 

in urban areas typically call 

ahead to schedule a visit. When 

visiting a Turkish home, guests 

usually remove their shoes, 

replacing them with slippers or 

proceeding into the home barefoot. Often, guests bring a small 

gift such as flowers, candy, or fruit for the host. 

Once everyone is seated for the meal, hosts serve their guests 

first. After guests finish their portions, they usually must decline 

several offers of additional servings if they do not want more 

food. An important socializing activity, meals often consist of

multiple courses served over several hours. Of note, while 

Turkish families commonly eat at Western-style tables with 

chairs, others in some rural areas or in poorer homes may sit 

on mats around a low table. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet

Rice is Turkey’s main staple. Turks typically eat plain, boiled

rice or mixed with dried fruits, nuts, and various spices. Bulgur 

(a dry, cracked wheat) is another common grain. Bread 

accompanies almost every meal and is often used to scoop up 

food or soak up sauces and oils. Common varieties include 

ekmek (a white loaf bread) and pide (a soft, slightly leavened 

wheat bread). The most popular forms of protein are lamb, 

beef, and chicken which may be stewed, grilled, or cut into 

small pieces and roasted on a skewer (kebap). Along Turkey’s 

coasts, fish is particularly popular and is typically grilled, 

steamed, or fried. 

Many dishes incorporate assorted dairy products, such as 

yogurt, cheese, and milk, as well as local vegetables, including

peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers, and eggplant. Vegetables are 

typically served fresh, 

chopped into salads, 

stuffed with rice and meat, 

or served grilled alongside 

a protein and starch. Many

dishes are dressed in olive 

oil and flavored with a 

variety of aromatic spices.

Turks also enjoy several 

types of native fruits, 

including melons, oranges, 

figs, and grapes (Photo: A fruit stand in Istanbul).

Turkey’s primarily Muslim population (see p. 1 of Religion and 

Spirituality) adheres to certain dietary restrictions. For example, 

observant Muslims consume neither pork nor alcohol. In 

addition, they observe particular rules of animal slaughter and 

meat preparation to ensure that food is halal, allowed by 

Islamic law. 

Popular Dishes and Meals

Breakfast generally consists of cheeses, meats, vegetables, 

and olives served with bread, jam, and honey along with

multiple glasses of tea, coffee, or juice. Eggs are another

prominent breakfast item, often served mixed with cheese, 

vegetables, or sucuk (cured sausage).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Turks typically begin lunch and dinner with various meze, a 

selection of hot and cold appetizers, such as olives, salads, 

shrimp, cured meats, grilled fish, dolma (grape leaves stuffed 

with rice, meat, and vegetables), and hummus (chickpea 

paste), among others. Both lunch and dinner also feature a 

main course, usually comprised of a protein, starch, and

vegetables. 

Popular Turkish dishes include köfte (meatballs made with rice 

or bread); börek (pastry stuffed with cheese and meat); 

tarhana (soup of cracked wheat, yogurt, and fermented 

vegetables); kisir (cracked wheat in tomato and chili sauce);

şiş (cubed meat) and Adana (ground lamb) kebap, as well as

döner kebab (lamb or chicken grilled on a rotating spit, sliced 

into strips and served on bread – pictured). For dessert, Turks 

enjoy fresh fruits, baklava (thin pastry layered with honey and 

nuts), muhallebi (milk 

pudding) and lokum (a 

gummy sweet made of 

rose water, powdered 

sugar, coconut, and 

pistachios). 

Eating Out

Turks eat out regularly, 

enjoying restaurant visits 

that may last several hours. Restaurants range from upscale 

establishments serving international cuisine to small casual 

eateries and cafes. Coffeehouses are particularly popular 

socializing locations, especially among men. Although some 

restaurants may add a service charge to the bill, wait staff 

expect an additional tip of 5-10% for good service. 

Street vendors are common in urban areas, serving sweet and 

savory snacks like simit (a bread ring coated with sesame 

seeds), mediye (stuffed or fried mussels), and kokoreç (grilled 

sheep’s intestine), kebab, fresh fish sandwiches, sunflower 

seeds, and nuts. 

Beverages 

Turks consume coffee (kahve) and tea (çay) with every meal 

and throughout the day. Coffee is unfiltered and brewed strong, 

typically simmered in a copper pot then poured into small cups 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
to allow the grounds to settle. Tea is generally heavily laden 

with sugar and served in small 

glasses without handles 

(pictured). Fresh-squeezed 

juices from pomegranates, 

oranges, lemons, cherries, 

and strawberries are also 

popular. In the winter, Turks 

may enjoy salep, a sweet hot 

drink made of powdered 

orchid root. Ayran, a 

refreshing drink of yogurt and water, is popular on hot days.

While generally not offered in rural regions and in many parts 

of eastern Turkey, alcohol is 

widely available in urban areas 

and along Turkey’s coasts. The 

most popular alcoholic drink is 

rakı, an anise-flavored spirit

typically served with a splash of 

water. Turks also enjoy wine

and locally-produced beer

(pictured). 

Health Overview

The Turkish population’s health has improved significantly in 

recent years. Between 2002 and 2015, infant mortality (the 

proportion of infants who die before age 1) decreased from 32 

to 12 deaths per 1,000 live births. Meanwhile, maternal 

mortality dropped from 64 to 16 deaths per 100,000 live births. 

In addition, life expectancy at birth has increased steadily over 

the last several decades, from 59 to 75 years. Although it 

remains below the EU and US averages of 80 years, life 

expectancy in Turkey is higher than in neighboring Syria (70) 

and Iraq (69).

While Turks generally have access to modern healthcare, 

facilities are concentrated in cities and underserve rural 

dwellers. Further, the quality of care varies greatly among 

private, public, urban, and rural facilities. Of note, the recent 

influx of refugees into Turkey (see p. 13 of Social and Political 

Relations) presents a great strain to the healthcare system. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Turkish medicine centers on the use 

of herbal and other natural non-surgical remedies to identify 

and treat the basic causes of illness. 

Historically, traditional medicine has been popular in Turkey. 

Today, many Turks continue to supplement conventional 

therapies with traditional remedies. Merchants in both urban 

and rural markets commonly sell medicinal plants and herbal 

remedies. 

Notably, in 2014 the Turkish government legalized the use of 

certain traditional procedures in public hospitals. Among 

others, these treatments

include acupuncture (a 

practitioner inserts very 

thin needles into various 

parts of a patient’s skin), 

homeopathy (a form of 

alternative medicine 

developed in 18thcentury Germany that 

prescribes a patient to 

ingest diluted plant, 

mineral, and animal substances to trigger the body’s natural 

system of healing), music therapy, hypnosis, and reflexology 

(the process of applying pressure to a patient’s hands and feet) 

(Photo: A spice and herb market in Istanbul). 

Modern Healthcare System

In 2003, Turkey introduced the Health Transformation Program 

(HTP) as a means of improving the governance, quality, and 

efficacy of Turkey’s healthcare sector. Highly successful, HTP 

aims to provide free, universal health coverage to all Turkish 

citizens. Today, about 90% of the population is insured. 

The Ministry of Health regulates Turkey’s healthcare system at 

the national level, implements the national health insurance 

program, and manages central hospitals. Meanwhile, local 

authorities dispense primary care services through municipal 

clinics and regional hospitals. In 2011, Turkey had 1,453 public 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
and private hospitals, delivering a full range of surgical, 

intensive, and emergency care.

Despite improvements made through the HTP, some health 

challenges remain. Because medical resources are 

concentrated in cities, rural areas often lack adequate facilities 

or offer lower quality care. Further, private facilities are too 

expensive for most Turks, while public hospitals are often 

poorly maintained and understaffed. Due to low pay in the 

public sector, many 

of Turkey’s finest 

physicians choose 

to work in the 

private sector or to 

leave the country 

altogether. In 2011, 

Turkey had just 1.7 

physicians per 

1,000 people, lower 

than the US ratio of 

2.5 and significantly lower than the EU ratio of 3.5 (Photo: 

Vendors sell fruits and vegetables at a market in Adana). 

Health Challenges

Rates of communicable and infectious diseases, including

tuberculosis, malaria, and measles have decreased

significantly in recent years due to government investment in

immunization programs and post-exposure treatments. Instead, 

chronic and non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases, including 

cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, cancer, and 

digestive and respiratory diseases have risen and now account 

for 86% of all deaths. In 2012, the top causes of death were 

heart disease (29%), stroke (15%), cancers (7%), and 

respiratory diseases (7%). 

Preventable “external causes” such as car accidents, suicides, 

drownings, falls, and violent crimes resulted in 7% of deaths in 

2012. Although Turkey launched an aggressive anti-smoking 

campaign in 2007, about 42% of Turkish men and 13% of 

women continue to smoke regularly. About 29% of Turkish

adults are obese, slightly lower than the US rate of 33%, but 

higher than the EU average of 23%. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most residents of Anatolia subsisted as peasants 

in an agrarian and trade-based economy. Many others toiled as 

herders or traders on the numerous trade routes linking Europe 

and Asia. In conjunction with the Ottoman Empire’s political 

decline (see p. 10-11 of History and Myth), the region’s 

economy shrank considerably in the late 19th century. In an 

effort to industrialize and better compete with other European 

nations, the Ottomans encouraged foreign investment in the 

early 20th century. As investment declined during World War I 

(see p. 12 of History and Myth), these industrialization attempts 

largely failed. 

When President Atatürk came to power in 1923, he initiated a 

drive to supplement agriculture with state-run manufacturing 

and service sectors. The economy developed rapidly through 

the growth of tobacco, sugar, and oil industries, iron and steel 

factories, and insurance 

and banking subsectors. Likewise, US 

aid and the remittances 

of Turkish guestworkers 

in Germany contributed 

to substantial cash 

inflows. Turkey also 

instituted protectionist 

anti-trade policies to 

safeguard its new industries. After years of high growth within

this centralized economic development model, a financial crisis 

in the 1970s caused a severe economic contraction (Photo: 

Istanbul’s Galata tower). 

In 1983, Prime Minister Özal led the implementation of liberal 

free-market reforms. These included reducing subsidies, 

encouraging exports and foreign direct investment (FDI), 

making the exchange rate more flexible, and privatizing many 

state-run companies, among other changes. In 1987, Turkey 

established 20 “free zones” in major cities and ports to entice 

more FDI. Despite some growth, Turkey faced economic crises 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
in 1994, 1999, and 2001 due to mismanagement and external 

recessions. In each case, banks failed, inflation soared above 

100%, and investors fled. In response, the International 

Monetary Fund (IMF) provided loans under the condition that 

Turkey implement new reforms, including a currency 

devaluation, more privatizations, and bank restructuring.

Turkey’s economy has stabilized since 2001, aided by the IMF 

reforms, global economic growth, and high commodity prices. 

From 2002-07, Turkey grew by almost 7% per year, a faster 

rate than most countries in the region. This upswing stalled 

briefly during a 2008-09 global financial crisis that caused 

Turkey’s trade-dependent economy to reduce by almost 5%. 

Despite this decline, prudent financial management helped 

annual growth to rebound to 9% in 2010-11, one of the world’s

fastest rates.

In 2012, Turkey’s average annual economic growth began to 

slow again to a modest 3% due to diminished demand for 

Turkish exports. Nevertheless, Turkey’s modern industrial 

sector, rapidly expanding services sector, and a local 

construction boom recently have enabled consistent growth

and a stable economy. 

Turkey now has the world’s 17th-largest economy. Banks and 

financial markets are well-regulated, and although FDI is below 

its 2007 peak, nearly 7% of all 2013 investment in Europe went 

to Turkey. During the first decade of the 21st century, percapita income tripled 

and the poverty rate 

declined by over half.

While much of Turkey’s 

economy is centered in 

Istanbul and the 

western provinces, the 

so-called “Anatolian 

tigers” (small- to medium-sized export businesses in central 

and southern Turkey) have also fueled growth. In recent years, 

Islamic forms of finance and banking void of interest payments 

have experienced significant growth, now accounting for 5% of 

all banking in Turkey (Photo: Sivas Avenue in Kayseri, 

headquarters of many Anatolian tigers).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Even though the Turkish economy is relatively stable, 

diversified, and aligned to free-market principles, it still faces 

several challenges. Per capita income and labor productivity 

have grown barely since 2007. 

Further, investment remains 

irregular, and Turkey’s 8% average 

annual inflation rate remains well 

above the central bank’s target. 

Finally, unemployment is currently 

over 9% while economic conditions 

and opportunities among regions 

remain unequal (Photo: Turkish 

women weaving carpets by hand). 

In response to these concerns, 

Turkey has intiated its “10th 

Development Plan 2014-18,” 

designed to improve workers’ productivity, enhance regional 

cooperation, implement prudent fiscal policy, and develop a 

sustainable infrastructure. 

Services

Accounting for about 64% of GDP and 52% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Turkey’s economy. Key services sub-sectors include wholesale 

and retail trade, transportation and storage, banking and 

financial services, telecommunications, and tourism.

Energy Transit: Turkey is an energy transit hub due to its 

strategic location between Europe and the oil and gas 

producers of the Middle East, Central Asia, and Russia. 

Besides transit through its Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, 

several pipelines transport vast quantities of oil and natural 

gas, resulting in billion-dollar profits from transport, storage, 

and associated fees. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline alone 

transports over 1 million barrels of oil per day, with several 

more pipelines planned and under construction. 

Tourism: In 2015, more than 40 million tourists visited Turkey, 

making it the world’s 6th most popular destination. 

Concentrated in Istanbul and along the Mediterranean coast, 

Turkey’s tourism industry accounts for about 4% of GDP and 

9% of employment. The most popular destinations include 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
historical sites and western beaches. While visitors from 

Germany, Russia, the UK, and other countries spent over $31 

billion in 2015, revenue in 2016 will likely decline. This drop is

due to the threat of terrorism, the Syrian war and refugee crisis

(see p. 12-13 of Political and Social Relations), and the effects 

of a temporary 

Russian ban on 

tourist travel to 

Turkey that year 

(Photo: The Turkish 

Riviera near 

Antalya).

Industry

As the 2nd largest 

component of the 

economy, the industrial sector accounts for about 28% of GDP 

and 27% of the labor force. The most significant sub-sectors 

include manufacturing, mining, and construction. 

Manufacturing: The manufacture of textiles, food and drinks, 

electronics, and automobiles account for most of Turkey’s 

industrial production. Manufactured clothing and other textile 

products make up 7% of GDP and employ over 2 million 

people. The growing electronics sector accounts for 2% of 

GDP and supplies Europe with more televisions than any other 

country. The auto industry has grown quickly over the past 

decade and now produces more than 1 million cars annually, 

mainly for European and domestic markets. Other significant 

manufacturing industries include chemicals, steel, and wood 

products.

Construction: In 2015, the construction industry accounted for 

about 5% of GDP, appraised at over $40 billion, and employed 

over 2 million people. Of the world’s top 250 construction firms, 

43 are Turkish. Residential construction and infrastructure 

projects have been a mainstay of Turkey’s economic success 

since the 1980s. Overall, the Turkish construction industry has 

grown annually by around 10% in recent years. Nevertheless,

geo-political and economic issues in its major foreign markets 

(Russia, Kuwait, Turkmenistan, and Algeria) currently pose 

challenges to the continued growth of the industry.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Agriculture

The agricultural sector – includes farming, livestock, fishing,

and forestry – is the smallest segment of the Turkish economy, 

accounting for just over 8% of GDP and 21% of the labor force.

Farming and Livestock: Nearly 49% of Turkey’s land area is 

dedicated to cultivation, half of which is devoted to field crops 

such as wheat and other cereals, corn, cotton, sugar beets, 

tobacco, and potatoes.

Known as the bread 

basket of the Middle 

East, Turkey is selfsufficient in food 

production and also

exports a variety of field 

crops, olives, citrus, 

nuts, tea, and roses. Of note, Turkey is the world’s leading 

supplier of hazelnuts, dried figs, apricots, and raisins. Livestock 

farming is also a major activity, consisting primarily of cattle, 

sheep, and goats. Small family farms averaging about 15 acres 

are common (Photo: A hazelnut field in Çamaş).

Fishing: In 2014, the large Turkish fishing industry consisted of 

more than 50,000 employees and around 14,500 vessels that 

harvested over 530,000 tons of anchovies, sardines, sprats,

and mackerel, among 

others. The Black Sea 

accounts for about 

3/4 of the wild catch, 

mostly processed into 

fishmeal and oil. 

Besides domestic 

consumption, Turkey exports fish products primarily to Europe, 

Russia, and the Middle East (Photo: The USS Bataan at port in 

Kuşadası).

Forestry: With about 27% of its territory covered by 

woodlands, Turkey has a highly-developed forestry industry. 

About 50% of that territory is under state protection, with the 

remainder available for commercial activities. Pine, oak, poplar, 

cypress, and beech trees are primary sources for timber,

paper, and other wood products.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

The New Turkish Lira (₺), Turkey’s 

currency since 2005, is issued in 6 

banknote values (5, 10, 20, 50, 

100, 200) and 1 coin value (1 lira, 

pictured). A lira subdivides into 

kuruş (cents), issued in 5 coin 

values (1, 5, 10, 25, 50). With 

fluctuations in exchange rates, $1 

has been worth between ₺1.60 -

₺3.05 in recent years. Most 

businesses accept credit cards, although some smaller 

vendors may only accept cash in small denominations. 

Foreign Trade 

Totaling $154 billion in 2015, Turkey’s exports primarily 

consisted of apparel, foodstuffs, textiles, metal manufactures, 

and transport equipment sold to Germany (10%), Iraq (7%), UK 

(6%), Italy (5%), France (4%), and the US (4%). In the same 

year, Turkey imported $204 billion in machinery, chemicals, 

semi-finished goods, fuels, and transport equipment from 

Russia (10%), China (10%), Germany (9%), US (5%), Italy 

(5%), and Iran (4%). 

Foreign Aid

The European Union (EU) gives Turkey hundreds of millions of 

dollars in annual financial and technical support aimed at 

preparing the country to 

conform to EU 

standards. In 2015, the 

EU pledged an additional 

€3 billion to help Turkey 

respond to the Syrian 

refugee crisis (see p. 13

of Political and Social 

Relations). In recent 

years, the US has 

donated between $3-5 million in military and education training

to Turkey. While it is traditionally a net recipient of aid, Turkey 

in 2013 made its own aid contribution of $3.3 billion. Recipients 

of Turkish aid tend to be Muslim and sub-Saharan African 

countries (Photo: Turkish and European Union flags).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Turkey has a modern physical infrastructure with efficient public 

transportation systems and well-maintained roads. Turks enjoy

an advanced and extensive telecommunications network, 

although the government is known to limit freedom of speech. 

Transportation 

While the percentage of Turkish families using privately-owned 

vehicles has risen steeply in recent years, many Turks also 

travel by bus, train, taxi, ferry, bicycle, or foot. Istanbul, Ankara, 

and other major cities have efficient and reliable mass transit 

systems that include buses, dolmuşlar (shared taxis), trains, 

trams, and metro lines that typically run from 6:00am-midnight. 

Special bike and pedestrian zones are increasingly common in 

urban areas but can be

dangerous due to 

aggressive drivers 

(Photo: A ferry passes 

Istanbul’s skyline).

Since the 1980s, Turkey 

has invested significantly

in its transport 

infrastructure, seeking to 

secure its position as a hub of international trade and transport 

(see p. 1-2 and p. 6 of Economics and Resources). New 

infrastructure includes metro lines in 5 cities and high-speed 

trains connecting major urban areas. While Turkey works to 

develop its outdated railway system, its advanced air, road, and 

sea transport networks now connect to major global markets. 

Turkey’s Vision 2023 includes significant infrastructure plans in 

all transport sectors.

Roadways: In 2014, 91% of Turkey’s 241,500 mi of roads were 

paved. From 2001-11, Turkey allocated about 20% of its national 

budget to road infrastructure. While most roadways are wellmaintained, some rural and minor roads are unpaved or in poor 

condition. Highways connecting major cities are typically 4-6 

lanes, though some are only 1 lane in each direction. Highway 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
D100, known in Europe as route E80, runs from Portugal to 

Turkey’s border with Iran.

Railways: Turkey has about 8,000 mi of railways that connect 

major cities and towns with Eastern Europe and Iran. During the 

2010s, Turkey has invested more in railways than any other form 

of transport. In 2014, state-owned Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet 

Demiryolları (Turkish State Railways) opened a 520- mile-long 

high-speed railway that connects Istanbul, Ankara, and Konya

with trains that travel up to 150 mph. By 2023, Turkey plans to 

double the size of its railway network, including 6,000 mi of new

high-speed rails.

Ports and Waterways: Turkey has about 750 mi of waterways 

that are navigable year-round. It plans to build a new canal in 

Istanbul by 2023 to divert 

shipping traffic from the 

Bosporus Strait, currently 

one of the world’s busiest 

waterways. Major sea

ports include Ambarlı and 

Haydarpaşa in Istanbul, as 

well as Ereğli, Izmir, and 

Mersin. Regular ferry 

services connect Turkey with Greek islands and Northern 

Cyprus (Photo: Istanbul’s First Bosporus Bridge).

Airways: Turkey has 98 airports, 91 with paved runways. While 

Istanbul Atatürk Airport is currently the largest, the first phase of 

the Istanbul New Airport will open in 2018. By 2023, planners 

estimate it will serve over 150 million passengers annually, more

than any other airport worldwide. Turkish Airlines is the national 

carrier, serving 111 countries. Other Turkish carriers include 

AnadoluJet, AtlasGlobal, Onur Air, Pegasus Airlines, and 

Sunexpress.

Energy

Turkey’s large coal deposits, proven oil and natural gas 

reserves, and renewable resources meet only about 30% of its 

energy demand. Consequently, Turkey imports oil and gas from 

Russia, Iran, and Iraq. To reduce dependence on these 

countries, Turkey has built pipelines to transport oil and gas from 

Central Asia (see p. 3 of Economics and Resources). 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Renewable hydropower, solar and biomass account for 10% of 

Turkey’s total energy demand. To support its energy 

independence goals, Turkey plans 

to build nuclear power plants. 

Media

While the Turkish constitution 

protects freedom of expression, in 

practice the government censors 

journalists and limits any speech 

deemed offensive to the Turkish 

nation or President Erdoğan (see 

p. 22-23 of History and Myth). Turkey has recently jailed 

journalists, blocked media outlets like YouTube and Twitter, 

pressured media companies critical of the government, and 

promoted self-censorship. 

Print Media: The Turkish press includes hundreds of local and 

national periodicals published in Turkish, Kurdish, English, and 

other languages. In early 2016, Turkish courts required that 

Turkey’s most popular newspaper, Zaman, replace its editors 

and management due to their critical views of the government.

Posta, Sözcü, Sabah, and Hürriyet are popular newspapers with 

circulations over 300,000; Hürriyet has an English edition. 

Radio and TV: The state-owned Turkish Radio and Television 

Corporation (TRT) broadcasts many popular radio and TV

programs. Other private stations offer programs in Turkish, 

English, and other languages. Cable, satellite, and Internet 

services also provide international content.

Telecommunications

Turkey’s comprehensive telecommunications network is 

undergoing rapid modernization and expansion. In 2015, Turkey

had about 16 landline and 92 mobile phone subscriptions per 

100 people. 

Internet: In 2015, about 58% of Turks regularly used the Internet

– rates tend to be higher in western and urban areas. The 

Turkish government censors Internet content, blocking or 

limiting access to many websites. Since 2015, the government 

may legally block content and conduct surveillance of users 

without a court order.

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October 2016

CULTURE GUIDE