U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

www.cops.usdoj.gov

S t a l k i n g

by the National Center for Victims of Crime

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides Series

No. 22
www.PopCenter.org

Got a Problem? We’ve got answers!

Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing website 

at www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help 

you deal more effectively with crime and disorder in your 

community, including:

• Web-enhanced versions of all currently available Guides

• Interactive training exercises

• Online access to research and police practices

• Online problem analysis module

Designed for police and those who work with them to 

address community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great 

resource in problem-oriented policing.

Supported by the Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services, U.S. Department of Justice.

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing
www.ncvc.org 800.FYI.CALL 202.467.8700

Founded in 1985, the National Center for Victims of Crime is the nation's leading 

resource and advocacy organization for victims of crime. Our mission is to forge a 

national commitment to help victims of crime rebuild their lives. We are dedicated to 

serving individuals, families, and communities harmed by crime. Working with local, 

state, and federal partners, the National Center:

• Provides direct services and resources to victims of crime and victim service 

providers

• Advocates for passage of laws and public policies that create resources and secure 

rights and protections for crime victims

• Delivers training and technical assistance to victim service organizations, 

counselors, attorneys, criminal justice agencies, and allied professionals

• Fosters cutting-edge thinking about the impact of crime and the ways in which 

each of us can help victims regain control of their lives.

The Stalking Resource Center is a program of the National Center for Victims of 

Crime. Our dual mission is to raise national awareness of stalking and to encourage 

the development and implementation of multidisciplinary responses to stalking in 

local communities across the country. We can provide you with:

• Training

• Technical Assistance

• Protocol Development

• Resources

• Help in collaborating with other agencies and systems in your community.

Stalking

National Center for Victims of Crime

This project was supported by cooperative agreement 

#2002CKWX0003 by the Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions contained herein 

are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official 

position of the U.S. Department of Justice.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

ISBN: 1-932582-30-4

January 2004

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides Series

Guide No. 22

About the Problem-Specific Guides Series i

About the Problem-Specific Guides Series

The Problem-Specific Guides summarize knowledge about 

how police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime 

and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention 

and to improving the overall response to incidents, not 

to investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. 

The guides are written for police–of whatever rank or 

assignment–who must address the specific problem the 

guides cover. The guides will be most useful to officers 

who

• Understand basic problem-oriented policing 

principles and methods. The guides are not primers in 

problem-oriented policing. They deal only briefly with 

the initial decision to focus on a particular problem, 

methods to analyze the problem, and means to assess 

the results of a problem-oriented policing project. They 

are designed to help police decide how best to analyze 

and address a problem they have already identified. (A 

companion series of Problem-Solving Tools guides has been 

produced to aid in various aspects of problem analysis 

and assessment.)

• Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the 

complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to 

spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and 

responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before 

responding helps you design the right strategy, one that 

is most likely to work in your community. You should 

not blindly adopt the responses others have used; 

you must decide whether they are appropriate to your 

local situation. What is true in one place may not be 

true elsewhere; what works in one place may not work 

everywhere.
ii Stalking

• Are willing to consider new ways of doing police 

business. The guides describe responses that other 

police departments have used or that researchers 

have tested. While not all of these responses will be 

appropriate to your particular problem, they should help 

give a broader view of the kinds of things you could 

do. You may think you cannot implement some of these 

responses in your jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. 

In many places, when police have discovered a more 

effective response, they have succeeded in having laws 

and policies changed, improving the response to the 

problem.

• Understand the value and the limits of research 

knowledge. For some types of problems, a lot of useful 

research is available to the police; for other problems, 

little is available. Accordingly, some guides in this series 

summarize existing research whereas other guides illustrate 

the need for more research on that particular problem. 

Regardless, research has not provided definitive answers to 

all the questions you might have about the problem. The 

research may help get you started in designing your own 

responses, but it cannot tell you exactly what to do. This 

will depend greatly on the particular nature of your local 

problem. In the interest of keeping the guides readable, 

not every piece of relevant research has been cited, nor has 

every point been attributed to its sources. To have done so 

would have overwhelmed and distracted the reader. The 

references listed at the end of each guide are those drawn 

on most heavily; they are not a complete bibliography of 

research on the subject. 
About the Problem-Specific Guides Series iii

• Are willing to work with other community agencies 

to find effective solutions to the problem. The 

police alone cannot implement many of the responses 

discussed in the guides. They must frequently implement 

them in partnership with other responsible private and 

public entities. An effective problem-solver must know 

how to forge genuine partnerships with others and be 

prepared to invest considerable effort in making these 

partnerships work. 

These guides have drawn on research findings and police 

practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, 

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and 

Scandinavia. Even though laws, customs and police 

practices vary from country to country, it is apparent that 

the police everywhere experience common problems. In 

a world that is becoming increasingly interconnected, it is 

important that police be aware of research and successful 

practices beyond the borders of their own countries.

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to 

provide feedback on this guide and to report on your 

own agency's experiences dealing with a similar problem. 

Your agency may have effectively addressed a problem 

using responses not considered in these guides and your 

experiences and knowledge could benefit others. This 

information will be used to update the guides. If you wish 

to provide feedback and share your experiences it should 

be sent via e-mail to cops_pubs@usdoj.gov.
iv Stalking

For more information about problem-oriented policing,

visit the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing online at www.

popcenter.org or via the COPS website at www.cops.usdoj.

gov. This website offers free online access to:

• the Problem-Specific Guides series

• the companion Response Guides and Problem-Solving Tools

series

• instructional information about problem-oriented policing 

and related topics

• an interactive training exercise

• online access to important police research and practices.
Acknowledgments v

Acknowledgments

The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police are very much a 

collaborative effort. While each guide has a primary 

author, other project team members, COPS Office staff 

and anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide 

by proposing text, recommending research and offering 

suggestions on matters of format and style. 

The principal project team developing the guide series 

comprised Herman Goldstein, professor emeritus, 

University of Wisconsin Law School; Ronald V. Clarke, 

professor of criminal justice, Rutgers University; John E. 

Eck, associate professor of criminal justice, University of 

Cincinnati; Michael S. Scott, assistant clinical professor, 

University of Wisconsin Law School; Rana Sampson, 

police consultant, San Diego; and Deborah Lamm 

Weisel, director of police research, North Carolina State 

University.

Karin Schmerler, Rita Varano and Nancy Leach oversaw 

the project for the COPS Office. Suzanne Fregly edited 

the guides. Research for the guides was conducted at the 

Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers University under the 

direction of Phyllis Schultze. 

The project team also wishes to acknowledge the members 

of the San Diego, National City and Savannah police 

departments who provided feedback on the guides' format 

and style in the early stages of the project, as well as the 

line police officers, police executives and researchers who 

peer reviewed each guide.
vi Stalking

The National Center for Victims of Crime wishes to 

acknowledge the many people who worked with us to 

create effective community-oriented policing stalking 

protocol. The center was funded by the U.S. Department 

of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing 

Services, to develop a model stalking protocol and work 

with the Philadelphia Police Department to field test it. 

This guide was based on that work, information about 

which can be found at www.ncvc.org/src.
Contents

About the Problem-Specific Guide Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

The Problem of Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Defining Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Prevalence and Nature of Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

State and Federal Anti-Stalking Laws.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Related Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Factors Contributing to Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Stalking Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Types of Stalkers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Stalking's Impact on Victims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

The Challenges of Policing Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Understanding Your Local Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Asking the Right Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Incidents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Victims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Offenders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Locations/Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Current Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Measuring Your Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Responses to the Problem of Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Appendix: Summary of Responses to Stalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Contents vii
viii Stalking

About the Author. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Recommended Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Problem of Stalking 1

The Problem of Stalking

This guide reviews the problem of stalking and the factors 

that contribute to it. It then identifies a series of questions 

to help you analyze your local problem. Finally, it reviews 

responses to the problem, and what is known about them 

from evaluative research and police practice.

Defining Stalking

Stalking creates uncertainty, instills fear, and can 

completely disrupt lives. It can involve severe–even lethal–

violence. Stalking involves a pattern of overtly criminal 

and/or apparently innocent behavior that makes victims 

fear for themselves or others. 

Stalking is distinguishable from many other types of crime 

in two important ways. First, it entails repeat victimization 

of a person the offender targets–it is, by its very nature, 

a series of acts, rather than a single incident. Second, 

it is partly defined by its impact on the victim. While 

legal definitions of stalking vary from state to state, the 

following is a useful general definition:

A course of conduct directed at a specific person that 

would cause a reasonable person fear.1

Prevalence and Nature of Stalking

Stalking is widespread. Nearly one in 12 women and one 

in 45 men are stalked at least once in their lifetime.2 It is 

estimated that more than a million women and nearly half 

a million men are stalked in the United States each year.3

The overwhelming majority (78 percent) of victims are 

women, and the majority of offenders (87 percent) are 

men.4
2 Stalking

Most victims know their stalkers. Even though we often 

hear reports of fans stalking celebrities, survey evidence 

indicates that fewer than a quarter of female victims and a 

third of male victims are stalked by strangers.5 Nearly 60 

percent of female victims and 30 percent of male victims 

are stalked by current or former intimate partners.6

In intimate-partner cases, fewer than half of stalking 

incidents occur after the relationship ends.7 Most of the 

time, the stalking occurs during the relationship.8, § 

Stalking and domestic violence intersect in a variety 

of ways. Research indicates that 81 percent of women 

stalked by an intimate have been physically assaulted by 

that person.9 Thirty-one percent of women stalked by an 

intimate have been sexually assaulted by that person.10

Offenders who stalk former intimate partners are more 

likely to have physically or sexually assaulted them before 

the relationship ended.11

Stalking is often a feature of relationships involving 

domestic violence.12 Like domestic violence, it is a crime 

of power and control. In one study about stalking and 

pre-stalking relationships, over 50 percent of the women 

were psychologically abused, 65 percent reported physical 

abuse, and 8.6 percent experienced sexual abuse during 

their relationship.13 If stalking is defined as a course of 

conduct that intimidates or frightens the victim, then 

relationships involving domestic violence also involve 

stalking. 

Both domestic violence and stalking are linked to lethal 

violence. Research has revealed that one-third of women 

killed each year in the United States die at the hands of 

a current or former intimate.14 It is estimated that 25 

to 35 percent of stalking cases involve violence.15 And 

when stalking leads to violence, it is often a precursor 

§ In cases involving intimate 

partners, 21 percent of victims 

surveyed reported that stalking 

occurred during the relationship, 

36 percent reported that it 

occurred both during and after the 

relationship, and 43 percent reported 

that it started after the relationship.
The Problem of Stalking 3

to lethal violence. Studies show that stalking precedes an 

exceedingly high proportion of homicides by intimates.16 

In over 75 percent of completed and attempted female 

homicides by intimates, the offenders stalked the victims 

in the year before the offense.17

Victims report only about half of stalking incidents to 

the police.18 Generally, those who do not report do not 

think the matter is criminal, do not think the police can 

help them, or fear that reporting will make the stalker 

even more dangerous.19 Twenty percent of victims 

who reported stalking stated that the police did not act 

regarding their complaints.20 Other victims may not report 

incidents because they may minimize the risk a stalker 

poses or blame themselves for the stalker's behavior.

State and Federal Anti-Stalking Laws

The first stalking law was passed in California in 1990. 

Since then, increasing awareness about stalking's impact 

has led legislatures in all 50 states to pass stalking laws.§

While legislation is critical, laws alone accomplish 

little without clear anti-stalking policies and effective 

enforcement. Yet most police agencies across the country 

have not adopted distinct stalking-intervention protocols 

and procedures.

Stalking laws vary from state to state, but they share 

certain basic elements. Statutes generally define stalking 

in terms of a course of conduct or pattern of behavior 

that would cause a reasonable person to fear bodily injury 

or death for himself/herself or a member of his/her 

immediate family. Similarly, under most state laws, two 

or more incidents are required to establish a course of 

§ You can find state stalking statutes 

on the National Center for Victims 

of Crime's Stalking Resource Center 

website, www.ncvc.org/src.
4 Stalking

conduct. Because state laws vary, you should consult with 

your local prosecutor regarding your state's stalking law 

to be clear about what evidence is necessary to build a 

stalking case. In addition to specific stalking statutes, 

numerous other state and local laws relating to a wide 

variety of crimes and the investigation or prevention of 

crime may be relevant in stalking cases. These include laws 

governing:

• protective/restraining orders

• threats, assaults, and attempted murder 

• kidnapping

• vandalism and other property crimes

• theft

• domestic violence

• sexual assault

• hate crimes

• terrorism or terrorist threats

• annoying phone calls and other forms of harassment

• identity theft

• utility theft

• wiretapping.

Federal statutes specifically relating to or applicable to 

stalking may provide further options for prosecuting 

stalkers.§

Related Problems

Other related problems and issues not directly addressed 

by this guide include:

• homicide

• domestic violence

• sexual assault

§ Relevant federal laws include Full 

Faith and Credit (U.S.C.§ 2265), 

Interstate Stalking (U.S.C.§ 2261), 

Interstate Domestic Violence 

(U.S.C.§ 2261), Interstate Violation 

of a Protection Order (U.S.C.§ 

2262), Federal Domestic Violence 

Firearm Prohibitions (U.S.C.§ 922), 

Interstate Communications (U.S.C.§ 

875), and Harassing Telephone 

Calls in Interstate Communications 

[U.S.C.§ 233(a)(1)(C)].
The Problem of Stalking 5

• violations of protective orders

• vandalism

• telephone misuse

• trespassing

• cyberstalking

• harassment

• cruelty to pets or other animals 

• voyeurism

• identity theft

• workplace violence

• dignitary and celebrity protection.

Factors Contributing to Stalking

Understanding the factors that contribute to stalking 

will help you frame your own local analysis questions, 

determine good effectiveness measures, recognize key 

intervention points, and select appropriate responses.

Stalking Behaviors

Stalking, by definition, is not a one-time act but a course 

of conduct. It may involve a mix of patently criminal acts 

and acts that, in isolation, would seem nonthreatening. 

It is the pattern and context of these criminal and 

noncriminal acts that constitute stalking.

Stalking often includes:

• assaulting the victim

• violating protective orders§

• sexually assaulting the victim

• vandalizing the victim's property

• burglarizing the victim's home or otherwise stealing 

from the victim

• threatening the victim

• killing the victim's pet(s).

§ Sixty-nine percent of female and 

81 percent of male victims with 

protective orders reported that 

their stalkers had violated the order 

(Tjaden and Thoennes 1998).
6 Stalking

Other common stalking behaviors include:

• sending the victim cards or gifts

• leaving telephone or e-mail messages for the victim

• disclosing to the victim personal information the 

offender has uncovered about him or her

• disseminating personal information about the victim to 

others

• following the victim

• visiting the victim at work

• waiting outside the victim's home 

• sending the victim photographs taken of him or her 

without consent

• monitoring the victim's Internet history and computer 

usage

• using technology to gather images of or information 

about the victim.

Types of Stalkers

While stalkers come from different backgrounds and have 

different personalities, researchers have developed several 

widely accepted typologies of them. It is important to 

emphasize that, while stalker typologies can be helpful, 

they are only general classifications. Whenever possible, 

a properly trained professional should conduct a threat 

assessment. Individual stalkers may not precisely fit any 

single category, and often exhibit characteristics associated 

with more than one category. However, the typology can 

alert investigators and victim advocates to certain general 

characteristics exhibited by similar stalkers, and help them 

with threat assessment and safety planning. 
One widely accepted typology of stalkers21 is based on the 

stalker's underlying motives, and includes the following 

categories:

Simple obsessional. This is the most common type. The 

stalker is usually a male, and the victim an ex-spouse, exlover, or former boss. The stalking sometimes results from 

the stalker's feeling the victim has mistreated him or her. In 

intimate relationships, the stalking frequently begins before 

a breakup.

Love obsessional. The stalker is a stranger or casual 

acquaintance to the victim, but is obsessed and begins a 

campaign of harassment to make the victim aware of his 

or her existence. This type often stalks a celebrity or public 

figure, but can also stalk a noncelebrity.

Erotomania. The stalker falsely believes that the victim 

is in love with him or her, and that, but for some external 

obstacle or interference, they would be together. The 

victim may be rich or famous, or in a position of power 

(e.g., a movie star, employer, or political figure). In this 

situation, the stalker could also pose a great risk to those 

close to the victim (e.g., a spouse or lover perceived to be 

"in the way"). 

False victimization syndrome. This is extremely rare 

and involves someone who consciously or subconsciously 

wants to play the role of victim. He or she may make up 

a complex tale, claiming to be a stalking victim. In such 

cases, the would-be victim is sometimes the actual stalker, 

and the alleged offender is the real victim. 

The Problem of Stalking 7
8 Stalking

Another typology used to classify stalkers identifies 

them by their relationship to the victim.22 This typology 

divides stalkers into two basic categories: intimate and 

nonintimate.§ The following is a brief description of these 

categories:

Intimate. A former relationship exists between the stalker 

and the victim. There is likely a history of abuse, such as 

domestic violence, by the stalker. The stalker often seeks 

to reestablish a relationship the victim has tried to end.

Nonintimate. The stalker has no interpersonal 

relationship with the victim. He or she may choose the 

victim after a brief encounter, or simply after observing 

the victim. The victim is often unable to identify the 

stalker when he or she first becomes aware of being 

stalked. This type is subdivided into two categories:

• Organized. The relationship between the stalker and 

the victim is characterized by one-way, anonymous 

communication from stalker to victim. The stalker is 

methodical and calculating, and the victim usually does 

not know the stalker's identity.

• Delusional. The relationship between the stalker and 

the victim is based solely on the stalker's psychological 

fixation on the victim. The stalker is delusional and 

falsely believes he or she has a relationship or other 

connection with the victim.

Again, stalkers often exhibit behaviors from more than 

one typology. The typologies are an overview, and you 

should never use them as a substitute for a thorough 

threat assessment. 

§ The typology terms actually used 

are "domestic" and "nondomestic." 

"Intimate" and "nonintimate" are 

used here for clarity.
The Problem of Stalking 9

Stalkers are, by their very nature, obsessive and 

dangerous.23 Regardless of typology, you should always 

consider stalkers capable of killing their victims. Anyone 

the stalker perceives as impeding his or her contact with 

the victim, including police, prosecutors, and advocates, 

is also at risk. Some stalkers seek union with their victims 

through murder-suicide.24 Any suicidal statements or 

gestures the stalker makes should serve as an indication 

that the stalker is a high-risk threat. You should also 

examine the stalker's background for depression, 

psychiatric hospitalizations, and other indications that he 

or she may be suicidal. 

Stalking's Impact on Victims

Unlike the case with many crimes, the legal definition 

of stalking covers not only the offender's behavior but 

also the effects on the victim. The victim's psychological 

responses and the changes the victim makes in his or her 

life as a result of stalking can all be used as evidence of 

the fear the offender has caused. 

Stalking's impact is often wide-ranging, severe, and 

psychologically traumatic. Many victims feel constantly 

on alert, vulnerable, out of control, stressed, and anxious. 

Dealing with stalking can consume all their energy. They 

may experience a loss of trust, long-term emotional 

distress, and significant disruption of everyday living.25 

Many seek psychological counseling.26 Victims' symptoms 

tend to worsen with each new incident, and may be 

compounded by concerns about the effects on their 

children and other secondary victims.27
10 Stalking

Stalking can also trigger a wide variety of behavioral 

reactions. Many victims take steps to avoid being followed 

and spied on. They alter their normal routines, avoid 

going out alone, and give up leisure activities. To protect 

themselves, they may screen all telephone calls (at home 

and work) and change their telephone number, email 

and postal addresses, driver's license, and social security 

number.28, § More drastic action may include temporary 

or permanent relocation. They may move to another state 

or try to change their identity, often uprooting children in 

the process, leaving behind close friends and relatives, and 

abandoning careers. 

When the criminal justice system fails to protect victims 

from stalking, it makes it that much harder for them to 

recover from its effects.29

The Challenges of Policing Stalking

Stalking can be difficult to recognize, investigate, assess, 

and prevent for many reasons, including the following:

• Stalking is not a single, obvious, easily identifiable crime 

like assault, robbery, burglary, and most other offenses.

• Stalking, like domestic violence, often is not taken 

sufficiently seriously because it can involve acts the 

police may perceive as part of everyday courtship and 

intimate relationships. The police may mistake repeated 

telephone calls, letters, cards, and gifts from "would 

be" lovers for innocent romantic attention. However, 

when such gestures are part of a course of conduct 

that instills fear in the victim, they are being used to 

terrorize. 

§ While victims can change their 

social security number, some victims 

have had problems as a result (for 

example, establishing credit or prior 

employment history, or getting a 

passport). Therefore, this option 

should be weighed carefully.
The Problem of Stalking 11

• Stalking behaviors are complex, varied, and 

unpredictable. Stalking takes many forms, and individual 

incidents may be very different. It is hard to be certain 

if and when stalking will escalate to violence. 

• There is no single stalker profile to assist investigators. 

• When blatant acts of violence occur, a pattern of 

stalking behavior may not seem significant.

• Effective investigations depend on gathering 

information from many sources. 

• The stalker may commit crimes in different locations 

and be under investigation in multiple jurisdictions. 

The victim may live in one jurisdiction, work or attend 

school in another, and seek refuge in yet another. If the 

stalker threatens people connected with the victim, such 

as coworkers, family members, or friends, or vandalizes 

their property, different victims' names will appear on 

complaint reports.

• Stalkers are not easily deterred and tend to be 

obsessive. Therefore, conventional sanctions, including 

court orders forbidding contact with victims, may not 

necessarily make an impact. Many stalkers continue 

to harass their victims even after conviction; the 

stalking may escalate if they perceive court sanctions 

as minor. Others may see their trials as a way to stay 

in their victims' lives. Because the first prosecution 

and conviction may not end the stalking, more 

enforcement is often necessary.§ Thus, it is important 

to keep in touch with victims and ensure that offenders 

are supervised. (Mental health agencies may have 

a duty to warn victims of imminent threats, and 

batterer's intervention programs often do not require 

confidentiality between offenders and staff; both can 

help monitor offenders.)

§ Investigators throughout the 

country have indicated that stalking 

cases can last years beyond the first 

conviction. It is not unusual for an 

offender to start stalking again before 

an anniversary, following a stressful 

event, or after any number of other 

triggers that renew the stalker's 

interest in the victim. 
12 Stalking

Because stalking is an ongoing crime involving multiple 

incidents, police may have numerous opportunities to 

observe the stalker's behavior and make an arrest. Even 

in cases where the stalker does not contact the victim 

in person, police can generally piece together enough 

evidence to identify and locate the offender and make an 

arrest. The sooner police can document separate stalking 

incidents, the greater the chance of bringing the offender 

to justice before a case escalates to lethal levels.
Understanding Your Local Problem 13

Understanding Your Local Problem

The information provided above is only a generalized 

description of stalking. You must combine the basic facts 

with a more specific understanding of your local problem. 

Analyzing the local problem carefully will help you design 

a more effective response strategy. 

Asking the Right Questions

The following are some critical questions you should ask 

when analyzing your stalking problem. Your answers to 

these questions will help you choose the most appropriate 

set of responses later on.

Incidents

• How many stalking incidents does your agency 

investigate within a year? 

• When your agency identifies stalking, does it record it? 

If so, does it record it specifically as stalking, or as the 

particular offense committed during each incident?

• What percentage of stalking cases involve other 

offenses (e.g., homicide, domestic violence, threats, 

harassing phone calls, child abuse, pet abuse, theft, 

vandalism)? Conversely, what percentage of those 

offenses involve stalking? For example, what percentage 

of domestic violence incidents are part of a stalking 

pattern?

• Does your agency have data systems for tracking repeat 

offenses (by offender, victim, and location)?

• To what extent are stalkers using advanced technology 

such as global positioning systems, wireless remote 

cameras, and invasive computer programs to stalk 

victims?
14 Stalking

Victims

• How many stalking victims are there in your 

jurisdiction? (Consider conducting a local victimization 

survey, rather than relying on police reports.)

• What percentage of stalking victims report it to the 

police?

• What physical injuries do victims suffer? What 

psychological harm? What other harms (e.g., missed 

work or school, job loss, moving expenses)?

• Do particular populations in your community appear to 

be targeted for stalking?

Offenders

• What percentage of stalkers have stalked more than one 

victim?

• What is the relationship between stalkers and victims? 

What percentage of stalkers are strangers to their 

victims? Acquaintances? Former lovers or spouses?

• Have stalkers had multiple contacts with the criminal 

justice system? Have they been convicted of stalking 

before? 

• Do stalkers routinely violate protective orders? Bail 

conditions?

• Are stalkers monitored while cases are pending?

• Do stalkers contact victims while cases are pending?

• Do stalkers access information about victims once a 

case has been initiated, such as where they live or work?

• Are stalkers held accountable when they violate bond or 

probation conditions?
Understanding Your Local Problem 15

Locations/Times

• Do stalking incidents occur at particular locations, such 

as victims' workplaces or homes?

• Do stalking incidents occur at certain times of the 

day, days of the week, or times of the year (e.g., when 

children are not home, in the middle of the night, on 

weekends, around holidays or other special days)? 

Current Responses

• How does your agency currently respond to stalking? 

How is the problem addressed by patrol officers? 

Investigators? Victim advocates?

• Does your agency have a written policy or protocol for 

responding to stalking or potential stalking incidents?

• What training do officers receive on stalking?

• How do other agencies (prosecutor's offices, courts, 

victims' assistance organizations) handle stalking cases? 

• What services are provided to stalking victims? How are 

victims made aware of those services?

• Do you currently have formal cooperative agreements 

with other law enforcement agencies at the local, state, 

and federal levels in stalking cases?

• Does your agency routinely work with community social 

service agencies on stalking cases?

• Has your community developed a multidisciplinary 

response to stalking?

• What systems are in place to monitor convicted 

stalkers? Are they effective?

• Does your agency routinely check for ways that 

offenders can contact or access information about 

victims while they are incarcerated or when their cases 

are pending?
16 Stalking

• Do you believe the laws in your jurisdiction provide 

adequate legal authority to address stalking?

• What percentage of stalking charges result in 

conviction?

• What types of sentences do stalkers receive when 

convicted? To what extent do they comply with 

sentence terms?

Measuring Your Effectiveness

Measurement allows you to determine to what degree 

your efforts have succeeded, and suggests how you 

might modify your responses if they are not producing 

the intended results. You should take measures of your 

problem before you implement responses, to determine 

how serious the problem is, and after you implement 

them, to determine whether they have been effective. (For 

more detailed guidance on measuring effectiveness, see 

the companion guide to this series, Assessing Responses to 

Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers.) 

The following are potentially useful measures of the 

effectiveness of responses to stalking: 

• increased number of stalking complaints (this may 

indicate that victims are more willing to report it)

• shorter time between the first and last stalking

incidents

• reduced harm suffered by victims

• increased number of stalking cases in which charges are 

filed

• increased conviction rate

• increased number of arrests for violations of protective 

orders

• increased victim satisfaction with police handling of 

their cases

• increased victim perception of safety.
Responses to the Problem of Stalking 17

Responses to the Problem of Stalking

Your analysis of your local problem should give you 

a better understanding of the factors contributing to 

it. Once you have analyzed your local problem and 

established a baseline for measuring effectiveness, you 

should consider possible strategies to address the problem.

The following response strategies provide a foundation 

of ideas for addressing your particular problem. These 

strategies are drawn from a variety of sources, including 

research studies, police surveys, and police reports. 

Several of these strategies may apply to your community's 

problem. It is critical that you tailor responses to local 

circumstances, and that you can justify each response 

based on reliable analysis. You should handle each case 

individually, based on the particular circumstances. 

A thorough threat assessment can be invaluable in 

formulating an appropriate response. In most cases, 

an effective strategy will involve implementing several 

different responses. Law enforcement responses alone 

are seldom effective in reducing or solving the problem. 

Do not limit yourself to considering what police can do: 

give careful consideration to who else in your community 

shares responsibility for the problem and can help police 

better respond to it.

1. Identifying stalking cases early. Because every 

stalking case is potentially lethal, the sooner police identify 

stalking, the greater the chance of protecting the victim 

from physical harm. Stalking behavior commonly escalates 

over time, with stalkers becoming increasingly obsessive 

and more willing to become violent. You can more easily 

identify stalking cases by asking victims if there are 
18 Stalking

other related incidents, reviewing incident reports each 

day, examining protective orders for language suggesting 

repeated behavior, and reviewing the calls for service 

history.

2. Getting effective victim input. You should actively 

engage victims in investigations. They can provide 

ongoing information about the contacts the stalker makes 

in person, through voice mail, in letters, in faxes, in email, 

or through unwanted gifts, and describe the fear they feel 

as a result. Victims' family members, neighbors, employers, 

coworkers, and others are also potentially important 

witnesses. They are often very aware of the stalking 

behavior and can corroborate victims' statements. 

3. Ensuring that victims receive consistent, 

professional support services throughout the criminal 

justice process. Counselors and victim advocates can 

help victims be effective witnesses and take proper steps 

to protect themselves.§ They can maintain frequent 

contact with victims and stress the importance of carefully 

documenting all stalking incidents; help victims create and 

maintain stalking logs, devise safety plans, and develop 

supportive networks; assess victim needs and help victims 

to access housing, health, and mental health services; and 

help victims weigh the advantages and disadvantages of 

civil protection orders. In addition, victim advocates can 

help police develop more effective anti-stalking policies 

and train officers to apply them.

Some stalking victims may have special needs. Such 

victims include those with mental illness, substance abuse 

problems, or disabilities; the elderly; ethnic and religious 

minorities; those with immigration issues; those who are 

illiterate or cannot speak or read English; and those being 

stalked by someone of the same gender.

§ The Domestic Violence Intervention 

Project in Alexandria, Virginia created 

a support group for stalking victims 

to address their particular safety 

concerns and emotional needs. The 

project developed "stalking sacks" to 

help victims build their cases, as well as 

provide for their safety. Sacks include 

stalking logs, notebooks, disposable 

cameras, latex gloves, plastic bags, books 

about stalking, microcassette recorders, 

cell phones, personal alarms, pepper 

spray, and copies of the stalking statute, 

among other items.
Responses to the Problem of Stalking 19

4. Using a collaborative, multidisciplinary approach. 

Stalking victims often require a broad range of services. A 

collaborative approach encourages quicker responses from 

the most appropriate providers.§ Among the community 

resources that may be necessary to address stalking are the 

following: 

• domestic violence shelters

• mental health treatment providers

• housing associations

• schools and colleges

• faith-based programs

• neighborhood watch organizations

• victim advocacy organizations.

The various law enforcement agencies in your area 

should also develop systems for sharing information and 

coordinating responses when stalking occurs in multiple 

jurisdictions. Police should work with major employers 

to make sure they have workplace violence policies and 

protocols in place and offer support to employees who are 

being victimized. Coworkers and supervisors of stalking 

victims should know what to do if stalking behavior 

occurs at work. In addition, telephone and Internet service 

providers should have policies and protocols that protect 

victims' personal information and block stalkers' ability to 

contact victims.

5. Enforcing all relevant laws. Stalking statutes should 

be enforced in conjunction with all other relevant laws. 

Police can rely on laws against domestic violence, phone 

harassment, vandalism, voyeurism, trespass, courtorder violations, and many other crimes to hold stalkers 

accountable and protect victims. Sometimes it is just 

§ The San Diego Stalking Strike 

Force was established in the mid1990s. It comprises police officials, 

prosecutors, judges, victim advocates, 

and mental health professionals. 

It promotes stalking awareness, 

makes training recommendations, 

and develops model protocols for 

stalker treatment programs. Its 

Stalking Case Assessment Team, 

which includes police, prosecutors, 

victim/witness advocates, probation 

officials, and mental health 

professionals, meets regularly to 

address problems reported by the 

police or stalking victims.
20 Stalking

as effective to charge under a non-stalking statute. For 

instance, violations of protection orders often allow 

prosecutors to have supervision conditions imposed on 

offenders until stalking cases are ready for prosecution, 

and to secure convictions. In all cases, all relevant laws 

should be considered. 

6. Assessing the threat the stalker poses. Threat 

assessment is crucial to controlling stalking.30 You 

should assess each case individually. Be alert to offender 

characteristics and behaviors that suggest the stalker may 

become violent.31 Prior sexual intimacy, prior criminal 

convictions, and substance abuse are among the strongest 

predictors of stalker violence.32 Former intimates often 

know their victims' daily routines and schedules, and have 

special access to their victims (e.g., through child custody 

arrangements). Thus they often pose the most significant 

physical risks to victims.§ Other factors to consider 

include explicit threats, symbolic violence, personality 

disorders and the presence or absence of a major mental 

disorder.33 Former intimates who stalk often suffer from 

personality disorders but do not necessarily suffer from 

major mental disorders. The absence of a major mental

disorder can also be an indication that the offender 

is capable of formulating an organized plan. For this 

reason, the mental health of an offender should be 

considered. In addition to helping police prioritize cases 

and devise case strategy, a thorough threat assessment 

can provide valuable information regarding bail issues, 

conditions of release, sentencing, and probation, and 

provide the basis for mental health interventions such as 

involuntary hospitalization. 

§ Former intimates can also harm 

their victims in nonphysical ways. 

For example, knowing victims' bank 

account and social security numbers 

can help them destroy their victims' 

credit through methods such as 

identity theft.
Responses to the Problem of Stalking 21

7. Warning and arresting stalkers. Some stalkers may 

not know their behavior is criminal; others may believe 

their behavior is acceptable due to their relationship with 

the victim. You should firmly inform offenders about 

what behavior constitutes stalking in your state. When 

probable cause exists, you should promptly arrest stalkers. 

(Following arrest, prosecutors should seek bail and 

sentencing conditions requiring supervision of stalkers 

and restricting their contact with victims.)

8. Adopting a graduated-response stalking protocol.

A graduated-response stalking protocol determines 

the appropriate police intervention level based on the 

particular incident and its context in the pattern of 

stalking behavior. It also allocates resources to protect 

victims and control offenders. The following illustrates 

how such a protocol works.§

§ A complete discussion about 

developing an effective stalking 

protocol can be found in a 

companion document prepared by 

the National Center for Victims of 

Crime (2002).
22 Stalking

Level 1

First police awareness

Level 2

Second incident, 

warranting stalking 

charges or indicating an 

escalation in behavior

• Gather information.

• Help the victim develop and 

implement a safety plan.

• Help the victim obtain a 

protective order.

• Refer the victim to support 

services.

• Increase the victim's 

personal and home security 

by providing him or 

her with a cell phone, a 

personal alarm, or video 

surveillance.

• If the victim consents, 

consider enlisting the aid of 

family members, neighbors, 

coworkers, and community 

watch associations.

• Continue using victim 

advocates to update 

the safety plan when 

appropriate, as well as 

explore safe locations for 

the victim should he or she 

need temporary housing.

• Deliver the first official warning 

to the offender, explaining the law 

and policy.

• Check whether the offender has 

prior arrests and convictions.

• Arrest the offender if probable 

cause exists.

• If applicable, contact the 

offender's probation or parole 

officer and enlist his or her help.

• Refer the offender to counseling 

or other services that may control 

his or her behavior.

• Conduct a threat assessment 

(referring to the next level, if 

appropriate).

• Arrest the offender under 

the stalking statute or other 

appropriate statutes.

• Revise the threat assessment, and 

use it to oppose or influence bail.

• Increase offender monitoring.

• Begin surveillance of the offender.

• Use technology to identify the 

offender's locations and actions.

• Consider other interventions such 

as psychiatric evaluation and/or 

civil commitment of the offender.

Intervention Level Actions to Protect Victims Actions to Control Offenders
Responses to the Problem of Stalking 23

Level 3

Subsequent incidents

Level 4

Emergency intervention

• Increase security and safety 

systems to the highest level. 

Continue helping the victim 

update the safety plan. 

Refer the victim to a "safe 

house" or other shelter 

unknown to the offender. 

• Formulate a plan with the 

victim for responding to an 

emergency situation. 

• Implement the emergency 

response plan.

• Use all available means to 

secure the victim's safety, 

including emergency 

response teams, if 

necessary.

• Document the reasons for 

implementing this response.

• Increase prosecution and 

surveillance efforts. Monitor 

the offender's activity whenever 

possible.

• Arrest the offender or deter 

him or her in any way possible, 

including civil commitment.

• Continue reevaluating and revising 

the threat assessment.

• Plan for a possible emergency, 

such as violence at the victim's 

workplace, home, or school; 

violence toward anyone perceived 

as blocking the offender's access 

to the victim; and other scenarios, 

such as a possible homicide/

suicide or hostage-taking/

barricade.

• Implement the emergency 

response plan.

• Use all available means to 

eliminate the threat to the victim, 

the public, and those responding 

to the situation.

• Document the reasons for 

implementing this response.

Intervention Level Actions to Protect Victims Actions to Control Offenders
24 Stalking

Although the protocol specifies interventions based on 

the number of incidents, it also allows for more intensive 

interventions, depending on the severity of the case. For 

example, a case involving a violent attack by a stalker may 

be assigned a Level 3 response, even if the assault is the 

first incident. 

9. Monitoring stalkers and gathering evidence.

Surveilling stalkers enables police to gather direct 

evidence of stalking behavior, and provides corroboration 

for victim accounts of similar incidents. Electronic 

monitoring helps ensure that the offender physically stays 

away from the victim while on bail or other conditional 

release.

10. Providing victims with a single point of contact.

To the extent possible, stalking victims should be assigned 

a single point of contact in the police department (and 

a single point of contact in the prosecutor's office, if 

criminal charges are filed), to ensure that the case file 

contains all relevant information and the victim receives 

consistent advice. In addition, all police officers should be 

trained in stalking investigation and response so they can 

properly assist victims should the single point of contact 

be unavailable.
Appendix 25

Appendix: Summary of Responses to 

Stalking

The table below summarizes the responses to stalking, 

the mechanism by which they are intended to work, the 

conditions under which they ought to work best, and 

some factors you should consider before implementing a 

particular response. It is critical that you tailor responses 

to local circumstances, and that you can justify each 

response based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an 

effective strategy will involve implementing several 

different responses. Law enforcement responses alone are 

seldom effective in reducing or solving the problem.

1.

2.

17

18

Identifying 

stalking cases 

early

Getting effective 

victim input 

Allows the 

system to 

address stalking 

before cases 

escalate

Provides 

police with the 

information 

necessary to 

apprehend, build 

prosecutable 

cases against, 

and deter 

stalkers

...the police 

department 

implements a 

clear stalking 

protocol and 

trains all officers 

in the screening 

of stalking cases

...victims trust 

police

Requires the 

department to 

identify and track 

repeat crimes

Police should 

also solicit input 

from the victim's 

family members, 

neighbors, 

employer, 

coworkers, and 

others

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations
26 Stalking

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

18

19

19

20

21

Ensuring that 

victims receive 

consistent, 

professional 

support services 

throughout the 

criminal justice 

process

Using a 

collaborative, 

multidisciplinary 

approach

Enforcing all 

relevant laws

Assessing the 

threat the stalker 

poses

Warning and 

arresting stalkers

Victims create 

safety plans and 

receive support 

from advocates, 

thereby ensuring 

victim safety and 

support while 

saving the police 

department's 

manpower 

resources

Gathers service 

providers and 

community 

resources to 

coordinate a 

wide-ranging 

response; 

ensures that the 

victim's personal 

information 

and privacy are 

protected

Deters and/or 

incapacitates the 

stalker 

Identifies the 

stalking motives 

and threat levels, 

and enables the 

development 

of an effective 

response for the 

particular victim

Deters and/or 

incapacitates 

stalkers

...the 

department 

encourages the 

use of advocates 

and officers are 

trained to use 

them in stalking 

cases

...all applicable 

service providers 

and stakeholders 

are included in 

the problemsolving effort 

...police 

recognize the 

stalking pattern 

early on

...police gather 

sufficient reliable 

information on 

which to assess 

the threat

...stalkers 

are genuinely 

unaware that 

their conduct is 

illegal and/or 

threatening, and 

police recognize 

the threat 

stalkers pose

Requires the 

availability of 

advocates trained 

and experienced in 

safety planning

Requires that 

all involved 

develop working 

relationships 

and coordinate 

together

Requires 

cooperation from 

prosecutors

Requires the 

commitment 

of investigative 

resources to 

properly assess 

threats in 

individual cases

Requires 

cooperation from 

prosecutors

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations
Appendix 27

8.

9.

10.

21

24

24

Adopting a 

graduatedresponse stalking 

protocol

Monitoring 

stalkers and 

gathering 

evidence

Providing 

victims with a 

single point of 

contact

Tailors the 

official response 

to the threat 

each stalking 

incident 

poses, thereby 

increasing the 

likelihood of 

effectiveness 

while conserving 

scarce resources

Improves the 

development of 

criminal cases 

against stalkers

Enhances the 

quantity and 

quality of the 

information 

victims provide 

to police; 

enhances 

victims' 

confidence 

in police and 

willingness 

to assist with 

prosecutions

...there are 

adequate 

resources 

available to 

respond to 

stalking, and 

sufficient 

information 

in each case 

to tailor the 

appropriate 

response

...the police 

department 

prioritizes 

stalking cases 

to make 

officers and 

other resources 

available

...the contact 

is provided 

with all relevant 

information to 

assist victims

Protocol should be 

sufficiently flexible 

to adapt to the 

circumstances of 

each case

Surveillance of 

suspects can be 

labor-intensive

All police officers 

should receive 

basic training in 

stalking

Response 

No.

Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If... Considerations

Endnotes 29

Endnotes

1 Adapted from National Criminal Justice Association (1993). 

2

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

3

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

4

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

5

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

6

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

7

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

8

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

9

 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

10 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

11 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

12 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

13 Brewster (2003).

14 Bureau of Justice Statistics (2001).

15 Meloy (1998).

16 McFarlane et al. (1999).

17 McFarlane et al. (1999).

18 Tjaden and Thoennes (2000).

19 Tjaden and Thoennes (2000).

20 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

21 Meloy (1998).

22 Wright et al. (1996).

23 Meloy (2002).

24 Meloy (1998).

25 Mullen, Pathe, and Purcell (2000b). 

26 Tjaden and Thoennes (1998).

27 Mullen, Pathe, and Purcell (2000b). 

28 U.S. Department of Justice (2001).

29 U.S. Department of Justice (2001).

30 Fein, Vossekuil, and Holden (1995).

31 Meloy (2002).

32 Meloy (2002).

33 Meloy (2002).

References 31

References

Brewster, M. (2003). "Power and Control Dynamics in 

Prestalking and Stalking Situations." Journal of Family 

Violence 18(4): 207-217.

Bureau of Justice Statistics (2001). Homicide Trends in the 

U.S., Intimate Partner Homicide. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

Fein, R., B. Vossekuil, and G. Holden (1995). Threat 

Assessment: An Approach to Prevent Targeted Violence. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 

National Institute of Justice.

McFarlane, J., Campbell, J., Wilt, S., Sachs, C., Ulrich, 

Y., Xu, X.. (1999). "Stalking and Intimate Partner 

Femicide." Homicide Studies 3(4):300-316.

Meloy, J. (2002). "Stalking and Violence." In J. Boon and 

L. Sheridan (eds.), Stalking and Psychosexual Obsession: 

Psychological Perspectives for Prevention, Policing, and 

Treatment. West Sussex (United Kingdom): John Wiley 

& Sons, Ltd.

 (1998). The Psychology of Stalking: Clinical and 

Forensic Perspectives. New York: Academic Press.

Mullen, P., M. Pathe, and R. Purcell (2000a). "SameGender Stalking." Journal of the American Academy of 

Psychiatry and the Law 28(2):191-197.

 (2000b). Stalkers and Their Victims. New York: 

Cambridge University Press.
32 Stalking

National Center for Victims of Crime (2002). Creating an 

Effective Stalking Protocol. Washington, D.C.: 

U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services. Accessible at http://www.

cops.usdoj.gov/Default.asp?Open=True&Item=808.

National Criminal Justice Association (1993). Project 

to Develop a Model Anti-Stalking Code for States. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 

National Institute of Justice.

Tjaden, P., and N. Thoennes (2000). "Stalking in America: 

Prevalence, Characteristics, and Police Response." In 

C. Brito and E. Gratto (eds.), Problem-Oriented Policing: 

Crime-Specific Problems, Critical Issues, and Making POP 

Work. Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research 

Forum.

 (1998). Stalking in America: Findings From the 

National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, 

D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute 

of Justice, and Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention.

U.S. Department of Justice (2001). Stalking and Domestic 

Violence: Report to Congress. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 

Department of Justice.

Wright, J., Burgess, A., Burgess, A., Laszlo, A., McCrary, 

G., and Douglas, J. (1996). "A Typology of 

Interpersonal Stalking." Journal of Interpersonal Violence

11(4): 487-502.
About the Author 33

About the Author

This guide was developed by the Stalking Resource Center 

of the National Center for Victims of Crime. The Stalking 

Resource Center's mission is to raise public awareness about 

stalking, and to encourage local multidisciplinary responses. 

The Stalking Resource Center is funded by the Office on 

Violence Against Women, U.S. Department of Justice. The 

primary authors of this guide are Susan Herman, executive 

director of the National Center for Victims of Crime, and 

Matthew Markon, program attorney for the Stalking Resource 

Center and former Montgomery County, Maryland, police 

officer. Tracy Bahm, director of the Stalking Resource Center, 

and Michael Kaiser, director of programs, also contributed 

to this effort. As indicated in the acknowledgments, this 

project grew out of a previous project funded by the U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, to create a model stalking protocol. Joseph 

Ryan, Trudy Gregorie, David Anderson and all others 

involved in the previous project are owed a huge debt of 

gratitude for their outstanding contributions. 

Recommended Readings 35

Recommended Readings

• A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their 

Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This 

guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners 

to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying 

public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It 

provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An 

Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers,

by John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide 

is a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. 

It provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing 

problem-oriented policing efforts.

• Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel 

(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with 

accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic 

pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The 

document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.

• Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke 

(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of 

volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing 

opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of 

initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
36 Stalking

• Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing: The 

1999 Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This 

document produced by the National Institute of Justice 

in collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum 

provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the 

annual award program that recognizes exemplary problemoriented responses to various community problems. A 

similar publication is available for the award winners from 

subsequent years. The documents are also available at www.

ojp.usdoj.gov/nij.

• Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime 

Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office 

Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and 

describes the factors that make problem-solving effective 

or ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in 

England and Wales.

• Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory 

for Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V. 

Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98, 

1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity 

theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory 

have practical implications for the police in their efforts to 

prevent crime.

• Problem Analysis in Policing, by Rachel Boba (Police 

Foundation, 2003). Introduces and defines problem 

analysis and provides guidance on how problem analysis 

can be integrated and institutionalized into modern 

policing practices.
Recommended Readings 37

• Problem-Oriented Policing, by Herman Goldstein 

(McGraw-Hill, 1990, and Temple University Press, 1990). 

Explains the principles and methods of problem-oriented 

policing, provides examples of it in practice, and discusses 

how a police agency can implement the concept.

• Problem-Oriented Policing and Crime Prevention, 

by Anthony A. Braga (Criminal Justice Press, 2003). 

Provides a thorough review of significant policing research 

about problem places, high-activity offenders, and repeat 

victims, with a focus on the applicability of those findings 

to problem-oriented policing. Explains how police 

departments can facilitate problem-oriented policing by 

improving crime analysis, measuring performance, and 

securing productive partnerships.

• Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the 

First 20 Years, by Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of 

Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 

2000). Describes how the most critical elements of 

Herman Goldstein's problem-oriented policing model have 

developed in practice over its 20-year history, and proposes 

future directions for problem-oriented policing. The report 

is also available at www.cops.usdoj.gov.

• Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in 

Newport News, by John E. Eck and William Spelman 

(Police Executive Research Forum, 1987). Explains the 

rationale behind problem-oriented policing and the 

problem-solving process, and provides examples of 

effective problem-solving in one agency.
38 Stalking

• Problem-Solving Tips: A Guide to Reducing 

Crime and Disorder Through Problem-Solving 

Partnerships by Karin Schmerler, Matt Perkins, Scott 

Phillips, Tammy Rinehart and Meg Townsend. (U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, 1998) (also available at www.cops.usdoj.

gov). Provides a brief introduction to problem-solving, 

basic information on the SARA model and detailed 

suggestions about the problem-solving process.

• Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case 

Studies, Second Edition, edited by Ronald V. Clarke 

(Harrow and Heston, 1997). Explains the principles and 

methods of situational crime prevention, and presents over 

20 case studies of effective crime prevention initiatives.

• Tackling Crime and Other Public-Safety Problems: 

Case Studies in Problem-Solving, by Rana Sampson 

and Michael S. Scott (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2000) (also available 

at www.cops.usdoj.gov). Presents case studies of effective 

police problem-solving on 18 types of crime and disorder 

problems.

• Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guidebook 

for Law Enforcement, by Timothy S. Bynum (U.S. 

Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, 2001). Provides an introduction for 

police to analyzing problems within the context of 

problem-oriented policing.

• Using Research: A Primer for Law Enforcement 

Managers, Second Edition, by John E. Eck and Nancy G. 

LaVigne (Police Executive Research Forum, 1994). Explains 

many of the basics of research as it applies to police 

management and problem-solving.
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 39

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police

Problem-Specific Guides series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

ISBN: 1-932582-00-2

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-01-0

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-02-9

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes. 

Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-03-7

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-04-5

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-05-3

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-06-1

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-07-X

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-08-8

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V. 

Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-09-6

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-10-X

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-11-8

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-12-6

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-13-4

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-14-2

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-15-0

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-16-9

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 

2002. ISBN: 1-932582-17-7

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-18-5
40 Stalking

20. Financial Crimes Against the Elderly.

Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-22-3

21. Check and Card Fraud. Graeme R. Newman. 2003. 

ISBN: 1-932582-27-4

22. Stalking. The National Center for Victims of Crime. 2004.

ISBN: 1-932582-30-4

23. Gun Violence Among Serious Young Offenders. Anthony A. 

Braga. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-31-2

24. Prescription Fraud. Julie Wartell and Nancy G. La Vigne. 2004.

ISBN: 1-932582-33-9

25. Identity Theft. Graeme R. Newman. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-35-3

26. Crimes Against Tourists. Ronald W. Glesnor and Kenneth J. Peak. 

2004 ISBN: 1-932582-36-3

27. Underage Drinking. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-39-8

28. Street Racing. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-42-8

29. Cruising. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-43-6

30. Disorder at Budget Motels. Karin Schmerler. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

31. Drug Dealing in Open-Air Markets. Alex Harocopos and Mike 

Hough. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-45-2

32. Bomb Threats in Schools. Graeme R. Newman. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-46-0

33. Illicit Sexual Activity in Public Places. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-47-9

34. Robbery of Taxi Drivers. Martha J. Smith. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-50-9

35. School Vandalism and Break-Ins. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-9325802-51-7

36. Drunk Driving. Michael S. Scott, Nina J. Emerson, Louis B. 

Antonacci, and Joel B. Plant. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6

37. Juvenile Runaways. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1932582-56-8
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 41

38. The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. Graeme R. 

Newman. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-59-2

39. Student Party Riots. Tamara D. Madensen and John 

E. Eck. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6

Response Guides series:

• The Benefits and Consequences of Police 

Crackdowns. Michael S. Scott. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-24-X

• Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime: Should 

You Go Down This Road? Ronald V. Clarke. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

• Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety 

Problems. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-55-X

• Video Surveillance of Public Places. Jerry Ratcliffe. 

2006. ISBN: 1-932582-58-4

Problem-Solving Tools series: 

• Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory 

Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-19-3

• Researching a Problem. Ronald V. Clarke and Phyllis A. 

Schultz. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-48-7

• Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police Problem 

Solving. Scott H. Decker. 2005. ISBN: 1932582-49-5

• Analyzing Repeat Victimization. Deborah Lamm 

Weisel. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-54-1
42 Stalking

Upcoming Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides

Domestic Violence

Mentally Ill Persons

Bank Robbery

Witness Intimidation

Drive-by Shootings

Problem with Day Laborer Sites

Child Pornography on the Internet

Crowd Control at Stadiums and Other Entertainment Venues

Traffic Congestion Around Schools

Theft from Construction Sites of Single Family Houses

Robbery of Convenience Stores

Theft from Cars on Streets

Problem-Solving Tools

Partnering with Business to Address Public Safety Problems

Risky Facilities

Implementing Responses to Problems

Designing a Problem Analysis System

Response Guides

Crime Prevention Publicity Campaigns

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for 

Police series and other COPS Office publications, please call 

the COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770 or visit 

COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov. 

For More Information:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20530

To obtain details on COPS programs, call the

COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit COPS Online at the address listed below.

e12032163 Updated Date: February 23, 2006

ISBN: 1-932582-30-4

www.cops.usdoj.gov