Focus of analysis: the eight highrate sites

The 1995 DUF data were analyzed to determine the extent of methamphetamine

use among adult male and female

arrestees. (See “Testing for Methamphetamine Use” for a discussion of how evidence of methamphetamine use is detected

in urine specimens collected in the DUF

program.) Overall, approximately 6 percent

of all adult arrestees from the 23 DUF sites

tested positive for methamphetamine, 41

percent for cocaine, 28 percent for marijuana, 8 percent for opiates, and about 2

percent for PCP.

While overall the prevalence of methamphetamine use is modest, there is considerable variation from site to site. Eight sites

(San Diego, Phoenix, San Jose, Portland,

Omaha, Los Angeles, Denver, and Dallas)

reported significant rates of methamphetamine use among arrestees in 1995. (See

exhibit 1.) Their geographic distribution is

shown in exhibit 2. Other sites reported

rates among arrestees at or near zero.

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

OFF ICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS

BJA NI J OJJDP BJS OVC

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

National Institute of Justice

Jeremy Travis, Director November 1996

Methamphetamine Use Among Adult

Arrestees: Findings From the Drug Use

Forecasting (DUF) Program

by Thomas E. Feucht, Ph.D., and Gabrielle M. Kyle

Issues and Findings

Discussed in this Brief: Trends in

methamphetamine use, based on

data from the Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) program of the National

Institute of Justice (NIJ). In the DUF

program, arrestees in 23 major cities across the country are tested on

a regular basis for evidence of recent use of several drugs, including

methamphetamine.

Key Issues: DUF data have demonstrated that more than half of all

adults arrested and booked in the

23 sites for serious crimes tested

positive for use of drugs. In the

past few years, methamphetamine

appears to have become a significant presence in many communities across the country, though its

prevalence seems highest in the

West and Southwest. DUF data

were obtained from EMITTM and

gas chromatography urinalysis

techniques and examined for

trends in methamphetamine use

among adult arrestees.

Key Findings: Highest rates of

methamphetamine use were found

among arrestees in far Western and

Southwestern cities, though the

data suggest some expansion into

the Midwest. White arrestees are

much more likely than black or Hispanic arrestees to test positive for

methamphetamine; female arrestees

are more likely than male arrestees

to test positive.

Target Audience: Drug enforcement and drug treatment practitioners; individuals responsible for

coordinating drug policy at the local and national level.

The apparent increase in the production,

distribution, and use of methamphetamine

is a matter of growing concern. A powerful

central nervous system (CNS) stimulant,

the drug is relatively easy to manufacture,

and the required precursor drugs1 (such as

ephedrine or pseudoephedrine), widely

available in Mexico, are believed to be

smuggled into the United States in substantial quantities. The process of producing methamphetamine results in a host of

toxic and corrosive substances. For this

reason, seizing clandestine methamphetamine laboratories poses grave risks to law

enforcement personnel.

Historically, methamphetamine production

and distribution have been associated with

motorcycle gangs. Recently, Mexican drug

gangs have increased their share of the

U.S. wholesale methamphetamine market.

This is consistent with most reports that

place the bulk of increased methamphetamine use in the Southwest. Concern continues to grow, however, that the increased

number of seizures of clandestine operations and methamphetamine-related fatalities in other parts of the country might

signal an impending methamphetamine

pandemic.

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice
2

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Details of the analysis

● Methamphetamine rates are

highest in western and southwestern DUF sites.

Methamphetamine appears prominently

in drug use patterns at the eight sites. Its

use rivals or surpasses that of cocaine,

marijuana, and opiates at some of these

sites, particularly San Diego, Phoenix,

and San Jose. (See exhibit 3.)

● Rates are typically higher among

female arrestees.

Among arrestees age 21 to 35—the age

groups with the highest use rates—females

are more likely than males to test positive

for methamphetamine. The peak age of use

among adult male arrestees is 26 to 30;

among adult female arrestees, it is 21 to

25. (See exhibit 4 for rates of methamphetamine use by age and gender.)

Analysis by gender and charge at arrest

shows higher rates of methamphetamine

use among female arrestees in each offense category. (See exhibit 5.) Among

females arrested for violent offenses, 11

percent tested positive for methamphetamine compared to 10 percent among

male arrestees. Similarly, among people

arrested for drug offenses or “other” offenses (a category that includes all property offenses), females were more likely

than males to test positive for methamphetamine. (The number of male prostitution arrestees is too small to make

statistical comparisons.)

● Use among white arrestees

far exceeds that among black

or Hispanic arrestees.

In the eight sites with the highest methamphetamine rates, white arrestees were

much more likely than others to test

positive for methamphetamine use: 26

percent of white male arrestees and 28

percent of white female arrestees tested

Exhibit 1: Methamphetamine Use in DUF Sites, 1995

MalesMiami


Cleveland


New Orleans


Chicago


Washington, D.C.


Ft. Lauderdale


Detroit


Manhattan


Birmingham


Houston


St. Louis


Indianapolis


Atlanta


Philadelphia


San Antonio


Dallas


Denver


Los Angeles


Omaha


San Jose


Portland


Phoenix


San Diego

0 10 20 30 40

0


0


0.1


0.1


0.1


0


0


0.1


0.1


0.4


0.5


0.5


0.5


0.6

1.5


3.8

2.7


8.1

7.5


18.5

18.7

21.9

37.1

DUF Cities

Percent Positive

A Testing for Methamphetamine Use

lthough the term “amphetamine” designates the specific substance phenylisopropylamine, it

commonly refers to a class of related

central nervous system (CNS) stimulants, including dextroamphetamine

and methamphetamine. While they

were once frequently prescribed as a

general stimulant and appetite suppressant, amphetamines were

placed among Schedule II drugs in

1971. (Schedule II drugs are those

that have some medical uses but

also present significant potential for

abuse.)

EMITTM, an immunoassay screening

test, cannot reliably distinguish amphetamines from several over-thecounter medications—particularly some

antihistamines—because of similarities

in their chemical structures. Consequently, all DUF specimens identified by

EMITTM as presumptive positive for amphetamines are further analyzed by gas

chromatography. This confirmatory procedure identifies with a high degree of

accuracy the specific CNS stimulant

used. The data reported here are based

on gas chromatography results.

High rates of methamphetamine use (as

opposed to use of other amphetamines)

among arrestees are no doubt due in

part to the relative ease with which this

particular amphetamine can be illegally

manufactured.
3

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

positive for the drug, compared to 3

percent among both black male and

black female arrestees. Eleven percent

of Hispanic male arrestees and 15 percent of Hispanic female arrestees

tested positive. (See exhibit 6.)

● Few arrestees test positive

for both methamphetamine

and cocaine.

DUF data have consistently demonstrated high rates of cocaine use by

arrestees. (Cocaine, another CNS

stimulant, is commonly used in a

smokable form known as crack cocaine but can also be injected or taken

intranasally. Urinalysis cannot distinguish among these routes of administration, however.) At the eight sites, 33

percent of adult arrestees tested positive for cocaine, and 15 percent tested

positive for methamphetamine. (See

exhibit 7.) Comparison of urinalysis

results for the two drugs shows only a

small proportion of arrestees (2 percent) test positive for both.

● Five-year trend data indicate

increasing use of methamphetamine.

Trend data from 1991 through 1995 in

the eight cities show an overall increase in methamphetamine use

among arrestees. (See exhibit 8.)

While San Diego and Phoenix continue to report the highest rates, these

two cities showed a slight moderation

from 1994 to 1995. At the same time,

Omaha reported a sharp increase in

the percentage of arrestees who tested

positive for methamphetamine (from 3

percent in 1994 to 8 percent in 1995).

Discussion

The DUF data offer several key insights into methamphetamine use, at

least as it is manifested among people

entering criminal justice supervision

(i.e., arrestees). First, in this population, methamphetamine use remains

largely a regional phenomenon, though

the most recent data suggest that sites

like Denver, Omaha, and St. Louis

could experience significant increases

in use if current trends continue.

Some observers caution that since

DUF data do not tap into the wide

range of potential users outside the

criminal justice system, the apparent

regional pattern of methamphetamine

use may not accurately reflect use of

this drug in the general population.

The degree to which these data can be

Exhibit 2: DUF Sites Where Methamphetamine Use Was Highest in 1995

In 1995 eight sites had significant levels of methamphetamine 

positives

Portland, OR

 18.7%

San Jose, CA 

18.5%

Los Angeles, CA 

7.5%

San Diego, CA 

37.1%

Dallas, TX

 2.7%

Denver, CO

 3.8%

Omaha, NE

 8.1%

Phoenix, AZ 

21.9%

Note: Data on exhibits 2 through 8 are for these eight sites only.
4

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Exhibit 3: Drug Positives Among Arrestees at DUF Sites, 1995

San Diego

Phoenix

San Jose

Portland

Los Angeles

0

10

20

30

40

50

Omaha

Denver

Dallas

Percent Positive

Methamphetamine Cocaine Marijuana Opiates

Exhibit 4: Methamphetamine Use by Age and Gender, 1995

generalized to other, noncriminal justice populations is limited. Nevertheless, it is not clear why arrestees in

western sites should evidence very

high rates compared to those in eastern sites if there were no significant

regional trend in distribution and use

of the drug. Clearly, DUF data suggest

a leading edge of methamphetamine

use in western and southwestern cities;

data recently received from Denver

and Omaha indicate that use may be

expanding to the Midwest.

Second, methamphetamine use among

arrestees is largely confined to white

(and to a lesser degree, Hispanic)

arrestees. This pattern contrasts

sharply with that of cocaine, in which

rates among black arrestees are often

twice those among white arrestees.

Third, female arrestees test positive for

methamphetamine at rates higher than

those for male arrestees. It is unclear

whether this finding is a function of

law enforcement practices that target

males and females differently, slower

metabolization of the drug by women

(and thus an increased likelihood of

testing positive hours after arriving at

the lockup), differential effects of dosage by virtue of body size, or simply

more widespread use by women.

Ways to approach the problem

Some law enforcement and drug treatment experts assert that methamphetamine use is not limited to urban drug

users and is widely available in many

smaller, rural communities. This belief

is consistent with intelligence reports

that frequently have found remote

rural locations to be sites for the

manufacture and distribution of methamphetamine. Since the DUF program

is in central-city areas only, the data

cannot be used to test these assertions.

NIJ is exploring the possibility of

0

5

10

15

20

25

Males Females

Percent Positive

 16–20 21–25 26–30 31–35 36–40 41–45 46–50 51–55 56–60

8.5 8.8

12.9

21.3

18.3 19.1

17.3

20.4

15.4

13.9

12.0

11.1

12.9

15.1

4.8

7.5

1.8

12.5
5

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Exhibit 6: Methamphetamine Use by Race, 1995

Exhibit 5: Methamphetamine Use by Top Charge Classification, 1995

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

9.9 11.2

21.6

4.1

12.9

15.9

Violent Offenses Drug Offenses Prostitution * Other Offenses **

28.1

Males Females

Percent Positive

* Number of male prostitutes too small to make statistical comparisons.

** All property crimes are included in the "Other" category.

Males Females

Percent Positive

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

 Black WhiteHispanic Other

3.1

25.8

3.1

27.9

11

14.8

10.8 10.5

expanding DUF coverage to arrestees

in rural and suburban communities.

Unquestionably, this would provide

more accurate empirical evidence of

the use of methamphetamine and other

drugs in communities throughout the

country.

A heads-up for law enforcement.

Given the sharp rise in methamphetamine rates at the Omaha DUF site, the

potential for increased use throughout

the Midwest (and, ultimately, other areas of the country) cannot be ignored.

Law enforcement agencies should remain alert to the potential for increased

availability and use of methamphetamine, and treatment providers should

have at hand strategies that anticipate a

significant increase in methamphetamine referrals, especially from the

criminal justice system. (See “Some

Street Names for Methamphetamine.”)

Pilot programs. A useful approach to

developing such a strategy might be to

create a demonstration program for

methamphetamine-involved offenders

in one or more jurisdictions that have

significant numbers of methamphetamine users. NIJ has begun to explore

the feasibility of a demonstration

project that would test drug treatment

protocols designed specifically for

people in the criminal justice system

who are involved with methamphetamine. Drawing on the expertise of

drug treatment professionals, NIJ hopes

to facilitate the advancement of treatment

approaches that can meet the challenge

posed by methamphetamine and that

could be integrated into the criminal

justice system as it confronts the continuing challenges of drugs and crime.
6

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

● Crank*

● Crypto

● Crystal*

● Crystal meth

● Meth

● Quill

● Speed*

● Tweek (a methamphetamine-like

substance)

● White cross*

● Yellow bam

Some smokable forms

● Cristy

● Hanyak

● Ice

● L.A. glass

● Quartz

* Amphetamine or methamphetamine

ome Street Names for

Methamphetamine S 2

Exhibit 8: Methamphetamine Trends, 1991–1995

Exhibit 7: Percentage of Arrestees Testing Positive for Cocaine/Crack and/or

Methamphetamine, 1995

2.45% positive for both drugs

cocaine/crack

users 32.5%

methamphetamine 

users 14.7%

% 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

10

40

20

30

0

Males

Portland San Diego Phoenix Los Angeles

Dallas Omaha San Jose Denver

General trend in all 8 sites
7

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Notes

1. A precursor drug is one that is necessary in the manufacture of another.

Precursor drugs are usually legal but

controlled substances.

2. For a more complete list of street

names for methamphetamine and other

drugs, see Street Terms: Drugs and the

Drug Trade, Drugs & Crime Data, Office of National Drug Control Policy,

Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse, February 1995. (NCJ 151622). Copies can

be obtained from the Clearinghouse by

calling 800–666–3332.

About NIJ’s Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) Program

The DUF program is a measurement system established in 1987

by NIJ to test booked arrestees

for illicit drug use. On a quarterly basis, through anonymous,

voluntary interviews and urinalysis, data are collected from adult

and juvenile booked arrestees in

central lockups in 23 cities

across the country. Urinalysis

can reveal evidence of recent use

of any of 10 illicit substances, including opiates, cocaine, methamphetamine, and marijuana.

Response rates are consistently

high: more than 90 percent of

arrestees agree to the interview,

and over 80 percent of these

agree to provide a urine specimen. The resultant data are analyzed to furnish estimates of

recent drug use in this high-risk

subgroup.

DUF data play a key role in

helping policymakers, law enforcement professionals, and citizens better understand the

Nation’s drug problem. The findings are published in the DUF

annual report. The most recent

annual report is 1995 Drug Use

Forecasting: Annual Report on

Adult and Juvenile Arrestees,

Research Report, U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, June 1996. (NCJ

161721).

The data collected in the DUF

program are archived at the Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research,

University of Michigan, and are

available for use by qualified researchers. Information may be

obtained from the ICPSR by calling 800–999–0690 or 313–763–

5011.

Recent NIJ Publications on

Drug Abuse and Crime

Listed below are some recent NIJ publications related to issues of illicit drug

use. These publications are free, except as indicated, and can be obtained

from the National Criminal Justice

Reference Service (NCJRS): telephone

800–851–3420, e-mail

askncjrs@ncjrs.org, or write NCJRS,

Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–

6000.

These documents also can be downloaded through the NCJRS Bulletin

Board System or at the NCJRS Anonymous FTP site in ASCII or graphic formats. They can be viewed online at the

Justice Information Center World

Wide Web site. Call NCJRS for more

information.

Please do note that when free printed

publications are out of stock, they are

available as photocopies or through interlibrary loan.

1995 Drug Use Forecasting: Annual

Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees,

NIJ Research Report, 1996, NCJ

161721.

Blumstein, Alfred, Ph.D., Youth Violence, Guns, and Illicit Drug Markets,

VHS videotape, 1995, NCJ 152235,

U.S. $19, Canada and other foreign

countries $24. Also a brief summary is

available at no cost. Ask for

FS000129.

Case Management with Drug-Involved

Arrestees, NIJ Research Preview, 1996,

FS000098.

Chaiken, Marcia R., The Rise of Crack

and Ice: Experiences in Three Locales,

NIJ Research in Brief, 1993, NCJ

139559.

NCJ 161842

The National Institute of Justice is a

component of the Office of Justice

Programs, which also includes the Bureau

of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice

Statistics, Office of Juvenile Justice and

Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for

Victims of Crime.

Points of view in this document do not necessarily

represent the official position or policies of the U.S.

Department of Justice.

Thomas E. Feucht, Ph.D., is Director of the NIJ Drug Use Forecasting

program. Gabrielle M. Kyle is a

social science analyst at NIJ. Data

analysis was conducted as part of

NIJ’s Intramural Research Program.
8

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice

Washington, D.C. 20531

____________________________

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

BULK RATE

POSTAGE & FEES PAID

DOJ/NIJ

Permit No. G–91

Finn, Peter, The Manhattan District

Attorney’s Narcotics Eviction Program,

NIJ Program Focus, 1995, NCJ

153146.

Harrell, Adele, William Adams, and

Caterina Gouvis, Impact of Systemwide

Drug Testing in Multnomah County,

NIJ Update, 1995, FS000083.

Inciardi, James A., Ph.D., A Corrections-Based Continuum of Effective

Drug Abuse Treatment, VHS videotape, 1995, NCJ 152692, U.S. $19,

Canada and other foreign countries

$24. Also a brief summary is available

at no cost. Ask for FS000145.

Ireland, Timothy, and Cathy Spatz

Widom, Childhood Victimization and

Risk for Alcohol and Drug Arrests, NIJ

Research Preview, 1995, FS000108.

Lipton, Douglas L., The Effectiveness

of Treatment for Drug Abusers under

Criminal Justice Supervision, NIJ Research Report, 1995, NCJ 157642.

Tunis, Sandra, et al., Evaluation of

Drug Treatment in Local Corrections,

Research Report, 1996, NCJ 159313.

Correction Notice

In the 1995 Drug Use Forecasting

Annual Report on Adult and

Juvenile Arrestees, published by

the National Institute of Justice in

June 1996, the data on the front and

back covers represent combined

adult and juvenile arrestees’ methamphetamine use. Accordingly, the

same data presented in figure 1 of

the DUF Annual Report (page 12)

also represent combined adult and

juvenile arrestee use. The data in

figures 2 and 3 (page 13), also illustrating arrestee methamphetamine

use, reflect adults only.