Expeditionary Culture

Field Guide
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information 

contained within will help you 

understand the cultural 

dimension of your assigned 

location and gain skills 

necessary for success. 

The guide consists of 2 

parts: 

Part 1 introduces “Culture 

General,” the foundational knowledge you need to operate

effectively in any global environment, particularly the Middle 

East. 

Part 2 presents “Culture Specific” Afghanistan, focusing on 

unique cultural features of 

Afghanistan society and is 

designed to complement other 

pre-deployment training. It 

applies culture-general concepts

to help increase your knowledge 

of your assigned deployment 

location. 

For additional information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) 

website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC’s Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil. 

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed written 

permission of the Department Culture Team. All photography 

is provided as a courtesy of the US government, Wikimedia, 

and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Afghanistan
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a 

culture share a general set 

of beliefs and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story – 

represents another thing. For example, the American flag is a 

physical and visual symbol of a core American value – 

freedom. At the same time, the story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the importance Americans place on 

personal honesty and leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

traditions. 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as 

political or educational 

institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is 

appropriate to our 

culture and encourages 

us to perpetuate that 

culture into the future. 

We can organize these 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what the Air Force refers to as “cultural 

domains” – in order to better understand the primary values 

and characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally competent 

military member can use these domains – which include 

kinship, language and communication, and social and political 

systems among others (see chart on next page) – as tools for 

understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the ways different cultures define family or 

kinship, a deployed military member can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture. 

Social Behaviors Across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

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unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 cultural 

domains to help us compare similarities and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

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Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

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CULTURE 
judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation 

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the Middle East, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common among most 

African countries. What follows is a general description of 12 

cultural domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

The people occupying eastern Iran, Afghanistan, and western 

Pakistan share a common history anchored in the mutual 

exchange of trade, warfare, and territory. The boundaries 

dividing the three countries dissect kin groups that oftentimes 

have little regard for their respective national heritages. This 

mutual disinterest is especially true for the Pashtuns residing 

on either side of the Durand Line, which is the border 

established in 1893 between 

Afghanistan and Pakistan. 

They tend to align with their 

shared ethnic heritage 

rather than their national 

identity and do not 

recognize their border

because it segregates what 

they view as their traditional 

tribal lands. For example, it 

is common for village elders to have extensive knowledge 

spanning hundreds of years of a tribal group’s existence, yet 

know little about their national history. 

Also, despite a harsh physical environment and social unrest, 

there are few obstacles to the flow of people and resources

between the two countries (see Political & Social Relations). 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

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Similarly, Afghan cities such as Jalalabad and Kandahar share

more commonality with Pakistani cities within close proximity, 

such a Peshawar and Quetta, than they do with other Afghan 

cities. This factor is primarily due to shared ethnic (Pashtun)

and religious (Muslim) traditions. 

Positioned on strategic ancient trade routes connecting east 

and west; Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran have been heavily 

influenced by neighboring civilizations such as the Greeks, 

Romans, Arabs, Mongols, and Europeans. Consequently, the 

inhabitants of this trination region are 

accustomed to (although 

sometimes resentful of) 

foreign presence on their 

territory. Of note, perhaps 

the most significant 

external influence on the 

region is Islam (see 

Religion & Spirituality). 

Afghanistan

The land of contemporary Afghanistan was once part of several 

empires. Traditionally, Dari speakers have comprised 

Afghanistan’s educated upper-class, although the Pashtuns 

(who mostly speak Urdu) have maintained social

predominance. With the decline of foreign influence in the 19th

century, Pashtun tribes in Afghanistan promoted a fusion of 

their ethnic and national identities with the name “Afghanistan” 

synonymous to Pashtun dominance within the country. 

In the late 19th century Afghanistan successfully combated 

colonial powers through three wars, only to later become a 

buffer between Russia and British India; however, Afghanistan

failed to establish internal cohesion among its various ethnic 

populations, both rural and urban. Continuing into the 20th

century, this ethnic disharmony led to an attempted coup by 

Afghan Communists and a Soviet invasion in 1979. 

The ensuing war between Communist forces and anticommunist Mujahedin rebels lasted for a decade, with the 

Soviet Union eventually withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1989. 

Soon afterwards, the Pakistani-sponsored Taliban assumed

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CULTURE CULTURE 
control of Afghanistan, although it was later dismantled in the 

aftermath of the 9/11 attacks on the US when Coalition forces 

invaded Afghanistan in Operation Enduring Freedom. Plagued

by continuing internal instability and conflict, today Afghanistan 

remains a fledgling attempt to achieve democracy.

2. Political and Social Relations 

Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran collectively represent powersharing societies where traditional kin-based political systems

coexist with modern post-colonial centralized governments. 

Consequently, tension and occasional conflict are known to 

occur between these two ruling authorities. In Iran, for 

example, the relationship between ethnic groups, such as the 

northeastern Kurds and the southwestern Baluchis, and the 

central government is best described as “a strained peace.” 

Kurdish herders tend to resist state control of their activities. 

Similarly, differing religious affiliations further intensify this 

somewhat adversarial relationship, often resulting in further 

divisions within the governing systems themselves (see 

Religion & Spirituality). 

In Afghanistan, the 

national government has 

been unsuccessful in its 

attempts to impose 

centralized rule on 

citizens who have been 

occupying outlying rural 

area since the mid-19th

century. Consequently, 

the Afghan central 

government is confined to the vicinity of Kabul. Many of these 

rural tribes associate much of their identity with their traditional 

homeland areas. For example, the Pashtuns, who comprise the 

largest Afghan ethnic group, live in the southern and eastern 

portions of the country, with smaller numbers living in urban 

areas (primarily Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul, among 

others). 

One of Afghanistan’s greatest political challenges is the fact it 

adjoins two very influential world powers – Iran and Pakistan – 

both of which have their own geopolitical ambitions for

partnering with Afghanistan. Consequently, Afghanistan’s 

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CULTURE 
relationship with each neighbor is both unique and complicated 

at best. Pakistan’s influence on Afghan politics is primarily 

ethnic-based and economic in nature (see History & Myth). 

While Iran’s interests are also economic, they are largely based 

on Iran’s geopolitical

ambition to become a 

regional power by first 

dismantling Western 

(primarily American) 

interests in the region. 

Iranian influence is

most prevalent in the 

western Afghan city of 

Herat where it has 

invested in a variety of construction projects particularly those 

that facilitate trade between the two nations. Similarly, this 

presence helps extend Iran’s political control in the area.

3. Religion and Spirituality 

More than 90% of the region’s inhabitants are Muslim, with 

Shi’a Islam dominant in Iran and Sunni Islam practiced by the 

majority of Afghans and Pakistanis. The Muslim belief system 

is characterized by a variety of ethnic traditions which have a 

much more significant influence on human beliefs and behavior 

than a set of stereotypical generalizations about Muslims. 

It is noteworthy that prior to the arrival of Islam the most 

influential rulers were Buddhist. Buddhism was actually 

introduced into Afghanistan during the mid-3rd century BC 

during the reign of Emperor Asoka of India. In time, 

Afghanistan became a center of Buddhist learning and the arts.

During the early 16th century India’s Mughal Emperor Babur 

made Kabul his government center for a number of years.

Mahayana Buddhism, the dominant form of the religion 

practiced throughout most of northern Asia (including China, 

the Korean Peninsula, and Japan) originated in Afghanistan,

although in contemporary society, few Buddhists remain in the 

country. 

Similarly prior to the arrival of Islam in the 7th and 8th 

centuries, a variety of traditional indigenous religions existed

throughout the region. Some of these religions had a profound 

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CULTURE 
cultural impact that continued after the introduction of Islam. In 

some instances, traditional religions and Islam remained 

separate institutions; however, in other situations, a blending of 

the two approaches rendered a modified Muslim methodology

unlike those found in the Arabian Peninsula and other regions. 

For example, the belief in superstitions, omens, and charms is 

common among Afghans, Iranians, and Pakistanis particularly 

in rural areas and also among many Muslim societies in other 

parts of the world. 

While Islam is the official 

religion of all three countries 

in the region, religion has 

the greatest influence in 

Iran where theocracy or 

governance by religious 

leaders is the preferred 

approach. Consequently,

the Guardian Council – a 

body composed of Shi’a 

religious scholars – is the decision-making authority. Likewise, 

criminal judges decide cases according to religious law. 

Conversely, in Afghanistan and Pakistan the religious 

establishment does not administer government authority. While 

both countries have religious courts that oversee certain 

matters, most civil and criminal cases are heard in secular 

courts influenced by Western legal traditions.

Religion is also a central component for social institutions.

Muslims, as well as a smaller minority of religious practitioners, 

traditionally acknowledge rite-of-passage milestones such as

birth, adulthood, marriage, and death with religious and 

ceremonial reverence. Even in larger cities where Western and 

secular influences are predominant, people rarely abandon all 

religious tradition. Iranians, Afghans, and Pakistanis alike are 

proud of their religious institutions and worldviews.

4. Family and Kinship 

The family is perhaps the most fundamental institution across

Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran. In Iran, the basic family unit is 

defined by the members who share mealtimes. Similarly, 

Afghan and Pakistani households typically consist of parents, 

male sons and their families, unmarried daughters, and usually

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CULTURE 
grandparents. The patriarch is the formal authority within the 

extended family, although mothers and wives through their

positions of honor within the family unit tend to wield a sizeable 

amount of informal power. Descent and inheritance follows the 

male lineage. 

Marriage is one of a few institutions in which women share in 

the family decision-making, particularly in arranging marriage 

partners for family offspring – a practice common in Iran. 

Similarly, in Afghanistan women commonly initiate the initial 

negotiations for marriage 

partner selection. However, a 

woman generally has little if 

any influence on choosing her 

own marriage partner. 

Marriage among members of 

a kin group is common. For 

example, cousin marriages 

remain customary in all three 

countries. Traditionally, marriage serves a variety of purposes. 

It provides for procreation and ensures the continuation of 

family heritage. Similarly, it promotes family solidarity by

keeping and sharing wealth within a kin group. 

With Western influence, marriages based on romantic 

attraction are gaining popularity in urban areas. Polygyny (the 

practice of a husband having more than one wife) is acceptable 

in many Muslim societies, although incidences of this practice 

are infrequent. Islamic law dictates that all wives must be 

treated and supported equally, which is oftentimes a costprohibitive proposition in contemporary society. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Strict gender segregation is the norm in rural areas of Iran, 

Afghanistan, and Pakistan, although rules for social behavior 

also differ between women and men in urban areas. In 

Afghanistan women do not frequently appear in public, 

particularly in rural areas, nor do the two genders interact in 

public places. In urban areas, particularly in Iran and Pakistan, 

the situation is slightly different with men and women 

interacting more freely in public spaces. 

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In all three countries, the role of women in society differs widely 

by social class. Historically, educated upper-class women 

typically have pursued white-collar professions such as 

doctors, lawyers, judges, teachers, and professors. In Iran, the 

number of women serving in these positions declined following 

the 1979 revolution which brought the Ayatollah Khomeini to 

power and instituted strict Islamic law into the government and 

daily life. The number of women in professional positions

nearly disappeared in Afghanistan 

under Taliban rule. 

In Pakistan, there remains a notable 

distinction between upper and lower 

class women with those from wealthy 

families often obtaining secondary and 

even college educations. Pakistan is 

also the only one of the three countries 

to have had a female head-of-state. 

Gender roles in all three countries are 

more segregated among the rural lower classes. Similarly, in

the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of western Pakistan, 

Taliban influence tends to constrain a woman’s mobility to 

include limited access to healthcare and education and little if 

any choice regarding her marriage partner. The situation is 

similar throughout Afghanistan where women have little control 

over their lives. 

6. Language and Communication 

The region comprising Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan is one 

of the world’s most linguistically 

diverse areas, a factor that has 

made it difficult to build strong 

national identities – particularly

in Iran and Pakistan. Of note, 

the Persian language family is 

dominant throughout Iran, 

much of Afghanistan, and in 

many surrounding countries.

Iranian Persian is known as 

Farsi and is Iran’s national language. Similarly, the Afghan 

version is known as Dari and spoken by over 50% of the 

Afghan population to include the educated elite. Pashto is the 

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CULTURE 
dominant language of the Afghan government and the military.

Pakistan’s official language is Urdu, which is virtually identical 

to Hindi (a language widely spoken in India), although Urdu is 

written using the Arabic rather than the Latin alphabet.

7. Learning and Knowledge 

The quality and availability of education varies remarkably 

throughout Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Ancient Persia was 

known as a world center for advanced learning with an Iranian 

tradition of excellence in mathematics and the sciences dating

to over 1,000 years ago. Having a highly centralized

contemporary educational system, Iran’s primary and 

secondary education is directed by the Ministry of Education 

and tertiary education by 

the Ministry of Science 

and Technology. 

While the 1979 

Revolution did little to 

alter Iran’s educational 

system, fundamentalist 

Islam did influence the 

curricula content and 

institutional processes.

Primary and secondary education in Iran provides a mix of 

natural and social sciences, humanities and the arts, with 

Islamic values mediating most subjects. Higher education in 

Iran features a majority (60%) female student population. 

In contrast, the contemporary formal educational systems 

found in Afghanistan and Pakistan suffer from ethnic and 

religious conflict, sanctions, underdevelopment, and economic 

stagnation. Just over half of Pakistani children complete 

primary school with urban children having a better opportunity 

of completing the 5th grade. University graduates represent 

only 6% of the population. 

In Afghanistan, education suffers from a number of factors

such as inadequate funding and institutional oversight. 

Similarly, Taliban influence has resulted in restricted formal 

education for women; therefore, only about a 1/5th of females 

have access to schools in Afghanistan with that number 

declining sharply at the secondary and university levels.

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8. Time and Space 

In many kin-based societies, the local people typically have a

relaxed view of time compared to Westerners, and therefore to 

not value strict time management and punctuality. Conversely, 

they are more concerned about human interactions and 

relationship-building and are known to be patient and tolerant. 

In Afghanistan attentiveness to time carries little significance 

largely because the country remains predominantly rural and 

isolated, having virtually no advanced technology and industry.

Meetings generally begin when everyone arrives and end when 

all agenda items are discussed. It is usual practice for trivial

family matters to abruptly interrupt a meeting, a practice that

most Westerners are not accustomed to. 

Similarly, these predominantly agrarian societies typically 

measure time by the number of days or months required for a 

major crop to grow or how much time has passed since the last 

major rainfall. In rural 

Afghanistan, for example, it 

is not uncommon for 

citizens to have only a 

general idea of their age, 

as many of them do not 

possess a birth record.

Regarding spatial relations, 

many Afghans, especially 

those in rural areas, tend to 

identify more with their village, town, or valley than with a largescale sense of Afghan nationality. In larger cities, such as 

Kabul and Kandahar, people are more likely connected through 

their “Afghan” identity; however, ethnic factors such as 

language, clan, and family history tend to promote differences. 

These factors tend to have a much greater impact in daily living 

than less immediate notions of Afghan nationalism. 

Conversely, many urban Iranians and Pakistanis have access

to telecommunications and commerce and therefore tend to 

have a more advanced concept of time management. 

However, even their more global cities have a more relaxed 

perspective of time than many Westerners. 

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CULTURE 
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

As in most contemporary societies, sport is a source of national 

identity throughout Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Different 

societies are known for a particular type of sport and method of 

play which usually represents a society’s culture. In Iran where 

notions of strength and bravery are valued, weight-lifting, 

wrestling and Taekwando are popular sporting events. Iranian 

athletes participating in these three sports have won medals in 

every Summer Olympics since 1848, with the exception of 

1980 and 1984, which 

they boycotted for 

political reasons.

Soccer is also popular

in Iran, and prior to the 

1979 revolution, Iran 

won several Asian 

championships and 

qualified for the World 

Cup in 1978. With the 

change in government following the revolution, a national 

religious fervor tended to overshadow sport for a time; 

however, it soon made a revival in popularity. 

For Northern Afghanistan, horsemanship has been prized for 

centuries, and games involving a horse and rider are still very 

popular. Horse racing, polo, and the traditional Afghan sport of 

buzkhasi represent the traditional subsistence patterns and 

lifestyles among people who continue to rely on horses for their 

daily existence. Similar to polo, buzkhasi is often referred to as 

the Afghan national sport.

Field hockey and cricket are national pastimes in Pakistan. Due 

to British influence, the national teams for both sports are 

internationally recognized and successful in world and Olympic 

competitions. 

10. Sustenance and Health

Healthcare across the region reflects commonalities featured in 

many developing countries around the world. A distinct 

difference in healthcare and accessibility to its facilities marks 

the divide between urban and rural populations in Iran, 

Afghanistan, and Pakistan. 

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In Pakistan a history of conflict with India has significantly 

degraded the healthcare system and all but destroyed its

access in Afghanistan. High mortality rates are a result of 

widespread malnourishment and diseases such as pneumonia 

in Pakistan and tuberculosis and infectious diseases in 

Afghanistan – all consequences of conflict and poverty. 

Similarly, poor sanitation and contaminated water supplies

further perpetuate diseases, while a serious shortage of 

adequately trained healthcare providers further amplifies the 

situation. 

Conversely, Iran’s post-revolution constitution guarantees basic 

healthcare plus subsidized pharmaceuticals and vaccinations.

Similarly, Iran has levied profits from oil exports to institute a 

nation-wide “primary healthcare network.” While there remains 

a distinct deficiency in healthcare availability to rural 

populations, their overall 

infant and under-age-five 

mortality rates have 

dropped.

A common trend seen in all 

three nations is the rising

drug abuse rate. With a 

history of both cultivation 

and exportation of opium, 

Pakistan has the largest heroin-consumer market in all of 

southwest Asia. Similarly, three decades of conflict-related 

trauma has stimulated a popular public appeal for affordable 

narcotics, and with little access to treatment programs, nearly

8% of the Afghan population suffers from drug addiction. 

For Iran, its porous border with Afghanistan has become an 

important route for drug trafficking with drug addiction currently

one of Iran’s major health issues. About 3% of Iran’s population 

is addicted to opium, with almost 50% of all opium produced in 

Afghanistan entering Iran before being exported worldwide. 

11. Economics and Resources 

There are disproportional levels of economic development 

among Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. All three countries 

have major cities tied into the global economy to varying 

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degrees. For example Kabul, Afghanistan transfers a large 

volume of foreign aid into the country’s smaller cities and rural 

areas, while Karachi, Pakistan’s financial center is an economic 

hub for South Asian trade. Similarly, Iran’s capital, Tehran, 

benefits from global trade in the petroleum industry and is a 

center for goods and services exportation throughout the 

Middle East and Asia. For the most part, however, all of these 

countries consist predominantly of rural areas having little or no 

connection to the outside world. 

While these countries generally are not wealthy by Western 

standards, Iran and Pakistan generally fare better than war-torn 

and underdeveloped Afghanistan, which has suffered from

more than 30 years of almost constant conflict (see History & 

Myth). As with social and political relations, the economic life of 

Afghans primarily centers on

kinship networks with the national 

government having little if any 

regulatory control. 

There were virtually no tax 

revenues collected in Afghanistan

between 1980 and 2005, and 

even today tax collection is 

sporadic in cities and almost nonexistent in rural areas. The 

national government’s primary 

source of income has been 

foreign aid, making Afghanistan vulnerable to global markets. 

The international community is currently pressuring the Afghan 

government to offset its dependency on foreign money through 

a reliable tax collection program; however, this effort has 

proven difficult in an environment characterized by increasing

corruption and a general breakdown of government institutions 

following Soviet occupation and Taliban rule.

Iran has the most diversified and centralized economy in the 

region to include massive oil reserves and a robust industrial 

base. Iranian products exist throughout the region and are 

popular in Afghanistan (especially in the western region). The 

economy of the Afghan city of Herat is geographically tied to 

Iran, and in recent years Tehran’s economic influence in Kabul 

has become significant. 

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12. Technology and Material 

As with economics, technological development varies across 

the region. Many of Iran’s urban areas are advanced 

technological industrial bases, while many rural areas are 

accessible through external satellite networks. Afghanistan also 

has some emerging technology connecting rural and urban 

areas, although this connectivity is limited and hampered by 

rough terrain and generally dysfunctional infrastructure 

networks. Most urban areas in all three countries have cellular

phone coverage, computer networks, access to the internet, 

and connectivity. In rural areas, villagers still rely on manual

techniques to draw ground 

water from wells and irrigate 

crops. Consequently, it is 

common for 21st- and 12thcentury technology to coexist.

Non-renewable resources 

such as oil and natural gas, 

and other rare minerals such 

as gold, copper, iron ore, and 

lithium are plentiful across the region. In Afghanistan and 

Pakistan, these resources remain largely untapped due to the 

effects of conflict and underdevelopment, although the Chinese 

are mining in Afghanistan. Iran is the global lead for extracting 

its valuable oil and natural gas reserves, although the country 

still falls short of self-sufficiency and relies on import goods to 

sustain its population. Recently, Iran has increased its 

domestic manufacturing capabilities and exports a variety of 

products to other countries, such as Iraq and Afghanistan. 

In Afghanistan, decades of conflict have all but destroyed its 

existing domestic manufacturing capability. Of note, the opium 

trade accounts for a significant percentage of the country’s

Gross Domestic Product. Similarly, Pakistan is struggling to 

develop a viable manufacturing capability. Formerly an

agriculturally-based society, Pakistan now features a vibrant

service sector, with textiles and apparel as the major export 

products. Overall, industrialization is sketch throughout both 

countries, where increasing rates of corruption continue to stifle

economic growth. Additionally, Pakistan has become a nuclear 

power, and Iran allegedly is pursuing a nuclear capability.

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Historical Overview

The Arab conquest of Kabul by the Syrian Umayyads in the 7th

century produced a legacy of shared faith with the countries of 

North Africa and the Middle East. This invasion and occupation 

introduced Islam to the region, and Islam eventually became 

the predominant religion. In the 8th century, the Persians 

(Iranians) replaced Arab rule, but they were subsequently 

replaced by the Turkic Ghaznavids in the 10th century. This 

Ghaznavid conquest consolidated the Afghan Kingdom and 

established a great cultural center and base for military 

operations in India. In the late 14th century, Afghanistan fell

under the relatively peaceful and prosperous rule of the Turkic 

ruler Timur (Tamerlane). In the early 15th century, a 

descendent of Tamerlane, Babur, rose to power in Kabul and 

extended his authority to the east. His descendents established 

the Mughal Empire in greater India.

Durrani Dynasty

A Pashtun named Ahmad Shah 

Abdali unified the Pashtun tribes and 

founded the Durrani Dynasty in 

Afghanistan in 1747. The country 

served as a buffer between the British 

and Russian empires until it won 

independence from notional British 

control in 1919. The colonial period 

had a lasting impact on the country’s 

borders and Afghan attitudes toward 

foreigners.

Soviet Invasion 

A brief experiment in democracy ended in a 1973 coup and a 

1978 Communist counter-coup. The Soviet Union invaded in 

1979 to support the tottering Afghan Communist regime, 

touching off a long and destructive war. The USSR withdrew in 

1989 under relentless pressure by internationally supported 

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

HISTORY &

MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
anti-Communist Mujahedin rebels. After the fall of the 

Communist regime, various political groups agreed to a powersharing agreement, known as the Peshawar Accords, which 

created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an 

interim government. Concurrently, Saudi Arabia and Iran, who 

were competitors for regional hegemony, each supported 

hostile Afghan militias.

Conflict between these militias resulted in a series of 

subsequent civil wars and Kabul’s ultimate fall in 1996 to the 

Taliban, a hard-line Pakistani-sponsored movement that

emerged in 1994 to end the country's civil war and anarchy. 

During its reign, the Taliban imposed one of the strictest 

interpretations of Islamic law seen in the Muslim world, 

becoming internationally notorious for violently enforcing 

extreme standards governing women living in purdah 

(seclusion from public life). 

Islamist Militant Groups

The Mujahedin, Taliban, and Al Qaeda are Islamist extremist 

militant groups who share similar doctrinal philosophies and 

practices although each group is distinctive. 

Mujahedin: The term Mujahedin stems from jihad (personal 

strife) and mujahid (one who strives). Initially, the Mujahedin 

formed to fight against the pro-soviet Afghan government in the 

late 1970s and have since subscribed to militant Islamic 

ideologies. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the 

Mujahedin emerged as anti-Taliban armed fighters who 

provided an Afghan Northern Front in 

support of the US-led war against 

terrorism. 

The Taliban: Having derived its name 

from the term “talib” which means 

“student,” the Taliban like the 

Mujahedin operates predominantly in 

Afghanistan where it was founded and 

led by Mullah Mohammed Omar

(pictured, courtesy of Wikimedia), the 

country’s Taliban head-of-state from 1996-2001. The Taliban 

initially consisted of conservative religious students, known as 

the Students of Islamic Knowledge Movement. They are 

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predominantly of Pashtun ethnicity whose faith was grounded 

in a blending of shar’ia (Islamic) law and Pashtun tribal codes, 

particularly Pashtunwali (see Political & Social Relations). The 

group eventually assumed an extremist posture, employing 

terrorism as a favored tactic used to further its ideological and 

political ambitions. Major Taliban organizations include the 

Quetta Shura and the Haqqani Network, among others.

Al Qaeda: The formation of Al Qaeda (which means “the base 

or foundation”) is credited to Osama bin Laden (pictured below, 

courtesy of Wikimedia), who in concert with his Al Qaeda 

operatives masterminded the 2001 attacks on the US among 

other numerous international terrorist acts. The group is 

composed of Sunni Muslims (see 

Religion & Spirituality) who practice 

Wahabism, which is an extreme form of 

Islam. 

Al Qaeda’s basic ideology is to 

establish an Islamic state and to 

dismantle socialism and nationalism, 

which they consider as counter to

Muslim doctrine. While the Taliban’s

and Mujahedin’s political interests for 

the most part are limited to a particular

country or region, Al Qaeda operates on an international scale. 

Bin Laden was known to have established training camps and 

safe havens in parts of Africa such as Sudan and the Middle 

East. He was expelled from Sudan in 1996, fleeing to 

Afghanistan and then to Pakistan, where he remained in hiding 

until killed by US Special Operations Forces in May 2011. Both 

Libya and the US had issued 

criminal charges against bin 

Laden for his terrorist activities. 

Despite multiple indictments and 

requests for his extradition, the 

Taliban, who was sheltering bin 

Laden, refused to cooperate.

The Taliban Toppled

Following the 11 September 

2001 terrorist attacks in New 

York City, Washington DC, and Pennsylvania, a coalition 

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Folklore in Afghanistan

In ancient times prior to the emergence of written 

languages, history and wisdom were preserved 

across generations and ethnic boundaries through 

oral folk legends or myths. Some oral literature was

narrated as history and others as fiction. Many of 

these verbal traditions remain today and have even 

been integrated with other media to preserve their 

cultural significance. Oral folklore is expressed in a 

variety of genre – from proverbs, songs, and oral 

narratives to poetry and folk tales. Folklore is used 

both to entertain and reinforce values and perpetuate 

traditions (see Aesthetics & Recreation).

military operation consisting of US, Allied, and anti-Taliban 

Northern Alliance forces deposed the Taliban. Following its 

overthrow, much of the Taliban fled to neighboring Pakistan 

where it regrouped as an insurgency movement to counter the 

newly formed Afghan government. Taliban leader Mohammed 

Omar went into hiding, and in July 2015, reportedly had died in 

Karachi in 2013. 

Political Reconstruction

The UN-sponsored Bonn 

Conference in 2001 established 

a process for political 

reconstruction that included the 

adoption of a new constitution, a 

presidential election in 2004, and 

National Assembly elections in 

2005. In December 2004, Hamid Karzai (pictured) became 

Afghanistan’s first democratically elected President (succeeded 

by Ashraf Ghani in 2014) and the National Assembly was 

inaugurated the following December. The Afghan central 

government operates primarily in Kabul, with ethnic warlords 

having the primary authority in their tribal areas of the country.

Despite gains toward building a stable central government, a 

resurgent Taliban, political corruption, and continuing provincial 

instability – particularly in the South and the East – remain 

serious challenges for the Afghan Government. 

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HISTORY &

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Political Borders

• Pakistan: 1,510 miles

• Iran: 582 miles 

• Turkmenistan: 462 

miles

• Uzbekistan: 85 miles

• Tajikistan: 749 miles

• China: 47 miles

Having a population of 

nearly 32.6 million (2015

estimate), Afghanistan is 

a completely landlocked country bordering China to the 

northeast, Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, and 

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan to the north. About 

the size of Texas, Afghanistan covers 250,000 square miles 

and is divided by the Hindu Kush mountain system into 

northern and southern border regions. 

Flag

Centered on the flag is a Mosque with Mehrab (pulpit & stairs) 

and flags on either side, 

with numerals below for 

the year of Afghan 

independence from the 

UK (1919 in Western 

calendar/1298 in Islamic 

calendar). It is circled by 

a border of sheaves of 

wheat on the left and 

right. An Arabic 

inscription of the Shahada (Muslim creed) is in the uppercenter. Below the Shahada are rays of the rising sun over the 

Arabic expression “Allahu Akhbar,” meaning "God is great.” A 

scroll bearing the name Afghanistan is in the bottom center.

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Government Type

The Afghanistan government is an Islamic republic with 3 

separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. 

Executive Branch

The Executive Branch is led by the President (currently Ashraf 

Ghani Ahmadzai as of 2014, seated right) who is the Chief-ofState and Head-ofGovernment, and a Prime 

Minister (Abdullah Abdullah 

since 2014, seated left) who 

acts as Chief Executive Officer. 

There are also 2 Vice 

Presidents (First Vice President

Abdul Rashid Dostam and 

Second Vice President Sarwar Danesh both since 2014).The 

President appoints and the National Assembly approves a 

cabinet of 25 ministers. 

Legislative Branch

A National Assembly consists of two chambers: the House of 

People (Wolesi Jirga) contains no more than 250 seats whose

members are directly elected to 5-year terms; similarly, the 

House of Elders (Meshrano 

Jirga) consists of 102 seats 

with 1/3 elected from 

provincial councils for 4-year 

terms, another 1/3 elected 

from local district councils for 

3-year terms, and the 

remaining 1/3 nominated by 

the president for 5-year terms. On rare occasions, the 

government may convene a Grand Council (Loya Jirga) on 

issues of independence, national sovereignty, and territorial 

integrity. It can amend the provisions of the constitution and 

prosecute the president; it is made up of members of the 

National Assembly and chairpersons of the provincial and 

district councils. 

Judicial Branch 

The constitution establishes a nine-member Supreme Court 

(Stera Mahkama). Justices are appointed for 10-year terms by

the president with approval of the House of the People, 

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subordinate high courts and appeals courts. There is also a 

minister of justice. A separate Afghan Independent Human 

Rights Commission established by the Bonn Agreement is 

charged with investigating human rights abuses and war 

crimes.

Tribes and Tribal Allegiance

Afghanistan is a nation 

composed of tribes, and 

most tribes contain smaller, 

less formal bands. Most 

tribes are kinship-based, 

containing clans and crosscutting lineages. Not until 

the middle of the 20th 

century was the central 

government arguably strong enough to govern through national 

institutions. Prior to the 20th century, Afghanistan was 

traditionally controlled by clans, family bands, and tribes, with 

matters of defense left to militias formed by tribal recruits. For 

many Afghans, loyalty 

to their kin group and 

village takes priority 

over national loyalty. 

ETHNICITY

In general, it is difficult 

to acquire an accurate 

population census, 

primarily because many 

Afghan kin groups do not maintain birth records. Therefore, 

existing statistics are relatively irregular estimates.

Pashtuns

Pashtuns comprise 42% of Afghanistan's population and are its 

largest single ethnic group. Since the foundation of the modern 

Afghan state in 1747 by Ahmed Shah Durrani, Pashtuns have 

been the country's dominant political group. Pashtuns control 

the Taliban and comprise its majority. More Pashtuns actually 

live in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA)

than in Afghanistan, although they comprise only 8% of 

Pakistan's total population.

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Pashtuns have generally proven themselves adept at warfare 

and conquest. They are well known from the British Raj tales of 

Rudyard Kipling in which they are depicted as good and hardy 

fighters. Among the many tribes of 

Pashtun, two tribal confederations 

dominate southern and eastern 

Afghanistan: the Ghilzais and the 

Durranis. The majority of Afghan 

leaders have come from the 

Durranis. The Ghilzais largely reside 

in the eastern mountainous region of 

the country, and the Durranis are 

generally found in the southern 

region centered on Kandahar. 

Additional pockets of Pashtuns live 

in northern Afghanistan. Others, 

particularly those in and around 

urban areas, are frequently referred to as "detribalized 

Pashtuns" because they have lost much of their individual tribal 

identification.

Pashtun Cultural Mindeset: Pashtunwali

Key aspects of Pashtun culture are derived from a code of 

conduct known as Pashtunwali. The word Pashtun means 

honorable and Pashtunwali means the rule or code of honor.

The main elements include honor, following through on 

promises, revenge, personal independence, and hospitality. 

Pashtunwali practices are most closely identified with 

Pashtuns, though they tend to be reflected throughout the 

country's ethnic groups, particularly in regard to the idea of 

honor and the duty to extend hospitality. It is no exaggeration 

to claim that even the poorest Afghan refugee may offer a 

stranger his last bit of bread and tea and feel proud to do so. 

Pashtun Religion

Pashtuns are generally Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi School, 

while a very small number (5 percent) are Shi'a, residing 

mostly in the Kandahar area (see Religion & Spirituality).

Tajiks

The Tajiks, often regarded as "Persian-speaking Sunni 

Muslims," comprise about 27% of Afghanistan's population. 

They are most numerous in the densely-populated north, as 

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well as in the cities of Kabul and Herat. Like most Afghans, the 

Tajiks derive the bulk of their livelihood from agricultural 

pursuits. In urban areas, the Tajiks have become known for 

success in commerce and finance, and have also served as 

the backbone of the educated administrative elite. Historically, 

the Tajiks lay claim to the rich tradition of Persian literature. 

In addition, Tajik areas of Afghanistan contain most of the 

emerald and lapis lazuli mines. Twice in Afghanistan's history, 

Tajiks have held the top government post, with Amir Habibullah 

Kalakani in 1929, and with Burhanuddin Rabbani from 1992-

1996. Since the 1980s, Tajiks have become well known for 

having the most effective resistance organizations against both 

the Soviets and later the Taliban. Their best-known leaders are 

Ismail Khan, currently the governor of Herat province, and the 

late Ahmed Shah Massoud, a former defense minister in the 

Rabbani government, who was assassinated by Al Qaida on 9 

Sept 2001. It is common to see admiring images Massoud 

across Afghanistan, even in the Pashtun areas of the south.

Tajik Cultural Mindset

The Tajiks' inclination toward resistance 

predates the 1900s and the British 

incursions into Afghanistan. The Tajiks 

claim to have been unfairly portrayed by 

the British, whom they fault for a legacy 

of favoritism toward Pashtuns. 

Additionally, Tajiks tend to feel betrayed 

by the global fundamentalist Muslim 

community for the aid given to the 

Pashtun Taliban.

Tajik Religion

Tajiks are primarily Sunni Muslims, of the same Hanafi legal 

tradition as the Pashtuns (see Religion & Spirituality).

Hazaras

The Hazaras comprise about 9% of Afghanistan’s population. 

Their name means "thousand" in Farsi, and refers to their 

descent from the soldiers of Genghis Khan who invaded 

Afghanistan in the 13th century. Modern-day Hazaras still 

resemble their Mongol forebears, though much intermixing with 

the indigenous Afghan population has occurred since. Their 

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homeland is in central Afghanistan, and is known as the 

"Hazarajat." Previous Afghan administrations weakened the 

Hazaras' political strength by dividing this region into several 

provinces to dilute the 

Hazaras' strength. Hazaras 

are also in urban areas like

Kabul, Herat, and Mazar-eSharif. 

Hazara Cultural Mindset

The combination of their 

distinctive facial features, 

minority Muslim Shi'ite 

religion, and the generally 

poor quality of the land they occupy has placed Hazaras at the 

bottom of the Afghan social scale. They were enslaved under 

successive Pashtun monarchies, and were not emancipated 

until the reign of the reformist King Amanullah (1919-29), who 

was later overthrown for his liberalism. Even today in urban 

areas Hazaras generally perform the most menial tasks and 

Pashtuns tend to have negative views of Hazaras, whom they 

treat like second-class Afghans. Nevertheless, the Hazaras 

have proven to be tough and capable resistance fighters 

against both the Soviets and the Taliban.

Hazara Religion

About 20% are Sunni Muslims, while most Hazaras are Shi'a 

Muslims of the “twelver” branch (see Religion & Spirituality).

Uzbeks

Afghanistan's Uzbeks make up about 9% of the population. 

The Uzbeks of Afghanistan are found throughout northern 

Afghanistan, particularly in provinces near the country of 

Uzbekistan. The Uzbeks' most prominent leader, General 

Abdul Rashid Dostam, rose to distinction as a militia leader in 

support of the Soviet-backed Afghan regime. With the fall of 

that government in 1992, Dostam refashioned himself as a 

"secularist," in opposition to the Islamic Taliban government.

Uzbek Cultural Mindset

Uzbek culture gives greater priority to stability over freedom. 

This is a product of enduring repeated waves of conquest. It is 

sustained by appropriating the legacy of successful military 

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leaders from ages past, such as Amir Timur, known in the West 

as Tamarlane. The rough game of struggle by horsemen over a 

goat carcass called “buz-kashi” is very popular among Uzbeks, 

although Tajiks and Pashtuns also compete to a lesser degree. 

Uzbek culture emphasizes a hierarchy of individual 

relationships over institution relationships; therefore, 

agreements represent relations between individuals. Uzbek 

political culture is pragmatic, and permits shifting alliances, and 

glorification of the winner. 

Uzbek Religion 

Most Afghan Uzbeks are practicing Sunni Muslims (see 

Religion & Spirituality).

Aimak

The Aimak consist of four major groups, often called ChahrAimak, using the Persian word for “four”. Aimak comprise about 

4% of Afghanistan’s population and are found primarily in the 

western part of Afghanistan’s central mountain region. They 

are partially nomadic, and have facial features that suggest a 

Turkic/Mongol heritage. The Aimak speak Dari and are Sunni 

Muslims.

Turkmen

Turkmen comprise 

approximately 3% of 

the Afghan population 

and share much of the 

same cultural heritage 

as do the Uzbeks, 

with many of their 

ancestors having 

fought against the 

Russians and Soviets 

in the 19th and 20th centuries. They are primarily concentrated 

in the northwestern area of the country near the border with the 

country of Turkmenistan, and are renowned for their carpet 

weaving.

Turkmen Religion

Afghanistan’s Turkmen are Sunni Muslims (see Religion & 

Spirituality).

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Baloch

The Baloch people comprise about 2% of Afghanistan’s

population and inhabit the region of Balochistan, which 

includes parts of Iran, Pakistan, and southern Afghanistan. The 

Baloch are organized in tribal groups that tend to be 

hierarchical. The Baloch are often nomadic and engage in 

agriculture or herding. They were helpful in securing a foothold 

for the anti-Taliban resistance in southern Afghanistan. The

Baloch are known for their independence and typically do not 

want anything to do with the state or outside authority or 

organizations. The Baloch are Sunni Muslims and speak 

Balochi, a language in the same Iranian family as Dari and 

Pashto.

Nuristani

The Nuristanis are a small and ancient collection of 15 tribes in 

northeast Afghanistan in the provinces along the AfghanPakistan border. The Nuristanis are independent-minded and 

typically do not identify with other tribal groups. In general, they 

feel no fondness for either the 

Afghans or Pakistanis. Although 

the Nuristani tribes share similar 

customs and traditions, they 

speak five different languages. 

The Nuristani group was known 

for centuries among other 

Muslim Afghans by the term 

Kafirs (infidels), due to their 

historical refusal to convert to 

Islam. The Nuristanis historically 

practiced their own religion, 

which is a Indo-Iranian 

polytheistic belief system 

resembling Hinduism. Between 

1893-96 King Abdul Rahman of 

Afghanistan formally 

incorporated Nuristan (Kafirstan) into Afghanistan, forcibly 

converting the Nuristanis to Islam and officially naming the 

region Nuristan, which means "Land of Light." Some remnants 

of the ancient Nuristani religion endure today as folk customs. 

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Qizilbash

The Qizilbash are Shi'a 

Dari speakers who 

number less than 100,000 

in Afghanistan. Because 

they are Shi’a, they face 

some discrimination. They 

live primarily in the Kabul 

and Kandahar regions, 

and are descended from 

Turkic troops sent by the 

Persian King Nadir

(depicted) to serve as 

guards when Afghanistan 

was part of the Persian

Empire in the early 18th 

century. The Qizilbash have continued in this occupation. The 

name Qizilbash was a reference to the red hats which the 

original soldiers wore (qizil meaning red in Turkish, and bash

meaning headed or topped). The Qizilbash today tend to be 

well-educated and highly urbanized. 

Hindus and Sikhs

Hindus and Sikhs number several thousand and are located 

primarily in the major cities, particularly in the capital, Kabul. 

Many of these can date their entry into Afghanistan from the 

time of the British Raj (the “Reign” of the British empire on the 

Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947), though a 

number, especially Sikhs, came to Afghanistan to escape the 

violence of the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. Both 

Sikhs and Hindus are usually employed either as tradesmen or 

money lenders; their numbers have greatly diminished in 

recent decades.

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Group Identity versus Individualism

Instead of asserting their separateness and privacy as 

independent individuals, Afghans tend to interact as members 

of a group. Within this culture, the group takes precedence 

over the individual. Don’t expect Afghans to simply act as 

individuals - the group is usually more important.

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Local Area Social Leaders

Local area social leaders, typically male elders, discuss and 

address neighborhood concerns and mediate between parties 

regarding issues that affect only the local area. Such leaders 

include:

Mullahs

Some of them may be only partially literate and have minimal 

formal Islamic training, although they teach Islamic law, lead 

prayers, deliver sermons and teach in madrassas (religious 

schools). Socially, they have varying degrees of influence, tend 

to be involved in politics, and are consulted in family disputes. 

Umdahs (or Maliks) 

Influential village mayors or clan heads, who also may be 

landowners and tribal leaders. Although Umdahs and Maliks 

are village or clan leaders, they tend to consult heavily with 

village and clan elders in most matters.

Muhafidh

Town civil representatives

Mirabs

Masters of water distribution, landowners, and tribal leaders

Khans

A Khan discusses and 

addresses neighborhood 

concerns and mediates 

between parties regarding 

issues that affect only the 

local area. 

Pirs (Sheikhs)

These are teachers within a Sufi (from the Arabic Tasawuf) 

brotherhood whose members are devoted to mysticism and 

ritualistic prayer. Although the word Pir is Persian for an older 

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The proper title for a citizen of Afghanistan is 

“Afghan.”

Afghani is the term for Afghan currency. 
person, the word is often used for the teacher or Murshid within 

a Sufi brotherhood. These relationships are often secret, 

meaning you may encounter people in ordinary jobs who have 

extraordinary authority over a large number of people.

Village Leaders

Village elders have historically made key decisions and been 

vital in settling disputes. During Feudal times, when the central 

government had little influence in remote areas, the village 

elder was the local authority and the chief of the tribe. After

administrative reforms in the second half of the 20th century, 

this authority was gradually transferred to the central 

government. Although the role of the village elder has faded in 

recent decades, in rural villages it is still important to get 

permission and cooperation from village elders before you 

begin a project. 

Patronage System 

As in any culture, who you know is sometimes more important 

than what you know. The patronage system in Afghanistan is 

highly influential. It is based on who knows whom, with 

extended family members benefitting first and foremost, and 

then friends. It is more emotional than logical, and punishes 

individuals as well as offering rewards. Often, it results in poor 

quality of work and creates corruption.

Extensive Influence of Close Friendships

The concept of close friendships is highly revered, and close 

friends have great influence on situational outcomes – more so 

than in the US. The close friend in essence becomes part of 

the family. Such friends 

are considered 

absolutely trustworthy. 

You will often see close 

male friends walking 

hand-in-hand.

Jirgas and Shuras 

Afghans tend to be most 

comfortable with a 

relatively democratic 

style of bottom-up consensus decision making. A strict “one 

man, one vote,” style of governing is rare for Afghans; 

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traditionally, most decisions have been made through 

consensus, as in the Pashtun Loya Jirga tribal council. 

Although the Loya Jirga historically existed at a local village 

level, its format has been reproduced at a regional and national 

level to validate decisions. While the distinction between Jirgas 

and Shuras can be difficult to distinguish, both are formal 

meetings between political, tribal, clan, and/or local leaders. 

Jirgas tend to deal primarily with secular issues and Shuras 

may lean towards more traditional religious issues.

Decentralization

Throughout most of its history, Afghan rulers have allowed for a 

large degree of decentralization of authority. The ethnic 

diversity and the character of most Afghan ethnic groups make 

Afghans respond very negatively to centralized power. 

Historically, regimes that tried to implement a greater degree of 

central control over the population were able to do so only by 

applying brute force by gaining allegiance with the expenditure 

of substantial sums of money. Historically, regimes that tried to 

implement a greater degree of central control over the 

population were able to do so only by applying brute force by 

gaining allegiance with the expenditure of substantial sums of 

money.

Attitude towards Foreign Military Powers

Afghanistan has a “Siege Mentality” and “Survival Instinct” as it 

has been at the crossroads of many foreign invaders over the 

centuries. In essence, because Afghanistan is under siege, 

individuals will do whatever they must to survive. For example, 

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Attending Jirgas

• If you attend a Jirga, make every effort to 

compliment the leader of the Jirga or minimize 

events that may reflect poorly upon his honor. 

• Make sure to end the Jirga positively and ensure the 

leader or elder has the final word. 

• Ideally the Jirga will end with an agreement to meet 

again in the future. 
Afghans may view it as normal to take from the invaders 

whatever they can. They may view the outsider’s materials 

“whatever you bring here is for us.” This may conflict with 

American views of “corruption” and “manipulating.”

Unconventional Approach to Warfighting

Afghan guerilla tactics draw heavily from experience fighting 

conventional military forces, such as the British in the 1900s, 

and the Soviet Union 

during the 1980s. Afghans 

are adept at waging 

irregular warfare. Their 

country's rough terrain and 

harsh conditions have 

made such tactics 

necessary. Afghan cultural 

organization, such as 

decentralized clan-based 

loyalties, and cultural values, such as valor and physical 

fitness, make Afghans ideally suited for guerilla warfare. The 

Afghans believe warfare is a contest of endurance over time. 

They do not think in terms of an integrated military campaign, 

but rather fight in ebbs and flows. During low points in a 

conflict, Afghan fighters may conduct negotiations with the 

other side. There is no social stigma in Afghanistan against 

switching sides or surrendering in a conflict, although this 

practice has been known to create potential enemies.

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Don’t be Surprised at Male-Male PDA

• It is normal for male Afghans to hold hands while 

they walk together. 

• It is normal for Afghans of the same sex to kiss each 

other on the cheeks when greeting. 

• These gestures signal friendship, not physical 

attraction.

• Never back away from such PDA if an Afghan 

graciously extends it to you – you’ll cause offense. 

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Afghanistan’s population is primarily Muslim (80% Sunni and 

19% Shi’a). While a minority of Afghans may profess other 

beliefs (1% - Hindu and Sikh), Islam has the greatest influence 

on Afghan culture. 

The Basics of Islam

Islam means “submission to the will 

of God” and the acceptance of His 

wisdom. Muslim is the term for a 

follower of Islam.

Islam is a Monotheistic Religion, 

which means its adherents worship 

one “God” – the Arabic translation is 

“Allah.” God is all powerful and 

nothing shares divinity with Him. He 

controls all events - past, present, 

and future. The Arabic saying, 

“Inshallah” means “God willing” (or everything occurs according 

to God’s Will, particularly future events). 

The existence of angels, the devil, and the afterlife is a 

foundational aspect of Islamic doctrine. Islamic instruction is 

teaches that two angels accompany every human into the 

spiritual domain and record their deeds for Judgment Day. 

Similarly, the devil (Iblis) is a spirit known as a Genie (or Jinn), 

and not a fallen angel as many Christian adherents believe. In 

the afterlife, the righteous are rewarded in Paradise and those 

who do not accept God’s Will and guidance will be punished in 

Hell.

Abraham

Muslims trace their lineage back to Abraham, known as Ibrahim

in Islam. However, unlike Christians and Jews (who trace their 

line back to Abraham and his wife Sarah, through their son 

Isaac), Muslims descend from Abraham and the Egyptian 

bondswoman, Hagar through their son Ismail. According to 

Muslim tradition, Abraham’s wife Sarah feared Ismail would 

overshadow her son Isaac, so Abraham took Hagar and Ismail 

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to Mecca, where he left them to fend for themselves. Abraham 

later returned and built the Ka’aba with Ismail as the first shrine 

to the one true God. It was here that Abraham was to sacrifice 

his son, Ismail, as a test of faith, before God permitted him to 

sacrifice a ram instead (in contrast to Judeo-Christian tradition, 

where Isaac was to be sacrificed).

Muhammad

In Islam, Muhammad is God’s final prophet, and is known as 

the “Seal of the Prophets” because his message completes the 

“revelations” attributed to earlier 

prophets. Muhammad has no 

divinity and is not worshipped.

The Qur’an (Holy Book)

Muslims uphold the Qur’an as 

the eternal, direct word of God, 

as revealed to Muhammad 

through the Archangel Gabriel 

(Jibril) over a 23-year period, 

between the years 610 and 632

AD. These revelations and teachings were recorded in Arabic 

as the basis of Islam, thus “true” Qur’ans, as well as all prayers, 

are in Arabic. Of note, anyone desiring to touch the Qur’an 

should do so with utmost respect.

Arabic Qur’ans should not be handled by non-Muslims.

Shari’a

Shari’a is Islamic law whose core is 

the Qur’an, supplemented with 

reports about the sayings and 

practices of the Prophet Muhammad 

(Hadith). It sets rules and guidance 

for all aspects of life (prayer,

economics, behavior, etc.).

Diet

Muslims are socially prohibited from 

consuming pork and alcohol. This 

prohibition is known as “Haram” or 

forbidden (see Sustenance & 

Health).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Prayer

Muslims pray five times daily. The practice of multiple daily 

prayers was adapted from earlier Arab tribal religions. Shi’a 

practice permits combining prayers into three daily prayer 

times. 

Prayer times

Prayers are spaced fairly evenly throughout the day, so one is 

constantly reminded of God. The call to prayer is heard at predawn, noon, late afternoon, sunset, and evening. Muslims 

wash their hands, elbows, face, ears, feet, and wet their hair to 

cleanse their bodies prior to prayer (ablution).

Friday Prayer (Jummah) 

Muslims gather at mosques for Friday’s communal prayer. 

These prayers are led by an imam. 

Holy cities

The Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the site of the 

Hajj. Medina, Saudi Arabia is revered as the burial site of 

Muhammad. Jerusalem is also holy, as Muslims believe 

Muhammad made his ascent to heaven from Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem is also the site of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. 

Other Islamic Concepts

Birth Rite of Passage

Many important rites of 

passage in Afghan society

are derived from Islam. 

When a baby is born, the 

father whispers the call to 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Proper Prayer Protocol

• Remember to be courteous. 

o Do not walk in front of people while they are praying

because they are facing in the direction of Mecca. 

o Never speak to, interrupt, or photograph people 

while they pray.
worship in the baby’s ear. Sugar, or a piece of date, is then 

placed in the baby’s mouth so that the first thing the baby 

tastes is sweet. The baby’s head is shaved on the seventh day 

to symbolize service to Allah. The family weighs the hair and

donates an equal amount of gold or silver to charity. Boys are 

also circumcised soon after birth, with family members 

gathering to celebrate this rite-of-passage or formal transition 

into childhood. On the seventh day, the child is named, with 

praises extended to Allah for his blessings.

Death Rite of Passage

Before a Muslim dies, the call to prayer is whispered in the 

person’s ear, just as it was at birth. Immediately after death, the 

body is washed and rubbed with perfumes and spices. It is 

then wrapped in white 

cloth and buried 

without a casket, 

facing the Ka’aba 

(pictured) in Mecca. 

The family of the 

deceased will receive 

condolences for three 

days, again on the 

fortieth day and on the 

one-year anniversary 

of a death. The entire 

family mourns during this period. It is important to understand 

that non-Muslims may not touch a deceased Muslim. Doing so 

is extremely offense and considered haram (forbidden).

View of Death

Muslims believe that the time of death, like birth, is determined 

by Allah. Thus old age, illness, or accident are not considered 

the real causes of death. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death itself as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven.

Jihad

Jihad is a fundamental element within Islam. It is not a Pillar of 

Islam. Traditionally, it applies to an inner striving (Greater 

Jihad) to elevate the principled, more civilized and moral 

elements of one’s self and the pursuit of God’s Will, to lead a 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
virtuous life. The concept of external struggle (Lesser Jihad) is 

a struggle in defense of Islam. During the Soviet invasion of 

Afghanistan (1979-1989), many Islamic leaders called for a

Jihad against the atheist Soviets, prompting an influx of 

Mujaheddin (warriors) from other countries. Do not confuse the

concept of Jihad with the radicalized violence mislabeled as 

Jihad by religious extremists.

Islamic Holy Days

The Islamic Calendar

A year in the Islamic Calendar is 11 days shorter than in the 

Western Calendar. As a result, Islamic holidays fall eleven 

days earlier on the Western calendar than the previous year 

(see Time & Space).

Lailat ul-Qadr

The Night of Power commemorates Muhammad receiving the 

first verses of the Qur’an. This is observed during Ramadan (or 

Ramazan).

Eid-al-Adha

The Festival of Sacrifice commemorates Abraham’s willingness 

to sacrifice his son, Ishmael, as proof of his loyalty to God. It is 

celebrated the same day the Hajj ends. 

Eid-al-Fitr: The 3-day Festival of Fast-Breaking celebrates the 

end of Ramadan. 

Visiting a Mosque

• To enter a mosque, you should be invited and 

remove your shoes before entering. 

o If you are a female, cover your head with a scarf 

and wear a long sleeve shirt or blouse. Some 

mosques may provide scarves for women.

o Women worship separately, and often worship at 

home so that they may care for their children.

They are also excused from prayers during their 

monthly cycle. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic principles of the Islamic faith that all 

Muslims accept and follow; these are commonly known as “The 

Five Pillars of Islam.”

Profession of Faith (Shahada) 

“There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His Messenger” 

(La ilaha illa illah wa-Muhammad rasul Allah). This statement 

expresses the total commitment to the message of God.

Prayer (Salat) 

Pray five times a day. During each of the five daily prayers, the 

worshipper faces toward the Ka’aba in Mecca as he/she prays. 

The direction of prayer is called the Qibla. 

Alms (Zakat) 

This is an obligatory tithe used to provide relief for the poor and 

other charitable donations. Afghans consider the ability to 

provide zakat not only a Holy duty but also an honor. Doing so 

confers upon the giver major social status.

Fasting (Sawm)

Muslims will abstain from food, drink, and intercourse from 

sunrise to sunset during the holy month of Ramadan (30 days).

It is a time for inner 

reflection, self-control, and 

reading the Qur’an. The 

object of Ramadan is to 

subdue life’s passions and 

draw one’s self nearer to 

God by purifying one’s body 

through denial of life’s 

pleasures (Photo: Afghan 

men praying during Ramadan). By tradition, all able-bodied 

adult Muslims who are not traveling participate in Sawm. 

Because the Islamic calendar is based on the appearance of 

the moon, Ramadan occurs at a different date each year on the

Western calendar. When Ramadan falls during the summer, 

keeping Ramadan requires great focus and endurance 

because people will not drink anything for up to 18 hours, 

despite the heat. It is common for Muslims to break their fast

(called iftar) at sunset with a light meal followed by sunset

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
prayer and then dinner. To be invited to an iftar dinner is a 

great honor. Be sure to bring sweets, fruits, or nuts for the host 

to share.

The Hajj

The Hajj is an annual 

pilgrimage to Mecca, which 

every adult Muslim who is 

physically and financially 

able is expected to perform 

at least once in his or her 

lifetime. Its purpose is to

demonstrate the Muslim 

people’s solidarity and their submission to Allah. The Hajj 

involves a series of religious rites that take place annually over 

several days at the Grand Mosque in Mecca, and surrounding 

areas. The focus of the pilgrimage is the Ka’aba (“the cube” in 

Arabic), the Sacred House located inside the Grand Mosque in 

Mecca, in which the sacred black stone is embedded. The 

Ka'aba is covered with a kiswah, a black silk cloth which is 

embroidered in gold with verses from the Qur'an. Muslim 

tradition teaches that the black stone was given to Abraham by 

the Archangel Gabriel and thus is a symbol of God’s covenant 

with Ismail and, by extension, the Muslim community. The Hajj 

is a highly spiritual experience during which one nurtures the 

kinship with fellow Muslims. Afghan males who perform the Hajj 

carry the honored lifetime title of “Hajji.”

Shi’a and Sunni 

The Sunni-Shi’a division of Islam began 

as a succession dispute shortly after 

the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 

632 AD. Muhammad died without a 

male heir and without naming a 

successor. After Muhammad’s death, 

prominent Muslims assembled and 

chose Abu Bakr as Muhammad’s 

successor and gave him the title of 

khalif (caliph), which means 

“successor” to the Prophet Muhammad 

and thus leader of the Islamic community or Ummah. Some 

Muslims believe the successor should have been Ali, the

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Prophet’s cousin, who had married the Prophet’s daughter, 

Fatima. This belief became the starting point for the doctrine of 

the Shi’a, or “supporters of Ali.” In 656 AD Ali became the 

fourth Caliph, but Muslims were still divided over how the 

Caliph should be chosen. The Shi’a reject the first three caliphs 

and believes in following a bloodline succession, descending 

from Ali and Fatima, and the Sunni believe the community of 

believers should elect the successor. 

Sunni Muslims

The invasion of Afghanistan by Arabs around 1000 AD 

consolidated Sunni Islam as the majority religion in 

Afghanistan. The Arabic word Sunnah means “path” or 

“example,” and refers to the examples of the Prophet 

Muhammad as found in the Hadith, a collection of reports 

about the Prophet’s life, and to the Qur’an. Sunnis are those 

“who follow the example of the prophet.” They believe that the 

caliph is fully human and should be an elected ruler. Sunni 

Islam is often wrongly referred to as Orthodox, or mainstream, 

Islam. The majority of the 

world’s 1.2 billion Muslims are 

Sunni.

Hanafi Sunni Muslims

There are four schools of 

interpretation of Shari’a Law in 

Sunni Islam: Hanafi, Maliki, 

Shafi’i, and Hanbali. These 

schools accept the same 

general principles of faith, but differ on details of practice, and 

on intellectual and theological issues. Most Afghans belong to 

the Hanafi School, which is known for tolerance. In the 1980s, 

during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, a significant number 

of Afghans, mainly Pashtuns, became fundamentalist, probably 

due to the increased contact with foreign Muslim fighters. The 

Taliban represent the extreme example of this trend.

Shi’a Muslims

The Shi’a sect believes the proper successor of the Prophet 

Muhammad was Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, and that first 

three Caliphs (Abu Baker, Omar, and Uthman) were not 

legitimate. “Shi’a” means partisan or faction of Ali, and is short 

for “Shi’at Ali”. Ali was elected the fourth caliph, but was later

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Distinguishing Sunni & Shi’a by How They Pray

Shiites begin by standing up 

straight with their arms and

hands straight down against

their sides

Sunnis begin by standing up

Straight while placing their 

hands on their abdomen. 

overthrown overthrown and assassinated. Following a nearly 

30 year dispute, in 661 AD the governor of Syria, named 

himself Caliph and made the caliphate hereditary in his own 

family, the Umayyads. The Shi’a rejected this as unjustly taking 

the caliphate from Ali and his sons. Shi’a attempts to challenge 

the Umayyad leaders resulted in the death of Ali’s son, 

Husayn, at the Battle of Karbala in Iraq in 680. Shi’a now refer 

to the Caliph as the Imam, or spiritual leader, and he is the 

head of the global Shi’a community. No person alive today is 

recognized as the Imam.

You may distinguish a Shi’a area from a Sunni area due to the 

Shi’a depiction of human images in their art, particularly Ali, 

Husayn, and the 12th Imam. Sunni generally avoid depicting 

human images out of concern this may lead to idolatry.

In Afghanistan, the largest Shi'a community is among the 

Hazara ethnic group. Two important Shi'a communities in 

Afghanistan are the Imami, also known as “Twelvers,” and the 

Ismailis, also known as “Seveners.” 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Imami “Twelvers”

In the 8th century, succession became confused when the 

Imam, Jafar, first named his eldest son, Ismail, his successor, 

then changed his mind and named a younger son, Musa. 

Ismail died before his father and thus never had an opportunity 

to assert his claim. When Jafar died in 765, the imamate 

transferred to Musa. Those Shi’a who followed Musa are 

known as Imami or “Twelver” Shi’as. The name "Twelver" 

derives from the disappearance of the 12th imam, Muhammad 

al Muntazar (the Hidden Imam), in about 874. He was a child, 

and after his disappearance he became known as a messianic 

figure, the Mahdi, who never died but remains to this day 

hidden from view. The “Twelver” Shi’a believe his return will 

usher in a golden era. 

Ismailis “Seveners”

The part of the Shi’a community that refused to acknowledge 

Musa's legitimacy and insisted on Ismail's son's right to rule as 

imam became known as Ismailis. Several hundred thousand 

Afghan Ismailis live in the northeastern province of 

Badakhshan as well as the Kayyan valley of Baghlan province. 

They speak Dari, as well as diverse local dialects, such as 

Ishkasim, Vakhi, Rushani, etc. The Ismailis advocate the 

legitimacy of only seven imams. The Ismailis consider their 

current spiritual leader to be the Agha Khan. 

Ashura Ceremony

The death of Ali’s son, Husayn, at the Battle of Karbala is 

commemorated annually in the Ashura ceremony, and is seen 

as a symbol of the persecution and oppression experienced by 

the Shi’a. Male participants beat their 

chests and chant. Some use swords to 

lacerate their heads to symbolize the

beheading of Husayn, or use chains to 

beat their backs to evoke the suffering of 

Husayn. 

Comparisons

Jesus

One of the main differences between 

Islam and Christianity is the view of Jesus 

(Isa). In Islam, Jesus is held as a prophet, 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
but one who was merely a man; not the son of God and not 

divine. Muslims do not accept the concept of the Trinity 

because only God is divine and has 

no family or equal (Photo: earliest 

known depiction of the Trinity dating 

350 AD and displayed in the Vatican 

City Museums). 

Sin

Muslims do not believe in Original 

Sin. Adam and Eve’s disobedience 

was forgiven and the resultant guilt 

was not passed down to mankind. 

God’s prophets were free of sin:

Noah did not drink, Lot did not 

commit incest, and David did not 

commit adultery. Consequently, there is no Baptism in Islam.

Judaism

Muslims do not believe God has a “chosen people.” Allah has 

no favorites and anyone can become one of His people 

through living a virtuous life and believing in God. Islam also 

does not accept YHWH (or Jehovah) as a name for God.

Scriptures

Muslims regard Christians and 

Jews as “People of the Book” In 

fact, the Qur’an contains 

teachings and stories similar to 

those found in the Torah (Old 

Testament) and Muslims

recognize many characters 

from the Torah and Gospels as 

prophets (Adam, Noah, 

Abraham, Moses, Jesus). 

Muslims believe that Christians 

and Jews ultimately worship the 

same one God they do, but that 

Christians and Jews altered 

God’s word over time; thus God 

revealed his final revelations to Muhammad, through Archangel 

Gabriel in order to affirm earlier scriptures and to correct these 

alterations, particularly the divinity of Jesus. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Importance of Family

Across all tribal and ethnic 

boundaries, the family remains the 

single most important institution in 

Afghanistan. A man's first loyalty is 

to his extended family followed by

his tribe, then his ethnic group, his 

village, and finally to his nation.

Extended families usually live near 

each other, sometimes together in a 

large compound often resulting in 

little individual privacy. A single 

compound will sometimes house up 

to four generations of relatives.

Male Authority

Throughout Afghanistan, authority is vested in male elders, and 

inheritance occurs through the male line.

Motherhood Reverence

There is great reverence of motherhood, and eagerness for 

children, especially sons.

Senior Citizens

All elder Afghans, both male and female, are treated with 

tremendous respect and honor. Typically, they remain with the 

eldest son’s family, regardless of their age and health. A wife

will honor her husband’s elder family members and also serve 

them. In addition, elders heavily influence most family 

decisions.

Children

Boys and girls are treated equally until age 9 or 10. Mothers 

typically encourage sons to be dominant within the household. 

Sons are expected to help their fathers in the field, and learn to 

ride, shoot, hunt, and herd. A boy is considered a man between 

the ages of 10 to 12. Girls are protected from public view after 

11 or 12, if not earlier, and taught household responsibilities 

from a young age (see Language & Communication).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Afghanistan Housing

The most common dwelling is a mud-brick structure consisting

of several rooms and surrounded by high mud walls designed 

to provide security from enemies, seclusion for women, and a 

pen for animals. The rooms are arranged around an open 

courtyard having one entrance from the outside. Visitors enter 

the courtyard and proceed to the greeting room and then to an 

adjacent large area separated from the women's quarters 

where male guests can 

talk. Among the other 

rooms is a kitchen, or 

oven room, where bread 

is baked in an earthen

oven; the family gathers 

there to keep warm on 

cold winter days. In Kabul 

and other large cities, 

there are also Westernstyle dwellings. Nomadic 

groups such as Turkmen, Kyrgyz, and Balochi live in tents or 

tent-like structures called Yurts. 

Dating and Marriage 

The sexes are segregated at puberty. The concept of dating 

does not exist, and premarital and extramarital sexual relations 

are strictly forbidden and may be grounds for severe 

punishment, including death. Girls often marry as young as 14 

or 15 years old (and as young as 12 in many rural areas). 

Families usually arrange the marriage of their children. Older 

females often play a prominent role in the decision. Afghans 

evaluate prospective marriage ties based on the tribe and 

status of the other family. Afghans typically use arranged 

marriages to secure strong family connections, because 

property remains within the extended family. Marriages 

between cousins are common for these reasons. Matchmakers 

may engage in lengthy negotiations over the bridewealth paid 

by the groom's family to the bride's and/or dowry that the bride 

brings to the marriage. The bridewealth guarantees the woman 

financial survival in cases of divorce, which respresents

shameful rejection. Among urban or westernized families, the 

prospective bride and groom may be permitted to meet or view 

each other and approve/reject the union

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Wedding Rituals

Marriage and engagement rituals are numerous, varied, and 

complex. Traditionally, wedding festivities extend for 3 days

occurring in the homes of both families. Most activities occur 

with the sexes segregated, but all gather for the contract 

signing and Qur'an recitation. Divorce is simple (the man need 

only announce it in public 3 times) but rare. A man may have 

as many as 4 wives but must care for each one equally both 

intimately and materially. This requirement tends to limit most 

men to one wife. If a husband dies, it is traditional for one of 

his brothers to marry his widow to sustain the family lineage.

Women’s Traditional Family Role and Status

To Afghans, women are the physical representation of family 

honor, and therefore are jealously guarded from outsiders. 

Within the family and at home, women carry significant 

responsibility and influence. 

The status and power of a 

girl increases as she moves 

from child to bride to mother 

to grandmother, with the 

eldest female typically 

wielding the most power. A 

successful marriage with 

many sons is the principal 

goal of many Afghan women and wholeheartedly shared by 

Afghan men. Women's nurturing roles are also considered 

crucial. Afghan folklore tales reinforce this gender role (see 

Learning and Knowledge). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &

Building Rapport through Family Values

• Sharing in the Afghan reverence of family is a great 

way to gain respect and acceptance. Expressing 

reverence for the family unit (especially elders) and 

love for your own family will help elevate your status, 

and bring you closer to your Afghan counterparts.

• Consider bringing pictures of your wedding or last big 

family reunion to share.
Gender Relations

Men

Males usually work in the fields or family business and handle 

most contacts with the outside world. 

Men are expected to be disciplinarians 

and providers for aged parents. While 

elder women are highly influential within 

the extended family, it is ultimately the 

elder men who make final decisions.

Women

Household tasks are divided by gender, 

age, and experience. In general, women 

do all the cooking, washing, and 

cleaning. However, women's work varies among ethnic and 

tribal groups. Among most settled rural families, women 

participate in agricultural work only 

during light harvesting periods, and 

they are responsible for the production 

of milk products. Some specialize in 

handicrafts such as carpet and felt 

making. In contrast, Nuristani women 

plow the fields while the men herd the 

flocks and process the dairy products. 

Nomadic women care for young lambs 

and kids and make a wide variety of 

dairy products, for sale as well as 

family use. They also spin the wool 

5. SEX AND GENDER

Mixing of the Sexes in the Workplace

• Males and females may be co-workers, but are 

nevertheless cautious to maintain each other’s honor. 

• Men should carefully maintain professionalism and 

avoid the perception of untoward interest. Such 

perceptions dishonor the woman and her family.

SEX &

GENDER
sheared by men and weave the fabric from which their 

dwellings are made. When on the move, it is the women who 

put up and take down the tents.

Women Symbolize Honor

Afghan society regards women as symbolizing the honor of 

family, community and the Afghan nation, consequently, it is 

considered necessary to protect 

women to maintain their moral 

purity. Respect for women is a 

notable characteristic, and few 

wish to destroy this view of 

women’s valued status. It is a 

guiding reality that a family's social 

position depends on the public 

behavior of its female members.

Social Separation of Women

The sexes are separated at 

puberty. Women are sometimes 

required to spend their lives in 

purdah seclusion. (Purdah is a Persian word literally meaning 

curtain). Veiling is the most visible sign of this attitude. It also

Proper Interaction with Afghan Women

• Dating is not acceptable in Afghanistan. Normally a 

couple should not be seen alone in public unless 

legally married. 

• Making a pass or staring at a female in Afghanistan 

could bring serious consequences for all parties 

involved since a female in Afghanistan is considered 

the honor of all male family members. 

• Sex between unmarried people is forbidden in Islam 

and punishable by law. Females involved also have 

to contend with the family wrath, which in some 

instances could result in death.

SEX &

GENDER
means that women are not seen by males who are not close 

family members. Social visiting is also segregated by gender; 

in home social visits, expect to see 

males and females socializing in 

separate areas.

Emerging Women’s Rights

In the late 19th century and through 

the middle of the 20th century, Afghan 

women gained the right to work 

outside the home, seek an education, 

and determine whether to veil or not. Before the Taliban took 

over Kabul, women totaled about half of the working 

population. Under the Taliban rule, women’s rights were 

severely restricted. Since the defeat of the Taliban, women’s 

right to work outside the home, including political activity, is 

receiving increased acceptance. The 2004 constitution makes 

a commitment to the advancement of women and to gender 

equality. 25% of the seats in the lower house of the National 

Assembly are designated for women.

Proper Interaction of Women with Afghan Men

• Female Airmen must maintain a professional 

demeanor and demand that Afghan males honor 

their status as Airmen rather than females.

• Avoid joking around, touching or familiarity. You can 

only relax around Afghan females.

• Afghan women can be valuable sources of 

information and local understanding. Always expect 

that you will separate from the men and go with the 

women. Never be alone with Afghan males, as 

there have been a number of instances where 

Afghan men have sexually assaulted US female 

personnel. US female members should request

Afghan female translators or male colleagues to 

accompany them in social settings. 

SEX &

GENDER
Pashtun Language

Pashtuns speak Pashto (also pronounced Pashtu or Pakhtu), a 

language written using the Arabic script. Pashtun leaders have 

promoted the Pashtu language as a symbol of Pashtun political 

domination in Afghanistan, even though many Pashtuns may 

not speak the language as their mother tongue. Instead, many 

Pashtuns speak Dari, the Afghan version of Iranian (also called 

Farsi), as their first language. Pashto and Dari remain the two 

official languages of Afghanistan.

Dari Language 

Tajiks generally speak Dari; however, there are considerable 

variations among isolated valleys and mountain villages. Dari is 

a classical form of Persian. Dari differs from the Tajik language 

spoken in the country of Tajikistan. Dari (like Pashto) is written 

using the Arabic script. For Westerners, Dari tends to be much 

easier to learn than Pashto, having a less complicated case 

and gender system.

Hazara Language

The Hazaras speak a form of Farsi known as Hazaragi, which 

is differentiated from Dari by its words of Mongol origin.

Eloquence

How a person expresses himself is every bit as important as 

what he has to say. Afghans tend to avoid direct, simple 

speech; they view it as the talk of the fool. Instead, they admire 

poetry, allusion, and 

eloquence of speech. They 

greatly admire “flowery 

language,” viewing it as a 

sign of intelligence and 

refinement. 

Greetings

In Afghan culture, a 

friendly and warm greeting 

plays an important role in 

conveying honesty and initiating successful discussion. Smile 

politely and make eye contact with the men you are greeting. In 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
a group of men, be sure to greet everyone individually. A warm 

greeting helps develop rapport. Try to keep that attitude as you 

conduct your mission. Also keep in mind that you cannot make 

eye contact effectively if you are wearing sunglasses. When 

greeting and conversing with Afghans, remove your 

sunglasses! Failure to do so demonstrates rudeness or 

weakness (the wearer is too weak to handle the intense Afghan 

sunshine). Arabic greetings are accepted throughout 

Afghanistan. Assalaam alaikum (Peace be upon you) is replied 

to with Waalaikum assalaam (And peace also upon you).

When greeting someone who is not familiar to you, expect to 

shake hands (with the right hand) and then bring your open 

hand up to your heart. When greeting someone who is more 

familiar to you, expect to shake hands and then kiss on the 

Address Afghans Appropriately

• In formal situations, using an academic or 

professional title is essential.

•When introducing yourself for the first time to an 

Afghan, you should use your rank and both your first 

and last name. Thereafter you can refer to yourself by 

rank and first name, which is traditional in Afghan 

society.

• For example, it is appropriate to use “Sergeant John”

versus rank and last name (Sergeant Smith). Pay 

attention to how your Afghan counterpart introduces 

himself and address him properly, using his first name 

and rank if he so indicates.

• The title Haji (pilgrim) is reserved for those who have 

made a pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia.

• Parents are often called by their first-born child's 

name, such as Umm (mother of) Muhammad or Abu

(father of) Alam. Friends use given names and 

nicknames among themselves.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
cheek 3 times, first to the right, then to the left, and then back 

to the right. If you don’t know which of these greetings to use, 

pay attention to the Afghan’s body language for cues, and then 

follow the leader.

Greeting Children

When you enter an Afghan 

village it is likely that children 

will be the first contacts you will 

experience. The adults will 

watch how you converse with 

the children and asess you 

based on your behavior. Most 

children will be excited to see 

you enter their village. They may run up to you, try to get close 

to you, and even attempt to speak English to you. If you avoid

the children and do not socialize with them, adults may think 

you are unfriendly and will be less likely to assist you. If you 

converse with the children in a friendly manner, adults will be 

more likely to talk to you. Even small acts like handing out 

portions of an MRE will give the children a great story to tell for 

years to come. 

Generally speaking, women are expected to show more 

affection to children than men. Americans should be careful not 

to be overly affectionate 

with children of the 

opposite sex. Also, take 

care not to praise the 

beauty of a child; while 

compliments like “He’s so 

cute!” are common in 

America, praising an 

Afghan child’s physical 

appearance is altogether 

inappropriate. A popular Afghan superstition holds that harm 

will befall a child who is complimented.

Greeting Women

In traditional Afghan culture women do not usually interact with 

men in social settings. Similarly, an Afghan man will shake 

hands with a woman only if she first offers her hand, although 

in Muslim cultures, members of the opposite sex do not 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
normally shake hands. Furthermore, a man would talk to a 

woman only after being introduced to her. It is also common 

for Afghan women to greet 

each other with several 

kisses on the cheek while 

placing their arms slightly 

around each other. 

Dear Uncle

In Afghan culture it is 

common to refer to others in 

the community using family 

terms, even when blood relationship does not exists. Terms 

like “brother” and “uncle” are a friendly way of addressing 

others, functioning as informal versions of “ma’am” and “sir” for 

people within the community. Children may call their elders 

“uncle,” and men may call other men “brother.”

God Bless

“Naa-me khu-daa” is a very common expression essential to 

Afghan daily life. It literally means “name of God,” but 

translates roughly to “God bless.” Used after a positive 

announcement, it indicates the speaker’s desire that the 

positive thing continue, by the grace of God. It is especially 

important to say “naa-me khu-daa” after paying someone a 

complement to demonstrate one’s best wishes for sustained 

benefit. The use of “naa-me khu-daa” is a must when talking 

about children. When someone first tells you about their 

children, you should say “naa-me khu-daa” to indicate your 

desire that the children grow up healthy and safe. Not using the 

expression may be interpreted as disinterest in the children’s 

well-being and could possibly impede the rapport you hope to 

establish with your counterpart. 

Saying Goodbye to Women

If a husband has introduced you to his wife or female relative, 

you can assume that he is not very conservative. In this case, 

when you are saying goodbye to the people in the room, you 

can say “goodbye” to her, while placing your right hand over 

your heart, bowing slightly, and lowering your gaze. It is best to 

avoid additional comments or attempting to make conversation; 

a simple goodbye is sufficient. If you are in the house of a very 

conservative man, chances are the women in his household 

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will not answer the door, and will stay in another room while 

you are conversing. In this case, you will not be introduced, 

and you should not say goodbye. 

Politeness with Women

Traditionally, Afghan men generally avoid eye contact with 

females, although Afghan men have become more aggressive 

toward US women. 

Conversely, if a US male’s 

demeanor in the presence of 

an Afghan woman is 

interpreted as curiosity or 

interest in her personally, that 

perception could damage the 

US male’s relationship with 

his Afghan male counterparts 

and perhaps hamper preestablished trust. Therefore, it is important for men to lower 

their gaze when dealing with women.

Honor, Shame, and Criticism

Maintaining appearances and preserving the public honor of 

one’s family and oneself is a top priority in Afghan society. 

Preservation of honor is so important that historically it has 

resulted in bloodshed when a person’s honor has been 

violated. Afghans are very sensitive to public “loss of face,” 

even in many situations, such as giving constructive criticism 

publically, where Westerners would not be affected.

How to Politely Decline an Invitation

• You should first thank the host enthusiastically for 

the invitation and his gracious hospitality.

• A valid excuse would be that you have an official 

engagement that conflicts with the invitation. 

• End the exchange by expressing hope to accept the 

invitation another time.

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How to Emphasize a Point

In order to emphasize a point or get a person’s attention during 

a conversation, Afghans will grasp hold of a person’s hand or 

place their hand on another’s hand or shoulder. In addition, 

Afghans will use an open hand gesture to emphasize opinions. 

Similarly, they will lower their voice and speak softly to 

emphasize points and make the dialogue more effective versus 

the American way of speaking louder to emphasize points.

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Criticism and Humiliation

• Humiliating someone in public, even if 

unintentional, can be fatal to a relationship you are 

striving to cultivate. 

• Constructive criticism as a concept does not exist 

in Afghanistan. 

• Avoid issuing public criticism: if you must 

approach an issue critically, try to do so in a way 

that avoids assigning blame to any one person. 

• Any criticism of an individual made in the 

presence of his peers will result in a loss of face, 

one of the gravest insults to Afghans. 

o When providing critique, it is best to do so 

privately. 

• It is socially imperative to avoid chastising an 

individual in the presence of his peers. 

• When discussing a problem, it is best to avoid 

naming individuals and making eye contact with 

the person at fault. 

o It is also proper to avoid confrontation by taking 

an indirect approach. For example, it is wise 

not to state “This is wrong.” Instead, “We have 

tried that approach before and determined 

there is a better way.” 

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Social Visits and Hospitality

Afghan hosts delight in receiving guests and will prepare their 

finest tea (chai) and most delicious food to serve to them, even 

if it is beyond their means. Afghans are also culturally required 

to offer food or drink to others around them, and provide food 

and shelter for anyone who needs it. When visiting an Afghan

family’s home, it is proper to remove your shoes at the door. 

Men and women usually will 

socialize in separate rooms. 

Guests are expected to have 

at least three cups of tea, 

and perhaps something to 

eat. If guests eat with a host, 

a few loud belches are 

considered polite at the end 

of the meal and a sign that 

the meal was enjoyed. Any business discussions occur after 

refreshments. 

Giving Gifts

Take care when giving a gift that it not be too elaborate, as this 

may offend the recipient. You may be perceived as arrogant or 

as someone trying to impress others with your wealth. 

However, a carefully selected modest, practical gift may 

enhance rapport and begin a positive relationship.

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Giving Appropriate Gifts 

• If invited to a dinner, fruit, sweets, chocolates, and 

pastries are always appropriate gifts. 

• The gift should be inexpensive and wrapped.

• In the office environment, gifts such as pens, 

baseball caps, military unit coins and unit trinkets are 

also appropriate. 

• Refrain from gifts of alcohol or other items that may 

offend Muslims.

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Interacting with High Status Individuals

Status is very important to Afghans, and people of high status 

expect to be shown deference and treated with great respect. 

Don’t expect high status individuals to meet or deal with lower 

status people. When requesting cooperation, you can gain trust 

by showing that you are humble. Allow anyone of high status 

to enter a room first and sit down first. If possible, take notes 

when someone of high status is speaking to you as a sign of 

respect, furthermore, lowering your gaze intermittently while 

speaking also signals respect.

Conducting Meetings

During the initial 

business meeting, it is 

best not to anticipate 

reaching conclusions. 

Afghans typically use the 

first few meetings to get 

acquainted and forge 

relationships. Simple 

greeting and phrases in 

Pashto and Dari at the 

start and end of a meeting help build rapport. Afghans are often 

impressed when someone takes the time to learn some of their 

language; therefore, they are more likely to take that person 

seriously. Relationships that are strong will facilitate the 

Building Rapport 

• Ways to build rapport include placing the right hand 

over the heart and slightly bowing one’s head 

following a handshake to show respect, standing 

when the leader or elder enters the room, and 

always allowing the leader to provide input in the 

decision-making process. 

• Maintaining composure is critical, as swearing, 

shouting, displaying anger, and abruptness are 

viewed as a lack of self control, disrespect, and 

indicators that you are not from a good family.

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outcome of the meeting. Thus, the most important aspect of 

meetings is establishing a strong relationship with everyone 

who is influential in deciding future goals. 

Meals

Business talk is not usually conducted over a meal. You may 

be invited into an Afghan’s home to talk business, but normally 

the meal will be served first followed by business afterwards. 

Consider the invitation an opportunity to get to know your 

counterpart on a personal basis, allowing you to build a trusting 

and solid relationship with him.

Written Contracts

Afghans are usually hesitant to engage in formal, written 

contracts due to the possibility that events outside their control 

may prevent them from fulfilling the contractual obligations. In 

addition, Afghans may consider it insulting when asked to 

make a written contract, which suggests their verbal word is 

Making Agreements & Keeping Your Word

• The notion of commitment is of high value in 

Afghan culture. To express the importance of a 

promise or agreement, Afghans will shake hands. 

• If you make a promise, particularly one sealed by 

a handshake, do it with care. 

• Avoid making commitments which you are not 

sure you can keep, otherwise, you risk damaging 

your own reputation and the image of US forces in 

the region. 

• Broken agreements will result in a breach of trust 

between you and your counterpart. In fact, any 

unfulfilled promise will be perceived as a slight 

against an Afghan’s honor. 

• It is advisable to document discussion topics to 

demonstrate that you consider requests important. 

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considered questionable. This notion relates to the importance 

of honor and integrity of one’s word. To fail to follow through 

would disgrace one’s family honor. 

Don’t Forget Prayer Time

Muslims take time during the working day for prayers. When 

scheduling business appointments, you should avoid 

overlapping with prayer times. 

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Talking About Family

• Afghans normally will not ask for details about 

individual family members of the opposite sex. 

• It is appropriate to ask about someone’s family as 

a unit or discuss family members of the same sex. 

• It is offensive for a man to discuss someone’s 

wife, daughter, or sister in a casual way. 

• The same applies to women: it is not proper to 

inquire about male relatives in a casual way. 

• It is considered appropriate to inquired about a 

family member of the opposite sex when the 

situation is grave such as a medical emergency. 

• Your Afghan counterparts may inquire about your 

family, in which case similar rules apply. It is okay 

to mention that you have daughters, and give their 

names. It is best to avoid specific details, 

particularly about their appearance. 

• Most Afghans prefer to do business with people 

with whom they have an established relationship. 

o It is crucial that you get to know contacts as 

friends, and asking about their family is 

common way of doing so, therefore, try to build 

a solid friendship with your Afghan contact.

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Red Crescent

One of the signs you may see in 

Afghanistan is the Red Crescent, which 

is the Islamic version of the Red Cross

and signifies a medical facility.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

Non-Verbal Etiquette

Respecting a few common Muslim customs and courtesies will 

enable you to establish rapport with Afghan counterparts and 

host nationals. 

Common Gestures

Distant Greeting: A simple smile and a shallow bow at the 

waist suggest appreciation, thanks, or respect and serve as an 

acceptable greeting if you are at a distance. 

Finished Eating: This gesture is conveyed by the person

grasping his imaginary beard with the right hand and pulling

softly downward two - three times. This gesture is used by all 

Afghans (male or female) to show thanks to God for the food.

How Much? To gesture “how much?” Afghans rub their thumb 

against their other fingers.

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Left Hand

• The left hand is reserved for hygiene and 

considered unclean. 

• Try to refrain from touching or passing items to 

people with the left hand. 

• An exception is the two-handed handshake, which 

is not offensive, but rather warm and friendly.

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Get Someone’s Attention: In Afghanistan, you raise your 

hand to get someone’s attention by raising only your index 

finger. The standard American gesture of raising the entire 

hand has no merit. 

Afghan “Poker Face:”Afghans are usually masterful at not 

showing their emotions or “revealing their hand” when it comes 

to goals and intentions. However, Afghans are quite 

accomplished in “reading” foreigners, a skill which they 

undoubtedly developed over the country’s turbulent history 

suffering through and surviving foreign invasions.

Recognizing Status: An Afghan shows respect when greeting 

a person of rank or status, such as an elder, by kissing the 

dignified person’s hands. It is courteous to stand when elders 

enter a room and to greet the elderly men first.

Please, I Beg You: When begging or imploring someone for 

help, Afghans grasp the chin with the tips of their right fingers.

Gestures to Avoid

Yelling at someone is unacceptable behavior. 

When speaking to an Afghan, it is proper to keep your hands in 

view. Hands behind the back or in pockets may communicate 

disrespect, or that the person is attempting to hide something.

Pointing with your index finger is considered rude – use your 

whole hand.

Sticking out your tongue or spitting either on the ground or at 

someone is also rude. Indeed, among Pashtuns, spitting at or 

in the direction of another person is considered flagrantly 

disrespectful.

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Control Your Temper

• Losing your temper is viewed as a sign of weakness. 

Your words will have more positive influence if you 

maintain control of your emotions.
You should remove your sunglasses when you speak to an 

Afghan – showing your eyes is a sign of sincerity.

Blowing your nose in public is considered rude.

Winking is usually viewed as an expression of sexual desire or 

flirting, which is unacceptable behavior. 

Sitting with legs stretched in front of others, especially the 

elderly, is also considered rude. The soles should remain 

anchored to a surface or tucked underneath the legs when 

sitting on the floor or ground. 

Useful Translations

ENGLISH PASHTO DARI

Do you speak 

English?

Ta pe inglisee khabaree 

kawaley shee?

Ingleesee yead 

daaree?

Can someone 

assist you?

Tsok zamun sara 

marasta kawaley shee?

Kee maara kumak 

metonaa

Hello 

(Peace be 

upon you)

As-salaamu ‘alaykum As Salaam aalaikum

 Response: Waalaikum As salaam Waalaikum As 

salaam

Thank You Deyra manana Tashakur

Welcome Kha raaghlaast Khosh ahmadeen

Yes/No Ho/Na Baley/Ney

Maybe Shaayed Shaayad

God willing Inshallah Inshallah

What is your 

name?

Staa num tsa deh? Naam-e- shoma 

chee ast? 

Conversational Taboos Concerning Religion

• Criticizing Islam or making fun of its practices.

• Using the name of God (In English or in Islamic “Allah”) 

or the Prophet Muhammad in a profane expression. 

• Using the name “Jesus Christ” in profanity, as Muslims 

regard Jesus as a great prophet.

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My name is... Zama num ___ deh Naam-e- man ....... 

Ast

I’m pleased to 

meet you

Za Khoshala yem chela 

tasee sara gorum

Aaz deedaane 

shumaa Khoosh 

shudum

Good-bye Da Khoday pa amaan Kho-do hafaz

Please Mehrabaanee Lut-fan

Who? Tsoak? Kee?

What? Tso shey? Chee?

When? Kill-leh? Chee waqt? / kai?

Where? Cheeree? Kujaa?

Why? Walee? Chiraa?

Yesterday Parun Deeroz

Today Non Emroz

Tomorrow Sabaa Sabaa

Morning Sahaar Subh

Evening Mahaam Shaw

Noon Gharma Chaasht

Midnight Nima shpa Nesfey shaw

Now Wos Haale

Later Wrusta Pasaan tar

Day Woraz Roz

Night Shpah Shaw

Week Hafta Haftaa

Month Miyaasht Maa

Year Kaal Saal

Sunday Yakshamba Yak shambey

Monday Do shamba Doo shambey

Tuesday Se shamba Sey shambey

Wednesday Chaar Shamba Chaar shambey

Thursday Punj Shamba Panj shambey

Friday Jumaa Jum’aa

Saturday Shamba Shambey

OK Sama da Durust

Excuse me / I 

am sorry

BaKhana ghwaarom Mey baKhshee

Right/Wrong Sahee/Ghalat Durust/Ghalat

Here/There Delta/Halta Eenja/Oonja

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Literacy: Age 15 and over 

who can read and write

• Total population: 38.2% 

• Male: 52% 

• Female: 24.2% (2015 est.)

• Literacy rates tend to be 

much higher in urban 

centers than in rural areas

Traditional Learning Style

Learning through oral history is a traditional way of education in 

Afghanistan. In the past, communities across Afghanistan 

cherished the age old tradition of reading poetry, books of 

wisdom, history, and other important subjects during gatherings 

in homes or tea houses. Today, much learning still takes place 

through oral literature, oral history, philosophy, folk tales and 

poetry.

Importance of Folklore Tales to Gender Behavior 

Within the vast store of Afghan folktales covering religion, 

history and moral values, many reinforce the values governing 

male and female behavior. They illustrate what can or cannot 

be done, describe rewards and punishments, and define ideal 

personality types. Thus they serve to perpetuate the existing 

gender order and through example make it psychologically 

satisfying.

Education System

Two parallel educational systems function in Afghanistan: 

traditional and modern. Traditional Islamic religious schools are 

known as madrassa. They are typically found in towns and 

villages and serve to teach children basic moral values and 

religious knowledge through the study of the Holy Qur’an, the 

Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet Mohammad), and popular 

edited religious texts. Some madrassas also teach basic 

literacy and numeracy. Higher level madrassas located in 

Herat, Kunduz, Ghazni, Kandahar and Kabul were long known 

as important learning centers. 

The modern educational system was introduced at the end of 

the nineteenth century by the government which used it as a 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
means to convince traditionalists of the compatibility of Islam 

with modernization. 

This system was subsequently expanded with the continued 

assistance of France, Germany, Turkey, India, Britain, the 

United States and the 

Soviet Union. After 1978, 

however, a steady decline 

all but demolished the 

educational infrastructure, 

resulting in Afghanistan’s 

extremely low literacy rate. 

However, since the fall of 

the Taliban in 2001, more 

than 10.5 million children 

have returned to school, despite attacks on schools and a 

shortage of teachers and materials. Girls comprised 51.6% of 

the school population in 2014, the percentage represents a 

huge increase even compared to the years before the Taliban 

rule. 

Mega-Madrassas (Dar al-Aloum)

• Each province has seen the establishment of 

at least one large madrassa, which is the 

traditional Islamic religious educational 

institution.

o As many as 6,000 students may attend each 

school. 

• Curriculum combines Islamic tradition with 

contemporary studies. 

o Curriculum entails 40% religious instruction, 

40% math and science, and 20% English 

and computer studies. 

• Purpose is to modernize the educational 

system and prevent students from leaving 

Afghanistan to study at madrassas in Pakistan. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concept of Time

Having a relaxed view of time compared to Westerners, 

Afghans generally disregard time management and punctuality. 

Conversely, they are more concerned about human 

interactions and relationship-building and are known to be 

infinitely patient and tolerant. For example, because punctuality 

is less important, Afghans may be late for meetings – very late 

in some cases. 

Afghan Work Ethic

Often, the length of time a task will take is of little (if any) 

importance to Afghans. Understand that they tend to be more 

concerned with ensuring that the task is accomplished

eventually. In this regard, Afghans can seem infinitely patient.

Because of their relaxed view of time, an Afghan is not as 

concerned with meeting an official suspense as his US 

counterpart or supervisor. In this manner, an Afghan may take 

advantage of the opportunity to allow the US military member 

to accomplish the Afghan’s assigned duties for him in order to 

ensure the mission is accomplished in the required timeframe.

Timelines and the Dari Future Tense

• If a Dari speaker tells you something “is being done,” 

it doesn’t necessarily mean they are working on it 

right now.

• Speakers normally use the continuous present-tense 

verb for activities in a future context. The Dari 

language has a future tense, however, only educated 

people use it (Man Khaham Kard). Villagers 

commonly use the continuous present, “I am doing” 

(Man Mekonam). Listen carefully for adverbs which 

denote time such as “Sabaa” (tomorrow) to avoid 

confusion.

• Keep this in mind when discussing timelines for 

projects.

SPACE

TIME &

8. TIME AND SPACE
Due in large part to their relatively relaxed view of time, 

Afghans tend not to be as concerned as Americans with 

meeting official suspense dates or times. Consequently, certain 

Afghan partners may take advantage of US military members 

who are responsible for meeting deadlines (i.e. US partners 

doing the work in order to keep on schedule).

Afghan Work Week

The Afghan work week begins on Saturday and ends early on 

Thursday. Weekends begin on Friday, which is the Islamic holy 

day. It is not uncommon for some businesses to close on 

Thursday.

The Islamic Calendar

The Islamic calendar is used to determine the proper day to 

celebrate religious holidays and festivals. It is a lunar calendar 

and contains 12 months, although it is 11 days shorter than the 

Western or Gregorian calendar. As a result, from one year to 

the next, Islamic holidays fall 11days earlier on the Western 

calendar than the previous 

year. 

Concept of Personal Space

“Talking distance” between

Afghans is normally much 

closer than most Americans

are accustomed to. Afghans of 

the same gender typically 

interact with less personal 

space between them and are known to touch often while 

conversing. To stand back from someone indicates a desire not 

to interact with the person and may be perceived as offensive. 

Proximity as a Sign of Sentiment

Afghans often use proximity (physical nearness) to convey 

sentiment. For example, they will place individuals close to 

them who share alliances, friendships, and bonds. Be mindful 

of who you place close to you at meetings, meals, and events, 

as this proximity signals alliances much more than in US 

culture. Pay attention to and learn from public displays of 

affection between Afghans. In tribal culture, the public display 

tells everyone, particularly members of the same tribe, that you 

are a friend and confidant. 

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TIME &
Dress

Men’s Clothing: Nearly all 

Afghan men wear a kneelength shirt worn over baggy 

trousers pulled tight with a 

drawstring. During the winter, 

men wear a sheepskin coat, a 

short-sleeved white raw wool 

vest, or long cloak draped 

over the shoulders. 

Headgear

Afghans wear caps or turbans (lungi). Caps 

are round, conical or peaked and made of

decorative material unique to each ethnic 

group. Young boys usually wear caps until 

they are circumcised – they then wear 

turbans. Turbans are characteristic of the 

Pashtun.

Women’s Clothing

Women’s traditional dress includes a 

two-piece outfit consisting of loose 

trousers worn under a tunic with a high 

neck and long sleeves. Many women 

also wear a long scarf draped across 

the shoulders. Some women wear a 

long colorful dress with a short jacket, 

long coat, or 

shawl. Many 

children wear a tawiz (amulet) to protect 

them against evil.

Chadiri/Burka

Under the Taliban regime, women 

always wore the Chadiri, a head-to-toe 

covering, when they were in public. The Chadiri is not unique to 

the Taliban era and will likely continue to be worn.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sports and Games

Afghans have a love for sports, particularly wrestling and 

soccer. The game of cricket is also popular, as it migrated into 

Afghanistan from Pakistan. Typically, only men may play 

sports.

Buzkashi, a precursor of polo, is a traditional Afghan game 

played on horseback, in which riders seek to grab a headless 

calf and swing it onto their 

saddle and ride with the calf 

carcass around a track to score 

a goal. Only truly superb 

horsemen are able to master 

the game. Buzkashi is 

portrayed in the movie “Rambo 

III” and in the 1971 movie “The Horsemen” with Omar Sharif 

and Jack Palance.

Kite Fighting

This is also popular sport in Afghanistan and there are no 

official rules. Everyone puts up his kite, and the fighter usually 

has an assistant to help with the line and spool. There can be 

over 25 kites in the air at any given time, all fighting. These 

large kites have quite a pull to them when up in the air, but 

most of the fighting is done with release cutting which requires 

a lot of patience. Young children on the ground have a great 

time trying to capture the cut kites, and can compile quite a 

collection by the end of the day. Kite fighting is portrayed in the 

movie “The Kite Runner”. 

Teahouses

Tea is a popular drink among the men, and they will gather 

here to talk, listen to music, and drink there tea (chai). 

Gambling: Men gamble on animal (usually roosters) fighting. 

Music

Traditional music follows regional and ethnic divisions. All 

groups play music using stringed instruments such as the 

rebab (pictured next page), the tambur (a long, multi-stringed 

lute), the dutar (a two-stringed lute), and drums. Many Afghans

consider the banjo-type, skin-covered rebab as the national 

instrument. It is noteworthy that when the Taliban took control 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

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AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
of Afghanistan’s capital city Kabul in 1996, they banned music 

and kite flying along with a number of other favored pastimes.

Attan

Afghans usually dance alone or in circles. Pashtuns perform 

the attan, a dance in the open air that was originally the 

Pashtun's national ethnic dance, but which has become a part 

of Afghan cultural life.

Arts

Carpet-weaving, copper utensils, gold and silver jewelry, and 

embroidery are traditional Afghan arts. Buddhist, Hindu, and 

other pre-Islamic religious statues and other works of religious 

art were destroyed under Taliban rule.

Modern writers have focused on themes of Islam and freedom. 

Proverbs, poetry, and riddles are popular, and folktales are a 

key form of teaching and entertainment (see History & 

Myth).One of the first great 

literary works in Dari was 

Shah Namah (Book of the 

Kings), completed in 1010 AD 

by Ferdosi. Also respected 

are the munajat (prayer 

verses) written by Kwaja 

Abdullah Ansarai. 

Buddhist Influence

Buddhism was a major religion in 

Afghanistan during the pre-Islamic era, 

which lasted from the 4th-century BC until 

the 7th-century AD. Consequently, many 

existing monuments and artifacts testify to 

Buddhist influence in Afghanistan (Photo: 

smaller of the two Statues of Buddha in 

Afghanistan’s Bamiyan Valley, courtesy of 

Wikimedia). Afghanistan’s Taliban militia

considered Buddhism a pagan religion, 

and as a result, in 2001 destroyed a 

number of historical Buddhist monuments. An international 

effort is currently underway to rebuild the two distinguished 

Buddhas of the Bamiyan Valley, which are listed among 

UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Diet

Rural Afghans usually eat only 

breakfast and dinner, though some 

have a light lunch. Rural Afghans 

generally eat on a mat on the floor 

out of a communal dish. All Afghans 

eat large amounts of flat-loafed bread 

(nan). Diners eat with their right 

hand, often using the bread as a 

plate and as a scoop for the food. 

The left hand is only used if the host 

has provided utensils.

Meat 

Meat forms a large part of the Pashtun diet, with the exception 

of pork, which Muslims believe is an unclean meat. Meat is 

often boiled, seasoned, and served mixed into a rice dish. This 

dish is called pilau, and is generally the main dish served at a 

meal. Pilau can also be used to refer to food in general.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Restricted Foods/Drinks for Muslims

• Haram – of Islamic religious restrictions, Muslims 

do not eat pork and most do not consume alcohol.

• Halal – According to Islam, the slaughtering of 

animals must be performed to certain standards, 

known as halal, covering cleanliness, the training of 

the slaughterman, the avoidance of suffering, and 

by repeating certain words while the animal is 

dispatched. 

• Sunni Islam typically allows the consumption of all 

forms of seafood, but Shi’a practice largely prohibits 

the consumption of bottom feeders without fins or 

scales, such as lobsters, crabs, oysters, clams, and 

catfish. (Shrimp is often permitted). Shi’a do not

consume rabbit.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Typical Afghan Dishes

• Kabobs: Seasoned cubes of beef or lamb on a skewer; 

roasted over charcoal and usually served with a salad of 

chopped onions and tomatoes

• Kuftah-kabob: Roast meatball made with onion 

• Chilaw: A plain rice dish with mutton or chicken in the 

center 

• Mantoo: Steamed dumplings filled with chopped beef, 

minced onion, and spices. It is often 

served with a tangy yogurt sauce on 

top, sprinkled with lentils

• Sabzi or Zamarud: Rice with spinach 

• Qabli: A lamb and rice dish with 

raisins, shredded carrots, almonds, 

and pistachios

• Bonjan-i-sia: Rice with eggplant 

• Mashong: Rice with peas

• Landi: Rice with dried meat and rice 

with the head (including the eyeballs) 

• Reshta: Rice with eggs

• Naranj: Rice with orange peels 

• Kala-pacheh: Feet of sheep, a specialty usually served to 

an honored guest

• Torshi: A mixture of pickled vegetables; it is normally served 

with the pilau

• Mast: Yogurt sometimes served as a side dish or mixed into 

rice

• Panir-chakah: Cottage 

Cheese

• Qrut: Dried cheese balls

• Showra: Winter soup

• Badrang: Summer soup

• Faludah: Thick dessert made 

with milk and wheat flour 

boiled and served with rice 

syrup 

• Firni: Puddings

• Chori: A combination of cooked flour, oil, and raw sugar, is 

distributed to the poor during the month of Prophet 

Mohammad's death

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Women and Dining

Families normally eat together, but if a male guest is present, 

females eat separately. Most Afghans do not eat at 

restaurants, but some restaurants have booths or a separate 

dining area for families so women may dine out.

Accepting and Declining Food

• If offered, most Afghans will reject food or drink 

once or more, according to their rules of 

etiquette. If the other person continues to insist, 

they can then accept. Therefore, if you offer 

someone tea and they say no, continue to insist 

several times. They may just be saying no out 

of politeness, not because they don’t want the 

offering.

• However, if you reject an offering just to be 

polite, they will probably think you really don’t 

want it and may be offended. As an American, 

therefore, it’s generally safer to accept an 

Afghans’ hospitality. If offered tea, drink at least 

three cups, sipping it slowly. Eat what you are 

given, but take care not to eat more than the 

family can afford to give you. Since guests must 

eat first, it is possible that you are taking food 

from the family. Also, leaving food on the table 

indicates that your host has provided more for 

you than you can possibly eat, which will make 

him feel honored.

• If someone appears extraordinarily poor and 

hungry, and you suspect he is offering purely 

out of obligation, politely refuse the offering with 

an appropriate excuse such as orders from 

your superior force you to be elsewhere but that 

you hope to enjoy his gracious hospitality 

another time.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Healthcare

Life Expectancy Age Structure

Total pop: 50.87 years 0-14 years: 41.47% 

Male: 49.52 years 15-64 years: 55.98% 

Female: 52.29 years 65 years and over: 2.55% 

(2015 est.) (2015 est.)

Health Issues

In response to a strategy outlined by the Ministry of Health, the 

international community is supporting the government in 

rebuilding the primary health-care system. Since the fall of the 

Taliban in 2001, the health sector has seen significant progress 

in development, with 

reductions in disease and 

death. Today, 79% of 

Afghans have access to 

basic health services.

However, the number of 

infant deaths after birth is 

estimated at 10.7% (2015).

Afghan healthcare facilities 

are not reputable institutions which are sometimes managed by 

personnel not having government licenses or even medical 

degrees. Similarly, there is no public agency established to

monitor their operations.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Afghan Dining Etiquette 

• During a meal, everyone sits on the floor and eats 

from a common plate of bread, rice, and a variety of 

other dishes.

• Hide the bottoms of your feet if you are sitting crosslegged.

• Eat with your right hand if utensils aren’t provided

• See Language and Communication Section, to 

gesture “finished eating.” 
Health Precautions

Because of poor sanitation and insufficient potable water 

supply, infectious and parasitic diseases such as malaria and 

diarrhea are very common.

Food and Water: 

Use bottled, boiled, or 

treated water and avoid ice 

and fountain drinks. Wash 

fruit and vegetables in a 

disinfectant solution, if 

possible, and peel or cook 

them before eating. Avoid 

dairy products unless you are sure they have been 

pasteurized. Do not eat food purchased from street vendors. 

Avoid handling animals or swimming in fresh water.

Recommended Items: Bring insect repellent with DEET, cold 

and intestinal medicines, saline nasal spray, lip balm, 

sunscreen, and dry-skin care. If you wear contacts, bring an 

ample supply of cleaning solution and two pairs of your 

prescription glasses. The dry, dusty climate can make wearing 

contacts uncomfortable. If you need prescription medication, 

bring enough for more than the expected length of your stay, 

as pharmaceuticals are limited.

Welfare

In the early 2000s Afghanistan had the highest proportion of 

widows and orphans in the world, mainly because of protracted 

military conflict. Large numbers of disabled individuals and 

former militia’s members also lack a means of support. The 

government has provided very little welfare protection. Most of 

the welfare activity in the country has been provided by 

international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as 

the Afghan Health and Development Services, Afghan 

Women’s Education Center, and Humanitarian Assistance for 

the Women and Children of Afghanistan, and by United 

Nations organizations. NGOs also work with Afghan refugees 

in other countries, especially Pakistan. Approximately eight 

million Afghans were initially displaced as refugees; however, 

approximately 5.8 million have returned since the fall of the 

Taliban in 2001.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Economic Overview

Afghanistan's economy is recovering from decades of conflict. 

The economy has improved since the fall of the Taliban regime 

in 2001 largely because of 

the infusion of international 

assistance, improvement in 

the agricultural sector, 

infrastructure and service 

sector growth. Real gross 

domestic product growth 

exceeded 7% in 2008. 

Despite the progress of the 

past few years, Afghanistan 

is extremely poor, landlocked, and highly dependent on foreign 

aid, agriculture, and trade with neighboring countries. Farmers 

and nomadic herders comprise three-quarters of the Afghan 

population. 

Much of the population continues to suffer from shortages of 

food, housing, clean water, electricity, medical care, and jobs. 

Criminality, insecurity, and the Afghan Government's inability to 

extend rule of law to all parts of the country pose challenges to 

future economic growth. Natural disasters, such as 

earthquakes, continue to plague Afghanistan’s population and 

economy. It will probably take years of continuing donor aid 

and attention to significantly raise Afghanistan's living standard 

from its current level, among the lowest in the world. 

The international community remains committed to 

Afghanistan's development, pledging over $82 billion at 10 

donors' conferences since 2003. Afghanistan’s infrastructure 

continues to improve with 14,000 kilometers of new roads. 

Electric power lines, new schools, hospitals, and other 

developments are expanding. Nevertheless, Afghanistan will 

need to overcome a number of challenges, including opium 

production, budget sustainability, job creation, corruption, 

removal of landmines, government capacity, and rebuilding war 

torn infrastructure.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Opium

Afghanistan supplies more than 90% of the world’s opium. The 

drug industry accounts for nearly 1/3 of the country's economic 

production. Expanding poppy cultivation and a growing opium 

trade generate roughly $3 billion in illicit economic activity and 

looms as one of 

Afghanistan’s most serious 

policy concerns. Much of this 

drug money fuels the 

insurgency and sustains 

regional warlords and 

corruption of government 

officials.

Agricultural Products

Agriculture is a primary source of income in the country. In 

times past, Afghanistan was a food-exporting country, but now 

the people are dependent on imported grain. Major food crops

produced include corn, rice, barley, wheat, vegetables, fruits, 

and nuts. The major industrial crops include cotton, tobacco, 

castor beans, and sugar beets. The Afghan economy continues 

to be overwhelmingly agricultural, despite the fact that only 

12% of its total land area is arable and less than 6% currently 

is cultivated. Agricultural 

production is constrained by an 

almost total dependence on 

erratic winter snows and spring 

rains for water, because many 

irrigation systems were 

destroyed in war, and what

remains is very primitive. 

Water is generally in short 

supply. Relatively little use is made of machines, chemical 

fertilizer, or pesticides.

Other Industries

Other industries in Afghanistan include small-scale production 

of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, cement, and handwoven carpets.

View of Wealth

Traditionally, rural Afghans define wealth as land ownership or 

a large family. Urban residents are more likely to view wealth in 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
terms of money or possessions. Nomadic Afghans traditionally 

defined wealth by the size 

of their herds. 

“Hawala” Networks 

Much of Afghanistan’s 

financial system is still in 

the hands of traditional 

hawala networks. Hawala 

is an ancient, informal 

system of money transfer 

that existed in South Asia 

long before Western banking arrived. Hawala brokers take a 

client’s money and then contact a counterpart in the area 

where the client wants money delivered. The counterpart then 

pays out the sum (minus a small percentage.) A particular 

Hawala network is often used by members of the same village, 

clan, or ethnic group. This system is reliable and less 

expensive than formal bank transfers, and is virtually 

untraceable. Hawala plays an integral role in Afghanistan’s 

drug trade. In the Helmand province alone, $800 million in drug 

related hawala business takes place.

Negotiations

Plan ahead, know what you 

want (your position), and

identify and prioritize your

reasons (interests) and 

anticipate the other party’s 

position and interests. 

When you open discussions, 

it is wise to allow your opponent to speak first. When he

presents a position (a desire), ask for his reasons – his answer 

should convey his interests. If one of your interests parallels 

with his, you now have common ground to develop a mutually 

satisfactory solution. 

Unless the situation is dire, it is best not to make demands. 

Present your ideas and options for their comment. For 

example, don’t say “I think we need to do X”; rather “What do 

you think of the idea X?” Bottom Line: make your ideas --

theirs.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Additional discussion should outline the advantages and 

disadvantages for each option. When it comes time to select an 

option to implement, make sure it meets both parties interest – 

and seriously consider any option that improves the reputation 

of your counterpart.

Expect less detail in the agreement than you might want. Riskaverse cultures tend to manage consequences by creating 

general (not highly detailed) documents. However, with an 

excellent relationship built on mutual trust, the inevitable issues 

that arise during execution will be easier to resolve. 

Preservation of a reputation is of primary importance. 

Currency

The Afghani (AFN) is the 

national currency with one 

US dollar equaling about 63

Afghani as of 2015. The AFN

is divided into 100 pul. US 

dollars are not officially 

recognized in Afghanistan, 

although vendors do accept 

them widely unless the 

currency is old or damaged.

Money can be exchanged at 

any bureau de change 

(money exchange offices). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

Relationship Building Is Key

• During the initial negotiations, build a relationship; 

don’t work the task at hand (unless the situation is 

dire) relationship building can focus on discussions 

about the overall family, sports, geography, history, 

etc. 

• The purpose of relationship building is to develop 

trust. This trust will be vital in shaping the agreement 

and resolving issues during execution.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Technology

Technological development in Afghanistan is limited and 

hampered by inadequate 

infrastructure, largely in 

disrepair. The bulk of the 

labor force is engaged in 

activities requiring 

minimal technological 

advances, such as 

agriculture and livestock. 

However, Western oil 

and gas companies view 

Afghanistan as an 

important future conduit 

for central Asian 

pipelines and such future ventures may bring increased 

technological development to Afghanistan.

For Afghanistan to develop 

its natural resources and 

boost trade, it will need to be 

able to transport goods. 

Transportation is a major 

obstacle to increased 

commerce in this landlocked 

country and is a major 

element of Afghanistan’s 

reconstruction. Construction 

of the national or “ring” road 

is a significant effort.

Environmental Issues

Environmental issues include freshwater supply, agricultural 

and industrial runoff, land clearing and desertification, 

overgrazing, soil erosion, and deforestation. 

Even though Afghanistan lacks industry that would create air 

pollutants, smog is common in most urban areas. Afghanistan 

receives significant amounts of pollution from the Aral

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
sedimentary basin, and from industrial parks in Iran, 

Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

Natural Hazards

An average of 50 

earthquakes occurs 

each year in 

Afghanistan. They are 

particularly damaging 

in the Hindu Kush 

Mountains, which lie 

near a major fault line. 

In addition, forceful 

winds known as the 

“Wind of 120 days” 

occur almost daily in 

the southwest during 

summer. This is 

usually accompanied by intense heat, drought, and sandstorms 

that often bring great hardship to the local people.

Fascination with Technology

• Afghans are usually fascinated by technology

• Common items, such as ballpoint pens, may be 

objects of interest to rural Afghans

• Build rapport with Afghans by sharing common 

technological devices when possible 

o Be careful not to appear to be flaunting your 

wealth (by Afghan standards)

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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