Regulation of Drones

Australia • Canada • China • France • Germany • Israel 

Japan • New Zealand • Poland • South Africa

Sweden • Ukraine • United Kingdom 

European Union

April 2016

The Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Center

(202) 707-6462 (phone) • (866) 550-0442 (fax) • law@loc.gov • http://www.law.gov
This report is provided for reference purposes only. 

It does not constitute legal advice and does not represent the official 

opinion of the United States Government. The information provided 

reflects research undertaken as of the date of writing. 

It has not been updated.
Contents

Comparative Summary ....................................................................................................................1 

Australia .........................................................................................................................................13 

Canada............................................................................................................................................24 

China ..............................................................................................................................................36 

France .............................................................................................................................................42 

Germany .........................................................................................................................................52 

Israel ...............................................................................................................................................60 

Japan ..............................................................................................................................................68 

New Zealand ..................................................................................................................................71 

Poland ............................................................................................................................................83 

South Africa ...................................................................................................................................86 

Sweden ...........................................................................................................................................98 

Ukraine .........................................................................................................................................108 

United Kingdom...........................................................................................................................113 

European Union ...........................................................................................................................122 

Selected Bibliography ....................................................................................... ..........................133 
Comparative Summary

Ruth Levush 

Senior Foreign Law Specialist

I. Introduction 

The increased use of drones for civilian applications has presented many countries with 

regulatory challenges. Such challenges include the need to ensure that drones are operated 

safely, without harming public and national security, and in a way that would protect areas of 

national, historical, or natural importance. A variety of the countries surveyed in this report have 

also made efforts to address concerns regarding the property and privacy rights of landowners or 

other persons impacted by the operation of drones. 

International standards to regulate certain aspects of drone operations are currently being 

considered by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In 2011 the ICAO issued a 

circular titled Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) (CIR328). Serving as a first look at the subject, 

the circular calls on states to provide comments, “particularly with respect to its application and 

usefulness,” in an effort to proceed with the development of “the fundamental international 

regulatory framework through Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs), with supporting 

Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS) and guidance material, to underpin routine 

operation of UAS throughout the world in a safe, harmonized and seamless manner comparable 

to that of manned operations.”1

Efforts to harmonize rules of drone operations are currently being undertaken by the European 

Commission, which has introduced a proposal to integrate all drones, regardless of their size, 

into the EU aviation safety framework. 

While some individual countries have adopted legislation or implemented temporary provisions 

on the operation of drones, various regulatory and legislative proposals are currently 

being considered. 

This report surveys the regulation of drone operations under the laws of twelve countries as well 

as the European Union. Countries surveyed use different terminology in regulating drones. 

Such terms include “unmanned aircraft systems” (UAS); “unmanned aerial [or air] vehicles” 

(UAVs), and “remotely piloted aircraft” (RPA). For the purpose of uniformity and to reflect the 

terminology used by the ICAO, this summary refers to drones as UAS, to include all types of 

unmanned systems, vehicles, and aircraft, excluding model aircraft used for hobby or 

recreational purposes. 

Similarly, in conformity with universal, commonly used measurements, references to weight and 

distance in this summary are to kilograms (kg), meters, and kilometers. 

1 ICAO, Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 AN/190 (2011), https://www.trafikstyrelsen.dk/~/media/ 

Dokumenter/05%20Luftfart/Forum/UAS%20-%20droner/ICAO%20Circular%20328%20Unmanned%20Aircraft 

%20Systems%20UAS.ashx, archived at https://perma.cc/J5EM-TSAY. 

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II. Scope of Regulations

Several countries surveyed regulate UAS operations according to their weight and/or type of use. 

A. European Union Member States

The operation of large civilian drones exceeding 150 kg in European Union (EU) Member States 

is regulated by EU Law and monitored by the European Aviation Service Agency. Smaller 

drones are largely unregulated at the EU level at this time and are thus regulated by the 

individual EU Member States. 

In France the operation of UAS that weigh no more than 25 kg for experimental or testing 

purposes does not generally require a special permit as long as the operation complies with 

certain flight requirements. The operation of UAS that have a mass of less than 150 kg for other 

“particular activities,” primarily for commercial use, is subject to rules. For UAS of 150 kg or 

more, which are subject to EU-level regulation, the flight and use conditions are authorized on a 

case-by-case basis.

Under German law, the operation of a UAS that weighs more than 25 kg will not be authorized.

In order to operate a UAS that weighs more than 5 kg the owner must obtain specific flight 

authorization from the aviation authority of the German state in question. For UAS that do not 

weigh more than 5 kg and do not have a combustion engine, a general authorization to fly may 

be granted for a period of two years. A general authorization is only issued for a specific state, 

but may be recognized by other states.

Poland currently excludes UAS weighing less than 25 kg from registration requirements. If the 

weight exceeds 25 kg a permit to fly is required and operational restrictions may be applicable. 

Swedish regulations establish several categories based on UAS weight and usage. UAS used for 

commercial and research purposes, and those flown outside the sight of the operator, generally 

require licenses from the Swedish Transport Agency.

While generally exempting the operation of UAS weighing 20 kg or less from airworthiness and 

flight-crew licensing requirements, the United Kingdom subjects UAS that weigh between 20–

150 kg to all articles of its Air Navigation Order. Operators of these aircraft are therefore 

required, among other things, to obtain a certificate of airworthiness, have a permit to fly, and 

have a licensed flight crew.

B. Australia

Newly adopted rules in Australia, when they come into force, will generally exempt commercial 

flights of UAS weighing less than 2 kg from the need for a remote pilot’s license or operator’s 

certificate. Operating UAS weighing 2–25 kg will similarly be exempt if flown over a person’s 

own land for certain purposes and in compliance with standard operating conditions. Operating 

UAS weighing between 25 and 150 kg under similar conditions will require a remote pilot’s 

license. Operators of large UAS, as well as smaller UAS for other nonrecreational purposes, will 

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still be required to obtain a remote pilot license and operator’s certificate. Large UAS must also 

obtain airworthiness certifications. 

C. Canada 

In Canada, the need for a UAS operator to have a special flight operations certificate depends 

upon whether the UAS is used for recreational or nonrecreational purposes, its weight, and 

whether particular exemptions apply. UAS that weigh 35 kg or less and are used for recreational 

purposes do not require such a certificate. The operation of UAS for nonrecreational purposes or 

of UAS that weigh more than 35 kg (irrespective of the purpose) require a certificate. UAS that 

weigh less than 2 kg or between 2 kg and 25 kg are subject to exemptions if the operator is able 

to follow strict safety conditions. 

New regulations for UAS that weigh 25 kg or less are being developed. These regulations will 

eliminate the current distinction between recreational and nonrecreational uses. The proposed 

changes provide a classification system based on the risks involved in the use of UAVs, with the 

operation of UAS weighing 25 kg or more continuing to be subject to the licensing requirement. 

D. China

Interim provisions regulating UAS have recently been issued by China’s civil flight regulatory

body. While generally exempting UAS weighing 1.5 kg or less from their application, the 

interim provisions apply to UAS with a maximum empty weight of 116 kg or less, or a 

maximum take-off gross weight of 150 kg or less, and a calibrated air speed of no greater than 

100 kilometers per hour. The provisions are also applicable to “plant protection UAS” used for 

agricultural, landscaping, or forest protection purposes with a maximum take-off gross weight of 

5,700 kg or less and flying no higher than 15 meters above the surface, and to unmanned airships 

with an inflatable volume of 4,600 cubic meters or less. 

E. Israel

Under Israeli law, the operation of all UAS is generally subject to extensive regulation regardless

of their weight or type of use under special rules applicable to UAS and general rules that apply 

to all aircraft. 

F. Japan 

Japanese law exempts UAS that weigh 200 grams (7 ounces) or less from the licensing and 

conditions enumerated in the country’s Aviation Act. 

G. New Zealand

New Zealand differentiates among unmanned aircraft based on their weight. UAS weighing 

between 15 and 25 kg may not be operated unless constructed under the authority of, or 

inspected and approved by, an approved person or organization. Such UAS must be operated in 

compliance with a list of operating limits enumerated by law. The operation of UAS that weigh 

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more than 25 kg, and the operation of any size UAS outside of the operating limits, requires an 

unmanned aircraft operator certificate from the Civil Aviation Authority.

H. South Africa

South Africa permits the use of what are known as Class-1 and Class-2 UAS, which are further 

divided into subclasses, for private, commercial, corporate and nonprofit operations. The level of 

both technical and operational requirements that apply to UAS in South Africa differs based on

the type of operation. For instance, a private operation may only be conducted using a Class-1A 

UAS (less than 1.5 kg in weight) or Class-1B UAS (less than 7 kg in weight). Private operations

are exempt from various requirements applicable to other operations, including the need to 

obtain a letter of approval, certification of registration, and UAS operator certificate. The level 

of restrictions applicable to a UAS operation is also related to the complexity of the operation in 

question. Additional restrictions apply to operations in a controlled airspace and beyond visual 

line of sight (VLOS).

I. Ukraine

In Ukraine all aircraft, including UAS, that are owned by a legal entity incorporated in Ukraine 

or by a natural person resident in Ukraine, or rented or leased by a Ukrainian operator from the 

nonresident owner, must be registered, with the exception of those having a maximum take-off 

weight not exceeding 20 kg that are used for entertainment and sports activities.

III. Jurisdiction

The countries surveyed usually implement aviation regulations through their national civil 

aviation authorities. While in most countries the regulation of UAS falls under the jurisdiction of 

the national government, local authorities in various countries may also have a role in approving 

UAS operations within their jurisdiction. 

In New Zealand, for example, local authorities and the Department of Conservation may decide 

whether consent to operate unmanned aircraft in public areas within their jurisdiction is required. 

Similarly in South Africa every operation that needs the Civil Aviation Authority Director’s 

approval may require the approval of local authorities. This applies, for example, to the use of a 

public road as a takeoff or landing ground. All local laws that relate to various aspects of UAS 

operation are also applicable. 

Local authorities in the United Kingdom have differed with regard to their level of involvement. 

Some local authorities appear not to have published any guidance on the use of drones in their 

localities. Other local authorities specifically require UAS owners to comply with the Air 

Navigation Order and the Civil Aviation Authority requirements for licenses for commercial 

flights. Local authorities also have the ability to introduce policies to regulate the use of UAS on 

any land owned by the authority. Refusal to comply with local authorities in the city of 

Leicester, for example, will result in the removal of the person from the relevant property in 

accordance with the city’s by-laws.

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IV. UAS Registration and Labeling 

Several countries surveyed have or are in the process of requiring the registration and labeling of 

certain UAS. In Sweden all UAS must be marked either with the name and telephone number of 

the operator as well as the certification number (where applicable), or with the registration 

number in the case of unmanned aircraft certified for use outside the view of the operator.

A proposal by the Israeli Civil Aviation calls for the establishment of a register that would 

include all UAS owned by Israeli citizens or by Israeli corporations that have received 

authorization to deal with UAS in Israel. The proposal also calls for labeling UAS with 

information confirming their Israeli registration, the name of the manufacturer, and the 

registration number. In addition, the proposal would require fire-resistant license plates in all 

UAS. The plates would contain specific identifying information including aircraft type, model, 

and serial number, as well as UAS authorization status.

A UAS registered in South Africa is considered to have South African nationality and it must be 

engraved with an identification plate including its nationality and registration marks. The South 

Africa Civil Aviation Technical Standards include additional particulars on the required 

identification plates and display of marks, including the appropriate colors and fonts, location, 

allocation, and specification of marks.

The German Ministry of Transportation and Digital Infrastructure is currently working on 

legislation that would require all UAS weighing more than 0.5 kg to be registered in order to be 

able to hold the operator/owner accountable if the UAS is used in an unsafe manner or for 

illegal purposes.

V. Flight Authorization Information

The level of information and documentation required under the laws of the countries surveyed 

varies. For example, in Canada a request for operating a UAS generally requires identification 

of the person designated by the applicant to have operational control over the operation. Other 

required information includes the method by which the operation manager may be contacted 

directly during operation, the type and purpose of the operation, the altitudes and routes to be 

used on the approach and departure to and from the area where the operation will be carried out, 

and other necessary identifying details regarding the planned operation. 

In France an application for a permit to fly UAS for experimental and testing purposes must 

include a description of the proposed conditions of the experimental flights, and of the measures 

taken to ensure the safety of third parties both on the ground and in the air. Authorization for 

UAS operation for commercial uses requires certification of the design indicating that adequate 

analysis and tests have been conducted to ensure safe use of the UAS. The operation of UAS 

also requires a declaration by the operator describing the activity for which the UAS is 

being used.

In Germany, an application for either general or specific authorization must identify, in the case 

of an individual’s applicant, his/her name, address and date and place of birth. For a business, 

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the application must include the name of the company, as well as the name, address, and date and 

place of birth of the registered agent and of all employees who will operate the UAS. The 

application must also include the reason for the operation of the UAS and provide proof of 

sufficient insurance for personal and property damage as required by law.

In addition to the information required for a general authorization, an applicant for a specific 

flight authorization in Germany must provide specific geographical and technical data on the 

UAS’s planned operation and the operator’s skills; a data privacy statement; and authorizations 

from the relevant competent regulatory or police agency or the competent nature conservation 

authority, if applicable. 

While operators of small unmanned aircraft are generally not required to seek prior approval in 

New Zealand, certain requirements apply for UAS weighing between 15 and 25 kg. Operators of 

UAS weighing over 25 kg in that country are subject to more extensive requirements. Issuance 

of an operating certificate for these types of UAS requires identification of the person with 

primary responsibility for the operation; details of the physical locations to be used in the 

operation; information on known and likely hazards to people, property, and other aircraft; an 

assessment of risks associated with those hazards; and a description of the measures that can be 

implemented to mitigate or manage the risks. Proof of the knowledge, competence, and fitness 

of the personnel involved is also required. Details of the aircraft type, identification and control 

system to be used, and operational procedures and airworthiness assessments are also required. 

The operation of a UAS for nonprivate purposes in South Africa requires a letter of approval 

(RLA) and a certificate of registration. An RLA requires that the applicant submit 

documentation regarding the UAS’s design and safety-related standards.

VI. UAS Operator Qualifications

Several of the countries surveyed impose specific requirements regarding UAS 

operators’ qualifications. 

To be eligible for operating a UAS in Australia, operators must obtain certain qualifications, 

complete certain training, and have a minimum number of hours of experience flying UAS. 

Entities wishing to obtain an operator’s certificate to operate large UAS or smaller 

(nonexcluded) UAS for nonrecreational purposes must have the facilities, procedures, and 

personnel needed to operate the UAS safely. 

In France UAS operators for “particular [commercial] activities” are generally required to have a 

certificate of theoretical competence for flying a manned aircraft. They are similarly required to 

have passed a practical training course. Pilots of UAS flown within a horizontal distance of no 

more than 1 kilometer from the pilot are subject to additional requirements, which include 

having a manned aircraft pilot’s license, and a specified term of practical piloting experience. 

The pilots of drones other than tethered aerostats weighing more than 25 kg must perform a 

demonstration flight before an agent of the ministry in charge of civil aviation before they are 

authorized to perform the flight.

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In Germany the issue of a specific authorization for the operation of a UAS that weigh between 5 

and 25 kilograms requires the applicant to provide information on the operator’s knowledge and 

experience, or proof of training.

All aircraft operators, including UAS operators, in Israel must meet certain conditions

concerning residence and citizenship, place of incorporation, and location of primary business, as 

relevant. Additional requirements for licensing of commercial operations include possession of 

the aircraft and necessary equipment for its operation, and authorization for flying and landing in 

designated areas in Israel. In addition, a concept paper published by the Israeli Civil Aviation 

Agency called for incorporating the requirements provided by Circular 328 AN/190 of the 

International Civil Aviation Organization into regulations that would require a UAS operator to 

acquire a license containing a specified authorization for the type of activity and equipment 

involved. Conditions for the issuance of flight licenses would accordingly include a minimum 

number of prior takeoffs and landings, depending on the type of flight, in the ninety days 

preceding the flight. Furthermore, the type of licenses issued would be based on the 

characteristics of the operator—for example, trainee, flyer of a UA subject to VLOS, UAS flyer, 

and UAS instructor; on the type of flight (domestic, external, experimental); and on the UAS

type, category, and class.

According to a New Zealand Advisory Circular, the knowledge and skills needed for the 

operation of UAS that weigh more than 25 kg or that operate outside of general operating limits 

may be demonstrated by different qualifications or licenses and/or by the completion of certain 

training, as well as evidence of relevant experience.

Operators of commercial UAS flights in Poland must have a certificate of competency from the 

Polish Civil Aviation Authority. The certificate will be issued to individuals who have passed a 

medical check-up, taken theoretical and practical tests, and have insurance. The certificate of 

competency can be limited to certain weight ranges (from less than 2 kg to less than 150 kg) and 

classes of UAS (airplane, helicopter, airship, or multirotor). Obtaining a VLOS operation 

certificate requires the applicant to sign a declaration of knowledge of relevant regulations and 

basic theory (airspace, emergencies, flight rules, etc.), and pass theoretical and practical tests 

conducted by a CAA examiner. A certificate of competency for BVLOS operation allows a pilot 

to fly beyond VLOS and requires the applicant to take training courses in addition to 

successfully passing theoretical and practical tests. 

In Sweden operating a UAS weighing more than 7 kg within VLOS requires that the operator be 

eighteen years old. Operating a certified UAS outside of VLOS requires the operator to be at 

least twenty-one years old and no more than sixty-seven years old, and to hold a certain level of 

medical certificate attesting to his/her health. In addition to age and health requirements, where 

applicable, operators must be certified by the Swedish Transport Agency as having completed an 

unmanned aerial system educational program. General guidelines also require that the pilot have 

knowledge of the flight safety standards laid down by the Executive Director of the European 

Aviation Safety Agency. 

A valid UAS license is required for commercial, corporate, and nonprofit operations of UAS in 

South Africa. To obtain a UAS pilot’s license applicants must be eighteen years of age or older.

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They similarly must hold current medical assessments and present evidence of having 

successfully completed necessary training. Applicants must also pass the UAS practical 

assessment and radiotelephony examination, as well as an English language proficiency test.

Other professionals operating UAS are subject, among other requirements, to various security 

reviews, including background checks and periodic criminal record checks. 

VII. Operational Requirements

A review of the individual country surveys indicates a variety of operational requirements. The 

following are some examples.

A. Spatial Restrictions

UAS may generally not be flown above people and public gatherings in several of the countries 

surveyed, including in France, Germany, Japan, Poland, and the United Kingdom. Restrictions 

on flights over sensitive locations such as military installations, airfield traffic zones, prisons, 

and nuclear power plants were identified in many of the countries, including in France, Israel, 

Germany, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, Sweden, South Africa, Ukraine, and the United 

Kingdom. Absent prior authorization, flights are also prohibited over specified historical 

monuments and/or national parks or natural reserves in France, Israel, and Sweden. 

Regulation of UAS operations in airport-controlled zones are found in a variety of countries 

including China, Germany, Israel, Japan, Poland, and Sweden. 

A detailed list of specified areas designated as prohibited, restricted, and dangerous for flying is 

available in Israel. The list provides relevant geographical coordinates, as well as minimum and 

maximum flight altitudes over designated areas. Similar designations of areas that are 

prohibited, restricted, and dangerous are indicated under Chinese laws and regulations. A 

detailed map illustrating where the flying of UAS is restricted in Sweden is maintained by the 

Air Navigation Services of Sweden. 

B. Radio Communication 

Several countries surveyed regulate radio frequencies that can be used by UAS. For example, 

China is identified as a country that allocates specific radio frequency spectrum to UAS flights. 

Similarly, according to New Zealand’s radio spectrum management agency, UAS must use 

certain radio frequencies to avoid harmful interference with vital radio systems such as those 

used by air traffic control, cellular phones, or emergency services. 

In Sweden all frequencies used by UAS must be preapproved by the Swedish Post and Telecom 

Authority. Polish telecommunications law requires a license if the UAS uses certain frequencies 

for communication, although most UAS use frequencies that do not require a license. 

South Africa requires all UAS operations to be conducted within a radio line of sight.

Additionally, the air-band radio must have the required output and be configured in such a way 

that the range, strength of transmission, and quality of communication extends beyond the 

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furthest likely position of the UAS from the pilot. Additional requirements may apply depending 

on the specific operation in question. 

The United Kingdom considers UAS as model control equipment subject to the use of 

frequencies of the 35 MHz band, which is solely dedicated to aeronautic modeling. Regulations 

require that model control equipment must not cause undue interference with other wireless 

telegraphy equipment. The use of these specific frequencies for model control in the United 

Kingdom is exempt from the requirement to hold a license under its Wireless Telegraphy Act 

2006 as long as the model meets certain conditions, such as operating within the designated 

frequencies, and the equipment must be marked lawfully in accordance with the CE marking and 

comply with all relevant EU directives.

C. Visual Line of Sight

The country surveys reflect different approaches to maintaining VLOS between the UAS and 

its operator. 

The operation of any type of UAS in Australia usually requires that the operator maintain a 

VLOS unless prior approval is granted. 

In China UAS flying within VLOS must be operated in the daytime. Such a requirement does 

not apply to UAS flying beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS), but a certain regulatory 

framework for addressing emergencies applies to BVLOS flights. Both UAS flying within 

VLOS and BVLOS must give way to manned aircraft. 

The maintenance of VLOS between the operator and the UAS is generally required in Germany, 

where UAS cannot weigh more than 25 kilograms and must be kept within VLOS at all times.

Japan requires operators of all UAS that weigh over 200 grams to monitor the UAS and its 

surroundings with their own eyes at all times. 

In New Zealand, UAS may be flown without the need for an operating certificate if they weigh 

less than 25 kg and do not exceed certain operating limits. The operating limits include a 

requirement for the operator to maintain unaided VLOS with the aircraft. Flying any aircraft 

BVLOS requires an operating certificate. 

In Poland a certificate of competency for UAS flight operators can allow for operation in VLOS 

or BVLOS conditions. If the weight exceeds 25 kg a permit to fly is required and operational 

restrictions may be applicable (e.g., VLOS only and/or minimum distance from populated areas, 

people, and property). 

Swedish rules generally require UAS lighter than 7 kg that do not create more than a specified 

level of kinetic energy to be flown within visual sight of the operator. 

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In South Africa a BVLOS operation is permitted only by special approval based on certain 

requirements, which vary depending on whether the operation is in or outside of a 

controlled airspace. 

In the United Kingdom UAS weighing less than 20 kg are required to maintain a direct, unaided, 

visual contact that is sufficient to monitor the flight path of a small unmanned aircraft in relation 

to other aircraft, persons, vehicles, vessels, and structures in order to avoid collisions. 

D. Safety Features

Safety devices are required to be installed in UAS in several countries. 

For example, France requires a certification of design as a precondition for the operation of 

UAS. France also imposes a number of safety requirements that apply specifically to certain 

types of UAS use. Among the requirements for the issuance of a certificate of design outside a 

populated area, where no third party is within the area of operation, and within a horizontal 

distance of no more than 1 kilometer from the pilot, is that the UAS would have an automatic 

system to prevent it from going beyond the horizontal distance limits of the flight, or would have 

an alarm system to warn the pilot when it goes beyond those limits. 

The use of UAS of 2 kg or more in a populated area in France, but without flying over any third 

party, staying within the pilot’s line of sight, and within a horizontal distance of no more than 

100 meters from the pilot, requires the UAS to be equipped with a system to protect third parties. 

This system is supposed to automatically activate if the UAS lands by itself following a loss of 

contact with the pilot. UAS of a weight of 4 kg or more would additionally have to have 

equipment to ensure that the pilot can know the aircraft’s speed. This equipment must be 

independent from the UAS main control link, and there must be an audible alarm to warn of the 

UAS’s fall.

In Sweden all uses of UAS require that they be equipped with an emergency device, enabling 

shutdown of the UAS if needed. An override system must also be available for UAS with an 

automated flight system. Additional safety devices including protection against misleading 

signals either from an outside source or from weather phenomena, availability of transponders, 

and a compatible anticollision systems, among other things, are required for certain types of 

UAS in Sweden. 

E. Insurance

Several countries require UAS operators to acquire insurance covering liability for third parties 

on the ground. Such countries include China, Germany, Poland, Sweden, South Africa, and the 

United Kingdom (for UAS of more than 20 kg). 

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VIII. Real-Time Supervision System: The Electric Fence and UAS Cloud

Among the countries surveyed China was the only country identified as requiring the installation 

of an “electric fence” that stops certain UAS from entering specific prohibited areas. China also 

requires such UAS to be connected to a “UAS Cloud,” which has an alarm function that is 

activated when flights cross the electric fence. The frequency of reporting by operators depends

on their weight and ability to operate within a designated area beyond VLOS. 

IX. Privacy

Privacy concerns regarding UAS operations have been raised by the European Parliament and 

other EU bodies, informed by EU and Member State legislation on personal data protection and 

privacy which impose strict standards on the processing of personal data. 

Such concerns are also reflected in the laws of some of the surveyed countries. German air traffic 

regulation and common principles put particular emphasis on the observance of data privacy and 

data protection rules. UAS operations that violate these rules will not be authorized. Similarly, 

principles contained in the New Zealand Privacy Act can apply where an operation involves 

filming or recording of people. 

As in Germany and New Zealand, the operation of UAS in Sweden for recording purposes may 

be restricted because of privacy rights considerations. The Swedish Administrative Supreme 

Court is set to decide whether the use of cameras on UAS constitutes “camera surveillance” as 

defined in Swedish law. The Swedish Parliament is also in an initial phase of considering 

amendments to legislation regarding privacy in connection with camera surveillance, with the 

Justice Department having published a Committee Directive in 2015. 

The privacy rules with regard to the use of UAS technology by individuals for collecting or 

recording information in Australia seem to be currently uncertain. In 2014, a parliamentary 

committee recommended a review of the relevant legislation, but no changes have been proposed 

to date. A survey of the relevant law in France, Israel, or Japan similarly does not indicate any 

special regulation on this topic. 

Although Polish regulations do not address the issue of personal data protection and privacy 

concerning the use of UAS, flights above another person’s property may constitute an 

infringement of personal rights. 

In the United Kingdom the recording of images obtained via UAS could potentially breach the 

obligations contained in the Data Protection Act and the CCTV Code of Practice, which address 

certain aspects of the use of drones that collect information about individuals. Businesses that 

use UAS that process personal information are required by the Data Protection Act to be listed 

on the Data Protection Public Register. Furthermore, flying of UAS registered outside of the 

United Kingdom over the UK for the purposes of aerial photography or aerial surveys is 

prohibited in the absence of a special authorization. 

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The specific rules on handling of UAS are outlined in the attached surveys of legislation in 

individual countries and under EU law.

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Australia 

Kelly Buchanan

Chief, Foreign, Comparative, and 

International Law Division I

SUMMARY Australia has regulated unmanned aircraft since 2002. The relevant regulations are being 

substantially revised in 2016, including new rules related to using remotely piloted aircraft 

(RPA) for nonrecreational purposes that come into force in September 2016. The new 

rules provide for commercial operations of very small RPA (weighing less than 2 

kilograms/4.4 pounds) to be conducted without the need for a remote pilot license or 

operator’s certificate, provided that these are operated under the standard conditions 

established in the new regulations. Small RPA (2–25 kilograms/4.4–55 pounds) will also 

be able to operate over a person’s own land for certain purposes and under the standard 

conditions without the need for certification and a license, while the use of medium RPA 

(25–150 kilograms/55–330.7 pounds) for the same purposes and under the standard 

conditions will only require a remote pilot’s license. Operators of large RPA, as well as 

smaller RPA for other nonrecreational purposes, will still be required to obtain a remote

pilot license and operator’s certificate. Large RPA must also have 

airworthiness certification.

To be eligible for a remote pilot license, operators must obtain certain qualifications, 

complete certain training, and have a minimum number of hours of experience flying RPA. 

Entities wishing to obtain an operator’s certificate to operate large RPA or smaller 

(nonexcluded) RPA for nonrecreational purposes must have the facilities, procedures, and 

personnel needed to operate the RPA safely.

There is currently some uncertainty with respect to the privacy rules applicable to the use 

of drone technology for collecting or recording information. In 2014, a parliamentary 

committee recommended a review of the relevant legislation, but no changes have been 

proposed to date.

I. Introduction 

The Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) states that “Australia was the first 

country in the world to regulate remotely piloted aircraft, with the first operational regulation for 

unmanned aircraft in 2002.”1

 The current rules related to remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) and 

model aircraft are contained in Part 101 of the Civil Aviation Safety Regulations 1998 

(Cth) (CASR).2 

1 CASA and Remotely Piloted Aircraft, CASA, https://www.casa.gov.au/aircraft/standard-page/casa-and-remotelypiloted-aircraft (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/6NUC-HKK7. 

2 Civil Aviation Safety Regulations 1998 (Cth) (CASR), pt 101, https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016 

C00234, archived at https://perma.cc/3K2L-24HP. The CASR are made under the Civil Aviation Act 1988 (Cth), 

https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00190, archived at https://perma.cc/6WTA-EADA. 

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CASA is currently working to modernize the regulations and expects to complete a full rewrite 

by the end of 2016.3 To achieve this, two “post-implementation review” projects have been 

initiated with respect to Part 101.4

A. US 14/18 – Review of Certain Aspects of Part 101 

The objectives of this project include to review the provisions in the regulations related to model 

aircraft in terms of their “effectiveness in managing emerging risks associated with use of 

unmanned aircraft which fall outside the scope” of the provisions on large and commerciallyused RPA, and to generally review all of Part 101 other than the large and commercially-used 

RPA provisions.5

B. OS 11/20 – Review of Regulations and Guidance Material Related to Unmanned 

Aircraft Systems (UAS)

The objective of this project is to “provide an up to date regulation and more comprehensive 

guidance to industry on the regulatory requirements and approval processes for the commercial 

operation of RPAS [remotely piloted aircraft systems] in Australia.”6 It is being conducted in 

two phases. Phase 1 involves amendments to Part 101 of the CASR and the publication of a 

suite of advisory circulars to provide guidance to industry. The process included the 

development of a notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM), which was released in 2014, with 

people able to submit comments on the proposed changes to Part 101.7

 

On March 24, 2016, an amending regulation, the Civil Aviation Legislation Amendment (Part 

101) Regulation 2016 (Cth) (2016 Regulation), was promulgated.8 The amendments will come 

into force on September 29, 2016.9 CASA states that the amendments “reduce the cost and legal 

requirements for lower-risk remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) operations. More complex 

3 CASA and Remotely Piloted Aircraft, supra note 1.

4 CASR Part 101 – Unmanned Aircraft and Rocket Operations, CASA, https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/casrpart-101-unmanned-aircraft-and-rocket-operations (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/D59Z949V.

5 Project US 14/18 – Post-Implementation Review – Certain Aspects of Part 101 of CASR, CASA, https://www.casa. 

gov.au/standard-page/project-us-1418-post-implementation-review-certain-aspects-part-101-casr (last visited 

Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/8HF6-TAMH. 

6 Project OS 11/20 – Review of Regulations and Guidance Material Related to Unmanned Aircraft Systems, CASA, 

https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/project-os-1120-review-regulations-and-guidance-material-relatingunmanned-aircraft (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/PS6T-99ZY. 

7 NPRM 1309OS – Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems, CASA, https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/nprm1309os-remotely-piloted-aircraft-systems (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/JP32-NWPG. 

8 Civil Aviation Legislation Amendment (Part 101) Regulation 2016 (Cth) (2016 Regulation), https://www. 

legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016L00400, archived at https://perma.cc/8YD4-LP3G. 

9 CASR Part 101 – Unmanned Aircraft and Rocket Operations, CASA, https://www.casa.gov.au/standard-page/casrpart-101-unmanned-aircraft-and-rocket-operations (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/S26RPG3A.

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operational matters will be dealt with in a new manual of standards to be developed with 

industry, providing greater flexibility and responsiveness in this rapidly evolving area.”10

This report outlines the rules contained in Part 101, as amended by the 2016 Regulation.

Phase 2 of the project “will consist of a complete re-write of the regulation resulting in a new 

CASR Part 102 for RPAS.”11

II. CASR Part 101

There are currently three subparts in Part 101 of the CASR that specifically regulate different 

sizes and uses of RPA and model aircraft: Subpart 101.C contains provisions that are applicable 

to unmanned aircraft generally; Subpart 101.F, as amended by the 2016 Regulation, applies to 

the operation of “large” RPA and of “very small,” “small,” and “medium” RPA for purposes 

other than sport or recreation; and Subpart 101.G relates to model aircraft, which are only used 

for recreational purposes. Subpart 101.A also contains some preliminary provisions relevant to 

operating RPA, and Subpart 101.B includes a general prohibition on the unsafe operation of 

unmanned aircraft.

The 2016 Regulation will insert a new Subpart 101.AB that provides for the general 

authorization for people supporting the operation of model aircraft and RPA.

12 As noted above, 

2016 Regulation also provides for CASA to issue a “Manual of Standards” prescribing matters 

required or permitted by the regulations, or that are otherwise “necessary or convenient” to be 

prescribed in terms of giving effect to Part 101.13 Other changes include the following:

14

• Changing the terminology relating to unmanned aircraft from “UAV” (unmanned aerial 

vehicle) to RPA, to align with that used by the International Civil Aviation Organization.

• Creating new weight classifications for RPA, being “very small” (less than 2 kilograms/4.4 

pounds), “small” (2–25 kilograms/4.4–55 pounds), “medium” (25–150 kilograms/55–330.7 

pounds), and “large” (more than 150 kilograms/330.7 pounds).

15

• Introducing the concept of “excluded RPA,” which relates to RPA operations considered to 

be of lower risk, as determined by RPA category and operational use, and that will 

consequently have reduced regulatory requirements.

10 Part 101 Amendments – Cutting Red Tape for Remotely Piloted Aircraft, CASA, https://www.casa.gov.au/aircraft/ 

standard-page/part-101-amendments-cutting-red-tape-remotely-piloted-aircraft (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived 

at https://perma.cc/49XE-275R. 

11 CASA and Remotely Piloted Aircraft, supra note 1.

12 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 7.

13 Id. sch 1, item 6 (inserting new r 101.028).

14 See id.; Civil Aviation Legislation Amendment (Part 101) Regulation 2016 – Explanatory Statement, https://www. 

legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016L00400/Explanatory%20Statement/Text, archived at https://perma.cc/GXC5-372F. 

15 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 91 (inserting new definition of “large RPA”), 93 (inserting new definition of 

“medium RPA”), 97 (inserting new definition of “small RPA”) & 101 (inserting new definition of “very 

small RPA”).

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• Establishing a set of standard RPA operating conditions, which must be complied with in 

order for certain operations to be considered excluded RPA operations.

• Establishing a new system that allows very small RPA to be operated for commercial 

purposes without the need for prior certification or licensing, provided certain conditions 

are met.

The amendments prohibit autonomous flights “until such time as suitable regulations can be 

developed by CASA.” However, the explanatory statement accompanying the 2016 Regulation 

states that “there is scope for autonomous flight to be approved by CASA on a case-by-case basis 

in the meantime.”16

A. General Operating Rules: Subpart 101.C

Subpart 101.C applies to unmanned aircraft of all kinds, except control-line model aircraft and 

model aircraft flown indoors. 17 It provides that, in order to legally operate any unmanned 

aircraft, the following requirements must be met:

• The aircraft may not be operated in or over a prohibited or restricted area, unless permission 

is obtained from the relevant authority controlling the area.

18

• The aircraft may be operated at an altitude greater than 400 feet above ground level only in 

designated areas of controlled airspace and in accordance with air traffic control clearance.19 

Under the 2016 Regulation, the Manual of Standards “may prescribe requirements relating to 

the operation of unmanned aircraft in controlled airspace.”20

• The aircraft must be operated within the operator’s visual line of site, unless approval is 

granted by the CASA.

21

• The aircraft may only be operated at an altitude above 400 feet within three nautical miles of 

an airfield if permitted by the regulations or is otherwise granted by the relevant air traffic 

control service or by the CASA.

22

• The aircraft may also be operated above 400 feet in approved areas.

23

• A person must not cause any item to be dropped or discharged from the aircraft in a way that 

creates a hazard to another aircraft, person, or property.

24

16 Civil Aviation Legislation Amendment (Part 101) Regulation 2016 – Explanatory Statement, supra note 14.

17 CASR Part 101, rr 101.005 & 101.060.

18 Id. r 101.065.

19 Id. r 101.070.

20 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 11 (inserting new r 101.072).

21 Id. sch 1, item 11 (inserting new r 101.073). “Visual line of site” means that the operator “can continually see, 

orient and navigate the aircraft to meet the person’s separation and collision avoidance responsibilities, with or 

without corrective lenses, but without the use of binoculars, a telescope or other similar device.” Id.

22 CASR Part 101, rr 101.075 & 101.080.

23 Id. r 101.085.

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• The aircraft must be operated in visual meteorological conditions, or in instrument

meteorological conditions with appropriate approvals.25

B. Operating Large RPA and Operating Other RPA for Nonrecreational Purposes: 

Subpart 101.F 

As noted above, Subpart 101.F (as amended) applies to the operation of very small, small, and 

medium RPA “other than for the purpose of sport or recreation,” and to the operation of any 

large RPA. 26 In many circumstances, the person actually operating such RPA must hold a 

“remote pilot license”27 and the relevant entity must hold a certificate authorizing the operation

(currently referred to as a UAV operator’s certificate or UOC).28 Under the 2016 Regulation, 

these requirements will not apply if the operation involves an “excluded RPA.” 

All operators of RPA covered by Subpart 101.F, other than those operating very small RPA, 

must also hold a “relevant qualification” related to the use of aeronautical radio, and must 

maintain a “listening watch” on a specified frequency or frequencies, as well as making required 

broadcasts at specified intervals.29

In general, RPA must not be operated within 30 meters of a person “not directly associated with 

the operation” of the RPA.30 The 2016 Regulation creates new exceptions to this rule, stating 

that it does not apply if the person is standing behind the RPA while it is taking off, or to very 

small, small, and medium RPA where the person has consented and the RPA is operated no 

closer than 15 meters to him or her.31 

The amendments also provide for the Manual of Standards to prescribe requirements relating to 

the operation of RPA in certain areas.32

24 Id. r 101.090.

25 Id. r 101.095; Model Aircraft and RPA, CASA, https://www.casa.gov.au/operations/standard-page/model-aircraftand-rpa (last visited Apr. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/DB7W-ZATV. 

26 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 21 (inserting new r 101.235). 

27 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 30 (inserting new r 101.252). Under the current (unamended) CASR provisions, the 

requirement is for a person to obtain “certification as a UAV controller.” Detailed provisions are contained in 

CASR Part 101, div 101.F.3, with the rules to be amended and substituted by 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 49–64.

28 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 37 (inserting new r 101.270). Detailed provisions related to the “certification of 

UAV operators” are currently contained in CASR Part 101, div 101.F.4, with rules to be amended and substituted by 

2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 64–82. See also Operating an Unmanned Aircraft Safely, CASA, https://www.casa. 

gov.au/aircraft/standard-page/operating-unmanned-aircraft-safely (last visited Apr. 6, 2016), archived at

https://perma.cc/CLF2-CPM9. 

29 CASR Part 101, r 101.285, as amended by 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 44–48. 

30 Id. Part 101, r 101.245(1).

31 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 24 (inserting new r 101.245(2) & (3)).

32 Id. sch 1, item 25 (inserting new r 101.247).

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1. Excluded RPA

For the purposes of Subpart 101.F, the 2016 Regulation provides that “excluded RPA,” for 

which operators are not required to obtain the license and certification referred to above, include

the following:33

• A micro RPA, being an RPA with a gross weight of 100 grams or less.

34

• A very small RPA if it is being operated for the purpose of sport or recreation or in standard 

RPA operating conditions.

• A small RPA if it is being operated by or on behalf of the owner of the RPA, over land that is 

owned or occupied by the owner of the RPA, in standard RPA operating conditions, and for 

certain listed purposes (such as aerial spotting or photography, agricultural operations, 

communications retransmission, carriage of cargo) for which no remuneration is received by 

anyone involved in the operation.

• A medium RPA in accordance with the same terms as for a small RPA, above, except that 

the person operating the RPA must also have a remote pilot license.

• A small or medium RPA being operated for the purpose of sport or recreation, or if it is being 

operated in standard RPA operating conditions by a person for the purpose of meeting the 

experience requirement for the grant of a remote pilot license, or by the holder of such a 

license for the purpose of getting practical experience and gaining competency in the 

operation of an RPA.

• An RPA being operated for the purpose of receiving training from an RPA operator who 

holds an operator’s certificate.

2. Standard RPA Operating Conditions

The 2016 Regulations sets out the following as being the standard RPA operating conditions:35

• The RPA is operated within the visual line of site of the operator.

• The RPA is operated at or below 400 feet above ground level during the day.

• The RPA is not operated within 30 meters of a person not associated with the operation of 

the RPA.

• The RPA is not operated in a prohibited area, certain restricted areas, over a populous area, 

or within three nautical miles of the movement area of a controlled airfield.

33 Id. sch 1, item 21 (inserting new r 101.237).

34 CASR Part 101, r 101.240.

35 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 21 (inserting new r 101.238).

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• The RPA is not operated over an area where a public safety or emergency operation is being 

conducted, unless approval is granted by the person in charge of the operation.

• The person operating the RPA operates only that RPA.

3. Operating Large RPA

In addition to the requirements for a remote pilot’s license and operator’s certificate, large RPA 

may only be operated if the operator has been issued a special certificate of airworthiness or an 

experimental certificate. 36 Furthermore, large RPA can only be operated with the specific 

approval of CASA, which may impose certain conditions, such as requiring that the RPA stay 

within a specified area or prohibiting its operation at night.37

RPA for which a certificate of airworthiness has been issued must not be operated in a populous 

area “at a height less than the height from which, if any of its components fails, it would be able 

to clear the area,” unless granted approval from CASA.38 Before granting such approval, CASA 

must be satisfied that the operator of the RPA “will take proper precautions to prevent the 

proposed flight being dangerous to people and property.”39

The regulations also require that maintenance be carried out on large RPA in compliance with 

provisions in the Civil Aviation Rules 1988 (Cth) applicable to Class B aircraft.40 

4. Operating Other RPA for Nonrecreational Purposes

The regulations state that a very small, small, or medium RPA used for a nonrecreational

purpose may be operated outside of an approved area if it stays clear of populous areas and, if it 

is to be operated above a height of 400 feet, the operator has obtained CASA’s approval to do 

so.

41 Approval cannot be granted to operate such RPA “over a populous area at a height less 

than the height from which, if any of its components fails, it would be able to clear the area.”42

As indicated above, unless it is an excluded RPA, persons operating an RPA for nonrecreational

purposes must first obtain a remote pilot license and the relevant business must have an 

operator’s certificate. Excluded RPA include very small RPA operated in standard 

operating conditions. 

36 CASR Part 101, r 101.255.

37 Id. r 101.275.

38 Id. r 101.280(3).

39 Id. r 101.280(5).

40 Id. r 101.260.

41 Id. r 101.250, as amended by 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 27–29. 

42 Id. r 101.280(2).

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The 2016 Regulation also inserts new provisions regarding the operation of very small RPA (i.e., 

weighing less than 2 kilograms/4.4 pounds) for “hire or reward,”43 which require an operator to 

notify CASA at least five business days before first conducting the operation.

44 Such operations, 

in order to avoid certification and licensing requirements, must still be conducted under the 

standard RPA operating conditions, including with respect to height, distance from people, and 

distance from controlled airfields.45

5. Remote Pilot Licenses

The regulations set out what must be included in an application for a remote pilot license and the 

eligibility criteria for granting a license. The eligibility criteria, as amended by the 2016 

Regulation, require a person to have passed one of certain types of examinations or components 

of training courses related to aviation theory or aeronautical knowledge, to have completed one 

of certain types of training courses related to the operation of the RPA that he or she proposes to 

operate, and to have at least five hours experience in operating an RPA under standard RPA 

operating conditions.46

Remote pilot licenses may be subject to conditions related to the type of RPA that a license 

holder may operate and the areas where he or she may operate RPA, or requiring that he or she 

only operate RPA in visual meteorological conditions.47 The 2016 Regulation sets out particular 

conditions that must apply to the licenses, which relate to additional requirements for certain 

qualifications in order for the license holder to operate RPA in particular ways, such as above 

400 feet in controlled airspace or outside of his or her visual line of sight.48

6. RPA Operator’s Certificate

The regulations also set out the requirements for applications for certification as an RPA operator 

and the eligibility criteria for granting certification. The eligibility criteria require the operator to 

show that the company or other legal entity has

• “an organisation and structure that is appropriate for safe operation of RPA”;

• “enough qualified and experienced personnel to undertake the proposed operations safely”;

• “facilities and equipment appropriate to carry out the proposed operations using [RPA] of the 

type to be used”;

43 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 82 (inserting new div 101.F.5).

44 Id. (inserting new r 101.372).

45 See Reece Clothier & Jonathan Roberts, New Relaxed Drone Regulations Will Help the Industry Take Off, THE 

CONVERSATION (Apr. 7, 2016), https://theconversation.com/new-relaxed-drone-regulations-will-help-the-industrytake-off-57201, archived at https://perma.cc/2NBF-YFPV. 

46 CASR Part 101, r 101.295, as amended by 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 54–58. 

47 Id. r 101.300.

48 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 60.

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• “suitable documented practices and procedures to do so, including practices and procedures 

for the maintenance of the operator’s RPASs”; and

• “nominated suitable persons to be its chief [RPA] controller and maintenance controller.”49

Various conditions are imposed on an operator’s certificate, including that the person “maintains 

within its organisation a position of chief remote pilot” with certain minimum functions and 

duties.50 These functions, which are inserted by the 2016 Regulation, include “ensuring the 

operator’s RPA functions are conducted in accordance with the civil aviation legislation,” 

maintaining a record of the qualifications of each person operating RPA and monitoring their 

operational standards and efficiency, and maintaining a library of operational documents 

required by CASA.51

In the past ten years, the number of certified drone operators has grown from about twenty-five 

to 500 (as of March 31, 2016).52

C. Operating Model Aircraft: Subpart 101.G

A “model aircraft” is defined as “an aircraft that is used for sport or recreation, and cannot carry 

a person.”53 Subpart 101.G applies to the operation of such aircraft weighing 100 grams or 

more, except control-line model aircraft and model aircraft flown indoors.54

A person can operate a model aircraft only in good visibility, or at night in accordance with the 

written procedures of an approved organization. He or she must ensure that the aircraft remains 

at least 30 meters away from other people. Outside of approved areas, a model aircraft can be 

flown above a height of 400 feet if the operator keeps it in sight and keeps it clear of populous 

areas.55 “Giant model aircraft,” being model aircraft weighing between 25 and 150 kilograms, 

may only be operated in accordance with the rules and procedures of an approved organization 

or an approval given by CASA.56

III. Enforcement and Penalties

CASA is responsible for enforcing the provisions in the Civil Aviation Act 1988 (Cth) and the 

CASR.57 Various criminal offense provisions that may be relevant to the operation of unmanned 

49 CASR Part 101, r 101.335, as amended by 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 68. 

50 Id. r 101.340, as amended by 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 69. 

51 2016 Regulation, sch 1, item 74 (inserting new r 101.342).

52 CASA Issues 500th UAV Operator Certificate, AVIATION BUSINESS (Mar. 31, 2016), http://www.aviationbusiness. 

com.au/news/casa-issues-500th-uav-operator-certificate, archived at https://perma.cc/PSF7-94FS. 

53 CASR, Dictionary, Part 1.

54 CASR Part 101, r 101.375.

55 Id. rr 101.385–101.400.

56 Id. r 101.405.

57 Civil Aviation Act 1988 (Cth), s 9.

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aircraft are contained in the Act. For example, a person who operates an aircraft without a 

certificate of airworthiness, where such a certificate is required by the regulations, may be 

subject to a penalty of imprisonment for two years.58 The same penalty can be applied to flying 

an aircraft without a required license or other authorization.59 

In terms of regulatory offenses, as noted above, Subpart 101.B sets out a general prohibition on 

the operation of any unmanned aircraft “in a way that creates a hazard to another aircraft, another 

person, or property.”60 Breaching this prohibition is a strict liability offense that is subject to a 

penalty of 50 penalty units. Under Australian federal law a penalty unit is currently AU$180,61

making the fine for this offense AU$9,000 (about US$6,815).

Other offenses accompany many of the provisions referred to in this report. For example, a fine 

of 50 penalty units may be imposed for not complying with a requirement related to the 

operation of an unmanned aircraft in controlled airspace or prescribed areas; operating an 

unmanned aircraft outside of the operator’s visual line of site, without a remote pilot license, or 

without an RPA operator’s certificate; breaching a condition of a license or certificate; or 

operating a very small RPA for hire or reward without notifying CASA.62

Offenses in the regulations that are subject to a fine of 25 penalty units (AU$4,500, about 

US$3,408) include operating an unmanned aircraft above a height of 400 feet within three 

nautical miles of an airfield, dropping or discharging things in a way that creates a hazard to 

another aircraft or to a person or property, operating in prohibited visual conditions, and 

operating an RPA in controlled airspace without holding an aeronautical radio 

operator certificate.63

IV. Application of the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth)

The CASR do not specifically address the use of camera, audio recording, or other surveillance 

equipment on unmanned aircraft. The Privacy Act 1988 (Cth)64 is a federal law that “regulates 

the handling of personal information about individuals.”65 It contains thirteen Australian Privacy 

Principles setting out “standards, rights and obligations for the handling, holding, use, accessing 

and correction of personal information (including sensitive information).”66

58 Id. s 20AA(3).

59 Id. s 20AB.

60 CASR Part 101, r 101.055(1).

61 Crimes Act 1914 (Cth), s 4AA(1), https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00121, archived at 

https://perma.cc/J8QL-HAFY. The dollar amount of a penalty unit is indexed every three years based on inflation.

62 2016 Regulation, sch 1, items 11, 25, 30, 37, 60 & 82.

63 CASR Part 101, rr 101.075, 101.090, 101.095 & 101.285.

64 Privacy Act 1988 (Cth).

65 Privacy Law, OFFICE OF THE AUSTRALIAN INFORMATION COMMISSIONER (OAIC), https://www.oaic.gov.au/ 

privacy-law (last visited Apr. 7, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/92LB-2QH3. 

66 Id.

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The Office of the Australian Information Commissioner has published correspondence with the 

Attorney-General from 2012 and 2013 relating to the current privacy laws and their application 

to surveillance or recording of information using drones. The correspondence notes that the 

obligations in the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) only apply to federal government agencies and certain 

private sector organizations; they does not apply to persons acting in an individual capacity.67 

However, in addition to the CASR, other federal and state laws could potentially apply to the use 

of drones by individuals to photograph or record personal information.68 The Attorney-General 

stated that she would contact state and territory governments to seek their views regarding the 

adequacy of current legislation in regulating the use of surveillance drones.

69

In 2014, a parliamentary committee conducted a series of roundtable discussions and hearings

regarding drones and privacy. 70 The committee’s report recommended that CASA and the 

Australian Privacy Commissioner review the adequacy of the privacy and air safety regimes in 

relation to RPA.71 To date, no changes to the relevant laws have been announced.

72

67 Regulation of Drone Technology, OAIC, https://www.oaic.gov.au/media-and-speeches/statements/regulation-ofdrone-technology (last visited Apr. 8, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/ST9S-7EZL. 

68 For example, the Queensland Office of the Information Commissioner has published guidance regarding the 

different laws applicable to the collection of information using drone technology, although this is primarily targeted 

at government agencies. Privacy and Drone Technology, OFFICE OF THE INFORMATION COMMISSIONER,

QUEENSLAND, https://www.oic.qld.gov.au/guidelines/for-government/guidelines-privacy-principles/applying-theprivacy-principles/privacy-and-drone-technology (last visited Apr. 8, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/4VG6-

7NA3; Drones – Collection, Storage and Security of Personal Information, OFFICE OF THE INFORMATION 

COMMISSIONER, QUEENSLAND, https://www.oic.qld.gov.au/guidelines/for-government/guidelines-privacyprinciples/applying-the-privacy-principles/drones-collection,-storage-and-security-of-personal-information (last 

visited Apr. 8, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/EM2N-5C48; Drones – Outsourcing, Use and Disclosure of 

Personal Information, OFFICE OF THE INFORMATION COMMISSIONER, QUEENSLAND, https://www.oic.qld.gov.au/ 

guidelines/for-government/guidelines-privacy-principles/applying-the-privacy-principles/drones-outsourcing,-useand-disclosure-of-personal-information, archived at https://perma.cc/8SPW-ZXQT. 

69 Regulation of Drone Technology, supra note 67.

70 Roundtable on Drones and Privacy, PARLIAMENT OF AUSTRALIA, HOUSE STANDING COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL 

POLICY AND LEGAL AFFAIRS, http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/Social_Policy_ 

and_Legal_Affairs/Drones (last visited Apr. 7, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/4E95-F2XH. 

71 HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES STANDING COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL POLICY AND LEGAL AFFAIRS, EYES IN THE SKY:

INQUIRY INTO DRONES AND THE REGULATION OF AIR SAFETY AND PRIVACY (July 2014), http://www.aph.gov.au/~/ 

media/02%20Parliamentary%20Business/24%20Committees/243%20Reps%20Committees/SPLA/Drones/fullreport

.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/7RHU-Y7HF.

72 See, e.g., Are Australia’s Privacy Laws Ready for Drones?, HHG LEGAL GROUP (Nov. 17, 2015), http://www. 

hhg.com.au/blog/are-australia-s-privacy-laws-ready-for-drones-1, archived at https://perma.cc/K7RM-AZ76; 

Matthew Craven & Claire Harris, Regulation of Drones in Australia – A Balancing Act, CORRS CHAMBERS 

WESTGARTH (July 31, 2016), http://www.corrs.com.au/publications/corrs-in-brief/regulation-of-drones-in-australiaa-balancing-act, archived at https://perma.cc/6QUZ-V7A3; Kieran Gair, Privacy Concerns Mount as Drones Take 

to the Skies, THE SYDNEY MORNING HERALD (Dec. 12, 2015), http://www.smh.com.au/digital-life/consumersecurity/privacy-concerns-mount-as-drones-take-to-the-skies-20151208-glijvk.html, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

RTM5-74K7; Omar Mubin, Police Drones: Can We Trust the Eyes in the Skies?, THE CONVERSATION

(Feb. 29, 2016), https://theconversation.com/police-drones-can-we-trust-the-eyes-in-the-skies-53981, archived at

https://perma.cc/FY57-W2VU. 

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Canada

Tariq Ahmad 

Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY In Canada, the regulation of unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) falls under the jurisdiction of 

the federal government. UAVs are mainly regulated by the Canadian Aviation 

Regulations (CARs) and standards, guidelines, and circulars issued by Transport Canada. 

The applicable rules and the necessity for a UAV operator to have a special flight 

operations certificate (SFOC) depend upon the use of the UAV (recreational vs. 

nonrecreational), its weight, and whether particular exemptions apply. Drones or model 

aircraft that weigh 35 kilograms or less and are used for recreational purposes do not 

require a government-issued SFOC but are subject to safety guidelines. Drones that are 

used for nonrecreational purposes, or that weigh more than 35 kilograms (irrespective of 

their purpose), require an SFOC to be flown. Specific directions for operating UAVs are 

set forth in a General Safety Practices circular issued by Transport Canada and in the 

SFOC. UAVs that weigh less than 2 kilograms or between 2 kilograms and 25 kilograms

are subject to exemptions if the operator is able to follow the strict safety conditions 

outlined in the two exemptions. 

Transport Canada is in the process of issuing new regulations for UAVs that weigh 25 

kilograms or less that will eliminate the current distinction between recreational and 

nonrecreational use. The proposed changes provide a classification system based on the 

risks involved in the use of UAVS. UAVs weighing 25 kilograms or more will continue to 

be regulated by the SFOC requirements. 

I. Introduction 

A. Constitutional Jurisdiction

Canada’s federal government has primary jurisdiction over matters related to aviation and 

aeronautics. Section 91 of the Constitution Act, 1867, gives the federal government the general 

power to make “Laws for the Peace, Order, and good Government of Canada.”1 In 2010, the 

Supreme Court of Canada held that aeronautics was in the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal 

government and “falls within a residuum of national importance, which brings it under 

Parliament’s power to legislate for the peace, order and good government of Canada.”2

 

1 Constitution Act, 1867, 30 & 31 Victoria c. 3, § 91 (U.K.), http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/FullText.html, 

archived at https://perma.cc/4ZV3-NY69. 

2 Quebec (Attorney General) v. Lacombe, 2010 S.C.C. 38, ¶ 26, http://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/ 

7880/index.do, archived at https://perma.cc/5G34-MPZA. 

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Therefore, through the federal government’s primary jurisdiction over aviation and aeronautics, 

the regulation of unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) also falls within the scope of the federal 

government’s constitutional power.3

The main legislation that regulates aviation is the Aeronautics Act4 and its subordinate 

regulations, the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs).

5 In addition, UAV operators must 

“follow the rules in all acts and regulations—including the Criminal Code, as well as all 

municipal, provincial, and territorial laws regarding trespassing and privacy.”6 Transport 

Canada, the government department that regulates the use of UAVs,

7 is “responsible for the 

issuance of transportation (including aviation) operating permits and certifications and for 

transportation safety oversight.”8

The Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory Council (CARAC) “is a joint undertaking of 

government and the aviation community” whose main objective is to “to assess and recommend 

potential regulatory changes through cooperative rulemaking activities.”9 In 2010 CARAC

established the “Unmanned Aircraft System Program Design Working Group to develop new 

regulations to increase the safety, scope and regulatory efficiency of commercial UAV 

applications in Canada.”10

Regarding the role of municipalities to regulate drones, municipal lawyer Carrie Moffat

states that,

[w]hile Transport Canada generally regulates flying machines in air however they are 

defined, this does not preclude municipalities from regulating things and activities that 

are in, on or near public places or other matters liable to disturb the public. But as the 

3 Martin F. Sheehan & Michael Parrish, Regulation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (“Drones”) in Canada, FASKEN 

MARTINEAU, http://www.fasken.com/drones-canada/#_ftn2 (last visited Apr. 7, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/ 

QQ95-5WNT. 

4 Aeronautics Act, R.S.C.1985, c. A-2, http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/A-2/FullText.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/L72B-XD2B. 

5 Canadian Aviation Regulations (SOR/96-433), as amended through Aug. 31, 2015, http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/ 

eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/FullText.html, archived at https://perma.cc/CPD3-LA26. 

6 Flying a Drone Recreationally, TRANSPORT CANADA, http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/standards/standards4179.html (last updated Feb. 9, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/PG92-CSXT. The laws that may apply include, 

but are not limited to, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Criminal Code of Canada, Privacy Act, Personal 

Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, Customs Act, Trespass Act, Radiocommunication Act,

National Parks Aircraft Access Regulations, Environmental Protection Act, Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act,

and Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act.

7 Id. 

8 Laura Safran & Prasad Taksal, Canada: The Aviation Law Review – Canada Chapter, MONDAQ (Sept. 18, 2014), 

http://www.mondaq.com/canada/x/341018/Aviation/The+Aviation+Law+Review+Canada+Chapter, archived at 

https://perma.cc/EEE3-JQ7Y. 

9 Canadian Aviation Regulation Advisory Council (CARAC), TRANSPORT CANADA, https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/ 

civilaviation/regserv/affairs-carac-menu-755.htm (last updated Aug. 14, 2014), archived at https://perma.cc/565GVZTW.

10 Sheehan & Parrish, supra note 3. 

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case law illustrates, a bylaw that seeks to regulate whether, where and how drones can be 

operated in and near public space would likely be found valid under its public place 

powers in the Community Charter provided that is does not substantially interfere or 

conflict with federal authority or laws. The case law also indicates that a municipal 

bylaw that regulates activities such as the use of drones near airports would not fly.11

B. Drone Industry in Canada

Reflecting the “exponential growth” of the unmanned aircraft industry over the past few years,

12

the 345 special flight operation certificates (SFOCs) for UAVs that Transport Canada issued in 

2012 had grown to 1,672 by 2014.

13 According to lawyers Sheehan and Parrish,

[t]he expansion of commercial UAV use in Canada in the last 10 years has been 

dramatic. Due to Canada’s large geography, small population and resource focused 

economy, there are many potential applications for UAVs for Canadian businesses. . . . 

The number of UAV operations conducted in 2014 under the SFOC exemptions is not 

known but can be estimated to be in the thousands. This growth is expected to continue 

as UAV technology continues to develop.14

II. Regulation Based on Size and Use 

Whether a UAV requires an SFOC depends on its use, its weight, and whether particular 

exemptions apply.15

A. Recreational Use

The Canadian Aviation Regulations defines a “model aircraft” as “an aircraft, the total weight of 

which does not exceed 35 kg (77.2 pounds), that is mechanically driven or launched into flight 

for recreational purposes and that is not designed to carry persons or other living creatures.”16

Model aircraft are usually described as devices that are used by hobbyists for recreational 

purposes. Therefore, if an aircraft weighs 35 kilograms or less and is used for “fun of flying 

11 Carrie Moffat, Game of Drones, LAW LETTER (Lidstone & Company, Vancouver, B.C.), Fall 2015, at 13, 

http://lidstone.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/FALL-2015-Newsletter-00337772xBCD32.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/7B86-J9K4.

12 Transport Canada to Introduce New Drone Regulations, CTV NEWS (Jan. 11, 2016), http://www.ctvnews.ca/ 

canada/transport-canada-to-introduce-new-drone-regulations-1.2732227, archived at https://perma.cc/ZT6E-AS3Z. 

13 Press Release, Government of Canada, Transport Canada Encourages New Drone Users to Learn Rules Before 

Flying (Dec. 11, 2015), http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=1024519, archived at https://perma.cc/6UN4-

W6UF. 

14 Sheehan & Parrish, supra note 3.

15 TRANSPORT CANADA, FLYING AN UNMANNED AIRCRAFT? FIND OUT IF YOU NEED PERMISSION FROM TRANSPORT 

CANADA, http://www.tc.gc.ca/media/documents/ca-standards/Info_graphic_-_Flying_an_umanned_aircraft_-_Find_ 

out_if_you_need_permission_from_TC.pdf (last visited Apr. 7, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/6K7N-X6UF. 

16 Canadian Aviation Regulations § 101.01(1).

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Regulation of Drones: Canada

only,” a person does not need permission from Transport Canada for its use.

17 All that is 

required is to follow the law and fly safely according to safety guidelines.

18

If an aircraft weighs more than 35 kilograms (irrespective of its use, whether recreational or 

otherwise) it is legally considered a UAV,

19 and owners must apply for an SFOC.20

B. Nonrecreational Use

Canadian Aviation Regulations define an “unmanned air vehicle” as “a power-driven aircraft, 

other than a model aircraft, that is designed to fly without a human operator on board.”21

According to section 602.41 of the Regulations, “[n]o person shall operate an unmanned air 

vehicle in flight except in accordance with a special flight operations certificate or an air 

operator certificate.”22

Therefore, operators of UAVs used for nonrecreational purposes—namely, work or research—

are legally required to apply for an SFOC.23 According to Transport Canada, “[t]his applies to 

all UAVs used for anything but the fun of flying and regardless of how much they weigh. 

Transport Canada inspectors will review your SFOC application and determine what safety 

conditions are needed to reduce the risks.”24

However, under what Transport Canada describes as “very specific, lower-risk circumstances,” a 

person may qualify for exemptions. It is for this reason that Canada is considered to have a 

permissive regulatory approach to the commercial use of drones.

25

Persons who wish to fly drones that weigh between 2.1 kilograms and 25 kilograms can do so 

without permission, as long as they meet certain exemption requirements. This exemption 

“relieves persons conducting non-recreational UAV system operations utilizing a UAV with a 

17 Flying a Drone Recreationally, supra note 6. 

18 TRANSPORT CANADA, DO’S AND DON’TS FOR FLYING YOUR DRONE SAFELY AND LEGALLY, http://www.tc.gc.ca/ 

media/documents/ca-standards/Info_graphic_-_Dos_and_Donts_for_flying_your_drone_safely_and_legally.pdf

(last visited Apr. 7, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/Z7ZM-GB3N. 

19 Transport Canada, Staff Instruction (SI) No. 623-001, Review and Processing of an Application for a Special 

Flight Operations Certificate for the Operation of an Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) System ¶ 12.1, Nov. 19, 2014, 

http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/standards/general-recavi-uav-4161.html#toc3_7, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

C7G7-ESLK. 

20 Flying a Drone Recreationally, supra note 6. 

21 Canadian Aviation Regulations §101.01(1).

22 Id. § 602.41.

23 Flying a Drone or an Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) for Work or Research, TRANSPORT CANADA, http://www.tc.

gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/standards/general-recavi-uav-2265.htm?campaign=2014-uav-socialmedia-facebook&WT. 

mc_id=hruzf#safety (last updated Dec. 23, 2015), archived at https://perma.cc/57MT-NGAM. 

24 Id. 

25 Are Canada’s Drone Regulations Too Permissive?, CTV NEWS (Aug. 16, 2015), http://www.ctvnews.ca/ 

canada/are-canada-s-drone-regulations-too-permissive-1.2519071, archived at https://perma.cc/SVU9-BAV9. 

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Regulation of Drones: Canada

maximum take-off weight not exceeding 2 kilograms, operated within visual line-of-sight

[VLOS][,] from the requirement to obtain a Special Flight Operations Certificate (SFOC).”26

Another exemption relieves persons “conducting non-recreational UAV system operations 

utilizing a UAV with a maximum take-off weight exceeding 2 kgs but not exceeding 25 kgs, 

operated within visual line-of-sight[,] from the requirement to obtain a Special Flight Operations 

Certificate (SFOC).”27 Even though permission is not needed for drones weighing between 2.1

kilograms and 25 kilograms, a notification to Transport Canada that includes a description of the 

operation and geographical boundaries of the operation via a submission form is required.28

C. SFOC Certificate 

According to Transport Canada, the SFOC “contains conditions specific to the proposed use, 

such as maximum altitudes, minimum distances from people and property, operating areas, and 

coordination requirements with air traffic services.”29 There are a “number of SFOC application 

processes depending on the nature and use of the UAV,” and “the more complex and risky the 

proposed operation, the more thorough and onerous the application process.”30 Essentially the 

most important aspect of the SFOC application is the operator’s proof to Transport Canada that 

he/she will be operating the drone safely and not disrupting air traffic. 

The application for an SFOC for the purpose of operating a UAV requires the 

following information:

(a) the name, address, and where applicable, the telephone number and facsimile 

number of the applicant; 

(b) the name, address, and where applicable the telephone number and facsimile 

number of the person designated by the applicant to have operational control over the 

operation (Operation Manager); 

(c) method by which the Operation Manager may be contacted directly 

during operation; 

26 Transport Canada, Exemption from Sections 602.41 and 603.66 of the Canadian Aviation Regulation, “Purpose,”

http://www.tc.gc.ca/civilaviation/regserv/affairs/exemptions/docs/en/2880.htm (last updated Nov. 27, 2014), 

(providing an exemption for a UAV with a maximum take-off weight not exceeding 2 kg), archived at https://perma. 

cc/4J2Y-NHHD. In both exemptions “visual line of sight” (VLOS) is defined as “unaided (corrective lenses and/or 

sunglasses exempted) visual contact with the UAV sufficient to be able to maintain operational control of the 

aircraft, know its location, and be able to scan the airspace in which it is operating to decisively see and avoid other 

air traffic or objects.” Transport Canada, id., “Interpretation.”

27 Transport Canada, Exemption from Sections 602.41 and 603.66 of the Canadian Aviation Regulation, 

http://www.tc.gc.ca/civilaviation/regserv/affairs/exemptions/docs/en/2879.htm (last updated Nov. 27, 2014),

(providing an exemption for a UAV with a maximum take-off weight exceeding 2 kgs but not exceeding 25 kgs), 

archived at https://perma.cc/4SD4-ZHA6. 

28 Flying a Drone or an Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) for Work or Research, supra note 23.

29 Id., “Frequently Asked Questions: What is the Purpose of a Special Flight Operations Certificate?”

30 Sheehan & Parrish, supra note 3. 

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(d) the type and purpose of the operation; 

(e) the dates, alternate dates and times of the proposed operation; 

(f) a complete description, including all pertinent flight data on the aircraft to be flown; 

(g) the security plan for the area(s) of operation and security plan for the area(s) to be 

overflown to ensure no hazard is created to persons or property on the surface; 

(h) the emergency contingency plan to deal with any disaster resulting from 

the operation; 

(i) the name, address, telephone and facsimile numbers of the person designated to be 

responsible for supervision of the operation area (Ground Supervisor), if different from 

the Operation Manager during the operation; 

(j) a detailed plan describing how the operation shall be carried out. The plan shall 

include a clear, legible presentation of the area to be used during the operation. The 

presentation may be in the form of a scale diagram, aerial photograph or large scale 

topographical chart and must include at least the following information: 

(i) the altitudes and routes to be used on the approach and departure to and 

from the area where the operation will be carried out; 

(ii) the location and height above ground of all obstacles in the approach and 

departure path to the areas where the operation will be carried out; 

(iii) the exact boundaries of the area where the actual operation will be 

carried out; 

(iv) the altitudes and routes to be used while carrying out the operation; 

(k) any other information pertinent to the safe conduct of the operation requested by 

the Minister.31

An application for an SFOC for the purpose of flying a UAV has to be “received by the 

appropriate Regional Transport Canada General Aviation Office, at least 20 working days prior 

to the date of the proposed operation or by a date mutually agreed upon between the applicant 

and Transport Canada.”32

III. Restrictions on Drone Use

A. Restrictions on Recreational Use

Recreational drone operators must follow Transport Canada’s safety guidelines33 and the rules 

found in the advisory circular on General Safety Practices – Model Aircraft and Unmanned Air 

Vehicle Systems.

34

31 Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) 2015-2, Part VI – General Operating and Flight Rules, Standard 623 –

Special Flight Operations Standards § 623.65(d), https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/regserv/cars/part6-standards 

-623d2-2450.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/89TL-X2LP.

32 Id.

33 TRANSPORT CANADA, supra note 18.

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The safety guidelines advise that the following rules be kept in mind before a flight:

a. Inspect that your model aircraft is ready for flight. 

i. This means that the aircraft, control station components (hardware, software 

and firmware) and control links are in a fit for flight condition.

b. Seek permission from the property owner on which you intend to operate your 

model aircraft.

c. Know the classification of the airspace you want to fly in. It would be inappropriate 

and unsafe for you to operate in airspace with heavy aircraft traffic, such as 

around airports. 

d. Confirm that there is no radio frequency interference (from a nearby radar site for 

example) that will interfere with the control of your aircraft. 

e. Have an emergency plan just in case. 

i. This means know the people and equipment available that could help you

respond to an incident, accident, medical emergency, you have a fly-away or 

if your model aircraft becomes uncontrollable.35

These rules also recommend that operators fly their drones during daylight hours and in good 

weather.36 During a flight drones should be kept in sight, “where you can see it with your own 

eyes—not only through an on-board camera, monitor or smartphone.”37 Drone operators should 

respect the privacy of others and should not operate the drone “with any dangerous goods or 

lasers on the aircraft.”38

The guidelines also state that drones should be flown at least 9 kilometers away from airports, 

heliports, or airfields. They should be no higher than 90 meters above the ground and at least 

150 meters away from people, animals, buildings, structures, or vehicles.39 They should not be 

flown near moving vehicles, highways, bridges, busy streets, or anywhere they could endanger 

or distract drivers. They should also not be flown “within restricted and controlled airspace, 

including near or over military bases, prisons, and forest fires.”40 Drones should not be flown 

anywhere where they may interfere with first responders. Recreational drones are also 

prohibited from use in national parks.

34 Transport Canada, Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-002, General Safety Practices – Model Aircraft and 

Unmanned Air Vehicle Systems, Nov. 27, 2014, http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/opssvs/managementservicesreferencecentre-acs-600-2135.html, archived at https://perma.cc/PS5N-D2P6.

35 Id. ¶ 4.2 “Before Your Flight.”

36 Id. ¶ 4.2 “During Your Flight” (d).

37 Flying a Drone Recreationally, supra note 6. 

38 Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-002, § 4.2, “During Your Flight” (k).

39 Flying a Drone Recreationally, supra note 6. 

40 Id.

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B. UAV Operators Who Have Been Issued an SFOC

Where a drone is operated under an SFOC, “in addition to any specific directions respecting 

operations set out in the SFOC and the underlying application,” the advisory circular on General 

Safety Practices—Model Aircraft and Unmanned Air Vehicle Systems apply.41

C. UAV Operators Under an SFOC Exemption

If the UAV is operated under an SFOC exemption, the governing guidelines are set out in the 

Guidance Material for Operating Unmanned Air Vehicle Systems Under an Exemption.

42 This 

advisory circular sets out all the conditions that must be complied with “in order to use the 

exemption as your authority to operate a UAV.” The circular contains detailed general 

conditions, flight conditions, and pilot training conditions.

UAV operating guidelines set out in the advisory circular include some of the following rules:

a) A human operator is required at all times; 

b) Operators must be at least 18 years of age;

c) Operators cannot be impaired by drugs or alcohol;

d) Autonomous (i.e., computer or GPS controlled or guided) operation is not 

permitted. UAVs must be directly controlled by a human operator at all times;

e) Beyond-line-of-sight operation is not permitted. Live and direct sight of the UAV by 

the operator is required at all times;

f) Operation and control of UAVs through on-board camera, monitor or smartphone is 

not permitted;

g) UAVs may only be flown during daylight and in good weather (not in clouds or fog);

h) UAVs must be in safe and working condition before operating. However, the CARs 

relating to aircraft certification and airworthiness do not apply to UAVs;

i) UAVs cannot be used to transport dangerous goods.

43

A pilot can operate a UAV only at or below 300 feet above ground level (AGL). Moreover, a 

pilot operating under this exemption must not operate a UAV over a forest fire area, or over any 

area that is located within 5 nautical miles (nm) of a forest fire area. According to the circular, a 

UAV is prohibited in airspace that has been restricted by the Minister or the Aeronautics Act. A 

UAV must be flown at least 5 nm away from a built-up area or from the center of any airfield. A 

drone can be flown only at a lateral distance of at least 500 feet from the general public, 

buildings, structures, vehicles, vessels, animals, or persons unless certain exceptions apply. (For 

41 Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-002. 

42 Transport Canada, Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-004, Civil Aviation Resources, Guidance Material for 

Operating Unmanned Air Vehicle Systems Under an Exemption, Nov. 27, 2014, http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civil 

aviation/opssvs/ac-600-004-2136.html, archived at https://perma.cc/U33W-2KZZ. 

43 Sheehan & Parrish, supra note 3.

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a UAV not exceeding 2 kilograms, the lateral distance for UAVs is reduced to 100 feet.)

44 A 

person cannot operate a UAV over an open-air assembly of persons.

Each exemption also contains specific training requirements.45 For example, according to 

Transport Canada,

to fly a UAV that weighs between 2 kg and 25 kg without permission, the UAV pilot 

must be trained to understand:

• airspace classification and structure

• weather and notice to airmen (NOTAM) reporting services

• aeronautical charts and the Canada Flight Supplement

• relevant sections of the Canadian Aviation Regulations.46

As stated in Part II(B), above, drones that weigh between 2 kilograms and 25 kilograms used for 

nonrecreational purposes are also subject to reporting requirements, including notifying the 

Minister of the type of work being conducted and specific incidents of injury to any person 

requiring medical attention or other collisions.

D. Other Applicable Laws 

The Criminal Code of Canada contains several offenses “involving the dangerous operation of 

aircraft and endangering the safety of other aircraft.” Punishments for these offenses consist of 

“monetary penalties and/or jail time including imprisonment for life.”47 According to Transport 

Canada, “[v]iolations of the model aircraft regulation are handled by the courts or judicial action. 

Endangering the safety of aircraft is a serious offence under the Aeronautics Act and is 

punishable by a fine.”48

The private use of jamming equipment to disrupt drones also appears to be illegal in Canada.49

Transport Canada has stated that it is working with the Office of the Privacy Commissioner to 

ensure that drone operators respect Canada’s privacy laws. Privacy concerns have been raised 

44 Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-004, ¶ 4.2(27), “Note.” 

45 Id. 

46 Flying a Drone or an Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) for Work or Research, supra note 23, “Frequently Asked 

Questions: What Training Is Required to Fly a UAV Under the Exemptions?”

47 Transport Canada, Staff Instruction (SI) No. 623-001, ¶ 3.8.

48 Transport Canada, Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-002, § 4.3(1).

49 Pierre Chauvin, Can We Stop the Drones Invading Our Public and Private Spaces?, THE GLOBE & MAIL (Sept. 

18, 2014), http://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/tech-news/can-we-stop-the-drones-invading-our-publicand-private-spaces/article20643509, archived at https://perma.cc/CND5-7ZK2. See also Jamming Devices Are 

Prohibited in Canada: That’s the Law, INNOVATION, SCIENCE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CANADA (July 2011), 

http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf10048.html, archived at https://perma.cc/M5AR-9MJX. 

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by provincial-level privacy commissioners.

50 A 2013 report from the Privacy Commissioner of 

Canada stated that the current regulations did little to address privacy concerns and that,

[a]s drones are acquired and put to use in Canada’s public and private sectors, it will be 

important to circumscribe their use within an accountability structure that ensures they 

are justified, necessary and proportional, and that the necessary checks and balances 

fundamental to a democratic society are in place to stave off proliferation of uses, abuses, 

and function creep. Canada’s privacy laws will, and do apply to UAVs deployed by 

public or private sector organizations to collect and/or use personal information 

about citizens.

51

IV. Enforcement and Noncompliance

According to Transport Canada, if an incident is reported to the police department, an inspector 

will verify that the operator followed the rules and used the drone safely. Local police

may also verify if other laws were broken, including the Criminal Code and privacy laws. 

If you fly a drone for recreational purposes (for the fun of flying), it’s illegal to do 

anything that puts aviation safety at risk.52

News reports indicate that enforcement of some of these laws may be lacking.53

The use of a UAV without an SFOC may result in a fine of Can$5,000 (approximately 

US$3,850) for individuals and $25,000 (approximately US$19,240) for corporations.54

Transport Canada requires SFOCs so that it can verify operators can use their UAV reliably and 

safely. If an operator does not follow the requirements and conditions of the SFOC, Transport 

Canada can issue fines of up to Can$3,000 (approximately US$2,310) for an individual and 

Can$15,000 (approximately US$11,545) for a company.55 A person who is under an exemption 

yet operates a UAV in a reckless or negligent manner (e.g., not complying with the conditions in 

the exemptions) can be subject to a fine of Can$5,000 for individuals or Can$25,000 

for corporations.

Since 2010, Transport Canada says it has investigated some fifty incidents involving unmanned 

aircraft across the country.56

50 Sheehan & Parrish, supra note 3.

51 RESEARCH GROUP OF THE OFFICE OF THE PRIVACY COMMISSION OF CANADA, DRONES IN CANADA: WILL THE 

PROLIFERATION OF DOMESTIC DRONE USE IN CANADA RAISE NEW CONCERNS FOR PRIVACY? 14–15 (Mar. 2013), 

https://www.priv.gc.ca/information/research-recherche/2013/drones_201303_e.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

BE8N-TRAM.

52 Flying a Drone Recreationally, supra note 6, “Frequently Asked Questions: How Does Transport Canada Enforce 

the Regulations?”

53 CTV NEWS, supra note 25.

54 Canadian Aviation Regulations app. A, sched. II, subpt. 2 – Operating and Flight Rules. 

55 Transport Canada, Advisory Circular (AC) No. 600-002. 

56 CTV NEWS, supra note 12. 

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V. Proposed Changes

As noted in Part I(A), above, in 2010, Transport Canada established a joint industry and federal 

government working group to develop recommendations for regulatory changes.

57 This led to 

proposed changes, which were made public on May 2015 in the Notice of Proposed Amendment 

on Unmanned Air Vehicles58 and on which Transport Canada invited comments from aviation 

stakeholders across Canada.

59

According to lawyer Kathryn McGoldrick, the proposed changes would “replace the current 

‘exemption’ scheme, which was intended to be a temporary solution while Transport Canada 

introduced more rigorous safety requirements and created greater awareness of UAV operators’ 

legal obligations.”60 The changes would apply to any UAV with a total weight at takeoff of 25 

kilograms or less and which is operated in VLOS. They would also eliminate the current 

distinction between recreational and nonrecreational use.61 UAVs weighing 25 kilograms or 

more would continue to be regulated by the SFOC requirements.62

The proposed changes provide a new classification system based on the risks involved in the use 

of UAVs. There are two categories for UAVs weighing 25 kilograms or less, which are 

described as (a) “Small UAVs used in complex operations,” and (b) “Small UAVs used in 

limited operations.” UAVs in the first category would be used in and around urban or built-up 

areas and would allow operations near to airfields and would have “the most comprehensive set 

of regulatory requirements which, in turn, would provide for the greatest level of safety and 

operational flexibility.

63 The second category would apply to UAV use limited to remote areas 

and would have fewer regulatory requirements.64

A third category is being considered for very small UAVs, which could be based “on weight or 

[on] . . . an alternative approach, such as kinetic energy.”65 Other considerations in the proposed 

regulations include the following:

57 Transport Canada, CARAC, CARAC Activity Reporting Notice # 2015-012, Notice Of Proposed Amendment 

(NPA): Unmanned Air Vehicles, May 28, 2015, at 1, http://wwwapps.tc.gc.ca/Saf-Sec-Sur/2/NPA-APM/doc.aspx? 

id=10294, archived at https://perma.cc/CRB3-QNTF.

58 Id. 

59 Kathryn McGoldrick, New Drone Regulations Expected from Transport Canada in 2016, ALEXANDER HOLBURN 

BEAUDIN + LANG LLP: AVIATION LAW BLOG (Jan. 6, 2016), http://aviationlawblog.ahbl.ca/2016/01/06/new-droneregulations-expected-from-transport-canada-in-2016/?utm_source=Mondaq&utm_medium=syndication&utm_ 

campaign=View-Original, archived at https://perma.cc/6UWP-E6N4.

60 Id.

61 Martin F. Sheehan, Michael Parrish & Peter J. Pliszka, Transport Canada Promises New Drone Regulations, 

LEXOLOGY (Jan. 20, 2016), http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fe100b25-1c2e-40e3-be03-60770057 

d624, archived at https://perma.cc/UAG2-7XC3. 

62 Id.

63 Transport Canada, CARAC, CARAC Activity Reporting Notice # 2015-012, Notice of Proposed Amendment 

(NPA): Unmanned Air Vehicles, at 13.

64 Id.

65 Id.

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Other than the ability of UAVs in the “complex operations” category to operate in closer 

proximity to built-up areas and aerodromes [airfields], a primary difference between the 

requirements for the “complex operations” and “limited operations” categories is pilot 

training. For all operations, Transport Canada has proposed that UAV pilots be 

considered a “pilot” as defined by the Aeronautics Act and the CARs. However, 

operators in “complex operations” would be required to obtain a “pilot permit.”

Suggested requirements for a pilot permit include a minimum age of 14 (with adult 

supervision) or 16 (without adult supervision), a category 4 medical certificate, 

successful completion of a course of instruction in specific aviation knowledge areas and 

a written examination, practical training on the specific category of UAV, and 

demonstrated competency in the performance of normal and emergency procedures.

In contrast, a pilot operating a UAV in either the “limited operations” or “very small 

UAVs” category would not be required to obtain a pilot permit or medical certificate, and 

there would be no minimum age requirement provided there is adult supervision. 

However, the operator would be required to demonstrate aeronautical knowledge in 

specific subject areas, such as airspace classification and structure.

The other principal difference between the three proposed categories is with respect to 

marking, registration, and identification. Transport Canada has proposed that UAVs in 

both the “limited” and “complex” operations categories be required to be marked and 

registered. They would be required to have a unique series of four-letter registration 

marks, and to be registered in accordance with the requirements for aircraft registration in 

the CARs. These include that the registrant be at least 16 years of age and a Canadian 

citizen or permanent resident, and, if the operator is a corporation, it must meet certain 

requirements of Canadian ownership and/or incorporation.

Operators of very small UAVs would not be required to register their aircraft, but would 

be required to have a permanent marking for identification, including the name of the 

pilot and his or her contact information, on the UAV.66

66 McGoldrick, supra note 59. 

The Law Library of Congress 35

 
People’s Republic of China

Laney Zhang 

Senior Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY The December 2015 Interim Provisions on Light and Small Unmanned Aircraft Operations 

(UAS Operation Provisions) issued by China’s civil flight regulatory agency, the Civil 

Aviation Administration of China, regulate the operation of unmanned aircraft systems 

(UAS) with a maximum empty weight of 116 kilograms or less, or a maximum take-off 

gross weight of 150 kilograms or less, and a calibrated air speed of no greater than 100

kilometers per hour. UAS weighing 1.5 kilograms or less are generally not required to 

follow the Provisions. 

The UAS Operation Provisions set forth an online, real-time supervision system 

comprising the “electric fence,” a system consisting of hardware and software that stops 

aircraft from entering certain areas, and the “UAS Cloud,” a dynamic database 

management system that monitors flight data, which has an alarm function for UAS 

connected to it that is activated when these UAS fly into the electric fence.

Airport obstacle control surfaces, as well “prohibited areas, restricted areas, and danger 

zones” provided by other laws and regulations, are restricted areas prescribed by the UAS 

Operation Provisions. UAS connected to the UAS Cloud must follow the restrictions 

shown in the system, while those not connected to the UAS Cloud must consult with 

relevant authorities about the restricted areas. 

UAS flying within visual line of sight (VLOS) must be operated in the daytime. Such a 

requirement does not apply to UAS flying beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS), but a 

certain regulatory framework for addressing emergencies applies to BVLOS flights. Both 

UAS flying within VLOS and BVLOS must give way to manned aircraft.

I. Introduction 

The People’s Republic of China (PRC or China) has not passed any legislation specifically 

regulating drones or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). Civil aviation and flight activities are 

primarily regulated by the PRC Civil Aviation Law, the PRC General Flight Rules, and the 

Regulations on General Aviation Flight Control. They have not, however, expressly extended

their application to the flight of UAS. 

China’s civil flight regulatory agency, the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC), has 

issued advisory circulars setting up guidelines for the flight of UAS. These interim measures are 

expected to be updated as the UAS industry and regulatory framework develop.

1

 

1 轻小无人机运行规定(试行) [Interim Provisions on the Operation of Light and Small Unmanned Aircraft] (UAS 

Operation Provisions) (CAAC, Dec. 29, 2015), http://www.caac.gov.cn/XXGK/XXGK/GFXWJ/201601/P02016 

0126526845399237.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/KJW9-9TQ4; 民用无人驾驶航空器系统驾驶员管理暂行规

定 [Interim Provisions on the Administration of Unmanned Civil Aircraft System Pilots] (CAAC, Nov. 18, 2013), 

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The CAAC is considering new rules on commercial operations of UAS and issued a draft of the 

rules to solicit public opinion in December 2015, but a final version of the rules has not yet been 

adopted.

2 In addition, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) is reportedly 

planning new UAS regulations.3

II. Legislation on Civil Aviation and Flight Activities

A. PRC Civil Aviation Law

The PRC Civil Aviation Law regulates civil aviation throughout the country.

4 The Law

authorizes the CAAC to formulate regulations concerning civil aviation.

5

 The term “civil 

aircraft” under this Law refers to any aircraft other than those used for military, customs, and 

police purposes.

6

 

B. PRC Basic Rules of Flight

According to the PRC Basic Rules of Flight that were originally promulgated in 2000 and last 

amended in 2007, all flight activities in China are under unified state control, which is delegated 

to the State Council and the Central Military Commission (CMC).

7

 According to the Rules, all 

individuals and organizations in China owning aircraft and their flight activities are subject to 

the Rules.

8

 

http://govinfo.caac.gov.cn/000014170/201312/P020131206515715975483.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/V4PT9ER6.

2 Jun Wei et al., China Launches First Operational Rules for Civil Unmanned Aircraft, GLOBAL MEDIA AND 

COMMUNICATIONS WATCH (Jan. 21, 2016), http://www.hlmediacomms.com/2016/01/21/china-launches-firstoperational-rules-for-civil-unmanned-aircraft, archived at https://perma.cc/E9DT-Y3Z7. 

3 工信部调研深圳无人机企业,监管法案或年内出台 [Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) 

Conducting Research on Unmanned Aircraft Enterprises in Shenzhen, Administrative Regulations May Come Out 

This Year], SINA (Feb. 29, 2016), http://tech.sina.com.cn/it/2016-02-26/doc-ifxpvysx1694773.shtml, archived at 

https://perma.cc/5PK6-TRUH. 

4 中华人民共和国民用航空法 [PRC Civil Aviation Law] (adopted by the Standing Committee of the National 

People’s Congress (NPC), Oct. 30, 1995, amended Aug. 27, 2009, and Apr. 24, 2015), art. 3, ZHONGHUA RENMIN 

GONGHEGUO FALÜ FAGUI HUIBIAN: JINGJI FA JUAN I [LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF 

CHINA: ECONOMIC LAW I] (PRC LAWS AND REGULATIONS) 1141–87; Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui Guanyu 

Xiugai Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Jiliang Fa deng Wubu Falü de Jueding [Decision of the NPC Standing 

Committee on Revising Five Laws Including the PRC Metrology Law] (Apr. 24, 2015), available on the NPC 

website, at http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/cwhhy/12jcwh/2015-04/25/content_1934602.htm, archived at https://perma. 

cc/P3LW-S24M. 

5 Id.

6 Id. art. 5.

7 中华人民共和国飞行基本规则 [PRC Basic Rules of Flight] (promulgated by the State Council and CMC, July 

24, 2000, amended July 27, 2001, and Oct. 18, 2007), arts. 3 & 4, PRC LAWS AND REGULATIONS 1234–63. 

8 Id. art. 2.

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Regulation of Drones: China

C. Regulation on Flight Control of General Aviation 

The Regulation on Flight Control of General Aviation is an administrative regulation that applies 

to all commercial and recreational operations of aircraft except those involved in public air 

transportation. “General aviation” under Chinese law refers to 

aviation operations other than military flights, police aerial actions, customs 

anticontraband flights, and public air transportation flights. It includes flight operations 

in the fields of industry, agriculture, forestry, fishery, mining, and construction, and flight 

operations in the fields of medical and health work, emergency rescue and disaster relief, 

meteorological observation, ocean monitoring, scientific experiments, remote sensing and 

mapping, education and training, culture and sports, and tourism and sightseeing, etc.9

III. UAS Operation Provisions

On December 29, 2015, the CAAC issued the Interim Provisions on Light and Small Unmanned 

Aircraft Operations (UAS Operation Provisions). The Provisions regulate UAS with a maximum

empty weight of 116 kilograms or less, or a maximum take-off gross weight of 150 kilograms or 

less, and a calibrated air speed of no greater than 100 kilometers per hour. The Provisions are 

also applicable to “plant protection UAS” used for agricultural, landscaping, or forest protection 

purposes with a maximum take-off gross weight of 5,700 kilograms or less and flying no higher 

than 15 meters above the surface, and unmanned airships with an inflatable volume of 4,600 

cubic meters or less.10

A. UAS Categories

The UAS Operation Provisions divide UAS and unmanned airships subject to its regulation into 

seven categories, mainly based on weight and use, as follows:

• Category I: UAS weighing 1.5 kilograms or less.

• Category II: UAS with an empty weight between 1.5 kilograms and 4 kilograms or with a 

take-off gross weight between 1.5 kilograms and 7 kilograms.

• Category III: UAS with an empty weight between 4 kilograms and 15 kilograms or with a 

take-off gross weight between 7 kilograms and 25 kilograms.

• Category IV: UAS with an empty weight between 15 kilograms and 116 kilograms or with a 

takeoff gross weight between 25 kilograms and 150 kilograms.

• Category V: Plant protection UAS.

9 通用航空飞行管制条例 [Regulation on Flight Control of General Aviation] (promulgated by the State Council 

and CMC, Jan. 10, 2003, effective May 1, 2003), art. 3, PRC LAWS AND REGULATIONS 1208–17. 

10 UAS Operation Provisions §§ 2.1–2.3; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

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Regulation of Drones: China

• Category VI: Unmanned airships.

• Category VII: Category I and II UAS that can operate 100 meters beyond visual line 

of sight.11

Category I UAS are required to be operated safely and to avoid causing injury to others, but are 

not otherwise subject to the UAS Operation Provisions.12 Nor do the Provisions apply to model 

aircraft and indoor flights, except under certain conditions specified by the Provisions.

13

B. Electric Fence and UAS Cloud

The UAS Operation Provisions set forth an online, real-time supervision system that has two 

components: the “electric fence” and the “UAS Cloud.” The “electric fence” is a system 

consisting of hardware and software that stops aircraft from entering certain areas. The UAS 

Cloud is a dynamic database management system that monitors flight data, including operation 

information, location, altitude, and speed, in real time. The UAS Cloud has an alarm function 

for UAS connected to it that is activated when these UAS fly into the electronic fence.14 

UAS under categories III, IV, VI, and VII must install and use the electric fence and connect to 

the UAS Cloud. Operators must report at least every second when in densely populated areas 

and at least every thirty seconds when in non-densely populated areas.15

UAS under categories II and V are required to install and use the electric fence, connect to the 

UAS Cloud, and report at least every second if they are operated above the airspace of key areas 

and in airport clear zones.

16 “Key areas” is defined by the Provisions to include military sites, 

nuclear plants, administrative centers and their neighboring areas, and areas temporarily 

designated as key areas by local governments.17 

A qualified UAS Cloud provider must be approved by the CAAC for a trial operation, among 

other requirements specified by the UAS Operation Provisions. 18 A UAS Cloud system 

developed by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association of China, “U-Cloud,” has been 

approved for operation during a two-year period from March 4, 2016, to March 3, 2018.19

11 UAS Operation Provisions § 2.4.

12 Id. § 2.5.

13 Id. §§ 2.6 & 2.7.

14 Id. §§ 3.17 & 3.18; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

15 UAS Operation Provisions § 14.1; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

16 UAS Operation Provisions § 14.1; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

17 UAS Operation Provisions § 3.14.

18 Id. § 15.

19 无人机监管系统 “优云(U-Cloud)”正式获批 [UAS Supervisory System U-Cloud Officially Approved], 

XINHUANET (Mar. 7, 2016), http://news.xinhuanet.com/science/2016-03/07/c_135163844.htm, archived at

https://perma.cc/REV5-MGJM. 

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Regulation of Drones: China

C. Restricted Areas

Airport obstacle control surfaces are restricted areas prescribed by the UAS Operation 

Provisions. “Prohibited areas, restricted areas, and danger zones” provided by other laws and 

regulations are also restricted areas under the Provisions.

20 UAS connected to the UAS Cloud 

must follow the restrictions shown in the system, while those not connected to the UAS Cloud 

must consult with relevant authorities about the restricted areas.21

In 2009, the CAAC issued rules on air traffic control for civil UAS, which subject civil UAS to 

the relevant provisions of the Civil Aviation Law, the Basic Rules of Flight, the Regulation on 

Flight Control of General Aviation, and other rules concerning air traffic control issued by 

the CAAC.22 

D. Flight Specifications 

According to the UAS Operation Provisions, UAS flying within visual line of sight (VLOS) 

must be operated in the daytime. Such a requirement does not apply to UAS flying beyond 

visual line of sight (BVLOS), but a certain regulatory framework for addressing emergencies 

applies to BVLOS flights. Both UAS flying within VLOS and BVLOS must give way to 

manned aircraft.23

E. Insurance 

In compliance with the PRC Civil Aviation Law, the UAS Operation Provisions require UAS 

operators to buy insurance for UAS covering liability for third parties on the ground, a 

requirement deemed to be “consistent with best practices.”24

F. Pilots

The UAS Operation Provisions require a pilot-in-command to be appointed who is directly in 

charge of the operation of the UAS and has the right to make final decisions.25 Qualification 

requirements for UAS pilots are prescribed by another CAAC advisory circular issued in 2013, 

the Interim Provisions on the Administration of Civil Unmanned Aircraft System Pilots.26 

20 UAS Operation Provisions § 10.

21 Id.

22 民用无人机空中交通管理办法 [Provisions on Managing Air Traffic of Unmanned Civil Aircraft] (June 26, 

2009), http://www.caac.gov.cn/XXGK/XXGK/GFXWJ/201511/t20151102_7975.html, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

UJ4F-N4L7. 

23 UAS Operation Provisions §§ 11 & 12; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

24 UAS Operation Provisions § 14.2; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

25 UAS Operation Provisions § 4; Jun Wei et al., supra note 2.

26 民用无人驾驶航空器系统驾驶员管理暂行规定 [Interim Provisions on the Administration of Unmanned Civil 

Aircraft System Pilots] (CAAC, Nov. 18, 2013), http://govinfo.caac.gov.cn/000014170/201312/P020131206515715 

975483.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/V4PT-9ER6.

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IV. Manufacturing and Sale

A. Allocation of Frequencies

On March 10, 2015, the MIIT issued a notification setting forth the radio frequency spectrum 

allocation for UAS. According to the notification, 840.5–845MHz, 1430–1444MHz, and 2408–

2440MHz are dedicated to UAS.27

B. Export Ban 

In mid-2015, a temporary export ban on certain dual-use UAS was announced by the State 

Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (SASTIND) under the 

MIIT, joined by the Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM), General Administration of Customs

(Customs), and the army.

28 As of the date of this report, the temporary export ban does not 

appear to have been lifted.

27 工业和信息化部关于无人驾驶航空器系统频率使用事宜的通知 [Ministry of Industry and Information 

Technology (MIIT) Notification on Matters Regarding Usage of Frequencies by Unmanned Aircraft Systems] (Mar. 

10, 2015), http://wgj.miit.gov.cn/n11293472/n11295310/n11297382/n14171129/16541659.html, archived at

https://perma.cc/P2QE-K2ZD. 

28 商务部、海关总署、国家国防科技工业局、中国人民解放军总装备部联合公告 2015 年第 20 号 (关于对军

民两用无人驾驶航空飞行器实施临时出口管制的公告) [Joint Announcement [2015] No. 20 of the MOFCOM, 

Customs, SASTIND, and General Armament Department of the People’s Liberation Army of China on 

Implementing Export Control over Dual-Use Unmanned Aircraft] (June 25, 2015, effective July 1, 2015), 

http://www.customs.gov.cn/publish/portal0/tab515/info761305.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/3TPS-T486. 

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France

Nicolas Boring 

Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY The use of civilian drones in France is governed by two recent regulations that came into 

force on January 1, 2016. These regulations separate civilian drone use into three 

categories: hobby and competition flying, flying for experimental and testing purposes, 

and “particular activities,” which essentially means everything else, including commercial 

use of drones. Drones of all categories are subject to strict geographic restrictions, the 

main purpose of which is to protect people, property, and other aircraft. Drones may not 

be flown over public areas of urban zones without governmental approval, and may be 

flown over private property only with the owner’s authorization. Drones are required to 

fly under certain altitudes, and these altitude limits are substantially lower in the vicinity of 

airfields. Absent special authorization, drones are entirely forbidden in certain zones, such 

as military installations and other sensitive sites, but also historical monuments and certain 

national parks and natural reserves. Violation of prohibited airspace is punishable by jail 

time and heavy fines.

Drones flown for hobby and competition purposes are subject to certain weight and 

performance limits. Lighter and less powerful hobby drones may be flown by anyone, but 

heavier and/or more powerful ones may be flown only under authorization of the ministry 

in charge of civil aviation. Drones flown for experimental or testing purposes also require 

government authorization if they weigh more than 25 kilograms. 

Drones flown for “particular activities,” which include commercial purposes, are regulated 

on the basis of four different types of scenarios. Different rules apply depending on which 

type of scenario the drone is to be used for, though many rules apply to all four scenarios. 

Many drones used for “particular activities” require a certification of design in order to 

receive authorization to fly, and all must comply with defined safety requirements. 

Furthermore, the operation of a drone for “particular activities” requires that the operator 

declare these activities to the government authorities, and certain activities require express 

approval. Pilots of drones for “particular activities” must have a level of knowledge and 

training that depends on the type of scenario for which the drone is to be used, with some 

situations requiring a full pilot’s license.

I. Introduction 

The use of civilian drones in France is principally governed by two recent regulations: the Arrêté 

du 17 décembre 2015 relatif à l’utilisation de l’espace aérien par les aéronefs qui circulent sans 

personne à bord (Order of December 17, 2015, Regarding the Use of Airspace by Unmanned 

Aircraft) (Airspace Order),

1 and the Arrêté du 17 décembre 2015 relatif à la conception des 

1 Arrêté du 17 décembre 2015 relatif à l’utilisation de l’espace aérien par les aéronefs qui circulent sans personne à 

bord [Order of December 17, 2015, Regarding the Use of Airspace by Unmanned Aircraft] (Airspace Order), 

https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000031679868&dateTexte=20160330, 

archived at https://perma.cc/ZFA4-5L63. 

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aéronefs civils qui circulent sans personne à bord, aux conditions de leur emploi et aux capacités 

requises des personnes qui les utilisent (Order of December 17, 2015, Regarding the Creation of 

Unmanned Civil Aircraft, the Conditions of Their Use, and the Required Aptitudes of the 

Persons That Use Them) (Creation and Use Order).

2

 These two orders replace regulations from 

2012 that were considered obsolete and inadequate.3 Both of these orders came into force on 

January 1, 2016.4

The current regulations apply to “aircraft that move without any person on board.”5

 The order 

regarding the use of airspace does not apply to tethered balloons, kites, or military drones.6 The 

other order, which aims to regulate the creation of drones, their conditions of use, and the 

requirements for operators to receive authorization to fly them, does not apply to free-flying 

balloons, tethered balloons that stay below an altitude of 50 meters and have a payload of no 

more than 1 kilogram, rockets, kites, and aircraft used in enclosed and covered spaces.

7

The Creation and Use Order provides for three categories of drone use: (1) hobby and 

competition flying, (2) flying for experimental and testing purposes, and (3) “particular 

activities” (activités particulières), which are defined as any use that does not fall into categories 

(1) or (2).8

 The Order specifies that the meaning of “particular activities” is not limited to drone 

use within the context of a commercial transaction.9 It would appear that in practice, however, 

this category would primarily encompass commercial use. Each of these categories is governed 

by a different set of rules.

II. Airspace Limitations

Drones are subject to strict geographic restrictions, the purpose of which is to protect people and 

property, as well as other aircraft.10 They may not be flown over public areas of urban zones, 

2 Arrêté du 17 décembre 2015 relatif à la conception des aéronefs civils qui circulent sans personne à bord, aux 

conditions de leur emploi et aux capacités requises des personnes qui les utilisent [Order of December 17, 2015, 

Regarding the Creation of Unmanned Civil Aircraft, the Conditions of Their Use, and the Required Aptitudes of the 

Persons That Use Them] (Creation and Use Order), https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORF 

TEXT000031679906&dateTexte=20160330, archived at https://perma.cc/38PR-Y2DJ.

3 Thierry Vallat, «Faux-bourdons» mais vraie règlementation: vers l’élaboration d’un véritable droit des drones

[“Drones” and True Regulations: Toward the Elaboration of a Real Law of Drones], REVUE: LA LETTRE JURIDIQUE

[JOURNAL: LEGAL WEEKLY] No. 608, at 15 (Apr. 9, 2015), available on the Lexbase database, at http://www. 

presentation.lexbase.fr/sites/default/files/actualites/fichiers/24072961.pdf (by subscription), archived at 

https://perma.cc/3338-ZDQ3.

4 Airspace Order art. 13; Creation and Use Order art. 12.

5 Airspace Order art. 1; Creation and Use Order art. 1 (all translations by author).

6 Airspace Order art. 1.

7 Creation and Use Order art. 1.

8 Id. art. 3.

9 Id.

10 DIRECTION DE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L’AVIATION CIVILE [DIRECTORATE FOR CIVIL AVIATION SECURITY], 

AÉROMODÉLISME: MODÈLES RÉDUITS ET DRONES DE LOISIR: GUIDE [MODEL AIRCRAFT FLYING: SMALL-SCALE 

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Regulation of Drones: France

except by authorization of the local prefect.11 They may, however, be flown over private areas 

with the permission of the property owner, so long as certain speed and altitude limits 

are respected.12

The drone must fly at a speed suitable for limiting the risks to others if there is a loss of 

control.13 Within authorized areas, drones must not fly higher than 150 meters above the ground, 

or higher than 50 meters above any artificial obstacle more than 100 meters in height.14 Within 

certain zones where military training exercises may occur, and during the times when those 

zones are active, drones are limited to an altitude of 50 meters.15 Drones are entirely forbidden 

from certain zones, such as military installations, nuclear power plants, historical monuments, 

hospitals, prisons, and certain national parks or natural reserves, absent prior authorization.16

Drones are not allowed to fly in the immediate vicinity of an airfield, and must adhere to strict 

altitude limits in the surrounding zone, absent authorization from the airfield’s operator.17 For 

the purposes of these regulatory provisions, the area surrounding an airfield is divided into three 

zones, the dimensions of which depend on the type of airfield at the center.18 For example, if a 

runway is less than 1,200 meters long and is not equipped for instrument approach procedures, 

the zone where drone flying is entirely prohibited (except with the airfield operator’s permission) 

extends 5 kilometers from either end of the runway, and 0.5 kilometers from either edge of the 

runway. In the zone that extends from 0.5 to 3.5 kilometers from each edge of the runway, 

drones may not fly at an altitude of more than 50 meters without the airfield operator’s 

permission. Finally, in the zone that extends from 3.5 to 5 kilometers from each edge of the 

runway, drones may not fly at an altitude of more than 100 meters without authorization.19 

Airfields that have longer runways, are equipped for instrument approach procedures, or are used

for ultralight aviation, and heliports have similar restrictions but with differences in distances and 

altitude limits.20

Drones may not be flown at night,21 unless the pilot or operator obtains special authorization 

from the local prefect.22 Drones flown for hobby and competition purposes may fly at night 

within specific preauthorized areas.23 Furthermore, drones must not fly in clouds.24

MODELS AND HOBBY DRONES: GUIDE] 8 (Dec. 22, 2015), available at http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/ 

IMG/pdf/Guide_Aeromodlisme_v1-0.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/C2T6-BQ5D.

11 Airspace Order art. 5.

12 DIRECTION DE LA SECURITE DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 8.

13 Id.

14 Airspace Order art. 5.

15 Id.

16 Id. art. 4; DIRECTION DE LA SECURITE DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 8–9.

17 Airspace Order art. 4.

18 Id.; DIRECTION DE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 16–18.

19 Airspace Order art. 4; DIRECTION DE LA SECURITE DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 16–18.

20 Id.

21 Airspace Order art. 3.

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Manned aircraft always have the right-of-way over drones.25 Additionally, drones are not 

allowed to fly in the vicinity of fires or accident zones, so as to avoid hampering emergency and 

rescue services.26

Flying a drone over a prohibited area, by mistake or by negligence, is punishable by up to six 

months in jail and a fine of €15,000 (approximately US$17,070).27 Intentionally flying over a 

prohibited area is punishable by up to one year in jail and a fine of €45,000 (approximately 

US$51,200).28 Furthermore, unauthorized use of photographic equipment over a prohibited zone 

is punishable by up to one year in jail and a fine of €75,000 (approximately US$85,350).29

III. Hobby and Competition Drone Flying

A. Subcategories and Authorization to Operate

Hobby and competition drones are divided into two categories.30 Category A drones weigh no 

more than 25 kilograms, and either have no engine or are powered by an engine that is under 

specific power thresholds (for example, a combustion engine of no more than 250 cm3

, or an 

electric engine of no more than 15 kW).31 In an exception to these limitations, tethered drones 

fall into category A regardless of any propulsion they may have, so long as they weigh no more 

than 150 kilograms.32 Any drone that does not fall into category A is considered to be a category 

B drone.

Category A drones may be flown by anyone, and do not require any authorization documents as

long as the regulatory parameters are respected (flying only in permissible areas, no flying by 

night, etc.).33 Category B drones, however, cannot be flown without authorization from the 

ministry in charge of civil aviation, and only the individuals who are specifically listed on the 

authorization document may fly the drone.34 Before granting authorization, the ministry is to 

22 DIRECTION DE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 9–10.

23 Airspace Order art. 3.

24 Id.

25 Id.

26 DIRECTION DE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 9.

27 CODE DES TRANSPORTS [TRANSPORTATION CODE] art. L6232-2, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do? 

idSectionTA=LEGISCTA000023078242&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000023086525&dateTexte=20160406, archived at

https://perma.cc/KR5Y-3HHZ.

28 Id.

29 Id. art. L6232-8, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do?idSectionTA=LEGISCTA000023078226&cid 

Texte=LEGITEXT000023086525&dateTexte=20160406, archived at https://perma.cc/274W-MH5A.

30 Creation and Use Order Annex I.

31 Id.

32 Id.

33 Id.

34 Id.

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verify the drone’s airworthiness as well as the pilot’s aptitude to fly it.35 The authorization is 

valid indefinitely, so long as the conditions under which it was given are still true.36 Authorized 

pilots must annually send a statement confirming that the drone is still in compliance with the 

conditions under which the authorization was granted.37 

B. Flying Conditions

The general rule is that drones should stay within their pilot’s line of sight.38 However, a drone 

may be flown outside of the pilot’s line of sight if a second person keeps it in view while it is 

outside of the pilot’s view.39 The pilot, or other persons watching the drone while it is out of the 

pilot’s view, must always be able to ensure that the drone is flying in safe conditions and be able 

to take control of the drone if need be.40 If the drone weighs no more than 2 kilograms, travels 

no more than 200 meters from its pilot, and flies no higher than 50 meters, it is possible to fly 

outside of the pilot’s line of sight as long as another person keeps it in view and is able to inform 

the pilot of dangers in real time.41 Finally, French regulations allow the flight of drones that are 

able to fly autonomously by following atmospheric movements, as long as they weigh less than 1 

kilogram and fly for less than eight minutes.42

IV. Flying Drones for Experimental and Testing Purposes

Annex II of the Creation and Use Order applies specifically to drones that are flown for 

experimental or testing purposes—that is to say, prototypes—or drones flown in order to develop 

a new technology or modified to go beyond the parameters they were initially designed for.43 

Flying such drones requires a special permit, to be provided by the ministry in charge of civil 

aviation.44 The application for this permit must include a description of the proposed conditions 

of the experimental flights, and of the measures taken to ensure the safety of third parties both on 

the ground and in the air.45 Drones that weigh no more than 25 kilograms do not require a 

special permit as long as they fly during daytime, within the pilot’s line of sight, no farther than 

200 meters from the pilot, outside of any populated area, and at least 50 meters away from any 

person who is not involved in the drone’s operation.46 The other restrictions on flight described 

in Part II above also apply to experimental drones.

35 Id.

36 Id.

37 Id.

38 Creation and Use Order art. 3; DIRECTION DE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 10.

39 DIRECTION DE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, supra note 10, at 10.

40 Id.

41 Id.; Creation and Use Order art. 3.

42 Creation and Use Order art. 3.

43 Id. Annex II, ¶ 1.

44 Id. ¶¶ 2–3.

45 Id. ¶ 3.

46 Id. ¶ 2.

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V. Other Drone Activities (“Particular Activities”)

Annex III of the Creation and Use Order applies to drones that are flown neither for leisure and 

competition, nor for experimentation and testing purposes.47 French regulators essentially made 

“particular activities” a sort of catchall category by not explicitly defining such activities. It 

appears, however, that this category primarily aims to apply to the commercial use of drones.

The following rules apply to drones that have a mass of less than 150 kilograms. For drones of 

150 kilograms or more, the ministry in charge of civil aviation is to define the authorized flight 

and use conditions on a case-by-case basis; such drones are subject to regulation at the European 

Union level.

48

A. Four Basic Scenarios

The regulations laid out in Annex III of the Creation and Use Order are based, to a great extent, 

on four categories of situations (referred to as “scenarios” in the regulation), designated as S-1, 

S-2, S-3, and S-4.49 These categories are defined as follows:

• S-1: Using a drone outside a populated area, without flying over any third party, staying 

within the pilot’s line of sight, and within a horizontal distance of no more than 200 meters 

from the pilot.

• S-2: Using a drone outside a populated area, where no third party is within the area of 

operation, within a horizontal distance of no more than 1 kilometer from the pilot, and not 

falling within the definition of S-1.

• S-3: Using a drone in a populated area, but without flying over any third party, staying within 

the pilot’s line of sight, and within a horizontal distance of no more than 100 meters from 

the pilot;

• S-4: Using a drone outside a populated area, but not in a manner falling within the definitions 

of S-1 or S-2.50

Some of these scenarios place restrictions on the type of drone that can be used in them. In an S2 scenario, only drones weighing 2 kilograms or less may be flown at an altitude of more than 50 

meters.51 Only tethered drones or untethered drones weighing no more than 8 kilograms may be 

used in an S-3 scenario.52 Furthermore, only drones weighing 2 kilograms or less may be used 

for an S-4 scenario, and this use must be limited to measurement taking, aerial photography, 

47 Id. Annex III.

48 Id. art. 3.¶ 1.2. 

49 Id. ¶ 1.3.

50 Id.

51 Id. ¶ 1.4.1.

52 Id. ¶ 1.4.2 

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observation, or surveillance.

53 Finally, tethered aerostats that fly autonomously must abide by 

the same rules as nonautonomous tethered aerostats in scenarios S-1 or S-3.54 With the 

exception of tethered aerostats, drones that fly autonomously may not be used for 

“particular activities.”55

B. Certification of Design and Required Safety Features

The following drones require a certification of design (attestation de conception) in order to be 

flown: drones of more than 25 kilograms, drones used in an S-2 scenario, drones of more than 2 

kilograms used in an S-3 scenario (except for tethered aerostats), and drones used for an S-4 

scenario.56 A certification of design is granted by the ministry in charge of civil aviation on the 

basis of an application that shows that adequate analysis and tests have been conducted to ensure 

that the drone is safe to use as proposed.57 Drones that do not require a certification of design 

must nonetheless comply with the same safety requirements, and their operators must be able to 

demonstrate compliance if so asked by the government authorities in charge of civil aviation.

58

The application for a certification of design must include a checklist of safety checks to be done 

before each flight, the drone’s weight limitations, restrictions with regard to weather conditions, 

programmed safety mechanisms, and emergency procedures.59 The application must also 

include a maintenance manual, the radio frequencies used by the drone, and descriptions of the 

measures available to protect third parties.60 The measures to protect third parties must be able 

to limit the impact energy to 69 joules if the drone drops from its maximum operational altitude, 

and the pilot must be able to trigger them even if the automated systems on board the 

drone malfunction.61

There are also a number of safety requirements that apply specifically to certain types of drones. 

For example, aerostats may use only inert gases,62 and the tethers of tethered drones must 

comply with defined resistance requirements.63 For all untethered drones, the pilot must be 

informed of the aircraft’s altitude on the basis of a barometric instrument, and there must be a 

programmable system to automatically prevent the drone from going beyond a maximum altitude 

even if the pilot instructs it to do so.

64 The pilot of an untethered drone must also be able to 

53 Id. ¶ 1.4.3.

54 Id. ¶ 1.5.2.

55 Id. ¶ 1.5.1.

56 Id. ¶ 2.1.1.

57 Id. ¶ 2.1.3.

58 Id. ¶ 2.1.2.

59 Id. ¶ 2.2.3.

60 Id. ¶¶ 2.2.3–2.2.5.

61 Id. ¶ 2.2.5.

62 Id. ¶ 2.3.

63 Id. ¶ 2.4.

64 Id. ¶ 2.5.1.

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make it land at any moment by cutting its propulsion, and there must be a system for the drone to 

automatically initiate a landing procedure if it loses contact with the remote control.65 The 

initiation of such an automatic landing may be preceded by a wait procedure to give the pilot an 

opportunity to reestablish contact, but this wait time must be short enough to minimize the 

chances that another malfunction could occur.66

Furthermore, there are a number of safety requirements that apply specifically to certain types of 

drone uses. For example, a drone to be used in an S-2 scenario must comply with the following 

requirements in order to obtain a certification of design:

• The pilot must have access to information on the position and movement of the aircraft in 

real time, so as to ensure that it does not go beyond the intended limits of its flight.

• The drone must have an automatic system to prevent it from going beyond the horizontal 

distance limits of the flight, or must have an alarm system to warn the pilot when it goes 

beyond those limits.

• The function to stop propulsion in flight, as required of all drones used for “particular 

activities,” must be independent from the on-board automatic mechanisms that control the 

aircraft’s flight path.

• There must be an on-board system to record the essential parameters of the flight, such as 

location, altitude, and quality of the control signal, in order to allow an analysis of the last 

twenty minutes of flight.67

Similarly, heavier-than-air drones of more than 2 kilograms that are to be used in an S-3 scenario 

must be equipped with a system to protect third parties, which is supposed to automatically 

activate if the drone lands by itself following a loss of contact with the pilot.

68 Heavier-than-air 

drones of more than 4 kilograms must, in addition, have equipment to ensure that the pilot can 

know the aircraft’s speed.69 The system to protect third parties from the fall of heavier-than-air 

drones of more than 4 kilograms must also automatically stop the propulsion system, the control 

link for that emergency system must be independent from the drone’s main control link, and 

there must be an audible alarm to warn of the drone’s fall.

70

Failure to comply with these requirements is punishable by up to one year in jail and a fine 

of €75,000.71

65 Id.

66 Id.

67 Id. ¶ 2.6.

68 Id. ¶ 2.7.

69 Id. ¶ 2.7.3.

70 Id.

71 CODE DES TRANSPORTS art. L6232-4, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI 

000023078234&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000023086525, archived at https://perma.cc/6TQH-9EDC.

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C. Conditions of Operation

Operation of a drone for “particular activities” requires that the operator make a declaration to 

the authorities in charge of civil aviation describing the activity for which he/she is using the 

drone.72 This declaration must be renewed every two years if the activity stays the same, but any 

changes must be declared immediately.73 Additionally, operations falling within an S-4 scenario

require the government’s approval.74

In January of each year, every drone operator who falls within the “particular activities” 

regulations must send a report to the ministry in charge of civil aviation.75 This report provides 

the number of hours of flight flown during the previous year, gives a summary of any problems 

encountered, and states the airworthiness of any drone weighing more than 25 kilograms.76

Any drone used for “particular activities” must have an identification plate affixed to it, showing 

the operator’s name and contact information.77 Presumably, this is to ensure that the operator 

could be easily identified for purposes of establishing liability in case of an accident.

A drone’s operator is responsible for knowing, and for periodically evaluating, the level of 

competence of the pilots who fly it.

78

D. Qualifications Requirements for Professional Drone Pilots

Pilots of drones for “particular activities” must have, or have had, a certificate of theoretical 

competence for flying a manned aircraft.79 An exception is made for pilots of tethered aerostats, 

who are required only to be able to read aeronautical information.80 Beyond this theoretical 

competence, drone pilots must take a practical training course determined by the drone operator 

as necessary to perform the flights required by the “particular activity” in question.81

72 Creation and Use Order Annex III, ¶ 3.3.1. As used in these regulations, the term “operator” appears to refer to 

the person or company in charge of the drone’s operation. The operator, in this context, is not necessarily the same 

person as the pilot. Rather, the term refers to the company that owns the drone and employs the pilot. It is possible 

(and probably not uncommon) for the operator and the pilot to be the same person if he/she is self-employed, but the 

concepts as used in these regulations are distinct.

73 Id. ¶ 3.3.1–3.3.2.

74 Id. ¶ 3.3.4.

75 Id. ¶ 3.5.4.

76 Id.

77 Id. ¶ 1.7.

78 Id. ¶ 3.5.2.

79 Id. ¶ 4.1.1; DIRECTION DE LA SECURITE DE L’AVIATION CIVILE, AERONEFS CIRCULANT SANS PERSONNE A BORD:

ACTIVITES PARTICULIERES : GUIDE [UNMANNED AIRCRAFT: PARTICULAR ACTIVITIES : GUIDE] 17 (Dec. 22, 2015), 

http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Guide_Activites_particulieres_v1-0.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/V8CH-LHEL.

80 Id. ¶ 4.1.1.

81 Id. ¶ 4.2.1.

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Pilots of drones in S-4 scenarios are subject to additional requirements, which include having a 

manned aircraft pilot’s license (for either an airplane, a helicopter, or a glider) and at least one 

hundred hours of flight operating this aircraft as a pilot.82 Furthermore, the pilot must have had 

at least twenty hours of practical experience flying the drone in the six months prior to the S4 flight.83

The pilots of drones other than tethered aerostats weighing more than 25 kilograms must perform 

a demonstration flight before an agent of the ministry in charge of civil aviation before they are 

authorized to perform a “particular activity.”84

82 Id. ¶ 4.2.2.

83 Id. ¶ 4.2.3.

84 Id. ¶ 4.3.

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Germany 

Jenny Gesley

Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY The German Air Traffic Act defines unmanned aerial systems (UAS) as unmanned aerial 

vehicles that are not used for hobby or recreational purposes. The operation of a UAS that 

weighs more than 5 kilograms requires authorization from the aviation authority of the 

German state in question. Authorization to fly will be granted if operation of the UAS 

does not present a risk to air safety or public safety or order, and if rules on data protection 

and privacy are not violated. Operating a UAS that weighs more than 25 kilograms or 

operating it outside of the visual line of sight of the operator is generally prohibited. The 

German Ministry of Transportation and Digital Infrastructure is currently working on 

changes to the existing drone regulation regime.

I. Definition of Unmanned Aerial Systems 

The Air Traffic Act defines unmanned aerial systems (UAS), commonly called “drones,” as 

“unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), including their control stations, which are not used for hobby 

or recreational purposes.”1 If these conditions are fulfilled, the UAS are qualified as aerial 

systems and the requirements of the Air Traffic Act and the Air Traffic Regulation2

 apply to

their operation. 

If on the other hand the UAVs are merely used for hobby or recreational purposes, they are 

qualified as “model aircraft.”3 In general, the operation of model aircraft of up to 5 kilograms

(approximately 11 pounds) of weight does not require authorization from the aviation authority.

4

UAVs used for hobby or recreational purposes above that weight must adhere to the specific 

requirements for model aircraft codified in section 20 of the Air Traffic Regulation, as 

explained below. 

The distinction between UAS and model aircraft only depends on the purpose for which the 

UAV is used. Recreational purposes indicate a model aircraft, whereas other, in particular

commercial, purposes indicate a UAS. 

1 Luftverkehrsgesetz [LuftVG] [Air Traffic Act], May 10, 2007, BUNDESGESETZBLATT [BGBL.] [FEDERAL LAW 

GAZETTE] I at 698, § 1, para. 1, sentence 3, as amended, http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/luftvg/ 

gesamt.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/DN5N-ZKWT. 

2 Luftverkehrs-Ordnung [LuftVO] [Air Traffic Regulation], Oct. 29, 2015, BGBL. I at 1894, http://www.gesetze-iminternet.de/bundesrecht/luftvo_2015/gesamt.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/X72J-S5Z6. 

3 Air Traffic Act § 1, para. 2, sentence 1, no. 7.

4 Air Traffic Regulation § 20, para. 1, no. 1a.

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II. Requirements for the Operation of UAS

A. General Requirements

In order to operate a UAS that weighs more than 5 kilograms, the owner must obtain 

authorization5 from the aviation authority of the German state in question.6 If the aviation 

authority concludes that the operation of the UAS does not present a risk to air safety or public 

safety or order, and if rules on data protection are not violated, authorization to fly 

(Aufstiegserlaubnis) will be granted.7 In order to achieve a harmonized system for the 

authorization of UAS, the Federation and the German states have agreed on a common set of 

rules, the Common Principles of the Federation and the States for Granting a Permission to Fly 

for Unmanned Aerial Systems According to Section 16, para. 1, no. 7 of the Air Traffic 

Regulation (Common Principles).8 The Common Principles are not legally binding, but are 

supposed to provide practical guidance to aviation authorities.

9

B. Different Types of Authorizations

There are two different types of authorizations for the operation of UAS: a general authorization 

and a specific, case-by-case authorization.

10 The aviation authority in question has discretion to 

decide which type of authorization to grant and what documents need to be submitted with an 

application.

11 Authorizations are generally issued with conditions and limitations that the 

operator is responsible for complying with.12 An application for either type of authorization will 

be denied if the intended operation violates data protection and privacy laws.13

1. General Authorization

For UAS that do not weigh more than 5 kilograms and do not have a combustion engine, a 

general authorization to fly may be granted for a period of two years.

14 A general authorization 

is only issued for a specific state, but may be recognized by other states.15

5 Id. § 20, para. 1, no. 7.

6 Air Traffic Act § 31, para. 2, no. 16, in conjunction with Air Traffic Regulation § 20.

7 Air Traffic Regulation § 20, para. 4.

8 Gemeinsame Grundsätze des Bundes und der Länder für die Erteilung der Erlaubnis zum Aufstieg von 

unbemannten Luftfahrtsystemen gemäß § 16 Absatz 1 Nummer 7 Luftverkehrs-Ordnung (LuftVO) [Common 

Principles of the Federation and the States for Granting Unmanned Aerial Systems Permission to Fly According to 

Section 16, Paragraph 1, Number 7 of the Air Traffic Regulation], published in 61 NACHRICHTEN FÜR LUFTFAHRER

[NfL] [NEWS FOR AERONAUTS] I 281/13 (Dec. 26, 2013), https://www.uavdach.org/aktuell/NFL-1-281-13.pdf, 

archived at http://perma.cc/SK5X-FY5G. 

9 Id. at 1, no. 1.

10 Air Traffic Regulation § 20, para. 4, sentence 3.

11 Id. sentence 4.

12 Id. sentence 2.

13 Id. sentence 1; Common Principles, supra note 8, at 6, para. 2.3.

14 Common Principles, supra note 8, at 1, paras. 2.1.1. & 2.1.4.

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A general authorization may not be issued if the UAS will be operated 

• above people and public gatherings;

• above the scene of an accident, disaster zones, and other operation sites of police or other 

organizations with security-related duties; 

• above correctional facilities, military complexes, industrial complexes, power plants, and 

power generating and distributing facilities, unless the operation has been explicitly 

permitted by these places; or 

• in prohibited areas and in flight-restricted areas.16

The application for a general authorization must contain

• the name, date and place of birth, and address of the applicant;

• for a business, the name of the company, as well as the name, address, date and place of 

birth of the registered agent and of all employees who will operate the UAS; 

• the reason for the operation of the UAS; and

• proof of sufficient insurance for personal and property damage according to section 37, 

para. 1a and section 43 of the Air Traffic Act.17

2. Specific Case-by-Case Authorization

For UAS that weigh between 5 and 25 kilograms (approximately 55 pounds), a specific 

authorization may be obtained from the aviation authority. The same operation prohibitions 

listed above for UAS subject to general authorization also apply to these UAS.18 In addition to 

the information that must be provided in the application for a general authorization, the applicant 

for a specific authorization must submit

• a map that indicates the launch area and operating space, and clearly marks the launch site 

(district, lot or city, street, and street number);

• a declaration of consent from the property owner or other beneficiaries of the launch site;19

• definite statements about time frame (date and time) and in some cases number and duration 

of launches; 

• technical details of the UAS; 

15 With the exception of the states of Baden-Württemberg, Berlin, Bremen, Hamburg, and Rhineland-Palatinate. See 

Common Principles, supra note 8, at 3, para. 2.1.5.

16 Id. at 1, para. 2.1.1.

17 Id. at 2, para. 2.1.2.

18 Id. at 4, para. 2.2.1.

19 Air Traffic Act § 25; Air Traffic Regulation § 20, para. 5.

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• information on the knowledge and experience, or proof of training, of the operator;

• a data privacy statement;

• a letter of no objection from the competent regulatory or police agency; and

• for flights in nature conservation areas, an authorization or letter of no objection from the 

competent nature conservation authority.20

The aviation authority issues a specific authorization only for the limited time and place 

specified in the authorization.21

C. Prohibitions and Restrictions

There are several general restrictions that must be observed while operating a UAS. The UAS 

cannot weigh more than 25 kilograms and must be kept within the operator’s visual line of sight 

at all times.

22 A UAS is not within visual line of sight if the operator cannot see the aircraft 

without vision-enhancing devices or if he/she is not able to have an unobstructed view of 

the aircraft.

23

An exception from the general prohibition may be granted by the aviation authority, if the 

intended use of the air space does not pose a danger to public safety and order and if the UAS 

will be operated in a restricted-flight area according to section 17 of the Air Traffic Regulation,

or if the operation will be outside of the airfield traffic of a landing site. No restricted-flight area 

needs to be established if the UAS will be operated within the visual line of sight of the operator, 

for agricultural or forestry purposes, up to 50 meters above ground and water, and outside of the 

controlled airspace. 

Additionally, the UAS must be flown below 100 meters above ground24 and it cannot be flown 

within 1.5 kilometers of an airport, unless a special permit is granted.25 Furthermore, a UAS may 

not fly over people or public gatherings.

26

III. Flight in Controlled Airspace

The certification of UAVs and model aircraft for flight in the controlled airspace of international 

and regional airports and military airfields requires clearance from the German Aviation Control 

20 Common Principles, supra note 8, at 4, para. 2.2.2.

21 Id. at 5, para. 2.2.3.

22 Air Traffic Regulation § 19, para. 3.

23 Id. § 19, para. 3, sentence 2.

24 Common Principles, supra note 8, at 1, para. 1.

25 Air Traffic Regulation § 20, para. 1., no. 1d.

26 Common Principles, supra note 8, at 1, para. 2.1.1.; id. at 4, para. 2.2.1.

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(Deutsche Flugsicherung, DFS).27 The DFS has issued a general clearance for the sixteen 

international airports28 that it controls, if the following conditions are met:

• The distance from the airport boundary is 1.5 km or more.

• The flight is conducted within the operator’s direct visual line of sight.

• At all times during the flight, the operator or a second person who is in contact with the 

operator is able to observe the airspace, especially in regard to other traffic.

• Manned aircraft operations are granted the right-of-way at all times.

• Model aircraft and/or unmanned aircraft systems that have gone out of control must be 

immediately reported to the competent air traffic control unit.

• Maximum weight of model aircraft: 5 kg

• Maximum weight of UAS: 25 kg

• Maximum height for model aircraft: 30 m

• Maximum height for UAS: 50 m29

IV. Data Protection and Privacy Rights

The private and commercial operation of UAS might implicate data protection and privacy laws. 

The Air Traffic Regulation as well as the Common Principles put particular emphasis on the 

observance of data privacy and data protection rules and do not permit authorization if the 

intended operation would violate those rules.

A. Federal Data Protection Act

If a UAS is used to process personal data, the requirements of the Federal Data Protection Act 

must be taken into account.30 “Personal data” is defined as “any information concerning the 

personal or material circumstances of an identified or identifiable individual.”31 The Federal 

27 Id. § 21, para. 1.

28 Berlin Schönefeld, Berlin Tegel, Bremen, Düsseldorf, Dresden, Erfurt, Frankfurt Main, Hamburg, Hannover, 

Cologne Bonn, Leipzig Halle, Munich, Münster Osnabrück, Nürnberg, Saarbrücken, and Stuttgart.

29 Allgemeinverfügung zur Erteilung von Flugverkehrskontrollfreigaben zur Durchführung von Flügen mit 

Flugmodellen und unbemannten Luftfahrtsystemen in Kontrollzonen von Flugplätzen nach § 27d Abs. 1 LuftVG an 

den internationalen Verkehrsflughäfen mit DFS-Flugplatzkontrolle [General Clearance for Flights of Model Aircraft 

and Unmanned Aerial Systems in Controlled Airspace of Airports According to § 27d, Para. 1 of the Air Traffic Act 

at International Airports Controlled by DFS], published in NfL I 681/16 (Feb. 23, 2016), http://www.dfs.de/dfs_ 

homepage/de/Services/Luftsport%20&%20Freizeit/Flugmodelle%20|%20%22Drohnen%22/1-681-16.pdf, archived 

at http://perma.cc/4AMW-GL7U. 

30 Bundesdatenschutzgesetz [BDSG] [Federal Data Protection Act], Jan. 14, 2003, BGBL. I at 66, as amended, 

http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/bdsg_1990/gesamt.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/T2Q4-2643, 

unofficial English translation available at http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bdsg/federal_data_ 

protection_act.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/Z2NZ-UH36.

31 Id. § 3, para. 1.

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Data Protection Act does not apply to the processing of personal data effected solely for personal 

or family activities.

32

If a UAV is equipped with a video camera, the requirements of section 6b of the Federal Data 

Protection Act (video surveillance of public places) must be taken into account. Video 

surveillance of public places may only be conducted to fulfill public tasks, to exercise the right to 

determine who shall be allowed or denied access to a property, or to pursue rightful interests for 

precisely defined purposes—for example, protection against theft or vandalism.33 If a UAS is 

merely used for recreational purposes and the surveillance is not of a lasting nature, the provision 

will not be applicable.34

If the UAV camera is surveilling a nonpublic area, section 4, paragraph 1 of the Federal Data 

Protection Act applies. In such a case, any collection, processing, and use of personal data is 

only admissible if permitted by law or if the person has consented. Furthermore, the subjects of 

the surveillance have to be informed of the identity of the data collector, purposes of collection, 

processing, or use of their personal data, and of possible recipients.

35

B. Right to Control the Use of One’s Image

Videos and photos that were taken with a camera installed on a UAS might also violate the right 

to control the use of one’s image. Section 22, paragraph 1 of the Copyright Arts Domain Act36

provides that images can only be disseminated with the express consent of the person concerned. 

Exceptions are listed in section 23—for example, for images that portray an aspect of 

contemporary society—on condition that the publication does not interfere with a legitimate 

interest of the person concerned. Dissemination includes public and private dissemination—for 

example, making an image available to a limited audience on the Internet.37

C. General Right of Personality

Data protection and the Right to Control the Use of One’s Image are special codifications of the 

General Right of Personality, which is derived from article 2, paragraph 1 in conjunction with 

32 Id. § 1, para. 2, no. 3.

33 Id. § 6b, para. 1; Philip Scholz, § 6b, Beobachtung öffentlich zugänglicher Räume mit optisch-elektronischen 

Einrichtungen [§ 6b, Monitoring Publicly Accessible Areas with Optic-Electronic Devices], in

BUNDESDATENSCHUTZGESETZ [FEDERAL DATA PROTECTION ACT] 715, 743, para. 79 (Sprios Simitis ed., 2014).

34 Scholz, supra note 33, at 738, para. 64; PETER GOLA & RUDOLF SCHOMERUS, BDSG,

BUNDESDATENSCHUTZGESETZ KOMMENTAR [BDSG, FEDERAL DATA PROTECTION ACT COMMENTARY] 248, 

para. 12 (12th ed. 2015).

35 Federal Data Protection Act § 4, para. 3.

36 Gesetz betreffend das Urheberrecht an Werken der bildenden Künste und der Photographie [KUG] [Copyright 

Arts Domain Act], Jan. 9, 1907, REICHS-GESETZBLATT [RGBL.] [REICHS LAW GAZETTE] I at 7, as amended, 

http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/kunsturhg/gesamt.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/QJY8-5V3X. 

37 Gunda Dreyer, § 22 KUG, Recht am eigenen Bild [§ 22, Right to Control the Use of One’s Own Image], in

URHEBERRECHT [COPYRIGHT LAW] 1597, 1618 et seq., para. 12 (Gunda Dreyer et al. eds., 3d ed. 2013). 

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Regulation of Drones: Germany

article 1, paragraph 1 of the German Basic Law.38 Intrusions into someone’s private sphere of 

life—for example, by repeatedly flying over a neighbor’s property—might violate the General 

Right of Personality.

39

D. Copyright Law

Section 2 of the Copyright Act40 protects works of architecture. Utilizing a drone to take 

pictures of public buildings, bridges, sights, or statues is therefore only permissible if the image 

is made for private use.41

Furthermore, taking pictures of the outside of buildings and other art that are permanently 

located in a public place is generally permitted under copyright law.42 This general permission 

does not extend to places that are not visible from the street—for example, an inside courtyard—

and a drone can therefore not be used for such purposes.43

V. Proposed Legislation

The German Ministry of Transportation and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) is currently working 

on legislation that would make changes to the existing drone regulation regime. All UAS 

weighing more than 0.5 kilograms (approximately 1 pound) would have to be registered in order 

to be able to hold the operator/owner accountable if the UAS is used in an unsafe manner or for 

illegal purposes.

44

A. Private Use

The proposal would strictly prohibit UAS flights for private use that are 

• more than 100 meters above ground;

38 GRUNDGESETZ FÜR DIE BUNDESREPUBLIK DEUTSCHLAND [GRUNDGESETZ] [GG] [BASIC LAW], May 23, 1949, 

BGBL. I at 1, unofficial English translation available at http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gg/basic_ 

law_for_the_federal_republic_of_germany.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/KC9J-TJA6. 

39 Amtsgericht Potsdam [AG Potsdam] [District Court of Potsdam], Apr. 16, 2015, Docket No. 37 C 454/13,

http://www.gerichtsentscheidungen.berlin-brandenburg.de/jportal/portal/t/152n/bs/10/page/sammlung.psml?pid= 

Dokumentanzeige&showdoccase=1&js_peid=Trefferliste&documentnumber=1&numberofresults=1&fromdoctodoc

=yes&doc.id=JURE160000030&doc.part=L&doc.price=0.0#focuspoint, archived at http://perma.cc/7APX-MY9Z. 

40 Urheberrechtsgesetz [Copyright Act], Sept. 9, 1965, BGBL. I at 1273, § 2, para. 1, no. 4, as amended, http://www. 

gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/urhg/gesamt.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/J2MJ-D6UZ, unofficial English 

translation available at http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_urhg/act_on_copyright_and_related_rights__ 

copyright_act_.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/WH66-N38U. 

41 Copyright Act § 53, para. 1.

42 Id. § 59.

43 Id.

44 Dobrindt plant neue Regelungen für Drohnen-Flüge [Dobrindt Is Proposing New Rules for Drone Flights], 

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION AND DIGITAL INFRASTRUCTURE (Dec. 29, 2015), http://www.bmvi.de/ 

SharedDocs/DE/Artikel/K/151108-drohnen.html?nn=35602, archived at http://perma.cc/63YY-9WLS. 

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• outside of the visual line of sight of the operator;

• above industrial complexes, correctional facilities, military complexes, power plants, power 

generation and distribution facilities, or federal highways and railroads; and

• at the operation site of police or other security agencies or organizations.

B. Commercial Use

The BMVI proposal would also explore possibilities for the use of UAS for agriculture and 

traffic control. 

Furthermore, according to the proposal, state aviation authorities would be authorized to allow 

the operation of commercial UAS outside of the operator’s visual line of sight if safe operation 

can be demonstrated. Currently, operation outside of the line of sight of the operator is 

generally prohibited.

Additionally, the BMVI would require a pilot certificate for commercial UAS users. Aeronautic 

and aviation law knowledge would be tested. The certificate would be granted by the Federal 

Aviation Office.

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Israel

Ruth Levush 

Senior Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY Israel’s Aviation Law regulates the operation and manufacturing of all aircraft, including 

unmanned aircraft (UA) in Israel. The Law imposes licensing requirements on flight 

operators, aviation instructors, manufacturers, and all other persons engaged in aviation. 

Israel’s Civil Aviation Authority (CAAI) controls the licensing and supervision of civilian 

flight operations, and maintains a special unit for UA operations. The CAAI has issued a 

number of directives to regulate various aspects of UA activities, including flight altitude

and authorized routes, required transmission devices, and procedures for the preapproval 

of flights.

In addition to issuing operational directives, the CAAI has published a draft proposal for 

registration of UA. The proposed register would include all UA owned by Israeli citizens 

or by Israeli corporations that have received authorization to deal with UA in Israel. The 

proposal also calls for labeling UA with information confirming their Israeli registration, 

the name of manufacturer, and the registration number. In addition, the proposal would 

require fire-resistant license plates in all UA. The plates would contain specific

identifying information including aircraft type, model, and serial number, as well as UA 

authorization status.

A concept paper issued by the CAAI incorporates licensing requirements under Circular 

328 AN/190 of the International Civil Aviation Organization regarding UA systems. The 

concept paper calls for the issuance of UA licenses for various aviation operators, 

depending on flight type, category, and class.

Flying any aircraft, including UA, in Israeli airspace is subject to spatial and geographic 

restrictions. In addition to aircraft, the restrictions apply to unmanned powered or 

unpowered air devices weighing at least 300 grams (0.66 pounds), which are used or 

designed to be used for sports and leisure purposes. 

I. Introduction 

Having pioneered the modern use of unmanned aircraft (UA) for intelligence gathering and 

target identification in the mid-1970s, Israel was reportedly the world’s largest exporter of UA 

between 2010 and 2014.

1

 Foreign UA sales from 2005 to 2012 by Israeli companies were 

1 George Arnett, The Numbers Behind the Worldwide Trade in Drones, THE GUARDIAN (Mar. 16, 2015), 

http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/mar/16/numbers-behind-worldwide-trade-in-drones-uk-israel, 

archived at https://perma.cc/8XE6-ZDUN; see also Josh Meyer, Why Israel Dominates Global Drone Exports (July 

10, 2013), http://qz.com/102200/why-israel-dominates-global-drone-exports, archived at https://perma.cc/Z6FN3ZDH. 

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Regulation of Drones: Israel

estimated at over US$4.5 billion.2 In addition to developing UA for military uses, several Israeli 

startups are currently working on exploring civilian uses for UA and on finding ways to make 

UA technology safe, simple, and affordable.3 According to Israel’s Civil Aviation Authority

(CAAI), fifteen companies are now engaged in developing unmanned aircraft, and more than 

thirty platforms are in different stages of development.4

UA operations are subject to the application of the Aviation Law, 5771-2011 and related 

regulations.

5 Since the first UA flight in the mid-1970s, flight approvals for all unmanned 

aircraft in Israel have been controlled by the Israeli Airforce.6 With the increased volume of 

experimental flights conducted by Israeli defense industries engaged in UA development for the 

Israeli Defense Force (IDF) and for foreign clients, the Airforce has reportedly decided to direct 

requests for civilian flight approval to the CAAI. This has resulted in a comprehensive review of 

relevant legislation on UA operations in Israel.

7

In February 2005 the Knesset passed Israel’s Civil Aviation Authority Law, 5765-2005. This 

Law establishes the CAAI as an agency under the Ministry of Transportation.8 The CAAI is 

responsible for improving, regulating, and developing civil aviation in Israel in accordance with 

Israeli aviation laws.

9 The CAAI maintains a special unit for unmanned aircraft systems under 

the Department for Aerial Control.10 The CAAI has issued a number of directives to regulate 

various aspects of UA flight operations.

2 Daniel Tepper, Newest Trend for Israeli Drone Industry: Shooting Them Down, VICE NEWS (Sept. 14, 2015), 

https://news.vice.com/article/newest-trend-for-israeli-drone-industry-shooting-them-down, archived at 

https://perma.cc/L3GP-XWZ7.

3 Ora Coren, As Civilian Market Booms, Drone Pioneer Israel Is Playing Catch Up, HAARETZ, (Sept. 9, 2015), 

http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/.premium-1.675178, archived at https://perma.cc/3L4U-BN5J. 

4 CAAI, Concept for Licensing of Flyers of Unmanned Aircraft 2011/11, at 3, http://caa.gov.il/index.php? 

option=com_docman&view=download&alias=5171-remote-pilot-licence-caai-1&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-38-

50-7&Itemid=669&lang=he (last visited Mar. 22, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/72MJ-VFCM. CAAI 

documents and all other legal sources cited in this report are in Hebrew.

5 Aviation Law, 5771-2011, SEFER HAHUKIM [SH] [BOOK OF LAWS] (official gazette), 5771 No. 2296 p. 830, as 

amended, available at http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_docman&view=download&alias=5307-1927-

2016&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-39-02-8&Itemid=669&lang=he, archived at https://perma.cc/9LDH-X4VF.

6 Ran Kleiner, Flying Above the Law: Operating [Unmanned] Aircraft in Israel, Legal or Not?, GEEKTIME (Aug. 4, 

2015), http://www.geektime.co.il/does-using-drones-allowed-in-israel, archived at https://perma.cc/CKB7-AM4Z.

7 Id. 

8 Israel’s Civil Aviation Authority Law, 5765-2005, SH No. 1980 p. 130, available at http://caa.gov.il/index.php? 

option=com_docman&view=download&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-39-02-7&alias=4452-2005-1&Itemid=669& 

lang=he, archived at https://perma.cc/HC6Y-9AKK.

9 Id. § 1.

10 Status and Organizational Structure, CAAI, http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_content&view=article 

&id=49&Itemid=820&lang=he (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/L27V-T4TR.

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II. Licensing Requirements

The Aviation Law regulates the operation of all “aircraft.” According to the definition provided 

by the Law, an aircraft is any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the 

reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface, excluding 

“paragliding tools” (PTs).

11

Unlike PTs, UA are subject to the general provisions that apply to all “aircraft.”12 According to 

the Aviation Law, any person who “engages in an aviation profession,” including by flying, 

conducting aircraft quality inspections, or providing aviation instruction or air control services, is 

required to be licensed.13 The Law authorizes the Minister, with the approval of the Knesset 

(Parliament) Finance Committee, to adopt rules for the grant of aviation professionals’ licenses. 

Items that may be considered for licensing include the applicant’s age, proof of subject-matter 

knowledge, training and testing, medical certification, and criminal record.

14

Aircraft operators must meet the specific requirements in their licenses.

15 To receive a license,

operators of commercial aircraft must meet certain conditions, including residence in Israel while 

not having his/her primary business located abroad, or Israeli citizenship when the licensee’s

primary business is located in Israel.16 In the case of a corporation, a license to operate 

commercial aircraft will only be issued if the corporation is incorporated in Israel; does not have 

its primary business activity outside of Israel; and is controlled by an Israeli citizen, an Israeli 

permanent resident, or another person in accordance with the provisions of an international 

aviation convention [the 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation, including 

supplements and amendments as ratified by the State of Israel] to which Israel is a party.17

Additional requirements for licensing of commercial operations include possession of the aircraft 

and necessary equipment for its operation, and authorization for flying and landing in designated 

areas in Israel.18

11 Aviation Law §§ 1 & 168(a)(8). The operation of hang gliders, powered hang gliders, paragliders, powered 

paragliders, and powered parachutes are subject to the Aviation (Paragliding Tools) Regulations, 5775-2015, 

KOVETZ HATAKANOT [KT] [SUBSIDIARY LEGISLATION] No. 7503 p. 1090, available at http://caa.gov.il/index. 

php?option=com_docman&view=download&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-39-02-8&alias=4841-takanot-cli-rhifa2015&Itemid=669&lang=he, archived at https://perma.cc/PVS8-Y63L. The regulations impose licensing 

requirements on operators of PTs; set geographical restrictions; and list safety requirements for the general, 

commercial, and instructional operation of PTs.

12 Kleiner, supra note 6.

13 Aviation Law § 2.

14 Id. §§ 3 & 6.

15 Id. § 17(b).

16 Id. § 18(a)(1)(a).

17 Id. §§ 1 & 18(a)(1)(b); International Civil Aviation Organization, Convention on International Civil Aviation,

Doc. 7300 (1944) (9th ed. 2006), http://www.icao.int/publications/Documents/7300_cons.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/QA7K-WVN7. 

18 Aviation Law §§ 17 & 18.

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In addition to regulating the operation of aircraft, the Aviation Law requires registration and 

preapproval of the use of any “flight auxiliary facility” (FAF). The Law defines an FAF as any 

device located outside of the aircraft that is used to assist the operation of the aircraft, including 

by navigation and flying.19 The Law also imposes licensing requirements on the manufacture of 

all aircraft, including UA. Among the conditions for the issuance of a manufacturing license are 

the availability of equipment necessary for the production of aircraft and the operation of a 

system of quality control by the manufacturer. The Law further authorizes the Minister to issue 

regulations regarding specific aspects of the design and production of aircraft. 20

III. Spatial Restrictions 

The Aviation Law authorizes the Minister of Transportation and Road Safety, with the consent 

of the Minister of Defense, or the government in the absence of such consent, to designate areas 

for flights of civilian and military aircraft.21 The decision regarding coordinates and routes 

through which aircrafts would enter, pass through or exit Israeli airspace, will similarly be made 

by the Ministers, having consulted with the Minister of Environment Protection, and by the 

government, in the absence of such consent.22

The Aviation Regulations (Operating Aircraft and Aviation Rules), 5742-1981,

23 issued by the 

Minister, accordingly divide Israel’s Flight Information Region into areas where flying is 

permitted, areas where flying is prohibited or restricted, and areas that are considered 

dangerous.24 The geographic restrictions under the regulations apply to all aircraft, including 

UA.

25 The restrictions also expressly provide that they are applicable to unmanned powered as 

well as unpowered air devices of at least 300 grams (0.66 pounds), which are used or designed to 

be used for sports and leisure purposes.

26

Among those areas where flying under a specified altitude is prohibited are designated natural 

reserves and antiquities, locations of refineries and a power plant, the Biological Research 

Institute in Nes Tsiona, and firing ranges. Flying over the Temple Mount in Jerusalem is 

completely prohibited for all aircraft at any altitude except for commercial flights in aviation 

19 Id. §§ 1 & 35.

20 Id. §§ 50–55.

21 Id. § 80.

22 Id. § 81.

23 Aviation Regulations (Operating Aircraft and Aviation Rules) 5742-1981, §§ 1 & 164, KT 5742 No. 4276 p. 8, as 

amended, available at Nevo Legal Database, http://www.nevo.co.il (by subscription; last visited Apr. 1, 2016), 

archived at https://perma.cc/3BHC-TQJV.

24 Id. §§ 50–53, archived at https://perma.cc/6UYB-L7EF.

25 See the definition of “aircraft,” Aviation Law, 5771-2011, § 1.

26 Aviation Regulations (Operating Aircraft and Aviation Rules) 5742-1981, §§ 1 & 164. For specific restrictions 

issued by the CAAI, see CAAI, Areas Prohibited, Restricted and Dangerous for Flying (A-17-1), http://caa.gov.il/ 

index.php?option=com_ docman&view=download&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-39-29-7&alias=4043-alef-17-

final-03-04-2014&Itemid=669&lang=he (last visited Mar. 23, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/CHJ7-4STB. 

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routes to and from the Ben Gurion International Airport flying 8,000 feet above sea level.

27 In 

the case of other areas in Jerusalem, flying at 4,000 feet or higher may be authorized subject to 

satisfying security procedures at the airport, the use of an Israeli pilot who has completed special 

training at the Ministry of Transportation Security Department, and the preapproval of a detailed 

authorization request by that Department.28 Flying over the nuclear reactor in Dimona is 

completely prohibited at any altitude.

29 A full prohibition similarly applies to flying over Gaza

at any altitude.

30

Areas where flying is restricted include certain firing ranges during weekdays.31 The rules also 

designate two areas where flying is dangerous,32 and prohibit flying within specific distances 

from Israel’s borders.33 Special requests to deviate from geographic restrictions other than those 

regarding distances from the borders may be submitted to the CAAI’s operations unit 

for approval.34

IV. Regulation of UA Flights

UA flight operations are subject to specific rules issued by the CAAI. Accordingly, except for 

takeoff and landing, or by special prior approval, UA flights over a populated area can be 

conducted only at 5,000 feet or higher. Experimental flights also require prior approval. The 

rules prohibit the simultaneous remote operation of more than one UA by the same operator from 

the same remote pilot station in the absence of special authorization.35 Special rules also apply 

to ensure that the UA operator maintains control over the UA flight at all times,

36 and to 

generally prevent the flying of UA in air space where manned aircraft fly.37

The rules require that specific equipment be located in or on the UA as well as in the pilot station

during flight. For example, a UA is generally required to have a properly operating transponder. 

A communication signal and a code for identification of the transponder must be defined for 

every UA flight. A flight manual and radio devices with certain reception and transmission 

27 CAAI, Areas Prohibited, Restricted and Dangerous for Flying, supra note 26, § 1(11).

28 Id. § 1(13).

29 Id. § 1(15).

30 Id. § 1(20).

31 Id. § 2.

32 Id. § 3.

33 Id. § 4.

34 Id. § 5.

35 CAAI, Rules of Flights of Unmanned Aircraft (UA) § 2, http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_docman&view= 

download&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-39-40&alias=4530-bet-09-final-11-12-14&Itemid=669&lang=he (last 

visited Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/7UU7-7WU9.

36 Id. § 3.

37 Id. § 4.

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abilities must be located at the pilot station.38 Additional rules apply to flight procedures and 

flight approval requests.39

The CAAI has assigned specific geographic parameters to areas navigated by UA.40 Maps for 

UA flight routes are provided on the CAAI website.

41

CAAI directives further define and assign direct responsibility for UA flight operations,42

determine the range that must exist between a UA and its transponder,43 specify the information 

that must be included in a request for flight approval,44 regulate automatic take-off and landing 

systems for UA,

45 and establish safety transportation procedures,46 among other matters.

V. Registration and Labeling of UA

In preparation for specific regulations on the subject, the CAAI has published a draft proposal for 

registration and labeling of UA. Among the proposal’s objectives are the encouragement of the 

use of UA for commercial activities by facilitating proof of ownership, providing the state with 

the ability to prevent the use of UA by criminal or terrorist players, encouraging proper operation 

38 Id. § 8.

39 Id. §§ 5–6.

40 Id. supp. C.

41 Map of Aviation Areas for UA: Changes: CTRs, Training Areas, Routing (Dec. 11, 2014), id., supp. A, 

http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_docman&view=download&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-39-

40&alias=4528-bet-09-alef-11-12-14&Itemid=669&lang=he, archived at https://perma.cc/F2KW-FBKJ; Map for 

Mini UAs (UAs Weighing Between 1.5–15 kg (3.30693–33.0693 lb): Changes: CTRs, Training Areas, Routing, 

Altitudes (Dec. 11, 2014), http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_docman&view=download&category_slug=2015-

10-13-06-39-40&alias=4529-bet-09-bet-11-12-14&Itemid=669&lang=he, archived at https://perma.cc/CX6JZKHA.

42 State of Israel, Ministry of Transport, Directive SP002: UA Flyer/Operator – Commander, http://caa.gov.il/index. 

php?option=com_docman&view=download&alias=5199-2015-11-18-07-03-41-1&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-

38-50-7&Itemid=669&lang=he (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/N6EL-2DJ3.

43 State of Israel, Ministry of Transport, Directive SP003: Maximum Range Between Aircraft and Radio Station 

When There Is No Wireless Transmitter in the Aircraft Itself, http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_docman& 

view=download&alias=5198-2015-11-18-07-03-41&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-38-50-7&Itemid=669&lang=he

(last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/J2LA-D8NT.

44 State of Israel, Ministry of Transport, Directive SP004: Flight Opening Route, http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option= 

com_docman&view=download&alias=5197-2015-11-18-07-03-40-1&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-38-50-7&Item 

id=669&lang=he (last visited April 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/PKB9-VFSC.

45 CAAI, UAV OPS.1.1.011A, Use of Automatic Take-off and Landing Systems (July 2012), http://caa.gov.il/index. 

php?option=com_docman&view=download&alias=5195-2012-11&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-38-50-7&Itemid 

=669&lang=he, archived at https://perma.cc/88MX-HY3A. 

46 State of Israel, Ministry of Transport, Directive SP013: Transporting Procedures, http://caa.gov.il/index.php? 

option=com_docman&view=download&alias=5194-2015-11-18-07-02-48&category_slug=2015-10-13-06-38-50-

7&Itemid=669&lang=he (last visited April 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/V8JY-WQLL.

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by enabling third parties to identify and complain about improper UA use, and facilitating UA 

identification for purposes of investigating accidents.

47

According to the proposal, the CAAI would maintain a register of all UA based on proof of 

ownership. Registration of UA would be authorized only for Israeli citizens or corporations that 

have received authorization to deal with UA. The registration of foreign-registered UA, 

however, would be prohibited, and UA sold to foreign countries would be deleted from 

the register.48

The proposal also calls for labeling of UA in a way that would confirm that they were registered 

in Israel, providing the name of the manufacturer, and providing their specific registration 

number. The registration number would be removed, however, if the UA were sold to a foreign 

country.49 A conspicuous label is further proposed for any UA authorized to fly outside of a 

designated area and/or that weighs more than 200 kilograms (about 441 pounds) at the time 

of takeoff.

50

In addition to general labeling, the proposal provides for the mandatory placement of a fireresistant license plate in each UA. The license plate would contain identifying information on 

the type of UA system, model number, date of manufacture and identification of the 

manufacturer, numbers correlating to the relevant serial and UA authorization, and other 

information as required.51

VI. Licensing of UA Flight Operators

A concept paper published by the CAAI Unit for Unmanned Aircraft Systems52 incorporates the 

requirements provided by Circular 328 AN/190 of the International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO), titled Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), into a regulatory proposal.

53

In addressing UA personnel licensing, the concept paper quotes the ICAO Circular as follows:

Personnel licensing provides harmonization within a single airspace as well as across 

national and regional boundaries. The remote pilot of a UAS and the pilot of a manned 

aircraft have the same ultimate responsibility for the safe operation of their aircraft and 

therefore have the same obligation for knowledge of air law and flight performance, 

47 CAAI, Registration and Labeling of UA Systems – Draft for Comments CAAI (Version 4) § 1, http://caa.gov.il/ 

index.php?option=com_docman&view=download&alias=753-2015-10-13-06-44-28&category_slug=2015-10-13-

06-39-02-2&Itemid=669&lang=he (last visited Mar. 24, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/5RDU-ZZ8Y.

48 Id. § 2.

49 Id. §§ 3.1–3.5.

50 Id. § 3.2.

51 Id. § 4.

52 CAAI, Concept for Licensing of Flyers of Unmanned Aircraft 2011/11, supra note 4, at 3.

53 ICAO, Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 AN/190 (2011), https://www.trafikstyrelsen.dk/~/media/ 

Dokumenter/05%20Luftfart/Forum/UAS%20-%20droner/ICAO%20Circular%20328%20Unmanned%20Aircraft 

%20Systems%20UAS.ashx, archived at https://perma.cc/J5EM-TSAY.

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planning and loading, human performance, meteorology, navigation, operational 

procedures, principles of flight and radiotelephony. Both pilots must obtain flight 

instruction, demonstrate their skill, achieve a level of experience, and be licensed. They 

must also be proficient in the language used for radiotelephony and meet medical fitness 

levels, although the latter may be modified as appropriate for the UAS environment.54

Accordingly, the concept paper proposes that flying a UA should require a license containing a 

specified authorization for the type of activity and equipment involved. Such a license would 

either be issued by the CAAI or by an ICAO member country, with authorization provided by 

the CAAI.

55 Conditions for the issuance of flight licenses would include a minimum number of 

prior takeoffs and landings, depending on the type of flight.

56 A license limited to flying subject 

to “visual line of sight” (VLOS), for example, would generally be issued only for flying a UA for 

commercial objectives if the operator had conducted at least three takeoffs and landings in the 

ninety days preceding the flight.

57 The type of licenses issued would be based on the 

characteristics of the operator (trainee, flyer of a UA subject to VLOS, UA flyer, and UA 

instructor); on the type of flight (domestic, external, experimental); and on the UA type, 

category, and class.58

VII. Enforcement

As UA are considered “aircraft” for purposes of applying Israeli aviation legislation, the 

violation of licensing requirements enumerated in the Aviation Law results in the same penalties 

that apply to manned aircraft. Such penalties range from imprisonment for a period of one to 

five years to administrative fines rendered by the CAAI.

59 An order to pay a fine is appealable 

to the circuit court.60

The CAAI has extensive authority to issue and withdraw licenses provided to flight operators. 

The CAAI’s enforcement authority also extends to the prevention of imminent danger to 

personal or public security, and to property.61

54 Id. § 2.14.

55 CAAI, Concept for Licensing of Flyers of Unmanned Aircraft 2011/11, supra note 4, § 3.1.

56 Id. § 3.3.

57 Id. § 3.2.

58 Id. § 4.1.3.

59 Aviation Law, 5771-2011, §§ 142–162.

60 Id. § 159.

61 CAAI, Enforcement Policy Directive (Revision 3) § 2.2 (Mar. 4, 2015), http://caa.gov.il/index.php?option=com_ 

docman&view=download&category_slug=gen-directives&alias=4896-gen-3-0-201-rev-3&Itemid=669&lang=he, 

archived at https://perma.cc/7239-G4MP.

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Japan 

Sayuri Umeda 

Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY Japan recently amended its Aviation Act and passed a new law to regulate the flights of 

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). UAVs are prohibited from flying near airports and 

over densely populated areas and important facilities. 

I. Overview 

Legislation to regulate drones was recently proposed in Japan after an April 2015 incident in 

which a small drone was discovered on the roof of the Japanese Prime Minister’s office building 

in Tokyo.

1

 At that time, there was no regulation in place to prohibit the flying of such devices. 

The drone operator was indicted and received a suspended sentence of two years’ imprisonment 

for the criminal act of forcible obstruction of business.

2

 

Following this incident, the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) submitted a bill to the Diet 

(Japan’s Parliament) in June 2015 to regulate flights of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) over 

certain areas.3

 The second bill, which amended the Aviation Act,

4 was submitted by the Cabinet

in July 2015.5 The Diet passed both of these bills, whose provisions are discussed below. 

II. Aviation Act

The Aviation Act amendment was the first of the two bills to be enacted. The amendment was 

promulgated on September 11, 2015,

6 and became effective on December 10, 2015.7

 Under the 

1 UPDATE: Radiation Detected on Drone Found on Roof of Prime Minister’s Office, ASAHI SHIMBUN (Apr. 22, 

2015) (on file with author). 

2 Shusuke Murai, Man Who Landed Drone on Roof of Japanese Prime Minister’s Office Gets Suspended Sentence, 

JAPAN TIMES (Feb. 16, 2016), http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/02/16/national/crime-legal/man-landeddrone-roof-japanese-prime-ministers-office-gets-suspended-sentence, archived at https://perma.cc/A3VV-KCXH; 

PENAL CODE, Act No. 45 of 1907, as amended, art. 234, English translation of the Act as amended by Act No. 54 of 

2007 available at http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?printID=&ft=3&re=02&dn=1&ia=03&bu= 

16&_x=63&_y=28&ky=&page=9&vm=02, archived at https://perma.cc/6G88-HVY6. 

3 History of House of Representatives (HR) Bill No. 24 of 189th Diet Session, HR, http://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/ 

itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/keika/1DBDDC2.htm (last visited Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/78GZ-JE5A. 

See also Japan’s Lower House Passes Law Restricting Use of Drones, RT (July 9, 2015), https://www.rt.com/news/ 

272731-japan-law-drones-ban, archived at https://perma.cc/58SH-73GX. 

4 Aviation Act, Act No. 231 of 1952. 

5 History of Cabinet Bill No. 75 of 189th Diet Session, HR, http://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/itdb_gian.nsf/html/ 

gian/keika/1DBDE56.htm (last visited Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/8J3B-U5C7. 

6 Id. 

7 Order to Set Enforcement Date of Partial Amendment of Aviation Act, Order No. 371 of 2015 (Oct. 30, 2015). 

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amendment, a UAV operator is prohibited from flying a UAV, absent permission from the 

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation (MLIT), in the following areas:

• Where air traffic is expected, such as airports and their approach areas, and areas above 

150 meters

• Densely populated residential areas8

The amendment also sets the conditions for UAV flights:

• UAV flights may be made only between dawn and dusk.

• An operator must monitor the UAV and its surroundings with his/her own eyes at all times.

• In-flight UAVs must keep more than 30 meters’ distance from people and objects.

• UAVs must not fly over a place where an event attended by many people is being held.

• UAVs must not carry specified dangerous items, such as explosives and flammable objects.

• UAVs must not drop items while in flight.9

These conditions may not apply in emergency situations or when an operator obtains prior 

approval from the MLIT.10 A UAV that weighs 200 grams (7 ounces) or less is not subject to the 

rules in the Aviation Act.11

The MLIT has requested that UAV operators report accidents, collisions, UAV falls, and nearmiss incidents.12 Eleven cases were reported between the enforcement date of the amendment to 

the Aviation Act and March 30, 2016.13 Additional cases were reported to the police instead of 

the MLIT.14 

8 Aviation Act art. 132, amended by Act No. 67 of 2015; Aviation Act Enforcement Ordinance, Ministry of 

Transport Ordinance No. 56 of 1952, amended by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Ordinance No. 79 

of 2015, arts. 236 & 236-2.

9 Aviation Act art. 132-2, inserted by Act No. 67 of 2015; Aviation Act Enforcement Ordinance art. 236-4.

10 Aviation Act arts. 132-2 & 132-3, inserted by Act No. 67 of 2015.

11 Id. art. 2, para. 22, inserted by Act No. 67 of 2015; Aviation Act Enforcement Ordinance art. 5-2.

12 無人航空機(ドローン・ラジコン機等)の飛行ルール [Flight Rules for UAVs (Drones, Radio-Controlled 

Air Vehicles, etc.)], 5. 無人航空機による事故等の情報提供 [5. Incidents Reported Involving UAVs], MLIT, 

http://www.mlit.go.jp/koku/koku_tk10_000003.html (last visited Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/PQR7-

6HHM. 

13 平成27年度 無人航空機に係る事故等の一覧(国土交通省に報告のあったもの)[FISCAL YEAR 2015,

CHART OF ACCIDENTS, ETC. OF UAVS (CASES REPORTED TO MLIT)], MLIT, http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/00112 

5882.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/TT3C-KYWV. 

14 ニアミス・落下...ドローンのトラブル続々報告 [Near Misses, Falls . . . Continual Reports of Drone 

Troubles], YOMIURI ONLINE (Mar. 31, 2016), http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/20160331-OYT1T50086.html, 

archived at https://perma.cc/DJQ4-E3AQ.

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Flying a UAV over a prohibited area or violating the conditions of flight is punishable by a fine 

of up to 500,000 yen (approximately US$4,000).15

III. Act on Prohibition of Flying UAVs over Important Facilities 

The Act on Prohibition of Flying UAVs over Important Facilities and Their Peripheries was 

promulgated on March 18, 2016,

16 and becomes effective three months from the date of 

promulgation.17 The Act prohibits flying UAVs over designated facilities, such as the Diet 

building, the Prime Minister’s office building, buildings of designated government agencies that 

are involved in crisis management, the Supreme Court building, the Imperial Palace, embassies, 

and nuclear facilities.18 These no-fly areas generally extend to within a 300-meter radius of such 

designated facilities.

19 Flying a UAV over a designated area is punishable by up to one year of 

imprisonment or a fine of up to 500,000 yen.20 

When a police officer finds a person flying a UAV over a designated area, the police officer can 

order the person to stop the operation of the UAV.21 If the person does not follow the order, the 

police officer can take necessary measures, such as obstructing the flight of and destroying the 

UAV in order to remove any danger it poses.

22 In addition, the person who did not follow the 

officer’s order is punishable by up to one year of imprisonment or a fine of up to 500,000 yen.

23

15 Aviation Act art. 157-4, inserted by Act No. 67 of 2015.

16 History of HR Bill 24 of 189th Diet Session, HR, http://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/itdb_gian.nsf/html/gian/ 

keika/1DBE1E2.htm (last visited Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/LK5U-XYM7. 

17 Act on Prohibition of Flying UAVs over Important Facilities and Their Peripheries, Act No. 9 of 2016.

18 Id. arts. 2 & 8.

19 Id. arts. 3–6 & 8.

20 Id. art. 11, para. 1.

21 Id. art. 9, para. 1.

22 Id. art. 9, para. 2.

23 Id. art. 11, para. 1.

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New Zealand

Kelly Buchanan 

Chief, Foreign, Comparative, and 

International Law Division I

SUMMARY On August 1, 2015, new rules that apply to the operation of unmanned aerial vehicles 

(UAVs) came into force in New Zealand. They do not distinguish between commercial 

and recreational operations, but rather set out standard operating requirements for any 

UAVs that weigh under 55 pounds, with UAVs over this weight or operations that will 

exceed the standard operating requirements being subject to a certification process. The 

standard operating requirements include restrictions on, for example, the height at which 

UAVs can be flown and flying UAVs near airfields. Permission must be obtained to fly in 

certain areas, and the consent of the relevant persons must be obtained before flying over 

people or private property. 

The certification process requires operators to clearly identify and assess hazards and 

associated risks arising from the operation, and to develop procedures to mitigate these 

risks. The rules require that the exposition accompanying the application include certain 

information that allows the regulatory agency to determine whether all criteria have been 

met. The agency may impose additional requirements or conditions on the certificate 

related to ensuring the safety of the operation. 

Other relevant rules with respect to flying UAVs over public land or spaces may be 

established by local authorities and the Department of Conservation. In addition, 

principles contained in the Privacy Act 1993 can apply where an operation involves 

filming or recording of people.

I. Introduction 

New Zealand introduced new rules pertaining to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in 2015.1 

The rules, which came into effect on August 1, 2015,2 are intended to be an interim approach to 

regulating unmanned aircraft and to be generally permissive in nature. The Ministry of 

Transport notes that “[m]ore comprehensive rules may be developed in future once the 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets standards for this technology.”3

 The rules 

1 See generally Kelly Buchanan, New Zealand: New Rules on Drones Come into Effect, GLOBAL LEGAL MONITOR

(July 31, 2015), http://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/new-zealand-new-rules-on-drones-come-into-effect. 

UAVs are also referred to as remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS), unmanned aerial systems (UAS), “drones,” 

and model aircraft.

2 Director of Civil Aviation, Notification of Ordinary Rules (May 7, 2015), 47 New Zealand Gazette 2706, 

https://gazette.govt.nz/assets/pdf-cache/2015/2015-au2706.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/4LX8-GAPT. 

3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (or Drones), MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT, http://www.transport.govt.nz/air/unmannedaerial-vehicles-or-drones (last updated July 29, 2015), archived at https://perma.cc/3UAE-9NAA. 

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were developed and are implemented by New Zealand’s civil aviation regulatory agency, the 

Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).4

The current rules do not distinguish between commercial and recreational operations of UAVs.5

 

The focus of the regulatory approach is on managing safety risks while also enabling varied and 

innovative uses of UAVs. The government states that it is

committed to having a thriving and successful UAV sector in this country. UAV use in 

business is an innovative direction the Government is keen to support, as it will bring the 

commercialisation of new products and services, creating more jobs for New Zealanders.6

Callaghan Innovation, a government agency that seeks to “help New Zealand businesses succeed 

through technology,”7 has implemented a range of initiatives aimed at supporting the 

development of drone technology for commercial purposes in the country.8 In addition, “[a]ll 

New Zealand universities are now using UAVs as part of their research efforts.”9 One university 

offers training in piloting UAVs,

10 and another administers a large UAV test range that is open 

to external users.

11 

Airways New Zealand, the country’s air navigation service provider,12 has worked with the 

CAA, Callaghan Innovation, and UAVNZ (an industry organization) to develop “airshare,” an 

4 The CAA was established and is governed by part 6A of the Civil Aviation Act 1990, http://www.legislation. 

govt.nz/act/public/1990/0098/latest/whole.html, archived at https://perma.cc/X8G2-CPZN. The Act provides

certain powers to the Director of the CAA. In this report, references to the Director have been changed to the CAA 

for the purpose of clarity.

5 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (or Drones), supra note 3.

6 Id.

7 About Us, CALLAGHAN INNOVATION, http://www.callaghaninnovation.govt.nz/about-us (last updated Oct. 13, 

2015), archived at https://perma.cc/98BY-TLAT. 

8 See generally search results for “UAV,” CALLAGHAN INNOVATION, http://www.callaghaninnovation.govt.nz/ 

search/node/UAV (last searched Mar. 30, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/5JZD-K5Z9. 

9 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (or Drones), supra note 3.

10 Massey University School of Aviation RPAS Course, MASSEY UNIVERSITY, http://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/ 

learning/colleges/college-business/school-of-aviation/study/rpas-course.cfm (last updated Dec. 18, 2015), archived 

at https://perma.cc/YA86-RZRK. 

11 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Technology, UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY, SPECIAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH CENTRE, 

http://www.serc.canterbury.ac.nz/research/unmanned.shtml (last visited Mar. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma. 

cc/AX94-793W. 

12 Airways Corporation of New Zealand is a state-owned enterprise established in 1987 under the State-Owned 

Enterprises Act 1986. See generally MINISTRY OF JUSTICE, DIRECTORY OF OFFICIAL INFORMATION: AIRWAYS 

CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND (Dec. 2013), http://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/d/ 

directory-of-official-information-2013/alphabetical-list-of-entries/a/airways-corporation-of-new-zealand, archived 

at https://perma.cc/RU7W-T87H; Airways Corporation of New Zealand Ltd, THE TREASURY, http://www.treasury. 

govt.nz/statesector/commercial/portfolio/bytype/soes/airways-corporation-new-zealand (last visited Mar. 15, 2016), 

archived at https://perma.cc/A5TF-ECXB. 

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online “UAV hub,” where operators can find information on a range of UAV-related subjects, 

including regulatory matters.

13

II. Civil Aviation Rules for Unmanned Aircraft

The Civil Aviation Rules, which are made under the Civil Aviation Act 1990,14 are divided into 

groups of related rules called “Parts.” The two Parts with rules directly related to UAVs are

• Part 101: Gyrogliders and Parasails, Unmanned Aircraft (including Balloons), Kites, and 

Rockets – Operating Rules;15 and

• Part 102: Unmanned Aircraft Operator Certification.16

Part 101 was originally aimed at the regulation of traditional model aircraft. It was amended in 

2015 to allow operators of small unmanned aircraft more generally to operate their aircraft 

without needing to seek approval from the CAA, provided they remain within the operating 

limits prescribed in the Part. Part 102 contains new rules applicable to unmanned aircraft 

operations that exceed the size and operating limits in Part 101. Such operations require 

certification from the CAA.17

The CAA has published advisory circulars that provide explanatory information and examples of 

how to comply with the two Parts.18

In addition to the specific Parts related to UAVs, other relevant Parts that may affect UAV use 

include Part 91: General Operating and Fight Rules and Part 71: Designation and Classification 

of Airspace. 

13 About Us, AIRSHARE, https://www.airshare.co.nz/about-us (last visited Mar. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma. 

cc/ZZZ8-DZ9N. 

14 Civil Aviation Act 1990, pt 3.

15 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 101: Gyrogliders and Parasails, Unmanned Aircraft (including Balloons), Kites, and 

Rockets – Operating Rules (CAA Consolidation, Sept. 24, 2015), https://www.caa.govt.nz/rules/Rule_ 

Consolidations/Part_101_Consolidation.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/GVE7-TGLC. Subpart E contains 

specific provisions related to unmanned aircraft.

16 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102: Unmanned Aircraft Operator Certification (CAA Consolidation, Sept. 24, 2015), 

https://www.caa.govt.nz/rules/Rule_Consolidations/Part_102_Consolidation.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

AE5G-6BUX. 

17 See generally, RPAS, UAV, UAS, Drones and Model Aircraft, CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY (CAA), https://www. 

caa.govt.nz/rpas/index.html (last visited Mar. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/32JR-RRQ7; MINISTRY OF 

TRANSPORT, UAV REGULATION AND TESTING IN NEW ZEALAND, http://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/OurWork/Documents/NZ-UAV-Rules.pdf (last visited Mar. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/SQ5N-CD4Y. 

18 CAA, Advisory Circular AC101-1: Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) Under 25 Kilograms – Operating 

in Compliance with Part 101 Rules (rev. 1, Sept. 24, 2015), https://www.caa.govt.nz/Advisory_Circulars/AC101-

1.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/FK55-UYQ2; CAA, Advisory Circular AC102-1: Unmanned Aircraft – Operator 

Certification (rev. 0, July 27, 2015), https://www.caa.govt.nz/Advisory_Circulars/AC102-1.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/UU99-YWWX. 

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Part 71 provides for the CAA to designate airspace as either controlled airspace or special use 

airspace. Airspace that has not been designated under this Part is referred to as uncontrolled 

airspace. Controlled airspace “is designated where there is a need for an air traffic control 

service to be provided for the safety and efficiency of aircraft operations.”19 Special use airspace 

“is designated where there is a need to impose limitations on the operation of aircraft for aviation 

safety and security, or national security, or for any other reason in the public interest.”20 For 

example, such airspace includes “restricted areas, military operating areas, mandatory broadcast 

zones, volcanic hazard zones, danger areas, and low flying zones.”21

A. Civil Aviation Rules Part 101 

1. Application of Part 101 and Approval of Medium-Sized UAVs

Part 101 applies only to UAVs that weigh 25 kilograms (about 55 pounds) or less.22 

Under the Part, UAVs weighing between 15 kilograms (33 pounds) and 25 kilograms may not be 

operated unless the aircraft is “constructed under the authority of, or inspected and approved by, 

an approved person or organization” and operated under the authority of such a person or 

organization.23 The CAA has approved Model Flying New Zealand to exercise these 

functions.24 

2. Requirements for Operating Part 101 Aircraft

The operating limits in Part 101 include requirements for an operator of a UAV to 25

• ensure that the aircraft is safe to operate;

• take all practicable steps to minimize hazards to persons, property, and other aircraft;26

• only operate the aircraft during daylight hours, unless the operation is indoors or a “shielded 

operation” (see below);

27

19 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 71: Designation and Classification of Airspace (CAA Consolidation, Oct. 23, 2008), 

at 2, https://www.caa.govt.nz/rules/Rule_Consolidations/Part_071_Consolidation.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

CNR8-DKFY.

20 Id.

21 Id.

22 Part 101 uses the term “remotely piloted aircraft,” which is defined as a subset of unmanned aircraft, being “an 

unmanned aircraft that is piloted from a remote station and – (1) includes a radio controlled model aircraft, but (2) 

does not include a control line model aircraft or a free flight model aircraft.” Civil Aviation Rules, Part 101, r 101.3.

23 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 101, rr 101.202 & 101.215(b).

24 Advisory Circular AC101-1, supra note 18, at 5 & 10.

25 See generally id. at 6; Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (or Drones), supra note 3. 

26 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 101, r 101.13.

27 Id. rr 101.3 (definition of “shielded operation”) & 101.211.

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• ensure the aircraft remains clear of all manned aircraft both on the ground and in flight;

28

• maintain an unaided visual line of sight with the aircraft;

29

• not allow any object to be dropped in flight if this creates a hazard to other persons 

or property;30

• not fly the aircraft higher than 120 meters (400 feet) above ground level, unless certain 

conditions are met;31

• have knowledge of any airspace restrictions, classifications, and designations made under 

Part 71 for the area where the aircraft is to be operated;32

• not fly the aircraft closer than four kilometers (2.5 miles) from any airfield, unless certain 

conditions are met, including a requirement for an operator to have a pilot qualification;

33

• obtain air traffic control clearance issued by Airways New Zealand before flying in 

controlled airspace, unless the operation is a “shielded operation” (see below);

34

• not fly the aircraft in special-use airspace without the permission of the administering 

authority of the area;35

• obtain consent from anyone above whom the aircraft will be flown;36 and

• obtain consent from the property owner or person in charge of the area above which the 

aircraft will be flown.37

3. Shielded Operations

A “shielded operation” is defined as “an operation of an aircraft within 100 m [328 feet] of, and 

below the top of, a natural or man-made object.”38 For example, this could include “a flight that 

takes place in a stadium below the height of the roof, or a flight that takes place in a forested area 

below the height of the trees.”39

28 Id. r 101.213.

29 Id. r 101.209.

30 Id. r 101.15.

31 Id. r 101.207(a)(3) & (c).

32 Id. r 101.12.

33 Id. r 101.205.

34 Id. r 101.11.

35 Id. r 101.7.

36 Id. r 101.207(a)(1)(i).

37 Id. r 101.207(a)(1)(ii).

38 Id. r 101.3.

39 Advisory Circular AC101-1, supra note 18, at 11.

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As noted above, shielded operations of unmanned aircraft can be conducted at night. They can 

also be conducted within four kilometers of an airfield, without the authorization of air traffic 

control, provided that the shielded operation takes place “outside of the boundary of the

aerodrome [airfield]” and “in airspace that is physically separated from the aerodrome by a 

barrier that is capable of arresting the flight of the aircraft.”40

4. Manufacturing and Airworthiness Requirements

In terms of specific manufacturing or airworthiness standards, the CAA’s advisory circular on 

Part 101 notes that 

[i]nternationally, no design or manufacturing standards currently exist for remotely 

piloted aircraft weighing less than 25 kg. Work is underway to develop standards, but 

until such time as these are recognised internationally and in New Zealand, no prescribed 

airworthiness standards apply to Part 101 operated aircraft.41

However, the types of imported UAVs that can be legally possessed and operated in New 

Zealand may be limited in practice due to radio and frequency and power requirements. The 

radio spectrum management agency states that “[r]emotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) must 

use the right radio frequencies, so they don’t cause harmful interference to vital radio systems 

such as air traffic control, cellular phones, or emergency services.”42 Those who operate such 

aircraft using the wrong frequencies can be prosecuted under the Radiocommunications Act 

1989 and the Radiocommunications Regulations 2001.43

B. Civil Aviation Rules Part 102

1. Application of Part 102

Part 102 applies to all unmanned aircraft that do not operate in accordance with Part 10144—that 

is, unmanned aircraft that weigh more than 25 kilograms or unmanned aircraft of any size that 

will be operated outside any of the operating limits specified in that Part. Operators of such 

aircraft must first obtain an unmanned aircraft operator certificate (UAOC) from the CAA.

40 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 101, 101.205(c).

41 Advisory Circular AC101-1, supra note 18, at 7.

42 Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems/Drones, RADIO SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT, http://www.rsm.govt.nz/consumers/ 

remotely-piloted-aircraft-systems-drones (last updated Nov. 3, 2015), archived at https://perma.cc/MVK8-3VPM. 

43 Radiocommunications Act 1989, http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1989/0148/latest/whole.html, archived 

at https://perma.cc/NC5V-NFSS; Radio Communications Regulations 2001, http://www.legislation.govt.nz/ 

regulation/public/2001/0240/latest/whole.html, archived at https://perma.cc/U7JN-GR8Y. 

44 Part 102 uses the terms “unmanned aircraft” (defined as “an aircraft designed to operate with no pilot on board, 

including unmanned balloons, kites, control-line model aircraft, free flight model aircraft and remotely piloted 

aircraft”) and “unmanned aircraft system” (defined as “an aircraft and its associated elements which are operated 

with no pilot on board”).

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The advisory circular for Part 102 states that the Part 

provides a framework for unmanned aircraft that is flexible, providing the Director [of 

the CAA] with the discretion to tailor fit-for-purpose safety and operational requirements 

to each proposed operation. Given the rapid advancements underway with unmanned 

aircraft technology, this approach ensures the regulatory regime can accommodate these 

aircraft, while addressing the risks relating to their activity.45

For example, under the new rules, operators using aircraft for innovative applications such as 

photography, precision agriculture and search and rescue are required to have their operation 

assessed by the CAA “to ensure the operation is safe.”46

2. Applying for an Operating Certificate Under Part 102

In applying for a UAOC, a person must demonstrate to the CAA that the proposed operation will 

be safe, and that he or she is able to mitigate and control the risk associated with the operation.47 

The CAA has developed a detailed application form as well as a compliance matrix to assist with 

the drafting of an exposition that sets out the operational and safety procedures for the operation 

and covers various other matters listed in Part 102. The CAA is able to decide to require only 

some of the items; a precertification meeting is held with the applicant to discuss the operation 

and the CAA’s likely application requirements.

48 

Part 102 requires that the exposition include information on the following items:

49

• The name of the person with primary responsibility for the operation

• The name of any person who has control over any part of the operation

• Details of the physical locations to be used in the operation

• A hazard register that identifies “known and likely hazards to people property and other 

aircraft,” an assessment of risks associated with those hazards, and a “description of the 

measures that can be implemented to mitigate or manage the risk”

• Procedures for reporting information to the CAA

• Operating requirements related to the knowledge and competence of the personnel involved, 

such as licensing, training, or qualifications (The Advisory Circular notes that, although 

there are currently no recognized international standards for licensing, qualifications, and 

training, the relevant rule contemplates the CAA being satisfied as to the level of general 

aviation knowledge and specific knowledge related to unmanned aircraft handling of 

personnel in the context of the role each person will be performing; this may be demonstrated 

45 Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 4 & 26.

46 UAV REGULATION AND TESTING IN NEW ZEALAND, supra note 17.

47 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.1; Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 13.

48 Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 14.

49 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.11.

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by different qualifications/licenses and/or the completion of certain training, as well as 

evidence of relevant experience.

50)

• Details of the aircraft to be used, including any identification system used on the aircraft

• Details of the control system to be used to pilot the aircraft

• The aircraft maintenance program that will be implemented and measures to ensure 

continued airworthiness (The Advisory Circular states that these should be based on the 

manufacturer’s maintenance instructions.

51)

• All inflight operational procedures that will be used, including minimum distances from 

persons or property

• Procedures for cargo handling and dropping of items

• Construction and design of the unmanned aircraft, to enable the CAA to undertake 

airworthiness assessments (As for Part 101, the Advisory Circular for Part 102 notes that 

“there are no internationally recognised design standards, configuration requirements or 

airworthiness certificates that apply to unmanned aircraft.”52 The CAA undertakes 

airworthiness assessments on a case-by-case basis, with reference to several factors. It may 

also require operators to conduct flight testing or proving flights.

53)

The exposition must also state the procedures for controlling, amending, and distributing the 

exposition, and whether other approvals are required to conduct the proposed operation.54

In addition to the above information and related assessment of the application, anyone applying 

for an aviation document, including a UAOC, must satisfy the CAA that they are a “fit and 

proper person” to hold that document. Other personnel involved in an operation may also have

to undergo a fit and proper person assessment.55 The criteria applied in this assessment are set 

out in the Civil Aviation Act 1990.

56

The CAA may issue a UAOC if it is satisfied that all criteria are met. In doing so, it is able to 

apply any conditions and requirements it considers necessary, having regard to the complexity of 

the operation.57 The certificate is issued with an “operations specification” that includes certain 

information, including the “privileges and operations” that the operator is permitted to perform.58

50 Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 16.

51 Id. at 19.

52 Id. at 21.

53 Id. at 22.

54 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.11(b)(13) & (14).

55 Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 22.

56 Civil Aviation Act 1990, s 10.

57 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.13; Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 24–25. 

58 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.15.

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Furthermore, although Part 102 has been designed as a stand-alone rule for unmanned aircraft, an 

operator must comply with the requirements in Part 101, unless the certificate states otherwise.59

The certificate may be issued for a period of up to five years;60 however, for first-time 

applicants, the term is likely to be only two years.61 

3. Approved Operations

In September 2015, the government announced that the first certification to operate a commercial 

UAV had been issued under the new Part 102, being a large (nearly 100 kilogram) unmanned 

aircraft designed for crop spraying. The announcement noted that, before the implementation of 

the new Part, the operation of such an aircraft would not have been allowed due to the size of the

aircraft and the intention to use chemicals.62

As of March 30, 2016, the CAA website listed thirty-one Part 102 UAOC holders.63

C. Enforcement and Penalties

The CAA is responsible for investigating breaches of the Civil Aviation Act 1990 and the Civil 

Aviation Rules. It can issue warnings and infringement notices under the Act and the Civil 

Aviation (Offences) Regulations 2006 as well as initiate prosecutions for offenses.64 General 

offenses under the Act include, for example,

• operating an aircraft in a careless manner (punishable by a fine of up to NZ$7,000 (about 

US$4,740) if an individual and NZ$35,000 (about US$23,700) if a company);65

• operating, maintaining, or servicing an aircraft in a manner that causes unnecessary danger to 

any person or property (imprisonment for up to twelve months or fine of up to NZ$10,000

(about US$6,770) if an individual; fine of up to NZ$100,000 (about US$67,670) if a 

company);66 or

59 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.21; Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 4 & 26.

60 Civil Aviation Rules, Part 102, r 102.19.

61 Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 25.

62 Press Release, Simon Bridges & Craig Foss, First Certificate Issued Under New UAV Rules (Sept. 3, 2015), 

https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/first-certificate-issued-under-new-uav-rules, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

B9A6-M4XP. 

63 Part 102 Unmanned Aircraft Operator Certificate Holders, CAA, https://www.caa.govt.nz/Script/AvDocClient 

List.asp?Details_ID=8390 (last visited Mar. 30, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/6U45-728P. 

64 Civil Aviation (Offences) Regulations 2006, http://www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/public/2006/0168/latest/ 

whole.html, archived at https://perma.cc/F76Z-2VET. See generally CAA, Regulatory Enforcement Policy (Nov. 

21, 2013), https://www.caa.govt.nz/Policy_ops/ Regulatory_Enforcement_Policy.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

KV9W-RTYH. 

65 Civil Aviation Act 1990, s 43A.

66 Id. s 44.

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• as an operator or pilot, failing to notify the CAA of an accident or incident (if an individual, 

fine of up to NZ$10,000 plus NZ$2,000 per day if the offense is a continuing one; if a 

company, up to NZ$50,000 plus $10,000 per day).67

A holder of an aviation document (which includes UAOCs) also commits an offense if he or she 

“does or omits to do any act or causes or permits any act or omission, if the act or omission 

causes unnecessary danger to any other person or to any property.”68 This is punishable by fines 

of up to NZ$10,000 and NZ$100,000 for individuals and companies respectively. In addition, a 

court may disqualify a person from holding an aviation document, or impose conditions on the 

document, for up to twelve months.69 These offenses can also result in a court ordering a 

convicted person to pay up to three times the value of any commercial gain resulting from the 

commission of the offense, if it is satisfied that the offense was committed for the purpose of 

producing a commercial gain.70

In terms of breaches of Part 101 and Part 102 of the Civil Aviation Rules, the Civil Aviation 

(Offences) Regulations 1996 sets out the amounts that may be imposed as infringement fees by 

the CAA and as fines by courts upon conviction.71 For example, operating a UAV above a 

height of 400 feet, in contravention of the relevant rule in Part 101, may be subject to 

infringement fees of NZ$500 (individual) or NZ$3,000 (company) (about US$338 or US$2,030), 

or to fines of up to NZ$2,500 (individual) or NZ$15,000 (company) (about US$1,670 or 

US$10,150).

72 The same amounts can be imposed with respect to, for example, operating above 

persons or property without consent.73

In terms of breaches of Part 102, performing an unmanned aircraft operation other than in 

accordance with a UAOC, or not complying with the conditions of a UAOC, for example, are 

punishable by infringement fees and fines of NZ$2,000 and NZ$5,000 (individuals) (about 

US$1,350 and US$3,380), or NZ$12,000 and NZ$30,000 (companies) (about US$8,120 

and US$20,300).

74

67 Id. ss 26 & 52B.

68 Id. s 43.

69 Id. s 45.

70 Id. s 47.

71 Civil Aviation (Offences) Regulations 1996, sch 1 (scroll to Part 101 or Part 102).

72 Id. sch 1 (entry for Rule 101.207(a)(3)).

73 Id. sch 1 (entries for Rules 101.207(a)(i) & (ii)).

74 Id. sch 1 (entries for Rules 102.7 & 102.17).

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III. Rules Regarding Operating UAVs over Public Land and Spaces

The Advisory Circular for Part 101 notes that 

[l]ocal authorities and the Department of Conservation (DoC) are best placed to 

understand the specific risks associated with RPAS-use in their territory. They are 

therefore best placed to engage with operators and provide the necessary consent.75

The Advisory Circular further notes that civil aviation rules do not trump any local government 

policies or bylaws regarding the use of RPAS or other policies on the use of public land.76

Therefore, local authorities and DoC may decide how consent to operate unmanned aircraft in 

public areas within their jurisdiction may be obtained—for example, whether this is on a caseby-case or general basis, or whether there is open permission for, or a blanket prohibition on, 

unmanned aircraft operations in certain public areas. 

The “airshare” website has a page that summarizes and provides links to local authority and DoC

policies regarding UAV use in public spaces throughout the country.77

IV. Application of the Privacy Act 1993

The Privacy Act 1993 sets out privacy principles related to the collection, storage, security, 

accuracy, retention, use, and disclosure of personal information, and the ability of individuals to 

access and correct such information.78 It provides a complaint mechanism for breaches of the 

principles, administered by the Privacy Commissioner.79 The Act applies to “[a]lmost every 

person or organisation that holds personal information,” including “government departments, 

companies of all sizes, religious groups, schools and clubs.”80 Those not covered include 

members of Parliament, courts and tribunals, and the news media (which are regulated through 

other mechanisms).

In 2015, the Office of the Privacy Commissioner published two blog posts that commented on 

potential privacy concerns arising from the use of UAVs fitted with photography, video, or other 

recording equipment. It noted that the Privacy Act is “technology neutral” legislation containing 

basic principles that allow for an assessment of the privacy implications of emerging 

75 Advisory Circular AC102-1, supra note 18, at 13.

76 Id.

77 Property Owner Consent Information, AIRSHARE, https://www.airshare.co.nz/property-owner-consent-information

(last visited Mar. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/V9KB-WPP9. 

78 Privacy Act 1993, pt 2, http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1993/0028/latest/whole.html, archived at 

https://perma.cc/B9LT-9D85. See generally, Introduction, PRIVACY COMMISSIONER, https://www.privacy. 

org.nz/the-privacy-act-and-codes/privacy-act-and-codes-introduction (last visited Mar. 30, 2016), archived at

https://perma.cc/QQ8H-BB7C.

79 Privacy Act 1993, pts 3 & 8. 

80 Introduction, supra note 78.

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technology.81 The Office’s guidelines on the use of CCTV systems were said to similarly apply 

to drones fitted with cameras, with the main points for an operator to observe being

the following: 

• being clear about why you are collecting the information

• making sure people know you are collecting the information

• how you intend to use the information

• keeping the information safe and making sure only authorised people can see it

• disposing of the information after it has served its purpose

• right of access to the information by the individual or individuals concerned.82

The Office noted that other laws may also be relevant to using drones to film or record images or 

information about people. For example, there are provisions against making or publishing covert 

intimate recordings of people without their knowledge or consent,83 and it is illegal to peer or 

peep into people’s homes and record any activity within.84

The second post related to the first complaint received by the Privacy Commissioner regarding

the use of a drone to make video recordings.85 The case concerned the use of a drone at a sports 

stadium to film a game and, in doing so, flying close to the apartment of the complainant. The 

Commissioner found that, as the drone had not been recording at the time that it was near the 

apartment, no information was gathered and therefore there was no violation of the Privacy Act. 

The ruling did note that the drone had recorded coverage of two people on the balcony of the 

apartment, which was subsequently broadcast, but that the operator had “indicated by hand 

gestures that he wanted to film them and by return hand gestures they indicated their consent to 

that recording.”86

81 Charles Mabbett, Game of Drones, PRIVACY COMMISSIONER (Jan. 21, 2015), https://www.privacy.org.nz/blog/ 

drones, archived at https://perma.cc/H9CW-KMZM. 

82 Id. See also PRIVACY COMMISSIONER, PRIVACY AND CCTV: A GUIDE TO THE PRIVACY ACT FOR BUSINESSES,

AGENCIES AND ORGANISATIONS (2009), https://www.privacy.org.nz/assets/Files/Brochures-and-pamphlets-andpubs/Privacy-and-CCTV-A-guide-October-2009.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/9BQK-LX98. 

83 Crimes Act 1961, ss 216G–216J, http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1961/0043/latest/whole.html, archived 

at https://perma.cc/Q5HE-863T. 

84 Summary Offences Act 1981, s 30, http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1981/0113/latest/whole.html, 

archived at https://perma.cc/HDQ4-CZCG. 

85 Droning on Drones, PRIVACY COMMISSIONER (July 6, 2015), https://www.privacy.org.nz/blog/droning-on-drones, 

archived at https://perma.cc/K5GH-MVEM. 

86 Case Note 267458 [2015] NZ PrivCmr 6: Man Objects to Drone Filming Near His Apartment (Aug. 12, 2015), 

https://www.privacy.org.nz/news-and-publications/case-notes-and-court-decisions/case-note-267458-2015-nzprivcmr-6-man-objects-to-drone-filming-near-his-apartment, archived at https://perma.cc/NX36-MHBH. 

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Poland 

Nerses Isajanyan 

Foreign Law Consultant

SUMMARY In Poland the operation of unmanned aircraft systems for commercial purposes requires the 

pilot to obtain a certificate of competence. Systems weighing more than 25 kg must be 

certified and registered. Operation in the proximity of airports and other special zones is 

restricted. Flights below the visual line of sight of the operator are possible only in 

dedicated areas. 

I. Legal Framework 

The use of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) in Polish airspace is regulated by the Aviation Law 

Act 1 and the following implementing regulations issued by the Minister of Transport, 

Construction and Maritime Economy: 

• Regulation of March 26, 2013, on the Exclusion of Some Provisions of the Aviation Law Act

for Certain Types of Aircraft and Determining the Conditions and Requirements Relating to

the Use of Such Aircraft,

2 which sets out the rules for operation of UAS weighing less

than 25 kg.

• Regulation of June 3, 2013, on Certificates of Competency3 applicable to the operators

of UAS.

• Regulation of April 26, 2013, on the Technical and Operational Rules on Aircraft of Special

Category, Not Subject to the Supervision of the European Aviation Safety Agency,

4 which

mostly applies to UAS weighing more than 25 kg.

Polish regulations do not address the issue of personal data protection and privacy concerning the 

use of UAS; however, flights above another person’s property may constitute an infringement of 

personal rights.5

1 Ustawa z dnia 3 lipca 2002 r. Prawo lotnicze [Law of July 3, 2002, Aviation Law], DZIENNIK USTAW

RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ [DURP] [OFFICIAL GAZETTE OF THE POLISH REPUBLIC], Aug. 16, 2002, No. 130/2002, 

item 1112, available at http://dziennikustaw.gov.pl/DU/2002/1112/1 (in Polish), archived at https://perma.cc/DRN6 

-492P. 

2 Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of March 26, 2013, DURP, Apr. 10, 

2013, item 440, available at http://dziennikustaw.gov.pl/DU/2013/440 (in Polish), archived at https://perma.cc/ 

R576-G8C8. 

3 Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of June 3, 2013, DURP, June 7, 

2013, item 664, available at http://www.dziennikustaw.gov.pl/DU/2013/664/1 (in Polish), archived at https://perma. 

cc/39L9-K9CD. 

4 Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of April 26, 2013, DURP, May 2, 

2013, item 524, available at http://www.dziennikustaw.gov.pl/DU/2013/524/1 (in Polish), archived at https://perma. 

cc/E6S8-XMP9. 

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II. Certification of Operators

Polish law differentiates between commercial and noncommercial use of UAS flights. Operators 

of commercial UAS flights, including providers of photography and video-making services, must 

have a certificate of competency from the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), which is issued to 

individuals who have passed a medical check-up, taken theoretical and practical tests, and 

have insurance.6

The certificate of competency can allow for operation in VLOS (visual line of sight) or BVLOS 

(below visual line of sight) conditions. Obtaining a VLOS operation certificate requires the 

applicant to sign a declaration of knowledge of relevant regulations and basic theory (airspace, 

emergencies, flight rules, etc.), and pass theoretical and practical tests conducted by a CAA 

examiner. A certificate of competency for BVLOS operation allows a pilot to fly beyond the 

line of sight and requires the applicant to take training courses in addition to successfully passing

theoretical and practical tests.7

The certificate of competency can be limited to certain weight ranges (from less than 2 kg to less 

than 150 kg) and classes of UAS (airplane, helicopter, airship, or multirotor).8 As of October 

2015 more than 1,500 certificates of competency had been issued.9

III. Registration of UAS

Registration is not required for UAS weighing less than 25 kg. If the weight exceeds 25 kg a 

permit to fly is required and operational restrictions may be applicable (e.g., VLOS only and/or 

minimum distance from populated areas, people, and property).

Moreover, telecommunications law requires a license if the UAS uses certain frequencies for 

communication, although most UAS use frequencies that do not require a license.10

IV. Operational Restrictions

Operation in VLOS mode must allow the remote pilot to maintain separation and avoid collision 

with any other aircraft. Flights must be conducted outside the controlled zones (which 

5 Drones – Will the Law Allow Them to Crowd the Sky?, CMS-LAW-NOW (Sept. 22, 2015), http://www.cmslawnow.com/ealerts/2015/09/drones--will-the-law-allow-them-to-crowd-the-sky?cc_lang=en, archived at

https://perma.cc/K59V-6G7Y.

6 Safe Sky – Regulations on Flying Drones in Poland, CAA (Oct. 2, 2015), http://www.ulc.gov.pl/en/270-

english/current-information/3806-safe-sky-regulations-on-flying-drones-in-poland, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

NC5N-ZATP. 

7 CAA, CURRENT STATUS OF RPAS REGULATIONS IN THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND 2 (Oct. 2014), http://jarus-rpas.org/ 

sites/jarus-rpas.org/files/current_status_of_rpa_regulations.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/G6ZA-PA3Q.

8 Id.

9 CAA, supra note 6.

10 CMS-LAW-NOW, supra note 5.

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sometimes cover most of a town or a city11), airfield traffic zones, military airport zones, and 

other specific zones.12 Advance notice and a special permit are required to operate a UAS in an 

airport controlled zone.13 For flights in airport traffic zones or within 5 km of an airport/airfield 

border, the permission of the airport manager is required.14

Currently, BVLOS flights are possible only in dedicated and segregated airspace.15 The rules for 

BVLOS operations, including the procedures for cooperation with air traffic service providers, 

are being developed by the CAA.16

Regulations require that the horizontal distance from people and structures on the surface must 

be sufficient to exclude any risk to people, property, or the environment, even after any possible 

failure. Moreover, operations in the city center of Warsaw require the consent of the 

Government Protection Bureau. 17 Following an incident in Warsaw’s airport the authorities

announced they were considering installing equipment that would disable UAS in the proximity 

of the airport.18

Penalties for failing to comply with these restrictions are set out in the Aviation Law Act and 

provide for up to five years of imprisonment.

19

11 Id.

12 CAA, supra note 6.

13 Id.

14 Id.

15 Id.

16 CAA, REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS (RPAS) IN POLAND (July 2013), available at http://jarus-rpas.org/ 

sites/jarus-rpas.org/files/rpas_poland.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/5LJ4-X2AC. 

17 CAA, supra note 6.

18 CMS-LAW-NOW, supra note 5.

19 Ustawa z dnia 3 lipca 2002 r. Prawo lotnicze art. 212.

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South Africa

Hanibal Goitom 

Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY South Africa’s Ministry of Transportation and Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) recently 

added a chapter on remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) to the Civil Aviation 

Regulations and issued a number of other supplementary documents, including technical 

standards and aeronautical information circulars. Under these laws and standards, South 

Africa permits different forms of RPAS operations: private, commercial, corporate and 

nonprofit operations. 

While there are some universally applicable rules and restrictions, the level of both 

technical and operational requirements appears to be in part tied to the form of the 

operation, with private operation on one side and all the other forms on the other. For 

instance, conducting a private operation is only permitted with a Class-1A or Class-1B 

RPAS, within the operator’s visual line of sight, and at a maximum of 400 feet above 

ground, rules that are inapplicable to or can be waived for other forms of operations. Such 

private operations are exempt from a host of requirements applicable to other forms of 

operations, including requirements to obtain a letter of approval and a certification of 

registration, remote pilot license, and RPA operator certificate. The level of restrictions is 

also related to the complexity of the operation in question. Operations in a controlled 

airspace and beyond visual line-of-sight are subject to tighter restrictions. 

The CAA is the RPAS regulatory agency. Its powers include the authority to enact 

aviation regulations, set safety and security standards, issue all required licenses and 

permits, and develop enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance with all relevant laws 

and standards. 

I. Introduction 

South Africa’s Constitution establishes a three-tiered government structure consisting of 

national, provincial, and local governments that are “distinctive, interdependent and 

interrelated,” and vested both with legislative and executive authorities.1

 While this means that 

each level of government enjoys “legislative and executive autonomy of each sphere,” aviationrelated matters, including the regulation of remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), are under the 

exclusive jurisdiction of the national government.2 However, local laws and authorities may 

govern aspects of RPA operations. For instance, the use of a public area as an RPA takeoff and 

landing strip may require compliance with local laws and obtaining permission from 

local governments. 

1 S. AFR. CONST., 1996, § 40, http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/images/a108-96.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/BXV2-8PUV; Structure and Functions of the South African Government, SOUTH AFRICAN 

GOVERNMENT, http://www.gov.za/node/ 537988 (last visited Apr. 4, 2015), archived at https://perma.cc/368Z5N8Q. 

2 S. AFR. CONST. scheds. 4 & 5; Victoria Bronstein, Legislative Competence, in CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF SOUTH 

AFRICA 15-i, 15-1 (2d ed. 2012).

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This report describes the remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) regulatory landscape, mainly 

focusing on the various requirements applicable to different uses of RPAS, specifically private, 

corporate, commercial and nonprofit operations. It also describes the RPAS regulatory agency 

and its powers. 

II. National Legal Framework

The 2009 Civil Aviation Act3 forms the basis for regulating RPAS. Based on the regulatory 

authority accorded to it under the Act (see Part III, below), the Ministry of Transportation and 

Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) have recently developed regulations, technical standards, 

technical guidance material, and circulars to govern RPAS. 

Regulations governing RPAS were issued by the Minister of Transportation on May 27, 2015.

4

 

These regulations, which were issued as an amendment to the 2011 Civil Aviation Regulations,5

now constitute part 101 of such Regulations, and are (when referenced separately) known as the 

Eighth Amendment of the Civil Aviation Regulations, 2015.6

 Under section 163 of the Act and 

part 11 of the 2011 Regulations, the Director of Civil Aviation also recently issued technical 

standards on RPAS known as the South Africa Civil Aviation Technical Standards (SA-CATS).7

 

Both took effect on July 1, 2015.8

 In addition, the Director has issued a number of aeronautical

information circulars (AICs) applicable to RPAS.9

 Further, the CAA issued technical guidance 

material, the Technical Guidance Material for RPAS−Part 101, in September 2015.

10

3 Civil Aviation Act 13 of 2009, 4 BUTTERWORTHS STATUTES OF SOUTH AFRICA (updated through 2015), available 

at http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/32266_616.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/8SPN-FNFA. 

4 Department of Transport, Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment), 2015, GOVERNMENT NOTICE

R444/2015 (May 27, 2015), available at http://www.caa.co.za/Legal%20Documents/PART%20101%20 

GAZETTE.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/EM7G-7JZL. 

5 Department of Transport, Civil Aviation Regulations, 2011 (June 2012), available on the Southern African Power 

Flying Association (SAPFA) website, at http://www.sapfa.org.za/sites/default/files/CIVIL_AVIATION_ 

REGULATIONS-2011.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/5BJM-KFLP. 

6 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) §§ 4 & 5. 

7 CAA, South Africa Civil Aviation Technical Standards 101 (SA-CATS 101) (date of operation, July 1, 2015), 

http://www.caa.co.za/Legal%20Documents/SA-CATS%20101%20approval.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/2FR4-

ST74. 

8 Id.; Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 5. 

9 CAA, Remote Pilot License: Training, Examination and Application For RPL Requirements, AIC Series C, 

007/2015 (July 23, 2015), http://www.caa.co.za/RPAS%20AICs/AIC%20007-2015.pdf, archived at https://perma. 

cc/N5QP-6PTK; CAA, Aviation Training Organisations Conducting Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) 

Training, AIC Series A, 008/2015 (July 23, 2015), http://www.caa.co.za/RPAS%20AICs/ AIC%20008-2015.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/WU4H-34DZ; CAA, Publication in Terms of Regulation 11.04.4(3) of the Full 

Particulars of a General Exemption Granted by the Director of Civil Aviation from the Requirements of Part 101 

Pertaining to Private Operations, AIC Series A, 009/2015 (July 23, 2015), http://www.caa.co.za/RPAS%20AICs/ 

AIC%20009-2015.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/B9G5-S2ZW. 

10 CAA, Technical Guidance Material (TGM) for RPAS−Part 101 (Sept. 30, 2015), http://www.caa.co.za/RPAS%20 

TGM/TGM%20for%20RPAS%20PART%20101.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/SLX6-ZRRV. 

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Regulation of Drones: South Africa

A. Application

The Civil Aviation Regulations apply to what are known as Class-1 and Class-2 RPA and to 

owners, operators, pilots and those who maintain such RPA.11 An RPA is “an unmanned aircraft 

which is piloted from a remote pilot station, excluding model aircraft12 and toy aircraft.”13 These 

classes of RPA are defined in the SA-CATS, including in terms of their weight. Class-1 and 

Class-2 RPAs are further divided into subclasses: Class-1A (less than 1.5 kilograms/3.3 pounds), 

Class-1B (less than 7 kilograms/15.4 pounds), and Class-1C and Class 2A (less than 20 

kilograms/44 pounds).

14 The application of the Regulations does not extend to

• autonomous unmanned aircraft,

15 unmanned free balloons and their operations, or other types 

of aircraft that cannot be managed on a real-time basis during flight;

• aircraft operated in terms of Part 94 of the Civil Aviation Regulations (which addresses the 

Operation of “Non-type Certificated Aircraft”16);

• model aircraft; and 

• toy aircraft.17

Under the Regulations, different uses of RPA are permitted. RPA may be used for private, 

commercial, corporate, and nonprofit purposes.

18

B. Private RPA Operations

A private operation is “the use of an RPA for an individual’s personal and private purpose where 

there is no commercial outcome, interest or gain.”19 

11 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.01.1. 

12 A “model aircraft” is 

a heavier-than-air aircraft of limited dimensions, with or without a propulsion device, unable to carry a human being 

and to be used for competition, sport or recreational purposes rather than unmanned aeronautical vehicles (UAV) 

developed for commercial or governmental, scientific, research or military purposes, and not exceeding the 

specifications as set by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale as listed in Document SA-CATS 24. Civil 

Aviation Regulations, 2011, § 1.01.1.

13 Id. A “toy aircraft” is “a product falling under the definition of aircraft which is designed or intended for use in 

play by children.” Id.

14 SA-CATS 101 § 101.01.5. 

15 This is “an unmanned aircraft that does not allow intervention in the management of the flight.” Civil Aviation 

Regulations, 2011, § 1.01.1.

16 A non-type certificated aircraft is 

any aircraft that does not qualify for the issue of a certificate of airworthiness in terms of Part 21 and shall include 

any type of certificated aircraft that has been scrapped, of which the original identification plate should have to be 

removed and returned to the applicable aviation authority and is rebuilt as a full-scale replica. Id.

17 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.01.1.

18 Id.

19 Id. § 1.01.1

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Private operations are subject to specific restrictions. They may only be conducted with a Class1A RPA (less than 1.5 kilograms in weight) or Class-1B RPA (less than 7 kilograms in weight),

both of which cannot be flown more than 400 feet above the ground.

20 All private operations 

must be conducted only in restricted visual line of sight (R-VLOS), specifically, “within 500 

meters of the remote pilot and below the height of the highest obstacle within 300 meters of the 

RPA, in which the remote pilot maintains direct unaided visual contact with the RPA to manage 

its flight and meet separation and collision avoidance responsibilities.”21 In addition, RPA may 

only be operated over property owned by the operator or other property with the permission of 

the owner.22

The Regulations also impose restrictions on certain uses of RPA. An RPA may not tow another 

aircraft, perform aerial or aerobatic displays, or be flown in formation or swarm.23 It may not be 

flown within a 10 kilometer (about 6.2 mile) radius of an airfield, within restricted or prohibited 

airspace, or above or near a sensitive area, including a nuclear power plant, correctional 

institution, police station, crime scene, or court.24 An RPA may not be operated directly 

overhead of any person or within a lateral distance of 50 meters (164 feet) from any person.25 It 

may not be used for the purpose of releasing, dispensing, dropping, delivering or deploying of an 

object or substance.26 It may only be used in daylight and under clear weather conditions.27

Private RPA operations are exempt from various rules applicable to other forms of RPA 

operations. For instance, rules on the need for approval and registration of an RPA before 

operation, personnel licensing requirements, and RPA operator certificate and maintenance 

requirements do not apply to private operations of RPA (for more on these requirements, see Part 

II(C), below).

28 They are also exempt from rules governing the conveyance of dangerous goods 

and safety considerations (for instance, ensuring that an RPA is in a “fit-to-fly condition”).29 

They are further exempt from regulations on the manner in which flight time is recorded and 

reported, and on the use of flight logbooks, power reserves, first-aid kits, and hand-held 

fire extinguishers.30

20 Id. §§ 101.01.2 & 101.05.10; SA-CATS 101 § 1.

21 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) §§ 1.01.1 & 101.01.2; Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: RPAS 

Private Operations, CAA, http://www.caa.co.za/Pages/RPAS/Private%20Operations.aspx (last visited 

Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/DK5C-XEUQ.

22 SA-CATS 101.01.7. 

23 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.05.10.

24 Id. 

25 Id. § 101.05.12.

26 Id. § 101.05.4. 

27 Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: RPAS Private Operations, supra note 21. 

28 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.01.2. 

29 Id. §§ 101.05.5 & 101.05.9. 

30 Id. §§ 101.05.21–101.05.25; Publication in Terms of Regulation 11.04.4(3) of the Full Particulars of a General 

Exemption, supra note 9. 

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C. Commercial, Corporate, and Nonprofit Operations

Commercial, corporate, and nonprofit RPA operations are subject to various restrictions.

1. Approval and Registration

An RPA cannot be operated for non-private purposes in South Africa unless the CAA Director 

has issued the operator an RPA letter of approval (RLA) and a certificate of registration.31 In 

order for the Director to issue an RLA, the applicant must submit

(a) documentation regarding the standard to which the RPAS was designed; or

(b) equivalent documentation that demonstrates a level of safety acceptable to the 

Director; or

(c) documentation demonstrating system safety as prescribed in Document SACATS 101.32

An application for an initial approval of an RPA requires the submission of the RPA 

manufacturer’s operating manual and, for Class-1 and Class-2 operations, submission of the 

following information about the RPA:

1.1 RPAS type

1.2 RPA structure

1.3 RPA composition

1.4 flight envelope capability

1.5 RPA dimensions/measurements and mass together with drawings

1.6 mass and balance

1.7 payloads (specific or generic)

1.8 use of frequencies

1.9 remote pilot station

1.10 ground support equipment

1.11 flight recovery system.33

The submission must also include the following information regarding 

performance characteristics of the RPA:

2.1 maximum altitude

2.2 maximum endurance

2.3 maximum range

2.4 Airspeed (take-off, cruise, landing, stall, maximum)

2.5 maximum rate of climb

2.6 maximum rate of descent

2.7 maximum bank angle

31 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) §§ 101.02.1 & 101.02.4.

32 Id. §§ 101.02.1 & 101.02.2. 

33 SA-CATS 101 § 101.02.2.

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2.8 turn rate limits

2.9 propulsion system (such as engine/motor, fuel, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, 

gas, solar).

34

2. Identification Marks

An RPA registered in South Africa is considered to have South African nationality and it must be 

engraved with an identification plate including its nationality and registration marks.35 The SACATS include additional particulars on the required identification plates, display of marks 

(including the appropriate colors and fonts), and location, as well as the allocation and 

specification of marks.36

3. Personnel Licensing

A valid remote pilot license (RPL) is required for commercial, corporate, and nonprofit 

operations of an RPA.

37 There are three categories of an RPL: Remote Pilot License 

(Aeroplane) (RPL(A)), Remote Pilot License (Helicopter) (RPL(H)), and Remote Pilot License 

(Multi-rotor) (RPL(MR)).38 There are also three different ratings of an RPL: visual line-of-sight 

(VLOS) operations; extended visual line-of-sight (E-VLOS)39 operations; and beyond visual 

line-of-sight (B-VLOS)40 operations.41 There are a number of requirements for obtaining an 

RPL, including the following:

1. An applicant should not be less than 18 years of age.

2. Applicants must hold current medical assessments.

3. An ATO [aviation training organization] for training must be identified.

4. Foreign theoretical training will be approved and validated (ASK).

5. Only successful completion will be accepted.

6. Applicants must pass the RPL practical assessment.

34 Id. 

35 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) §§ 101.02.4; SA-CATS 101 § 101.02.4.

36 SA-CATS 101 § 101.02.4.

37 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.03.1; CAA, REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 

(PART 101) REGULATIONS WORKSHOPS: RPAS REGULATIONS (PART 101) COMPLIANCE PROCESS FLOW 108, 

http://www.caa.co.za/Documents/RPAS/Part%20101%20-%20RPAS%20Workshops.pdf (last visited Apr. 1, 2016), 

archived at https://perma.cc/28WY-S56B.

38 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.03.1. 

39 This is “an operation below 400 feet above ground level in which an observer, maintains direct and unaided visual 

contact with the remotely piloted aircraft at a distance not exceeding 1,000 meters from the pilot.” Civil Aviation 

Regulations, 2011, § 1.01.1.

40 This is “an operation in which the remote pilot cannot maintain direct unaided visual contact with the remotely 

piloted aircraft to manage its flight and to meet separation and collision avoidance responsibilities visually.” Id. 

41 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.03.1.

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7. Applicants must also pass Radiotelephony Examination.

8. Achieved English Language Proficiency (ELP) level 4 or higher.

9. All applications must be submitted to the CAA.42

An RPL is issued for a two-year period at the end of which the holder must submit to a 

“revalidation check” before the RPL can be renewed.

43

4. RPAS Operator Certificate

An RPAS operator certificate (ROC) is also required for commercial, corporate and nonprofit 

operations of an RPA.

44 For a commercial operator, obtaining an air service license under the 

relevant law45 is one of the conditions to getting an ROC.46 The ROC application process is said 

to follow the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) five-step process: preapplication, formal application, document evaluation, demonstration and inspection, and 

certification.47 An ROC is issued for a one-year period at the end of which the holder of the 

certificate must apply for a renewal.48

An ROC holder has various responsibilities. The ROC holder is required to develop an 

operations manual to be approved by the Director.49 The manual must include the “type and 

scope of operations, including the manner in which each type of RPAS and operation will be 

safely conducted,” and any change to the type or scope of operations requires the prior approval 

of the Director.50 The holder must also “establish a safety management system commensurate 

with the size of the organisation or entity and the complexity of its operations.”51 This 

must include 

42 Id.; Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: Pilot Licensing and Instructor Rating, CAA, http://www.caa.co. 

za/Pages/RPAS/RPAS%20pilot%20licensing.aspx (last visited Apr. 14, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/7TWTR2BS; Remote Pilot License: Training, Examination and Application for RPL Requirements, supra note 9; SACATS 101 § 101.03.2.

43 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.03.6.

44 Id. § 101.04.1

45 Air Service Licensing Act No. 115 of 1990 (assented June 28, 1990; commenced July 1, 1991), available on the 

Comair Limited website, at https://www.comair.co.za/Media/Comair/files/level-playing-field/Air-ServicesLicensing-Act-1990.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/HRQ6-X98L. 

46 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.04.1; Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: RPAS Operators 

Certificate, CAA (2016), http://www.caa.co.za/Pages/RPAS/RPAS%20operators%20certificate.aspx, archived at

https://perma.cc/S8WH-FGEB. 

47 CAA, supra note 37, SUBPART 4, RPAS OPERATORS’ CERTIFICATE, at 83–85; Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: 

Pilot Licensing and Instructor Rating, supra note 42. 

48 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.04.3.

49 This is “a manual containing Procedures, instructions and guidance for use by operational personnel in the 

execution of their duties.” Civil Aviation Regulations, 2011, § 1.01.1 & Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth 

Amendment) § 101.04.5.

50 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.04.5.

51 Id. § 101.04.7. 

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a process to identify actual and potential safety hazards and assess the associated 

risks, . . . a process to develop and implement remedial action necessary to maintain an 

acceptable level of safety . . . [and] . . . provision for continuous and regular assessment 

of the appropriateness and effectiveness of safety management activities.52 

Further, the ROC holder is required to take various security measures, including conducting 

background checks and periodic criminal record checks on personnel that work with RPAS.53 

Further, the holder must always carry adequate third-party liability insurance.54

5. RPAS Operational Restrictions

There are various restrictions applicable to commercial, corporate, and nonprofit operations of 

RPAS. Some of these restrictions are summarized below:

a. Public Roads

Use of public roads as a takeoff and landing ground is not permitted unless the operator is an 

ROC holder and such use has been approved by the Director and the relevant local authority.55

b. Controlled Airspace

RPAS may be operated in controlled airspace only by an ROC holder and upon the approval of 

the Director.56 The director may issue such approval only in a visual meteorological condition 

(VMC) in an airfield traffic zone (ATZ) and control zone (CTR) below 400 ft.57 In addition, in 

order for an RPA to be used in an operation within an ATZ or CTR, it must

(a) Be fitted with a mode C or S transponder capable of displaying the unique squawk 

code issued to them, unless otherwise exempted by the Director and/or the applicable 

ATSU or CAMU according to an FUA application;

(b) Be fitted with an altimeter, capable of displaying to the operator on the RPS, the 

RPA’s altitude above ground level, corrected for ambient pressure (QNH);

(c) Be fitted with a functioning strobe light or lights, installed in such a way that such 

strobe lights are visible from both below and above the RPA; at all azimuth 

angles, and

(d) In the instance of an aeroplane, be fitted with functioning navigation lights.58

52 Id. 

53 Id. § 101.04.8.

54 Id. § 101.04.12.

55 Id. § 101.05.2. 

56 Id. § 101.05.3. 

57 Id. 

58 SA-CATS § 101.05.3. 

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All of the abovementioned components must be “serviceable and functioning” during the entire 

period of the operation and the failure of one of them would result in the termination of 

the operation.59 

In addition to the above technical requirements imposed on the RPA, operation in an ATZ or 

CTR requires an ROC holder to fulfill certain operational requirements.60

c. Objects or Substances

The Civil Aviation Regulations prohibit the use of an RPA for releasing, dispensing, dropping, 

delivering, or deploying any object or substance unless it is done by an ROC holder and with the 

Director’s approval.61

d. General Restrictions

This category includes various restrictions. For instance, operators are banned from using RPAS 

to tow other aircraft, perform aerial or aerobatic displays, or for the purpose of flying them in 

formation or swarm.62 In addition, unless done by an ROC holder and with the Directors 

approval, an RPAS operator is prohibited from flying an RPAS

• above 400 feet above ground;

• within a 10 kilometers radius of an airfield;

• within restricted or prohibited airspace; or

• near or above sensitive areas, including a nuclear power plant, prison, police station, crime 

scene, or court.63

e. Beyond Visual Line of Sight

A B-VLOS operation is permitted only for ROC holders approved for such operations by the 

Director.64 The Director may approve such operations only if the operator meets certain 

requirements, which vary depending on whether the operation is in or outside of a controlled 

airspace.65 If the intended operation is outside a controlled airspace, the operator must show 

compliance with the following technical requirements: 

59 Id. 

60 Id. 

61 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.05.4.

62 Id. § 101.05.10.

63 Id. 

64 Id. § 101.05.11.

65 Id.; SA-CATS § 101.05.11.

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(i) that the APA will only be operated using command inputs;

(ii) has met the requirements prescribed in Technical Standard 101.02.2 [see Part 

II(C)(1), above];

(iii) that the APA has the ability to remain clear from obstacles and any other hazards 

and can take appropriate action to execute collision avoidance from such obstacles 

or other aircraft where necessary. This ability shall be applicable for normal and 

lost/degraded C2 links unless:

(aa) The area is void of other air traffic; or 

(bb) The operation occurs in specifically delimited or segregated airspace; or

(cc) Any other mitigation is in place to avoid other aircraft, obstacles or 

any hazards.

(iv) the C2 data link frequency to be used for data link is deemed appropriate by the 

Director; and

(v) the C2 performance requirements as specified in Technical Standard 101.05.8 (this 

relates to command and control link operational requirements) are acceptable to 

the Director.66

In addition, the operator must demonstrate operational capabilities, including the ability to 

command the RPA to “follow a predetermined course or group of way-point inputs.”67

For operations inside a controlled airspace, the operator must fulfill additional technical 

requirements (see Part II(C)(5)(b), above).68

f. Operation in Vicinity of People, Property, or Public Roads

Operating an RPA directly overhead or a lateral distance of 50 meters from any person is 

permitted only by an ROC holder and with the approval of the Director.

69 The same rule applies 

to the operation of an RPAS in the vicinity of structures or buildings; however, in this instance it 

is also possible to operate an RPA by simply obtaining the permission of the owner of the

structure or building in question.70 

Operating an RPA along the length of a public road or at a distance of less than 50 m from a 

public road in use is permitted only for an ROC holder upon obtaining the Director’s approval.71

66 SA-CATS § 101.05.11, as referenced in Civil Aviation Regulations § 101.05.11. 

67 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.05.11; SA-CATS § 101.05.11. 

68 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.05.11. 

69 Id. § 101.05.12. 

70 Id. 

71 Id. § 101.05.15. 

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g. Radio Communication Requirements

All operations of RPAS (R-VLOS, VLOS, E-VLOS, and B-VLOS) must be conducted within a 

radio line of sight (RLOS).72 An RLOS is a direct, electronic, point-to-point contact between a 

transmitter and receiver.73 The Regulations require that “the air-band radio shall have the 

required output and be configured in such a way that the range, strength of transmission and 

quality of communication extends beyond the furthest likely position of the RPA from the 

pilot.”74 Additional requirements may apply depending on the specific operation in question.75

D. Sale and Labeling

The requirements applicable to the sale or resale of RPAS are limited to labeling. The 

Regulations state that “[n]o RPA shall be sold within the Republic unless the seller, by way of a 

packaging label, or in the case of the resale thereof, by way of written notification, notified the 

buyer of the requirements as prescribed in Document SA-CATs101.”76 This is applicable to all 

RPA regardless of their intended use.

III. National Enforcement Agency 

The CAA is the country’s RPAS regulatory agency. Its stated objectives include overseeing “the 

functioning and development of the civil aviation industry” and issuing regulations mandated by 

the Civil Aviation Act.77 To that end, the CAA has various functions, including

(a) developing and promoting appropriate, clear and concise regulatory requirements,

and technical aviation safety and security standards;

(b) developing effective enforcement strategies to ensure compliance with aviation 

safety and security standards;

(c) issuing certificates, licences, registrations and permits; [and]

. . . .

(h) formulating and approving supporting regulations and technical standards through 

a consultative process with the aviation industry . . . .78

The standards, technical guidance material, and circulars described above were all issued by the 

CAA on the basis of this authority. 

72 TGM § 6.3.1; SA-CATS § 1.

73 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 1.01.1

74 Id. § 101.05.16. 

75 Id. 

76 Id. § 101.01.5.

77 Civil Aviation Act § 72. 

78 Id. § 73(1)(a)–(c), (h).

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It appears that functions, duties, and powers of the CAA are shared between the Civil Aviation 

Authority Board and the Director. The Director, who is appointed by the Minister of 

Transportation for a renewable five-year term, is the head of the CAA and in charge of its 

administration.79 The Director is responsible for carrying out the functions of the CAA.80 The 

Board, which consists of the Director and seven other members appointed by the Minister, has 

various responsibilities including matters relating to corporate governance, human resources, and 

conditions of employment and remuneration.81

The Director answers to the Minister with regard to matters relating to civil aviation safety and 

security and he is responsible to the Board on matters under the Board’s purview.82 Members of 

the Board are restricted from interfering in the aviation safety and security oversight functions of 

the Director.83

IV. Local Regulatory Framework

Every operation that needs the approval of the Director may require the approval of local 

authorities.84 For instance, as noted above, the use of a public road as a takeoff or landing 

ground requires necessary permissions from local authorities.85 In addition, all local laws that 

relate to various aspects of RPAS operation are applicable. No specific local laws governing the 

use of RPAS were located, however.

79 Id. §§ 85 & 86. 

80 Id. § 87. 

81 Id. §§ 76 & 77. 

82 Id. § 86.

83 Id. § 76. 

84 TGM § 7. 

85 Civil Aviation Regulations (Eighth Amendment) § 101.05.2.

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Sweden

Elin Hofverberg

Foreign Law Research Consultant

SUMMARY Sweden regulates the manufacture, sale, import, export, and use of drones. Regulations 

vary depending on the nature of the drone. Heavier drones are more strictly regulated. 

Drones must only be operated during daylight within visible range from the operator, 120

meters off the ground and 50 meters away from other people, buildings, and other objects 

or areas worthy of protection. Drones are not permitted in restricted airspace, such as 

airports and over prisons. Swedish airports have had to close because of incidents where 

civilian drones have entered into restricted airspace. The use of drones in certain areas 

requires prior permits. The question of the permissibility of using drones for commercial 

photography purposes is currently pending before the Administrative Supreme Court. The 

enforcement of drone-use violations has been low, with fifteen serious incidents during 

2015. Approximately 1,000 individuals and corporations are registered with the Swedish 

Transport Agency and may use drones commercially. 

I. Background 

The use of drones for noncommercial and commercial purposes is on the rise in Sweden. During 

the Christmas sales of 2014 more than 20,000 drones for civilian use were sold, including 

quadcopters without the capability of carrying cameras.1

 The cost of drones (drönare) for 

personal use ranges from SEK249 (about US$30) for mini-drones to SEK35,495 (about 

US$4,350) for advanced drones.

2

 The Swedish Transport Agency has issued more than 1,000 

permits to use drones commercially for photographic purposes.3

 

Swedish drone manufacturers include the government contractor Saab, which manufactures large 

drones for military use.

4

 Other Swedish companies also make smaller, unmanned aircraft for 

civilian use.5

 

1 Viktor Mölne, Explosionsartad försäljning av drönare, DAGENSINDUSTRI (Feb. 23, 2015), http://www.di.se/ 

artiklar/2015/2/6/explosionsartad-forsaljning-av-dronare, archived at https://perma.cc/TUC3-4GSH (click “See the 

Screeshot View”).

2 Produkter, TEKNIKMAGASINET, http://www.teknikmagasinet.se/sokresultat?q=dr%C3%B6nare (last visited 

Apr. 4, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/CS4K-JR2Z. For information on UAV products from Hobbex, 

reportedly the largest Swedish supplier of drones for civilian use, see Avancerade modeller, HOBBEX, http://www. 

hobbex.se/sv/ artiklar/radiostyrt/multirotor/avancerade-modeller/index.html (last visited Apr. 4, 2016), archived at

https://perma.cc/8CA9-U78E. 

3

 TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, TILLSTÅNDSINNEHAVARE: LISTA ÖVER TILLSTÅNDSINNEHAVARE FÖR VERKSAMHET MED 

UAS [PERMIT HOLDERS: LIST OF PERMIT HOLDERS FOR OPERATING UAS] (Dec. 1, 2015), http://www.transport 

styrelsen.se/sv/luftfart/Luftfartyg-och-luftvardighet/Obemannade-luftfartyg-UAS/Lista-over-godkanda-UASoperatorer, archived at https://perma.cc/MZ4X-PKKX. 

4 Press Release, Saab, Saab och UMS Aero Group AG i strategiskt samarbete inom obemannat flyg (Dec. 21, 2015), 

http://saabgroup.com/globalassets/cision/documents/2015/20151221-saab-och-ums-aero-group-ag-i-strategisktsamarbete-inom-obemannat-flyg-sv-1-1087874.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/FWP7-R596. 

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II. Legal Framework

Large civilian drones exceeding 150 kg (about 330 lb) are regulated by European Union Law6

and monitored by the European Aviation Service Agency.7 Smaller drones are largely 

unregulated at the EU level and are thus regulated by EU Member States. The European aviation 

community, including the Swedish, agreed on principles for drone use in the 2015 Riga 

Declaration on Remotely Piloted Aircraft.

8

 

A. Permitting, Classification, and Technical Requirements

The construction, manufacture, modification, and maintenance of unmanned civilian aircraft, 

including drones, requires a permit from the Swedish Transport Agency.9 Hobby construction of 

drones for personal use is exempted.10

1. Categories

Regulations on unmanned aircraft and drones establish several categories based on weight and 

usage.

11 Category 1a includes drones lighter than 1.5 kg (approximately 3.3 lb) that do not 

create more than 150 joules (J) of energy. Category 1b includes drones of at least 1.5 kg but not 

exceeding 7 kg (approximately 15.4 lb). To fall within category 1b, a drone must not create 

more than 1,000 J of kinetic energy. Category 2 includes drones weighing more than 7 kg that 

are flown within the view of the operator, while category 3 includes unmanned aircraft certified 

for use outside the view of the operator/pilot.12

5 Sten Sjögren, Svenska drönarbolag på krigsstigen, VECKANSAFFÄRER (Oct. 18, 2013), http://www.va.se/nyheter/ 

2013/10/18/svenska-dronarbolag-pa-krigsstigen, archived at https://perma.cc/8CGA-6PN7. 

6 Regulation (EC) No 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 February 2008 on Common 

Rules in the Field of Civil Aviation and Establishing a European Aviation Safety Agency, and Repealing Council 

Directive 91/670/EEC, Regulation (EC) No 1592/2002 and Directive 2004/36/EC, 2008 O.J. (L 79) 1, http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:079:0001:0049:EN:PDF, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

U3PM-QK5T.

7 The Agency, EUROPEAN AVIATION SAFETY AGENCY, http://www.easa.europa.eu/the-agency/the-agency (last visited 

Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/7DZN-ERZ9. 

8 Riga Declaration on Remotely Piloted Aircraft (Drones), “Framing the Future of Aviation,” Mar. 6, 2015, 

http://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/doc/2015-03-06-drones/2015-03-06-riga-declaration-drones.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/7UV9-P9XE. For developments within the industry, see GUNNAR FRISK, SAAB AB, 

UAS FORUM SWEDEN – ATT ÖPPNA EUROPAS OCH SVERIGE LUFTRUM FÖR UAS (May 19, 2015), http://www.uas 

forumsweden.se/pdf_2015/01_Oppna%20luftrummet%20_UAS%20Forum_2015-05-19_v1.0.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/V3TC-JR5C.

9 2 ch. 2 § Transportstyrelsens föreskrifter om verksamhet med obemannade luftfartyg (UAS) (konsoliderad 

elektronisk utgåva) [Regulations on Activities with Unmanned Aircraft (UAS) (Consolidated Electronic Version)]

(Transportstyrelsens Författningssamling [TSFS] 2009:88), https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/TSFS/TSFS%20 

2009_88k.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/44TL-KGXM.

10 Id. 1 ch. 1 §. 

11 Id. 2 ch. 1 §.

12 Id.

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2. Technical Specifications

All uses of drones, irrespective of the category, require that the drone be equipped with an 

emergency device, enabling shutdown of the drone if needed.13 Moreover, if the drone is 

equipped with an automated flight system, there must always be an override system available 

under which the pilot regains control of the drone.14 Category 2 and 3 drones should be 

constructed in a manner to prevent damage in the case of a collision.15

In addition, Category 3 drones must be equipped with technology that prevents unauthorized

control of the drone, including protection against misleading signals either from an outside 

source or from weather phenomena.16 Category 3 drones are subject to a number of additional 

requirements—for example, they must have transponders, an ability to detect other aircraft, 

compatible anticollision systems, and systems to interpret weather conditions.17

No publicly available information was located as to whether Swedish protected areas such as 

prisons, airports, or government buildings have electric fencing in force to protect against

incursions by drones.

B. Drones for Use by Civilians

The operation of aircraft is regulated by law in Sweden.18 Applicable legislation encompasses 

unmanned aircraft, including drones.19 In addition, the use of drones by civilians is specifically 

regulated by the Swedish Transport Agency.

20

1. Permit Requirement for Certain Uses

Drones used for commercial and research purposes, and drones flown outside the sight of the 

operator, require licenses from the Swedish Transport Agency21 and the payment of a fee.22

13 Id. 3 ch. 3 § 3 item (category 1b) & 4 ch. 9 § (category 2) (TSFS 2009:88). 

14 Id. ch. 3 § 8 item (categories 1a, 1b) & 4 ch. 9 § 10 item (category 2). 

15 Id. 4 ch. 15 §.

16 Id. 5 ch. 44 §.

17 Id. 5 ch. 45–48 §§. 

18 LUFTFARTSLAG [AIRCRAFT ACT] (Svensk författningssamling [SFS] 2010:500), http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/ 

Dokument-Lagar/Lagar/Svenskforfattningssamling/Luftfartslag-2010500_sfs-2010-500, archived at https://perma. 

cc/U65X-G98D; see also Luftfartsförordning [Aircraft Regulation] (SFS 2010:770), http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/ 

Dokument-Lagar/Lagar/Svenskforfattningssamling/Luftfartsforordning-2010770_sfs-2010-770, archived at

https://perma.cc/5GKQ-JTH3.

19 Id. 

20 Transportstyrelsens föreskrifter om verksamhet med obemannade luftfartyg (UAS) (konsoliderad elektronisk 

utgåva) [Regulations on Activities with Unmanned Aircraft (UAS) (Consolidated Electronic Version)] (TSFS 

2009:88), https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/TSFS/TSFS%202009_88k.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/44TLKGXM, unofficial English translation available at http://www.transportstyrelsen.se/globalassets/global/ 

luftfart/luftfartyg/the-swedish-uas-regulation-tsfs-2009-88.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/S5FY-PQ8H.

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Category 1 drones flown only for personal use do not require permits.

23 The Swedish Transport 

Agency has published an easy-to-read guideline for the use of civilian drones for personal 

entertainment.

24 The general guidelines and ordinance for the operation of aircraft issued by the 

Swedish Transport Agency also apply to operators of drones.25

Permit terms vary depending on the relevant drone category.

26 Category 1a and 1b permits are 

valid for two years at a time.27 For categories 2 and 3 the initial permit is valid for one year 

only, whereas subsequent permits are valid for up to two years at a time.28 Permit holders are 

required to notify the Swedish Transport Agency if the activity has stopped.29 To transport 

goods by drone a prior permit must first be obtained from the Swedish Transport Agency.30 No 

such permits are currently issued. 

Companies that become certified and receive a permit must be available for inspection by the 

Swedish Transport Agency.31 All operators must have insurance.32 As of November 30, 2015,

more than a thousand companies and private persons had been certified by the Swedish 

Transport Agency to fly drones.33

2. Age Requirements

There is no age requirement to fly category 1a and 1b drones, but the operator must be fit to 

operate the drone. To fly category 2 drones the operator must be eighteen years old.34 Category 

21 Id. 2 ch. 2 §; see also Sök tillstånd för obemannade luftfartyg, TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, https://www.transport 

styrelsen.se/sv/luftfart/Luftfartyg-och-luftvardighet/Obemannade-luftfartyg-UAS/Sok-tillstand-for-UAS (last visited 

Apr. 3, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/YRP8-UBPE.

22 Obemannade luftfartyg (UAS), TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/sv/Om-transport 

styrelsen/Finansiering/Avgifter/Luftfart/Flygoperativ-verksamhet/Obemannade-luftfartyg-UAS (last visited Apr. 3, 

2016), archived at https://perma.cc/A828-THPQ.

23 2 ch. 2 § e contrario (TSFS 2009:88).

24 TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, FLYG SÄKERT MED DIN DRÖNARE – SNABBA RÅD OCH REGLER, http://www.transport 

styrelsen.se/globalassets/global/publikationer/luftfart/dronare_ts201505_a5.pdf (last visited Apr. 3, 2016), archived 

at https://perma.cc/5X3M-QD8X.

25 Transportstyrelsens föreskrifter och allmänna råd om trafikregler för luftfart (konsoliderad elektronisk utgåva) 

[Swedish Transport Agency’s Ordinance and General Guidelines on Traffic Rules for Aircraft (Consolidated 

Electronic Version)] (TSFS 2014:71), http://www.transportstyrelsen.se/TSFS/TSFS%202014_71k.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/5XHV-HMZ6.

26 2 ch. 4, 5, 6 §§ (TSFS 2009:88). 

27 Id. 2 ch. 7 §. 

28 Id. 

29 Id. 2 ch. 9 §. 

30 Id. 2 ch. 10 §. 

31 Id. 2 ch. 11 §. 

32 Id. 2 ch. 12 §. 

33 TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, supra note 3.

34 4 ch. 8 § (TSFS 2009:88). 

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3 requires that the pilot/operator be at least twenty-one years old and no more than sixty-seven 

years old.35 In addition, category 3 drone pilots must hold a medical class 3 certificate.36

3. In-Flight Requirements

a. General 

All drones must be marked either with the name and telephone number of the operator as well as 

the certification number (where applicable), or with the registration number (category 3).37

Moreover, operators of drones must have the appropriate insurance.38

Drones must be flown at a minimum of 50 meters (164 feet) away from animals, people, and 

buildings.39 The distance should take into account the size and nature of the drone.40 All 

frequencies used by drones must be preapproved by the Post-och Telestyrelsen (PTS, the 

Swedish Post and Telecom Authority).

41

b. Category 1 Drones 

Category 1 drones generally may only be flown during daylight hours (not in the dark).42 Special 

permits are required for flight of category 1 drones in the dark.43 Category 1a and 1b drones must 

be flown within visual sight of the operator; consideration should be given to the weather, 

outside effects on the radio connection, interruptions on the frequency, and other factors 

affecting the safety of the flight.

44 The pilot must make sure that the flight can be completed 

safely.45 A designated pilot must be assigned to each flight.

46 Prior to starting the operation of 

the drone the operator should also develop a flight plan.47 Once completed, the flight should be 

recorded in a log book,

48 specifying “the date, pilot, the [drone], place of start and landing, flight

time, assignment, and any deviations.”49 All incidents must be reported to the Swedish 

35 Id. 5 ch. 25 §.

36 Id. 5 ch. 24 §.

37 Id. 2 ch. 13 §. 

38 Id. 2 ch. 12 §. 

39 Id. 

40 Id.

41 Id. 4 ch. 22 §, 5 ch. 54 §. 

42 3 ch. 1 § 3 item (TSFS 2009:88).

43 Id.

44 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 1 item.

45 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 4 item. 

46 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 5 item. 

47 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 2 item. 

48 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 10 item.

49 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 10 item. 

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Transport Agency.50 Guidelines from the Swedish Luftfartsverket (LFV, Air Navigation 

Services of Sweden) specify that drones should not be flown more than 120 meters (400 feet) off 

of the ground or 500 meters (547 yards) away from the operator.51

c. Category 2 Drones 

All provisions related to category 1a and 1b also apply to category 2. In addition, to receive a 

category 2 permit there must be a designated person responsible for the entire operation of the 

company, and this person must be approved by the Swedish Transport Agency.52 He or she must 

be aided by a flight chief and a technology chief.53 For each flight a responsible pilot must be 

assigned.54 He or she must be at least eighteen years old and prior to being certified by the 

Swedish Transport Agency must complete an Unmanned Aerial System educational program

certified by the Swedish Transport Agency.55

There are also general guidelines that supplement the regulation, which include that the pilot 

should have knowledge of the flight safety standards laid down by the Executive Director of the 

European Aviation Safety Agency.56 There are restrictions on flying in restricted airspace.57

There are also additional requirements for technical maintenance, maintaining a handbook for 

personnel, and for how to create a flight map.58

d. Category 3 Drones

Category 3 drone pilots must meet the requirements of category 2 drone operators and several 

additional requirements, including increased age, safety, and educational requirements, and 

internal requirements for education, oversight, and other measures aimed at increasing the safety 

of the flight.

59

50 Id. 3 ch. 1 § 9 item. 

51 TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, supra note 24.

52 4 ch. 1 § (TSFS 2009:88). 

53 Id. 4 ch. 3 §. 

54 Id. 4 ch. 7 §. 

55 Id. 4 ch. 7 & 8 §§.

56 Id. 4 ch. 7 §. 

57 Id. 4 ch. 18 §.

58 Id. 4 ch. 16, 17, 19 §§. 

59 Id. 5 ch. 

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C. Restricted Airspace

The Swedish Transport Agency decides which areas should be classified as restricted airspace.60 

Local authorities and municipalities can apply to the Swedish Transport Agency and provide the 

applicable reasons warranting an airspace restriction.61

The LFV maintains a drone map illustrating where the flying of drones is restricted, typically 

around airports.62 Complete prohibitions are in force over prisons, national parks, and nuclear 

power plants.63

III. Privacy and Security Concerns Related to Camera-Equipped Drones

The operation of drones may be restricted because of privacy rights considerations. The Swedish 

Administrative Supreme Court is set to decide whether the use of cameras on drones constitutes

“camera surveillance” as defined in Swedish law.

64 Under Swedish law camera surveillance is 

regulated and requires prior authorization from the local county administrative board,

65 unless 

the contemplated use involves only personal use on property where the public does not 

enjoy access.66 

The case before the Supreme Administrative Court turns on whether a drone equipped with a 

camera can be said to be uppsatt (installed) in such a manner as to constitute camera 

surveillance.

67 For the use of a camera to constitute camera surveillance, there must be a certain 

degree of permanence associated with its use.68 The Administrative Court of Appeal of 

Jönköping has previously found that photographing properties for commercial purposes

60 Inskränkning av eller förbud mot luftfart, TRANSPORTSTYRELSEN, https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/sv/luftfart/ 

Flygplatser-och-flygtrafiktjanst/Flygtrafiktjanst/Inskrankning-av-eller-forbud-mot-luftfart (last visisted 

Apr. 5, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/3TP2-B8AX. 

61 Id.

62 Dronechart, LFV, http://daim.lfv.se/echarts/dronechart (last visited Apr. 3, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/ 

46NV-FKMF (click “See the Screenshot View”).

63 Förordning om restriktioner för luftfart inom vissa områden [Regulation on Restrictions on Aircraft in Certain 

Areas] (SFS 2005:801), https://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/lag/20050801.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/QN2MKFSW. 

64 Press Release, Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen, Prövningstillstånd meddelat i mål om kameraövervakning (Mar. 30, 

2016), http://www.hogstaforvaltningsdomstolen.se/Om-Hogsta-forvaltningsdomstolen/Nyheter-fran-Hogstaforvaltningsdomstolen/Provningstillstand-meddelat-i-mal-om-kameraovervakning1, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

GZU2-P867. 

65 8 §, 16 § KAMERAÖVERVAKNINGSLAG [CAMERA SURVEILLANCE ACT] (SFS 2013:460), https://www.notisum.se/ 

rnp/sls/lag/20130460.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/V33S-N9E2.

66 Id. 5 §.

67 Id. 8 §. 

68 Kammarrätten [KR] [Administrative Court of Appeals] Jönköping, Case No. 1369-15, Dec. 15, 2015, at 4 (on file 

with author); KR Göteborg, Case No. 2156-15, Nov. 12, 2015, at 3 (on file with author). 

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constitutes camera surveillance.69 In that case, the County Administrative Board of Jönköping 

had found that the public’s need for privacy outweighed the operator’s need to operate the drone 

for commercial photographic purposes. Legislators had previously said that cameras mounted on 

vehicles have the degree of permanence required to make them subject to the camera 

surveillance legislation.70 If the Swedish Administrative Supreme Court finds that operating 

drones with cameras constitutes camera surveillance, the local county administrative boards will 

be required to weigh on a case-by-case basis whether the operator’s interest in operating a drone

equipped with a camera outweighs the interest of the public in having its privacy 

rights protected.71

Meanwhile, the Swedish Parliament is also in an initial phase of considering amendments to 

legislation regarding privacy in connection with camera surveillance, with the Justice 

Department having published a Committee Directive in 2015.72

While taking landscape pictures from the air in unrestricted airspace is legally permitted, the 

dissemination of such photographs requires prior approval from the Swedish Defense (Swedish 

Armed Forces).73

IV. Drone Incidents

There have been several incidents involving drones in Sweden. Protected airspace was 

reportedly breached a total of fifteen times during 2015, which led to forced temporary closures 

of Stockholm’s two airports—the Arlanda Airport and the Bromma Airport.

74 For example, 

Bromma Airport outside of Stockholm was shut down for half an hour following a drone 

incident in May 2015, where an unidentified drone entered the airport’s restricted airspace.75

69 KR Jönköping, Case No. 1369-15, Dec. 15, 2015, at 5–6; see also Monica Kleja, Ny dom: Drönare med kameror 

behöver tillstånd, NYTEKNIK (Dec. 21, 2015), http://www.nyteknik.se/nyheter/ny-dom-dronare-med-kamerorbehover-tillstand-6342959, archived at https://perma.cc/3Q7M-LXAU. 

70 Proposition [Prop.] 2012/13:115 En ny kameraövervakningslag [New Camera Surveillance Act] [government 

bill], at 26, http://data.riksdagen.se/fil/23B4801D-BF01-4649-993E-C2B19C8D30C6, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

WBE6-F385.

71 9 § KAMERAÖVERVAKNINGSLAG (SFS 2013:460). 

72 Kommittédirektiv: Kameraövervakning – brottsbekämpning och integritetsskydd [Committee Directive: Camera 

Surveillance – Law Enforcement and Privacy] (Dir. 2015:125), http://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/85d73 

a5e3e9c46bbb0725901752edb92/kommittedirektiv-kameraovervakning_webb.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

2G4B-MNRU.

73 9 § Förordning om skydd för landskapsinformation [Regulation on Protection of Landscape Information] (SFS 

1993:1745), http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/lag/19931745.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/SYX7-37XZ, to be 

replaced by Förordning om skydd för geografisk information (SFS 2016:320), http://www.notisum.se/rnp/sls/sfs/ 

20160320.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/PB5G-KJTZ. See also Flygfotografering och tillstånd för bildspridning, 

FÖRSVARSMAKTEN, http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/om-myndigheten/tillstand/flygfotografering (last visited 

Apr. 6, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/3XUT-NPQE.

74 Drönarförare riskerar skadestånd, SVT (July 25, 2015), http://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/stockholm/dronarforareriskerar-skadestand, archived at https://perma.cc/6LT6-EAZS.

75 Drönare stängde ner Bromma flygplats, LFV (May 12, 2015), http://www.lfv.se/nyheter/nyheter-2015/dronarestangde-ner-bromma-flygplats, archived at https://perma.cc/V9CX-6JDQ.

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Under Swedish law all incidents with drones that result in harm to animals, people, or property 

must be reported to the Swedish Transport Agency.

76 There are no public reports of any 

such incidents. 

The prevalence of drones has been described as a growing problem by the Swedish media, as 

users are unaware of the relevant regulations surrounding drone use.77 There is no legal 

requirement for foreign sellers who export drones to Sweden to inform buyers of Swedish law on 

drones. The Swedish Transport Agency has introduced a cooperation effort with certain 

importers aimed at the importer including a pamphlet in the package setting out applicable 

regulations in Sweden.78 So far the initiative has garnered little success as most drones are 

imported online directly from exporters with whom the Swedish Transport Agency does not 

cooperate.

79 The organization Unmanned Aerial System Sweden, whose members are registered 

commercial drone users, hopes to remedy the situation by introducing mandatory educational 

courses for hobby enthusiasts and by working with sellers of drones to increase awareness.

80 

V. Enforcement

The Swedish Transport Agency is responsible for the oversight of the rules regarding drones and 

can issue exemptions from the regulations.

81 

Violations of drone rules are sanctioned in the Aircraft Act and include possible imprisonment

for up to two years for intentionally maneuvering a drone in a manner that puts people’s lives at 

risk, and monetary fines and a possible prison sentence for flying in restricted airspace, not 

marking the drone with the necessary information, or failing to comply with other requirements 

mentioned above.82 Enforcement has been low, however, even as incidents connected with the 

use of drones have been on the rise. Swedish drone forums display a disregard for rules on 

drones. Swedish airports, which have sustained considerable costs resulting from drone-related 

airport closures, say that if the drone operators involved in airport incidents are identified, the

airports will seek damages from them.83

76 3 ch. 1 § item 9 (categories 1a & 1b), 4 ch. 28 § (category 2), 5 ch. 24 § (category 3) (TSFS 2009:88).

77 Sandra Fonnisson, Obemannade farkoster ett växande problem, SVT (July 24, 2015), http://www.svt.se/nyheter/ 

lokalt/stockholm/obemannade-farkoster-ett-vaxande-problem, archived at https://perma.cc/8WCA-Z74M. 

78 Id. 

79 Id.

80 Sandra Fonnisson, Organisation vill införa obligatorisk drönarutbildning, SVT (July 24, 2015), http://www.svt. 

se/nyheter/lokalt/stockholm/dronaragare-kan-sakna-kompetens-for-flygning, archived at https://perma.cc/5QQSERAL. 

81 6 ch. 1 § (TSFS 2009:88). 

82 13 ch. 1 § & 13 ch. 4 § 3 item LUFTFARTSLAGEN (SFS 2010:500). 

83 Drönarförare riskerar skadestånd, SVT (July 25, 2015), http://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/stockholm/dronarforareriskerar-skadestand, archived at https://perma.cc/6LT6-EAZS (click “See the Screenshot View”).

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Meanwhile, the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce has presented a report advocating less 

regulation of the airspace to enable innovations.

84

VI. Trade in Products with Dual Uses

Depending on their size, drones may be considered products with dual civilian and military uses, 

and trade in such products that fall under the definition of krigsmateriel (war materiel) is

regulated in a special regulation.85 The export of certain drones may therefore require

preapproval from the Swedish Inspectorate of Strategic Products, as they can be used for both 

civilian and military purposes.

86 The export of drones has sparked criticism, mainly that such 

exports aid totalitarian regimes.87

84 Press Release, Stockholm Chamber of Commerce, Ny rapport: Släpp fram drönarna (May 18, 2015), http://www. 

chamber.se/nyheter/ny-rapport-slapp-fram-dronarna.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/5AH8-E7ZC. 

85 Förordning om krigsmateriel [Regulation on War Matériel] (SFS 1992:1303), http://www.tullverket.se/download/ 

18.156454ca12c96d03cf28000696/1451373905500/53f01_2.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/HG53-4RZ5. 

86 Id. 

87 See Angelica Söderberg, Kritik mot försäljning av svenska drönare till Kina, NYTEKNIK (Aug. 5, 2015), 

http://www.nyteknik.se/nyheter/fordon_motor/flygplan/article3921412.ece, archived at https://perma.cc/2M3Q3VWY. 

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Ukraine

Olena Yatsunska-Poff

Foreign Law Consultant

SUMMARY Despite the widespread use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in Ukraine, no active 

steps to regulate the use of drones have been taken. The only special rule applicable to 

drones is found in the Regulation on the Use of Airspace of Ukraine, which requires that 

those who use drones for aerial photography obtain special permission for UAV flights 

from the State Aerial Department and coordinate their flights with the General 

Headquarters of the Armed Forces. This is in keeping with the Convention on 

International Civil Aviation of 1944, which Ukraine joined in 1992. Apart from this rule, 

the general aviation regulation regime is applicable to UAV operations. 

I. Introduction 

The Ukrainian unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) industry is relatively young. Serious research in 

the field of drones started in the country in the early 2000s.

1

 Presently, about thirty variations of 

domestically manufactured UAVs are available for commercial use in Ukraine.

2

 In 2015 about 

1,500 drones were reportedly being used for commercial purposes in the country.

3

 

A remote vehicle pilot training program was started in Ukraine in August 2014. Its curriculum 

was designed to provide future drone pilots a general theoretical knowledge in the design, 

function, and operation of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) as well as practical skills for 

piloting a UAV with the active use of an autopilot. This program complies with the pilot training 

program of piloted aircraft and is approved by the Civil Aviation Administration of Ukraine. It 

is also coordinated with other programs of domestic and foreign organizations dealing with UAV 

pilot training.4 In 2016, Ukraine began manufacturing its own military drones.5 

1 Research and Development Center of Unmanned Aviation “Virage,” NATIONAL AVIATION UNIVERSITY, CENTER

OF UNMANNED AVIATION, http://uav.nau.edu.ua/history.html (in Russian; last visited Apr. 11, 2016), archived at 

https://perma.cc/FBL9-DNHU. 

2

 NATIONAL AVIATION UNIVERSITY, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER OF UNMANNED AVIATION “VIRAGE” OF 

THE NATIONAL AVIATION UNIVERSITY DESIGNED A NUMBER OF UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES, http://i2msystems. 

com/documents/UAS_capabilities.pdf (last visited Apr. 11, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/HV2K-JV6Z. 

3 Victoria Pokatis, Vne Zakona: Pochemy Rynok Bespilotnikov v Ukraine est, a Zakonodatelstva pod nikh net

[Outside the Law: Why Do We Have a Drone Market in Ukraine and No Relevant Legislation], DELO.UA (May 19, 

2015), http://delo.ua/business/vne-zakona-pochemu-rynok-becpilotnikov-v-ukraine-est-a-zakonod-296812/? 

supdated_new=1459644911 (in Russian), archived at https://perma.cc/W2XN-TYY3. 

4

 NATIONAL AVIATION UNIVERSITY, supra note 1.

5 Ukraine Will Manufacture Its Own Military Drones – Turchynov, EUROMAIDAN PRESS (Jan. 27, 2016), 

http://euromaidanpress.com/2016/01/27/ukraine-begins-manufacturing-military-drones, archived at 

https://perma.cc/XHK7-U73X. 

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II. Legislation on UAV

A. Legal Framework

The legal status of drones is not specifically determined by Ukrainian law. Instead, general 

aviation regulations are applicable to UAV operations.6 The main legal acts regulating air traffic 

and the use of air space and aerial vehicles are the following:

• The Air Code of Ukraine,

7 a national law that establishes all major norms concerning the use 

of the airspace of Ukraine.

• The Rules of Civil Aircraft Registration in Ukraine,

8 which defines the procedure and 

requirements for maintaining the State Registry of Civil Aircraft of Ukraine and rules for 

registration and re-registration of new, modified, and repaired aircraft in the possession of 

legal entities and persons resident in Ukraine.

• The Regulation on Use of the Airspace of Ukraine,

9 which establishes procedures for using

airspace by legal and physical persons, and defines the functions of the airspace and air 

traffic control authorities.

• The Rules of Civil Aircraft Flights in the Airspace of Ukraine,

10 which provides general 

regulation of flights and the maneuvering of aircraft, including in the classified air space of 

Ukraine and the airspace over the high seas, where the responsibility for air traffic control 

services is assigned to Ukraine by international agreements. 

B. Definition of UAV

According to the Air Code of Ukraine the term “unmanned aerial vehicle” is defined as any

aircraft intended to fly without a pilot on board. The flight and control of such vehicles are

performed by a special control station not located onboard the vehicle.

11 The Rules of Civil 

Aircraft Registration state that UAV include unmanned, untethered balloons and remotely 

piloted aircraft.

12

6 V. M. Borovenko, Povitriane Sudno [Aircraft], in VELYKYII ENTSIKLOPEDYCHNYI IURYDYCHNYI SLOVNIK [GREAT 

ENCYCLOPEDIC LEGAL DICTIONARY] 655 (Yuri Shemshuchenko ed., Kyiv, 2012) (in Ukrainian). 

7 AIR CODE OF UKRAINE, Law No. 3393-VI of May 19, 2011, with the Latest Amendments of Dec. 23, 2015, 

http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3393-17 (in Ukrainian), archived at https://perma.cc/BF9F-CM7W.

8 Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, Resolution No. 636, Oct. 25, 2012, on Approval of Aviation Regulation in

Ukraine, Part 47 on Rules of Civil Aircraft Registration in Ukraine, http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z1926-12

(in Ukrainian), archived at https://perma.cc/P29U-XHJS.

9 Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, Regulation No. 401 of March 29, 2002, on Use of Airspace of Ukraine, with the 

Latest Amendments of June 4, 2014, http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/401-2002-%D0%BF (in Ukrainian), 

archived at https://perma.cc/6DSD-PA4B.

10 Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, Resolution No. 478, Oct. 28, 2011, on Approval of Rules of Civil Aircraft 

Flights in the Airspace of Ukraine, with the Latest Amendments of July 11, 2013, http://zakon5.rada.gov.ua/laws/ 

show/z1327-11 (in Ukrainian), archived at https://perma.cc/3HWQ-5QMN. 

11 AIR CODE OF UKRAINE art. 1.23.

12 Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, Resolution No. 636, art. 1.3.

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III. Registration of UAV

The Rules of Civil Aircraft Registration provide that an aircraft must be included in the State 

Registry of Civil Aircraft of Ukraine if it is owned by a legal entity incorporated in Ukraine or a 

natural person resident in Ukraine, or rented or leased by a Ukrainian operator from the 

nonresident owner.13 Unmanned, untethered balloons without a payload and remotely piloted 

aircraft having a maximum take-off weight not exceeding 44 lb (20 kg) that are used for 

entertainment and sports activities are not subject to registration in the State Registry.

14 The Air 

Code states that these types of unregistered aircraft must be governed by rules established by 

professional organizations regulating this type of activity.

15

IV. Air Navigation Restrictions

The Regulations on the Use of Airspace of Ukraine16 and the Rules of Civil Aircraft Flights in 

the Airspace of Ukraine17 do not mention drones specifically, but all rules applicable to piloted 

aircraft apply to UAVs if they are subject to aircraft registration.

The only special rule applicable to drones was found in paragraph 74 of the Regulation on the 

Use of Airspace of Ukraine, which requires that those who use drones for aerial photography 

obtain special permission for UAV flights from the State Aerial Department and coordinate their 

flights with the General Headquarters of the Armed Forces.18 This requirement appears to be in 

compliance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation of 1944, which states that

[n]o aircraft capable of being flown without a pilot shall be flown without a pilot over the 

territory of a contracting State without special authorization by that State and in 

accordance with the terms of such authorization. Each contracting State undertakes to 

insure that the flight of such aircraft without a pilot in regions open to civil aircraft shall 

be so controlled as to obviate danger to civil aircraft.19

Ukraine joined the Convention in 1992.20

The Ukrainian State Air Traffic Service Enterprise (UkSATSE), a government institution 

responsible for providing air traffic control across Ukrainian airspace and over the Black Sea,

provides airspace management, air traffic flow management, en route meteorological services for 

13 Id. art. 3.1.1.

14 Id. art. 2.15.

15 AIR CODE OF UKRAINE art. 39.8.4.

16 Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, Regulation No. 401.

17 Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, Resolution No. 478.

18 Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, Regulation No. 401, para. 74.

19 Id. art. 8.

20 Convention on International Civil Aviation, Dec. 7, 1944, 15 U.N.T.S. 295, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/ 

UNTS/Volume%2015/volume-15-II-102-English.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/7FPV-ZCF7, Ukrainian 

translation available at http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_038, archived at https://perma.cc/H8QQ-ML3L.

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air navigation, and preflight information services.21 UkSATSE is responsible for designating 

and reserving airspace where unmanned flights can be performed. Requests from drone users are 

to be submitted to UkSATSE.22

While current Ukrainian legislation does not regulate the use of drones specifically, the Air Code 

of Ukraine and the Rules of Civil Aircraft Registration mention UAVs among civil and 

commercial aircraft. This means that rules and air navigation restrictions apply to all users of the 

airspace, including drone operators.23

Civil aircraft are not allowed to fly over the following areas:

• Special Use Airspace – areas established along the border.

• Restricted Areas –a part of the airspace where flights of aircraft are prohibited for the 

purpose of protecting important government buildings and key industrial sites (e.g., nuclear 

power plants, chemical enterprises, etc.).

• Flight Restriction Zones – parts of the airspace over land or territorial waters that are limited 

to aircraft flights during specific time periods due to military exercises, rocket launches, 

research, or controlled explosions.

• Danger Zones – parts of the airspace where, during a specified period of time, activities 

dangerous to air traffic occur.

• Temporarily Reserved Airspace – airspace where air traffic is not allowed within a specified 

time because of a threat to regular aviation flights or for other reasons.

• Areas with a Special Airspace Use Regime – a 15.5 mile (25 kilometer)-wide part of the 

airspace along the Ukrainian state border where a special procedure for flight operations and 

control is established by the Ukrainian Air Force.24

Operators of UAVs are subject to the same liability rules as other air traffic operators.

25 Drone 

operators may be held criminally liable under the Criminal Code of Ukraine for creating a danger 

to human life or causing other conditions that threaten the safety of air flights.

26

21 Ukrainian State Air Traffic Service Enterprise (UkSATSE), CAPA, CENTER FOR AVIATION, http://centrefor 

aviation.com/profiles/air-traffic-management/ukrainian-state-air-traffic-service-enterprise-uksatse (last visited Apr. 

11, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/T53T-MTAW.

22 Sogodni v Ukraerorisi Obgovoryly Problemu Zakonodavchogo Vreguliuvannia Polotiv Bezpilotnykh Povitrianykh 

Suden v Ukraine [Today UkSATSE Discussed Problem of Legislative Regulation of Remotely Piloted Aircraft 

Flights in Ukraine], UKRAINIAN STATE AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE ENTERPRISE (May 18, 2015), http://uksatse.ua/index. 

php?s=e4dfc02bb78ef51cfebc3e751801ea2f&act=Part&CODE=247&id=314 (official website, in Ukrainian), 

archived at https://perma.cc/GE6S-SAG5.

23 V.V. Luts, Povitrianne Porstranstvo [Air Space], in VELYKYII ENTSIKLOPEDYCHNYI IURYDYCHNYI SLOVNIK

[GREAT ENCYCLOPEDIC LEGAL DICTIONARY] 654 (Yuri Shemshuchenko ed., Kyiv, 2012) (in Ukrainian). 

24 Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, Regulation No. 401, para. 2.

25 2 KRYMINALNYI KODEKS UKRAINY. NAUKOVO-PRAKTYCHNYI KOMENTAR [SCHOLARLY AND PRACTICAL 

COMMENTARIES ON THE CRIMINAL CODE OF UKRAINE] 551 (V.Ia. Tatsii & V.P. Pshonka eds., Kharkiv, 2013)

(in Ukrainian). 

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Violations of the rules related to the safety of aircraft flights by persons other than air transport 

workers are punishable by a fine or imprisonment for up to three years if they expose human 

lives to danger or cause a risk of any other grave consequences. In cases of injury, death, or 

other serious consequences, violations of air traffic rules are punishable by imprisonment from 

five to twelve years.27 The same punishment is prescribed for violations of rules related to the 

use of airspace, including the unlawful launch of a drone.

28

26 CRIMINAL CODE OF UKRAINE, Law No. 2341-III of Apr. 5, 2001, with the Latest Amendments of Nov. 26, 2015, 

http://zakon3.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2341-14/page9 (in Ukrainian), archived at https://perma.cc/4WL5-5FTY.

27 Id. art. 281.

28 Id. art. 282; see also 2 KRYMINALNYI KODEKS UKRAINY, supra note 25, at 552.

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United Kingdom

Clare Feikert-Ahalt 

Senior Foreign Law Specialist 

SUMMARY The UK has a system of air navigation laws that apply to the use of drones. These 

regulations aim to ensure the safety of individuals around drones. There are stricter 

regulations in place for drones that carry a camera on board and record data. The rules are 

actively enforced by the Civil Aviation Authority. While no new legislative initiatives are 

currently pending, the UK is in the process of exploring additional options for the 

regulation of drone use.

I. Introduction 

Drones, frequently referred to as “small unmanned aircraft” in the UK,1 or unmanned aerial 

vehicles (UAVs), are a rapidly emerging technology that has gained considerable popularity over 

the past few years. They are covered under a patchwork of English laws, including aviation 

laws, which are regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Other areas of law that come 

into play, particularly if the drone has a camera mounted on it, are data protection, privacy, 

liability, insurance, export, and intellectual property laws, as well as the common-law torts of 

nuisance and trespass.2 

II. Laws Regulating Drones

The primary piece of legislation that covers drones is the Civil Aviation Act 19823 and the Air 

Navigation Order 2009 made under the Act. Breaches of these aviation laws are criminal 

offenses, enforced by the CAA. There are also “rules of the air” that apply to airspace over the 

UK, as discussed below. These rules are similar to the Highway Code for roads. 

It is the responsibility of the operator of the drone to ensure that the aircraft is flown safely and 

that applicable laws are complied with. Article 138 of the Air Navigation Order provides that 

any person undertaking aviation activity “must not recklessly or negligently cause or permit an 

aircraft to endanger any person or property.”4

 The CAA policy requires that drones meet the 

same safety and operational standards as manned aircraft to ensure that they do not “present or 

1 This is defined in article 255 of the Air Navigation Order 2009, SI 2009/3015, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/ 

2009/3015/pdfs/uksi_20093015_en.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/J99H-C454, as “any unmanned aircraft, other 

than a balloon or a kite, having a mass of not more than 20kg without its fuel but including any articles or equipment 

installed in or attached to the aircraft at the commencement of its flight.”

2 Peter Lee, Some Thoughts on the Drone Sector, DRONES AND THE LAW (blog) (Feb. 4, 2016), http://dronelaw. 

blogspot.co.uk, archived at https://perma.cc/9NK8-MV5T. 

3 Civil Aviation Act 1982, c. 16, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1982/16, archived at https://perma.cc/VDB5-

2VW2. 

4 Air Navigation Order 2009 art. 138. 

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create a greater hazard to persons, property, vehicles, or vessels . . . than that attributable to the 

operations of manned aircraft of equivalent class or category.”5 

The conditions contained in articles 166 and 167 of the Air Navigation Order specifically apply 

to small drones and permit them to be flown without complying with the other terms of the Air 

Navigation Order, such as airworthiness and flight-crew licensing requirements.6 These laws are 

intended to be “as ‘light touch’ and proportionate as possible, so there is a great deal that can be 

done (especially for private or recreational flights) without the need to approach the CAA at 

all.”7 Permission from the CAA is not required for flights that are not flown in return for any 

“valuable consideration,” provided the flight is not close to people and/or buildings.8

III. Restrictions

A. Weight Restrictions – Aircraft 20 Kg and Under

Aircraft that weigh 20 kilograms or less are covered by articles 166 and 167 of the Air 

Navigation Order. These articles provide basic safety measures, such as 

• prohibitions on dropping articles or animals from the drone that would endanger persons

or property;9

• requirements that direct, unaided, visual contact be maintained that is sufficient to monitor

the flight path of a small unmanned aircraft “in relation to other aircraft, persons, vehicles,

vessels and structures for the purposes of avoiding collisions;”10

• prohibitions on aircraft being flown above 400 feet in altitude or farther than 500 meters

horizontally away from the operator without explicit permission from the Civil Aviation

Authority; and

• requiring the operator to ensure that he or she only fly the drone if it can be done safely. 

Drones with cameras attached must not be flown within 150 meters of a congested area or 50 

meters of a person, vessel, vehicle, or structure that is not under the control of the pilot. This 

makes it difficult for people to fly UAVs with cameras inside parks or other public areas and 

remain in compliance with the regulations. 

5 Civil Aviation Authority, Unmanned Aircraft System Operations in UK Airspace – Guidance, Cap. 722, ¶ 1.1,

http://publicapps.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP%20722%20Sixth%20Edition%20March%202015.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/9W8R-K7Z7. 

6 Id. ¶ 2.19. 

7 Leicester City Council, Drone and Model Aircraft Policy 2015, at 5, https://www.leicester.gov.uk/media/180601/ 

drone-policy.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/9ZYR-8NNE.

8 Id. 

9 Air Navigation Order 2009, art. 166. 

10 Civil Aviation Authority, Small Unmanned Aircraft: Specific Regulations About Small Drones, https://www.caa. 

co.uk/Commercial-Industry/Aircraft/Unmanned-aircraft/Small-unmanned-aircraft (last visited Mar. 14, 2016), 

archived at https://perma.cc/65GF-DU7Y. 

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B. Aircraft Over 20 Kg

Unmanned aircraft that weigh between 20–150 kg are subject to all articles of the Air Navigation 

Order, and the operators of these aircraft are required to obtain a certificate of airworthiness,

have a permit to fly, have a licensed flight crew, and follow the rules of the air.11 If the operator 

is unable to meet all the requirements, he or she may apply to the CAA for an exemption under 

article 242 of the Air Navigation Order. Exemptions are issued on a case-by-case basis. As with 

aircraft under 20 kg, aircraft between 20–150 kg may not drop articles or animals, regardless of 

whether a parachute is used, that would endanger persons or property.12

C. Geographical Restrictions 

As noted above, the UK has many restrictions on where drones can be operated that serve in 

practice to limit the available areas to use such devices. The Air Navigation Order provides that, 

without explicit permission from the CAA, drones may not be flown 

• within 150 meters of, or over, a congested area;

• within 150 meters of, or over, an organized open-air assembly of 1,000 or more people;

• within 50 meters of any vehicle, structure, or vessel that is not under the control of

the operator; or

• within 50 meters of any person not under the control of the operator.13

In addition to these requirements, there are also a vast number of specified no-fly zones for 

drones. These fall into the following four categories: 

• restricted areas that may never be flown over, such as prisons and nuclear power stations;

• controlled airspace that should not be flown into without explicit permission from air traffic 

control, which covers airports and airfields; 

• “prohibited areas,” which are zones that operators are highly recommended against flying 

into for their safety and the safety of others, such as high-intensity radio transmission areas

that could cause interference with the aircraft; and 

• “danger areas,” which are locations used for military weapons and pilot training, as well as 

testing military equipment.14

11 HOUSE OF LORDS, EU SELECT AFFAIRS COMMITTEE, 7TH REPORT OF SESSION 2014–15, CIVILIAN USE OF DRONES 

IN THE EU, 2014–15, HL 122, at ¶ 40, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201415/ldselect/ldeucom/122/ 

122.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/3BHD-93ZU. 

12 Air Navigation Order art. 129. 

13 Id. arts. 166 & 167. 

14 Mary-Ann Russon, Drone No-fly Zones in the UK Explained – Where in Britain Can You Pilot a UAV?, 

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS TIMES (Apr. 15, 2015), http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/drone-no-fly-zones-uk-explainedwhere-britain-can-you-pilot-uav-1496386, archived at https://perma.cc/5E7P-BN3U. 

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The Secretary of State has authority under the Air Navigation Order to make regulations to 

restrict or prohibit flying in certain areas if it is necessary in the public interest where there is a 

gathering or movement of a large number of people, an aircraft race, or a contest or flying 

display; for the purposes of national defense; or for any other reason that affects the public 

interest. Failing to comply with the regulations issued by the Secretary of State in these 

circumstances is an offense.

D. Commercial Use

Any person that uses a drone for commercial purposes must obtain a license from the Civil 

Aviation Authority. To obtain the license, the operator must demonstrate that he or she is 

sufficiently competent. The House of Lords estimates that there are tens of thousands of drones 

in the UK, with approximately 500 small drones under 20 kg licensed for commercial use. There 

are currently two units between 20–50 kg in commercial use in the UK.15 

E. Insurance

Most operators of aircraft that weigh over 20 kg are required to obtain adequate levels of 

insurance to cover their liability in case of an accident.16 Model aircraft under 20 kg are exempt 

from these requirements.17 

F. Privacy Concerns 

The use of cameras on drones to record images, including people without their consent, poses 

issues of compliance with current laws. Recording such information could potentially breach the 

obligations contained in the Data Protection Act18 and the CCTV Code of Practice,19 which 

address certain aspects of the use of drones that collect information about individuals. While the 

Code of Practice distinguishes between private and commercial users, and notes that commercial 

operators must comply with data protection obligations, it further states that “it will be good 

practice for domestic users to be aware of the potential privacy intrusion which the use of 

[unmanned aerial systems] can cause to make sure they’re used in a responsible manner.”20

The privacy and data protection obligations that arise can be further complicated if images are 

then posted on social media and evolve from private content into public content. A number of 

15 HOUSE OF LORDS, supra note 11, tbl. 1.

16 Civil Aviation (Insurance) Regulations 2005, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2005/20051089.htm, archived at 

https://perma.cc/ZPY5-XKZ2.

17 Civil Aviation Authority, Unmanned Aircraft System Operations in UK Airspace – Guidance, supra note 5, 

¶ 2.19.

18 Data Protection Act 1998, c. 29, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/29, archived at https://perma.cc/9333-

S9LM.

19 Information Commissioner’s Office, In the Picture: A Data Protection Code of Practice for Surveillance Cameras

and Personal Information, Version 1.1 (May 21, 2015), https://ico.org.uk/media/for-organisations/documents/1542/ 

cctv-code-of-practice.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/NT63-39EZ. 

20 Id. at 30.

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social networks state in their terms and conditions that they can license user content to 

third parties.21

Any aircraft that is registered in any other country is not permitted to fly over the UK for the 

purposes of aerial photography or aerial surveys, regardless of whether valuable consideration is 

given for the flight, unless the operators have the permission of the Secretary of State and 

comply with the conditions attached to such permission.22

IV. Regulation of Drones Controlled by Multiple Operators 

No separate regulations were located that apply to the recreational use of drones controlled by 

multiple operators. All operators would be required to abide by the regulations of the Air 

Navigation Order and operate the drone within the limits of these laws.23

V. Requirements for Installation of Software During Manufacture to Prohibit 

Drones from Flying in Restricted Areas

There does not appear to be a requirement for software to be installed in drones to prohibit them 

from flying into restricted areas, and the UK does not appear to use an “electric fence” linked to 

the frequencies of drones that would prevent them from entering a restricted area. While there is 

no requirement for this technology, some major drone manufacturers are including the 

technology as part of the manufacturing process on their own initiative.

24

The UK focuses on existing legislation, which provides that flying a drone in a restricted area is 

an offense, and these offenses are actively investigated and prosecuted by the CAA.25

VI. Import and Export Requirements for Drones

Certain aspects of unmanned aerial vehicles are on UK’s Strategic Export Control List, which, as 

its subtitle indicates, is a list of “strategic military and dual-use items that require export 

authorisation.”26 UAVs capable of carrying a payload over a certain weight, or exceeding a 

21 Sophie Curtis, Drone Laws in the UK – What Are the Rules, TELEGRAPH (London) (Apr. 16, 2015), http://www. 

telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/11541504/Where-is-the-legal-line-in-flying-drones.html, archived at 

https://perma.cc/78T7-MFT8.

22 Air Navigation Order 2009, art. 225. 

23 Id. arts. 166–167.

24 See, e.g., Emily Reynolds, DJI Update Enforces Drone No-fly Zones Across Europe and USA, WIRED.CO.UK 

(Nov. 18, 2015), http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2015-11/18/dji-drone-restricted-airspace, archived at 

https://perma.cc/CRX6-EMLT. 

25 Air Navigation Order 2009, arts. 166–167. 

26 Department for Innovation, Business and Skills, UK Strategic Export Control Lists: The Consolidated List of 

Strategic Military and Dual-Use Items That Require Export Authorisation, Dec. 2015, at 1, https://www.gov.uk/ 

government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/488993/controllist20151225.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/5P2M-5MGQ.

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distance of 300 km, may not be exported without a proper license.27 As relevant to this report, 

the Military List specifically includes and prohibits the export without authorization of 

c. Unmanned aircraft and related equipment, as follows, and specially designed 

components therefor: 

1. “UAVs”, Remotely Piloted Air Vehicles (RPVs), autonomous programmable 

vehicles and unmanned “lighter-than-air vehicles”; 

2. Launchers, recovery equipment and ground support equipment;

3. Equipment designed for command or control;

d. Propulsion aero-engines and specially designed components.28

VII. Allocation of Frequencies for Drones 

Drones are considered to be model control equipment29 by Ofcom, the UK communications 

regulator, and are required to operate within certain frequency bands, as designated by Ofcom. 

Air model control devices are required to use frequencies (MHz) 34.945 to 35.305, and not 

exceed an effective radiated power of 100 mW. The 35 MHz band is solely dedicated to 

aeronautic modeling, and there is a prohibition on the use of airborne transmitters.30 Regulations 

require that model control equipment must not “cause undue interference to other wireless 

telegraphy equipment.”31 

The use of these specific frequencies for model control is exempt from the requirement to hold a 

license under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 200632 as long as the model meets certain conditions, 

such as operating within the designated frequencies, and the equipment must be marked lawfully 

in accordance with the CE marking (which indicates European Union regulatory standards are 

met) and comply with all relevant EU directives. A license to operate is not required for 

equipment that complies with all applicable regulations. 

27 Id. at 9.

28 Department for Business, Innovation & Skills, UK Military List ML 10(c), (d) (Apr. 2015), https://www.gov.uk/ 

government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/422370/militarylist20150417.pdf, archived at 

https://perma.cc/27Y5-NFQA.

29 OfW 311 – Radio Controlled Models, OFCOM, http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/spectrum/information/licenceexempt-radio-use/licence-exempt-devices/ofw311 (last visited Apr. 12, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/HNM3-

QVDH. “EU harmonised decision 2013/752/EU for Short Range Devices (SRD) defines model control as; ‘Model 

control devices are a specific kind of telecommand and telemetry radio equipment that is used to remotely control 

the movement of models (principally miniature representations of vehicles) in the air, on land or over or under the 

water surface.’ ” Ofcom, IR 2030 – UK Interface Requirements 2030 Licence Exempt Short Range Devices, 

98/34/EC Notification No. 2011/0401/UK (Dec. 2011), http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/spectrum/ 

spectrum-policy-area/spectrum-management/research-guidelines-tech-info/interface-requirements/IR_2030.pdf, 

archived at https://perma.cc/L949-4CUT.

30 OfW 311 – Radio Controlled Models, supra note 29.

31 Id.

32 Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006, c. 36, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/36/contents, archived at

https://perma.cc/6M6Y-JD82. 

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These regulations are enforced by Ofcom, which prioritizes maintaining public safety 

communication services its top priority, and maintaining the safety of business radio and 

communications its second priority. For model control equipment, Ofcom aims to ensure that 

noncompliant radio equipment is kept off the market and that the use of radio frequencies 

conforms to license requirements.

33 Using equipment that does not meet the conditions of the 

license exemption is an offense under the Wireless Telegraphy Act. These offenses are 

investigated and prosecuted by Ofcom, and the penalties include a fine of up to £5000 

(approximately US$8,000) and/or six months’ imprisonment. The courts may also order the 

confiscation of any property used in connection with the offense.34

Ofcom has field operation teams that investigate and take action to prevent undue interference 

with frequencies. It may undertake enforcement actions, including informal warnings, formal 

cautions, or more formal criminal proceedings involving fines and imprisonment.35

VIII. Role of Local Authorities in Drone Regulation

The approach of local authorities towards the use of drones varies. Some local authorities appear 

not to have published any guidance on the use of drones in their localities. Other local 

authorities specifically require drone owners to comply with the Air Navigation Order and the 

CAA requirements for licenses for commercial flights.36 

Local authorities have the ability to introduce policies to regulate the use of drones on any land 

owned by the authority. For example, Leicester City Council prohibits the use of drones, both 

for recreational and commercial purposes, on City Council lands.

37 The reason behind this 

policy is concern over the authorities’ liability for any legal action as a result of the activities of a 

drone and its operator, including accident or injury and the close proximity of the land to private 

properties.38 Any person caught using a drone on the property of the local authority will be 

requested to stop. If they refuse, the police will be called and the person removed from the 

property in accordance with the by-laws.39

IX. Enforcement 

The CAA is responsible for ensuring compliance with the Air Navigation Order and it works

with the police and other agencies in carrying out this responsibility. The laws and regulations 

33 Ofcom, IR 2030 - UK Interface Requirements, supra note 29.

34 Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006, c. 36, §§ 8, 45, 46, 96 & scheds. 4–6, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/ 

2006/36/contents, archived at https://perma.cc/6M6Y-JD82. 

35 Id. ch. 4.

36 See, e.g., Leicester City Council, supra note 7, at 3–5. 

37 Id. at 7. 

38 Id.

39 Id. at 9. 

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are being actively enforced by the CAA. A number of individuals have been prosecuted for 

violating the restrictions contained in the regulations.40 

The majority of enforcement actions by the CAA are aimed at individuals who use drones for 

commercial purposes and are not licensed. However, safety is the overriding concern of the 

regulations contained in the Air Navigation Order, and the CAA will take action against 

individuals using a drone for personal purposes when it causes a safety hazard.41 

In December 2015, the CAA announced that it would take action against individuals operating 

drones on a recreational basis if they did not follow the regulations—in particular the prohibition 

on flying over congested areas or within 50 meters of buildings or people without official 

permission.42 Failing to observe these regulations can result in a criminal prosecution and a fine 

of up to £5,000. 

In the first conviction in the UK for a violation of aviation laws by a drone operator, the CAA 

prosecuted an individual in 2014 after he lost control of his drone near a nuclear submarine 

facility. The individual was subsequently convicted for dangerous use of a recreational drone.

In May 2014 an individual was fined for flying a drone over rides at Alton Towers, an 

amusement park.43 Other prosecutions include the prosecution of an operator who flew drones 

with a camera over multiple premiere league soccer grounds, the Houses of Parliament, a

memorial at Buckingham Palace, and parts of the River Thames. This individual was charged 

with breaching articles (2)(a), 166(3), and 167(1) of the Air Navigation Order. The defendant 

pled guilty to flying a small unmanned aircraft over a congested area and not maintaining direct 

visual contact with a drone. He was fined £1,800 (approximately US$2,500), ordered to pay 

£600 (approximately US$1,000) in costs, and required to forfeit his drones and cameras.

44

X. Proposed Reforms

The House of Lords has been actively considering whether legislation is needed to better regulate 

the civilian use of drones since 2014, when the EU Select Affairs Committee began an inquiry 

into their use.45 The House of Lords issued a report as a result of this inquiry, in which it noted 

that advances in technology and a decrease in the cost of drones has led to an inconsistent 

regulatory framework that currently distinguishes between the commercial and noncommercial 

40 Safety Warning for Drones Given as Christmas Gifts, TELEGRAPH (London) (Dec. 25, 2014), http://www. 

telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/11313110/Safety-warning-for-drones-given-as-Christmas-gifts.html, 

archived at https://perma.cc/DH2S-MCDK. 

41 Id.

42 Id.

43 Charles Arthur, UK’s First Drone Conviction Will Bankrupt Me, Says Cumbrian Man, THE GUARDIAN (London)

(Apr. 2, 2014), http://www.caa.co.uk/application.aspx?appid=7&mode=detail&nid=2348, archived at https://perma. 

cc/XB53-KGTM.

44 Press Release, Crown Prosecution Service, Man Convicted for Illegally Flying Drone over Football Stadiums and 

Landmarks (Sept. 15, 2016), http://www.cps.gov.uk/london/press_releases/man_convicted_for_illegally_flying_ 

drone_over_football_stadiums_and_landmarks, archived at https://perma.cc/CP8S-CVQQ. 

45 HOUSE OF LORDS REPORT, supra note 11.

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use of drones.46 This distinction operated on the basis that noncommercial users had a preexisting knowledge of aviation and the rules of the air; however, advances in technology mean 

that similar aircraft are being used by commercial and recreational users, but under different 

regulations.47 The report made a number of recommendations, including the creation of an 

online database where pilots of drones can record their flight plans, and the necessity in the 

future of creating a mandatory system of registration for all commercial and civil drones.48 

There are currently no pending legislative initiatives, but the UK is in the process of inquiring 

into legislative and other measures to further regulate the use of drones.

46 Id. ¶ 18.

47 Id. 

48 Id. at 248. 

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European Union

Theresa Papademetriou 

Senior Foreign Law Specialist

SUMMARY Currently, the European Union (EU) does not regulate the civilian use of remotely piloted 

aircraft (RPA) with a mass of 150 kg or less. Such aircraft are governed by national rules 

adopted by the EU Member States. RPA above the threshold of 150 kg fall within the 

mandate of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). Since 2014, the European 

Commission has been engaged in promoting the integration of remotely piloted aircraft 

systems (RPAS) into the European civil aviation airspace beginning in 2016. Following 

the EASA’s Technical Opinion adopted in 2015 that recommended a risk-based regulatory 

approach to govern the operation of drones, the Commission introduced a proposal to 

replace the current regulation governing drones. The proposal is designed to integrate all 

drones, regardless of their size, into the EU aviation safety framework. A key objective of 

the proposal is to ensure that the design, production, maintenance, and operation of 

unmanned aircraft complies with the essential requirements of manned aircraft. The 

European Parliament and other EU bodies strictly regulate the processing of personal data 

and the right to private life. Operators of drones will be subject to tougher standards and 

requirements contained in the Data Protection Regulation, adopted by the European 

Parliament in April 2016, which will take effect in the summer of 2016. Once the proposal

on drones is approved by the Parliament and the Council of the EU, it will contribute 

towards the integration of drones into the European aviation airspace and provide the

Commission with the legal authority to adopt delegated acts in compliance with the 

EASA’s standards. 

I. Introduction 

At the European Union (EU) level, no uniform terminology is used to denote what is commonly 

known as drones. The European Parliament uses the term “civil drones” to differentiate civilian 

drones from those intended for military purposes.1

 The European Commission uses the term 

“remotely piloted aircraft systems” (RPAS).

2

 The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), 

an EU body established in 20023 with the mandate to issue implementing rules and approve 

airworthiness standards, defines drones as “unmanned aircraft . . . which includes any aircraft 

1 European Parliament Briefing PE 571.305, Civil Drones in the European Union (Oct. 2015), http://www.europarl. 

europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/571305/EPRS_BRI%282015%29571305_EN.pdf, archived at https://perma. 

cc/4UG8-4336. 

2 European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, A New 

Era for Aviation: Opening the Aviation Market to the Civil Use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems in a Safe and 

Sustainable Manner, COM (2014) 207 final (Apr. 8, 2014), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri= 

CELEX%3A52014DC0207, archived at https://perma.cc/WC2E-9YT2. 

3 The Agency: Facts and Figures, EASA, https://www.easa.europa.eu/the-agency/the-agency (last visited 

Apr. 13, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/XJT4-DZTU. 

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operated or designed to be operated without a pilot on board.”4 This term also includes 

machines that are normally not perceived by the general public as aircraft, such as flying toys, 

small tethered balloons, or kites.5

 The EASA uses the term “drones” in all its communications to 

the general public.6 The EASA’s definition of a drone is in line with the definition of 

“unmanned aerial vehicle” (UAV) provided by the International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO), which is in charge of implementing the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil 

Aviation.

7

 The ICAO defines a UAV as “a pilotless aircraft, in the sense of Article 8 of the 

Convention on International Civil Aviation, which is flown without a pilot-in-command onboard and is either remotely and fully controlled from another place (ground, another aircraft, 

space) or programmed and fully autonomous.”

8

 UAVs are further divided into two categories: 

(1) those that are remotely piloted by a human and hence are designated as RPAS; and (2) those 

that are “autonomous,” meaning those that are controlled by a computer without pilot 

intervention after take-off. This second category is outside the scope of the EU’s regulation.9 

The EU does not regulate drones whose mass is 150 kg or less, because the current governing 

regulation, Regulation 216/2008 on Common Rules in the Field of Civil Aviation, only covers

aircraft whose mass is above that size.10 Such large drones fall within the competence of the 

EASA. Drones whose mass is less than 150 km may be regulated at the Member State level. 

Indeed, several Member States, including Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, 

France, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, have already adopted national 

rules.

11 Because of differing national rules on criteria and conditions for the operation of drones

and related safety issues, operators must apply for a separate authorization in each EU Member 

4 EASA, Technical Opinion: Introduction of a Regulatory Framework for the Operation of Unmanned Aircraft, at 4, 

RMT.0230 (Dec. 18, 2015), http://www.easa.europa.eu/system/files/dfu/Introduction%20of%20a%20regulatory%20 

framework%20for%20the%20operation%20of%20unmanned%20aircraft.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/JW2XZREK. 

5 Id. at 5. 

6 Id. 

7 Convention on International Civil Aviation, Dec. 7, 1944, 15 U.N.T.S. 102, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/ 

UNTS/Volume%2015/volume-15-II-102-English.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/L7KU-HBTQ. 

8 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) para. 2.1, Cir 328/AN/190

(2011), http://www.icao.int/Meetings/UAS/Documents/Circular%20328_en.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/56AYFFPZ. 

9 European Parliament Briefing, supra note 1, at 3. 

10 Regulation (EC) Regulation No. 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 February 2008 on 

Common Rules in the Field of Civil Aviation and Establishing a European Aviation Safety Agency, and Repealing 

Council Directive 91/670/EEC, Regulation (EC) No. 1592/2002 and Directive 2004/36/EC, Annex II(f), 2008 O.J. 

(L 79) 1, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:079:0001:0049:EN:PDF, archived at

https://perma.cc/563R-DGH7. 

11 European Parliament Briefing, supra note 1, at 5. See also European Parliament, Committee on Transport and 

Tourism, Report on Safe Use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), Commonly Known as Unmanned Aerial 

Vehicles (UAVs), in the Field of Civil Aviation, A8-0261/2015 (Sept. 25, 2015), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ 

sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A8-2015-0261&format=XML&language=EN, archived at

https://perma.cc/HZS7-YBSU. 

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State. In the Commission’s view, the current fragmented regulatory framework inhibits the 

further proliferation of drones and overall growth of the EU market in drones.

12 

The Riga Declaration on Remotely Piloted Aircraft, “Framing the Future of Aviation,”13 which 

was adopted on March 6, 2015, by Commission representatives, civil aviation officials, data

protection national authorities, and representatives from the manufacturing industry, recognized 

the following key guiding principles to be taken under consideration in the future regulation 

of drones: 

• Drones must be dealt with as a new type of aircraft and any safety rules imposed must be

proportional to the risk of each operation.

• There is a critical need for the EU to establish safety rules immediately and also to lay down

technologies and standards for the integration of drones within civil aviation.

• The protection of privacy of individuals will lead to greater public acceptance.

• The operator of a drone bears responsibility for its use.14

In connection with the last principle, the Declaration raised the issue of insurance, third-party 

liability, and compensation schemes for victims, all of which fall within the domain of the 

individual EU Members.15 

II. European Aviation Safety Agency

The EASA provides opinions and formulates technical rules relating to the construction, design, 

and operational aspects of aircraft, and is also responsible for assisting the Commission by 

providing technical, administrative, and scientific support.16 

In May 2015, the EASA adopted a document titled Concept of Operations for Drones: A Risk 

Based Approach to Regulation of Unmanned Aircraft,

17 which urged regulation of the operation 

of drones in a manner proportionate to the risk of the specific operation, and also proposed to 

establish three categories of drone operations—Open, Specific, and Certified—with associated 

regulatory regimes.18 To mitigate privacy concerns, the EASA suggested the installation of 

12 European Commission, COM (2014) 207 final, supra note 2, para. 3. 

13 Riga Declaration on Remotely Piloted Aircraft (Drones), “Framing the Future of Aviation,” Mar. 6, 2015, 

http://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/doc/2015-03-06-drones/2015-03-06-riga-declaration-drones.pdf,

archived at https://perma.cc/8XRT-9L6H. 

14 Id. at 5. 

15 Id. 

16 The Agency: Facts and Figures, EASA, supra note 3. 

17 EASA, CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS FOR DRONES: A RISK BASED APPROACH TO REGULATION OF UNMANNED 

AIRCRAFT (May 2015), https://www.easa.europa.eu/system/files/dfu/204696_EASA_concept_drone_brochure_ 

web.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/NJM6-7W6H. 

18 Id. at 3. 

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chips/SIM cards in drones.19 Other suggestions included the self-registration of drone operations

in a Web-based application maintained by the local authorities.20

At the request of the Commission, the EASA on December 18, 2015, issued a Technical Opinion 

on Introduction of a Regulatory Framework for the Operation of Unmanned Aircraft.

21 The 

Opinion contains twenty-seven specific proposals for a regulatory framework and for low-risk 

operations of all unmanned aircraft irrespective of their size. The Technical Opinion divides 

drones into three categories depending on risk: 

• Open (low risk): Safety is ensured through compliance with operational limitations, mass

limitations as a proxy of energy, product safety requirements, and a minimum set of

operational rules.

• Specific (medium risk): Authorization is given by a national aviation authority (NAA),

possibly assisted by a qualified entity (QE), following a risk assessment performed by the

operator. A manual of operations lists the risk mitigation measures.

• Certified (higher risk): The requirements applicable to this category are comparable to those

for manned aviation. Oversight is provided by the NAA (issue of licenses and approval of

maintenance, operations, training, Air Traffic Management/Air Navigation Services

(ATM/ANS), and airfield organizations) and EASA (design and approval of

foreign organizations).22

III. Position of EU Institutions

The Commission has been supporting the development of the drones industry since the early 

1990s. Its long-term objective is to establish a strong European aviation market in drones.

According to a report by the European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, the 

EU holds a leading edge in the civilian sector, with 2,500 operators (400 in the UK, 300 in 

Germany, 1,500 in France, 250 in Sweden, etc.) compared to 2,342 operators in the rest of the 

world.

23 It is estimated that within the next ten years the drone industry could be worth 10% of 

the aviation market, or €15 billion (about US$16.89 billion) per year.

24 The Aerospace and 

Defense Industries Association of Europe forecast that about 150,000 drone-related jobs will be 

created in Europe by 2050, excluding employment generated through operator services.25

19 Id. at 8.

20 Id.

21 EASA, Technical Opinion, supra note 4.

22 Id. Exec. Summary. 

23 European Parliament, Committee on Transport and Tourism, supra note 11, paras. 1 & 2. 

24 European Commission Press Release IP/14/384, European Commission Calls for Tough Standards to Regulate 

Civil Drones (Apr. 8, 2014), http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-384_en.htm, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

LLF9-YR4L. 

25 European Commission, COM (2014) 207 final, supra note 2, § 2.

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The Commission, in its 2014 Communication, Opening the Aviation Market to the Civil Use of 

Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems in a Safe and Sustainable Manner, explained its strategy to 

establish an EU aviation market in drones gradually and emphasized that such a market can only 

be fully developed if standards are adopted at the EU level and if the aircraft can fly in 

nonsegregated airspace without affecting the safety and the operation of the wider civil aviation 

system.

26 The Communication addressed the issues of third-party liability and insurance. In 

addition, it identified privacy, data protection, and security as critical aspects that must be 

safeguarded in order to ensure public acceptance and further development of a European market 

on drones. Furthermore, it announced the EU’s intentions to support European drone 

industries.27 The Commission’s latest Communication on an Aviation Strategy for Europe,

28

adopted in 2015, reemphasized the economic significance of drones, especially for small and 

medium-sized companies in the aeronautical manufacturing industry, while at the same time 

stressing the need to establish a risk-based legal approach and address privacy, safety, security, 

and liability concerns.29

The Council of the EU, and specifically the transport, telecommunications, and energy ministers

in charge of the aviation market, advocate a harmonized EU approach to civil drone use while

emphasizing the need to take into consideration the experience gained in this field by the 

Member States, according to their comments at a public hearing. Most of the ministers opined 

that the EASA was the entity best suited to develop technical and safety standards, licenses, and 

certificates, and agreed on the gradual and progressive integration of drones into civil aviation.30

In September 2015, the European Parliament’s Transport and Tourism Committee adopted, on its 

own initiative, the Report on Safe Use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), Commonly 

Known as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), in the Field of Civil Aviation.

31 In the Report, the 

Committee endorsed the key principles agreed to in the Riga Declaration and the Commission’s 

intention to remove the 150-kg threshold and replace it with a comprehensive EU regulatory 

framework. The Committee also approved the EASA’s new competence to regulate drones and 

urged the EASA to budget funds for drone-related activities.32 

26 Id. § 3. 

27 Id. 

28 European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the 

European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, An Aviation Strategy for Europe, 

COM (2015) 598 final (Dec. 7, 2015), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=COM:2015:598:FIN, 

archived at https://perma.cc/2PDX-XEP4. 

29 Id. § 2.6. 

30 Council of the European Union Press Release 13851/14, Transport, Telecommunications and Energy, Civil Use of 

Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (Drones) (Oct. 8, 2014), http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/ 

pressdata/en/trans/145012.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/8395-ZCRM. 

31 European Parliament, Committee on Transport and Tourism, supra note 11.

32 Id. paras. 21 & 22. 

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IV. Proposed Regulation

In December 2015, the Commission introduced a proposal to adopt EU rules on drones and to 

repeal Regulation 216/2008.33 The main objective of the proposed Regulation is to establish and 

maintain the same civil aviation safety standards for manned and unmanned aviation throughout 

the EU, and at the same time to ensure a high and uniform level of environmental protection.34 It 

also seeks to expand the EASA’s competence to include RPAS with a mass below 150 kg. The 

proposed Regulation would apply, inter alia, to 

the design, production, maintenance and operation of unmanned aircraft, their engines, 

propellers, parts and non-installed equipment, as well as the equipment to control 

unmanned aircraft remotely, where such aircraft are operated within the Single European 

Sky airspace by an operator established or residing within the territory to which the 

Treaties apply.35

A. Requirements for Unmanned Aircraft

Pursuant to article 45 of the proposed Regulation, the design, production, maintenance, and 

operation of unmanned aircraft and their engines, propellers, parts, noninstalled equipment, and 

equipment to control them remotely would need to comply with the essential requirements set 

out in Annex IX.36

B. Compliance of Unmanned Aircraft

The Commission would be given the authority to adopt delegated acts concerning the 

specifications for the design, production, maintenance, and operation of unmanned aircraft. 

Drones would be subject to certifications and declarations that they comply with such 

specifications.37 A drone’s certificate would specify its safety-related limitations, operating 

conditions, and privileges.38

33 European Commission, Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Common 

Rules in the Field of Civil Aviation and Establishing a European Union Aviation Safety Agency, and Repealing 

Regulation (EC) No. 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council (Commission Proposal), COM 

(2015) 613 final (Dec. 17, 2015), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A52015PC0613, 

archived at https://perma.cc/8YBW-VFNJ. 

34 Id. art. 1. 

35 Id. art. 2, para. 1(h). 

36 Id. art. 45. 

37 Id. arts. 46 & 47. 

38 Id. art. 46, para. 1. 

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C. Market Surveillance Mechanisms

Mass-produced unmanned aircraft that pose a very low risk would be subject to the existing 

market surveillance mechanisms provided in Regulation 765/200839 and Decision No. 

768/2008.40 The national aviation authorities would remain indirectly involved, as the 

operational capability limitations that would be imposed (e.g., that the unmanned aircraft should 

not fly higher than, for instance, 50 meters to minimize risks) would have to stem directly from 

traditional aviation requirements. The market surveillance mechanism would rely on justified 

complaints filed from citizens or undertakings to detect noncompliant products. Findings of 

noncompliance in one particular Member State would then be communicated throughout the

single EU market. The EASA, which would assume additional responsibilities, would not be 

responsible for the oversight of the market surveillance mechanisms. The Commission, in

exercising its authority as the EU body in charge of implementation, would be authorized to 

verify if the Member States were fulfilling their responsibilities.41

D. Delegated Acts

The proposed Regulation does not set forth specifications for the design, production, 

maintenance, and operation of unmanned aircraft. Such specifications would be promulgated by 

the Commission in delegated acts, pursuant to article 47 of the proposed Regulation. When the 

Commission adopts such acts, it would be required to immediately notify the Parliament and the 

Council simultaneously.42 This authority would be granted to the Commission for an indefinite 

period of time and would enter into force only if no objection was expressed by the European 

Parliament or the Council within two months after they received notification of that act or if, 

before the expiration of that period, the European Parliament and the Council had both informed 

the Commission that they did not object.43 Until the delegated acts are adopted, the relevant 

provisions of Regulation (EC) 216/2008 would continue to apply.

44

In delegated acts the Commission would determine the 

• conditions and procedures for issuing, maintaining, amending, suspending, or revoking the 

certificates for the design, production, maintenance, and operation of unmanned aircraft;

39 Regulation (EC) No. 765/2008 of the European Parliament and Council of 9 July 2008 Setting Out the 

Requirement for Accreditation and Market Surveillance Relating to the Marketing of Products and Repealing 

Regulation (EEC) No. 339/93, 2008 O.J. (L 218) 30, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L: 

2008:218:0030:0047:en:PDF, archived at https://perma.cc/4RYJ-FLSA. 

40 Decision No. 768/2008/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 July 2008 on a Common 

Framework for the Marketing of Products, and Repealing Council Decision 93/465/EEC, 2008, O.J. (L 218) 82, 

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008D0768, archived at https://perma.cc/PH37-

UGVR.

41 Commission Proposal, COM (2015) 613 final, supra note 33, Detailed Explanation on the Specific Provisions of 

the Proposal, arts. 45–50.

42 Id. art. 117, para. 7.

43 Id. art. 117, para. 5.

44 Id. art. 126, para. 6. 

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• conditions for situations in which, with a view to achieving the objectives of the Regulation

and while taking account the nature and risk of the particular activity concerned, such

certificates must be required or declarations must be permitted;

• conditions and procedures under which an operator of an unmanned aircraft must rely on the

certificates or declarations issued in accordance with airworthiness and environmental

standards, and other essential requirements;

• conditions under which the requirements concerning the design, production, and maintenance

of unmanned aircraft and their engines, propellers, parts, noninstalled equipment, and

equipment to control them remotely shall not need to meet certain other specifications in

the Regulation;

• marking and identification of unmanned aircraft; and

• conditions under which operations of unmanned aircraft must be prohibited, limited, or

subject to certain conditions in the interest of safety.45

V. Third–Party Liability Issues 

Currently, all insurance obligations for aircraft operations are governed by Regulation 785/2004, 

which requires all commercial operators of aircraft to purchase third-party liability insurance. 

Regulation 785/2004 contains limits for the minimum amount of third-party liability insurance 

based on the mass of aircraft during take-off. For drones that weigh less than 500 kg, the

minimum cover required is €660,000 (about US$743,688). Drones that weigh less than 20 kg 

are not subject to insurance requirements.

46 

VI. Privacy Issues

The EU and its Member States have adopted strict privacy and personal data rules, contained in 

the 1995 Data Protection Directive47 and based on articles 7 and 8 of the binding 2009 Charter of 

Fundamental Rights of the European Union,48 and on article 16 of the Treaty on the Functioning 

of the European Union.

49 EU Members are also bound by article 8 of the Council of Europe 

45 Id. art. 47(a)–(e). 

46 Regulation (EC) No. 785/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on Insurance 

Requirements for Air Carriers and Aircraft Operators, 2004 O.J. (L 138) 1, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ 

EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32004R0785&from=EN, archived at https://perma.cc/RL7Y-GS3Z. 

47 Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the Protection of 

Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, 1995 O.J. 

(L 281) 31, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.1995.281.01.0031.01.ENG, archived 

at https://perma.cc/8HKR-4D2Q. 

48 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2012 O.J. (C 326) 391, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT, archived at https://perma.cc/ZE2V-ZCSY. 

49 Consolidated Version on the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Jan. 30, 2015, 6655/8/08 REV 8, 

at 62, http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-6655-2008-REV-8/en/pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ 

8T7T-PCFV. 

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Convention on Human Rights.

50 In addition, Members have their own constitutional and 

statutory rules on privacy, and domestic legislation implementing EU legislation. 

Commercial users of drones appear to fall under the EU legislation on personal data protection. 

Thus, commercial operators of drones have to comply with the applicable data protection 

principles, such as those concerning purpose limitations, data minimization, and proportionality,

as well as the transparency principle, which requires individuals to be informed of any 

processing carried out during the operation of a drone. On the other hand, private users of 

drones for hobby and leisure purposes may be exempt from the scope of the Data Protection 

Directive based on the household exemption.51 Other exemptions contained in the Directive

concern processing for journalistic purposes and for law enforcement purposes.

52 Possible 

criminal uses of civil drones would fall within the competence of EU Member States, since they 

are allowed to not apply the data protection rules on grounds of public safety, public security,

and public order. 

A study commissioned by the Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) of 

the European Parliament addressed the privacy implications of the civil use of drones because of 

potential infringements on personal data protection. The study noted that drones normally carry 

video cameras to enable pilots to fly them or have other technological installations to record and 

store data that can eventually be uploaded on the Internet.53 Consequently, the private life and 

property of individuals may be interfered with and violated when drones capture images of 

people in their houses or gardens. Also, surveillance equipment installed on drones would make 

possible the gathering and processing of personal data and thus interfere with and potentially 

violate the right to privacy and data protection of individuals.54 The study urged that future 

regulation of the manufacturing and trade of drones, including the production, selling, buying, 

internal and international trade, and notice for buyers on risks and hazards, be designed in a 

manner to minimize any risks to citizens and their rights.55

In his opinion on the Commission’s Communication A New Era for Aviation,

56 the European 

Data Protection Supervisor clarified that RPAS, being aircraft systems, do not on their own 

50 Convention for the Protection on Human Rights and Fundamental Rights art. 8, Nov. 4, 1950, E.T.S. No. 005, 

http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/67SA-28PQ.

51 European Parliament, Directorate General for Internal Policies, Citizens Rights and Constitutional Affairs, 

Privacy and Data Protection Implications from the Civil Use of Drones, at 8, PE 519.221 (June 2015), http://www. 

europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/519221/IPOL_IDA%282015%29519221_EN.pdf, archived at

https://perma.cc/JM4N-GCNG.

52 Directive 95/46/EC, supra note 47, art. 9 & art. 13, para. 1. 

53 European Parliament Briefing, supra note 1, at 2; see also European Parliament, supra note 51, at 9. 

54 European Parliament, supra note 51, at 9. 

55 Id.

56 Opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor, On the Communication from the Commission to the 

European Parliament and the Council on “A New Era for Aviation – Opening the Aviation Market to the Civil Use 

of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems in a Safe and Sustainable Manner” (Nov. 26, 2014), https://secure.edps.europa. 

eu/EDPSWEB/webdav/site/mySite/shared/Documents/Consultation/Opinions/2014/14-11-26_Opinion_RPAS_EN. 

pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/X72A-3GYX.

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process personal data, but once they are equipped with other technologies may give rise to very 

diverse commercial, professional, law enforcement, intelligence, and private uses. The Data 

Protection Supervisor reached the following conclusions with regard to the use of drones that 

involve the processing of personal data: 

• Such use in most cases constitutes an interference with the right to the respect for private and

family life guaranteed by article 8 of the Council of Europe Convention on Human Rights

and article 7 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, “as they challenge

the right to intimacy and privacy guaranteed to all individuals in the EU and can therefore be

allowed only under specific conditions and safeguards.”57

• When used by individuals for private activities, drones will normally be subject to Directive

95/46/EC requirements and only on rare instances will come within the scope of the

household exemption.58

• The processing of personal data by drone operators for commercial or professional purposes

must comply with national legislation implementing Directive 95/46/EC.

59

• The mere publication of data on the Internet or in a newspaper without any aim to disclose to

the public information, opinions, or ideas is not sufficient for it to fall under the journalism

exception of article 9 of Directive 95/46/EC.

60

• Law enforcement uses of drones must comply with the right to privacy and be based on law,

serve a legitimate goal, be necessary in a democratic society, and be proportionate to the

purpose pursued.61

• The use of drones for intelligence purposes must respect the principles of necessity

and proportionality.62

The Data Protection Regulation adopted by the European Parliament on April 14, 2016,63 which

will take effect in the summer of 2016, will repeal Directive 95/46/EC and require any 

commercial operation that processes personal data to perform a Privacy Impact Assessment 

Study.64 Moreover, the requirements of “privacy by design” and “privacy by default” will 

become mandatory.65 Under the privacy-by-design requirement, the controller will be required 

57 Id. para. 67. 

58 Id. para. 68.

59 Id. para. 69.

60 Id. para. 70. 

61 Id. para. 71. 

62 Id. para. 72.

63 Nikolaj Nielsen, EU Parliament Passes Grand Data Protection Law, EU OBSERVER (Apr. 14, 2016), https://eu 

observer.com/justice/133060, archived at https://perma.cc/FED6-5DH8. 

64 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Protection of Individuals with 

Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data (General Data Protection 

Regulation) art. 33, COM (2012) 11 final (Jan. 25, 2012), http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri= 

CELEX:52012PC0011, archived at https://perma.cc/6HM2-Z35C. 

65 Id. art. 23. 

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to implement appropriate technical and organizational measures to ensure that data processing 

complies with the proposal. Privacy by default means that, based on certain mechanisms used,

only those personal data will be processed that were necessary for each specific purpose of the 

processing and such data will not be collected or retained beyond the minimum period necessary. 

In particular, those mechanisms will be required to ensure that, by default, personal data are not 

made accessible to an indefinite number of individuals.

66

In addition, in its Opinion 01/2015 on Privacy and Data Protection Issues Relating to the 

Utilization of Drones, which was adopted in 2015, the article 29 Data Protection Working Party 

established by Directive 95/46/EC issued specific recommendations to policy makers; sector 

regulators, manufacturers, and operators; and police and other law enforcement authorities. To 

policy makers and sector regulators the Working Party recommended that a legal requirement be 

introduced at the European and/or national level to only market small drones in a package 

containing sufficient information (for example, within the operating instructions) relating to the 

potential intrusiveness of these technologies on the privacy and personal data of individuals.67

To manufacturers and operators, the Working Party recommended that they embed privacyfriendly design choices and privacy defaults as part of a privacy-by-design approach.68 With 

regard to the use of personal data for law enforcement authorities, the Working Party urged 

compliance with the necessity, proportionality, purpose limitation, data minimization, and

privacy-by-design principles, and with a strict and justified retention period. It also added that 

the use of drones for intelligence and law enforcement purposes must be subject to judicial 

review, in accordance with national law.69 

66 Id.

67 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 01/2015 on Privacy and Data Protection Issues Relating to 

the Utilization of Drones § 5.2, 01673/15EN WP 231 (June 16, 2015), http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/ 

article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2015/wp231_en.pdf, archived at https://perma.cc/ZAF7-

YJSC.

68 Id. § 5.3.

69 Id. § 5.4. 

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Selected Bibliography

Constance A. Johnson 

Senior Legal Research Analyst

This selected bibliography contains recent, English-language materials on various legal aspects of the use 

of drones in civilian life.

* * *

Cavoukian, Ann. Privacy and Drones: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Ontario, Can.: Public Safety 

Canada, Aug. 2012. 

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