U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Portable Guides to

Investigating Child Abuse

Photodocumentation

in the

Investigation

of Child Abuse
Foreword

A picture, so the saying goes, is worth a thousand words.

In the case of the investigation of a charge of child abuse,

a picture can determine the eventual case result.

To do the task of documentation properly, child abuse

investigators require the right tools and the right techniques.

Photodocumentation is one of the most important of these tools.

This guide provides valuable pointers regarding the selection

and use of camera equipment, film, and photographic techniques

that are most appropriate for use in cases of suspected child

abuse. Proper photographing of the child’s physical condition

will help provide evidence integral both to the investigation

and to the courtroom presentation, should formal charges ensue.

It is my hope, therefore, that this guide will help protect

children from abuse through the enhancement of investigative

techniques.

Shay Bilchik

Administrator

Office of Juvenile Justice and

Delinquency Prevention

June 1996

Third Printing March 2000

NCJ 160939
1

hotographs documenting a victim’s injuries

often provide key evidence in child abuse

cases and convictions. To ensure effective

photodocumentation, it is

important to use the most

appropriate camera

equipment and film

and to properly identify

and investigate the

child victim. Critical

to all investigations of

child abuse is the method

of photographing injuries such as pressure injuries,

bite marks, bruises, burns, facial injuries, amputations,

neglect, and sexual abuse injuries. Accurate courtroom

evidence can be hindered by the following:

✹ Ineffective camera equipment and film.

✹ Insufficient methods of photographing the victim

or the victim’s injuries.

✹ Misinformation regarding the photographs of the

case.

✹ Mislabeling of child abuse information, including

photographs.

P
2

This guide offers important information on

how to document cases of suspected child

abuse through photography to enhance

the investigation process or provide

courtroom evidence and testimony.

Camera Equipment

To be effective in documenting child abuse cases, camera

equipment should have the following capabilities:

✹ Be easy to use and require little training.

✹ Offer accurate color balance.

✹ Provide automatic exposure and the capability for film advance

and rewind.

✹ Have a built-in flash with quick recharge (flash recharges within

2 to 3 seconds).

✹ Offer comfortable operating distance from subject.

✹ Be able to produce life-size reproductions of trauma sites and

to show much larger areas of the body or the device believed to

have caused the injury.

Camera systems for photographing abused children range

from expensive and sophisticated colposcopic (a specialized

camera/examination unit used specifically by medical examiners

for viewing or photographing subtle abnormalities or injuries

to the vagina, cervix, or anus) and 35mm closeup systems to

less expensive and simpler “bridge” cameras and instant or

self-developing cameras. Table 1 lists the types of cameras

and their advantages and disadvantages.

✔
3

Film

The standard film for medical use in documenting child abuse

cases is 35mm color slide film, sometimes referred to as color

transparency or color reversal film. Color slides are relatively

inexpensive and easy to file and can be quickly developed and

converted into color prints if necessary.

Regardless of the camera equipment used, the following points

concerning type and use of film are important in ensuring

consistency in results and reproduction of the injury, its location,

color, size, and pattern:

✹ Use fine-grain color slide or print film that has a film speed

rating of 100 or 200 ISO (International Standards Organization).

This type of daylight film allows for a greater depth of field

(sharpness) with a minimum amount of grain and blurriness.

Always use a flash when shooting indoors with daylight film.

Sixty-second, self-developing film is not recommended.

✹ Keep film and camera equipment in a clean, empty, dry thermal

container or picnic cooler. Do not store the film unprotected in a

vehicle. Sunlight and extreme temperatures can adversely affect

color accuracy, reduce the film’s sensitivity to light, and in some

cases, result in tearing or splitting.

✹ Store film in the refrigerator or freezer to keep it fresh, but place

at room temperature for approximately 2 to 3 hours before it is

to be used (24 hours if film is frozen).

✹ Process exposed film as soon as possible to avoid a color

imbalance or shift.

✹ Remember when the film was loaded, the type of film, and how

many exposures a roll contains. Attach an end flap from the film

carton to the camera back as a reminder. Failure to do so could

result in lost evidence. Always remove rewound film from the

camera and attach an identification sticker or place in an evidence

bag before the film is sent for processing.

✹ Make sure an extra camera and set of flash batteries are available

at all times.
4

Type of Camera Advantages Disadvantages

Instant-processing cameras Simple operation and low cost. Poor resolution/poor color compared with 35mm film.

Fixed-focus lens “point-and- Inexpensive and easy to use. Limited closeup capability and expend- shoot” or “compact” 35mm ability.cameras

Viewfinder does not view the same imageas the lens. It creates blurred images when the photographer attempts to magnify theimage by moving in closer (6–7 feet) than the focusing limit of the lens.

Colposcopic cameras Accurate, standardized equipment for Expensive, not portable, and cumbersome to

examination or photography of sexual operate. Require training usually reserved abuse injuries. Able to document findings for healthcare providers (i.e., physicians).not otherwise seen with the naked eye. Not equipped for photography of large areas of the body.

35mm-format cameras Provide choices of cameras, lenses, and Generally no disadvantages. accessories that offer excellent resolution

and closeup capabilities.

Table 1

 Advantages and Disadvantages of Types of Cameras Used in Photodocumentation
5

Offer integrated (dedicated) flash thatautomatically adjusts during photo sessions. Compare favorably with and are significantlyless expensive than colposcopic cameras forphotographing the sexually abused child.Require little training and offer comfortableoperating distance from the subject.Provide accurate color balance, automaticexposure, film advance and rewind, built-in

flash, and quick flash recharge.

“Bridge” cameras Combine the simplicity and easy use of a Cannot attach specialized lenses or flash point-and-shoot camera with the versatility, units for optional documentation of some

expendability, and closeup capability of injuries (intraoral, intravaginal, ophthalmic). a 35mm prepackaged camera system,“bridging the gap” between these two kinds of equipment.Relatively inexpensive, fully automatic, andincorporate telephoto (35–70mm or 35–105mm)capability, built-in flash, autofocus, motor drive,and optional databack.
6

Ultraviolet Photography

Ultraviolet (UV) photography has an established role in

clinical forensic medicine and is beginning to be used in child

abuse assessments. UV is a method of photography in which

a standard, high-speed (ISO 800/1600) color slide film is used

in conjunction with a high-powered electronic flash. The flash

must be covered with a Wood’s Filter (Wratten Filter 18A);

another filter (Wratten Filter 2B or 2E) must be used on the

camera lens. The end result of UV photography is an image

that may display healed wounds, bite marks, belt imprints,

and old pattern-type injuries.

There are disadvantages to UV photography. Photographing

conscious subjects can be difficult and may produce little

usable evidence, and the image cannot be seen until after

development. In addition, the methodology is complex, the

working parameters are tight, and any proof may be altered

by subject movement or inaccurate focusing. If UV is to be

used, the subject should also be recorded on conventional

color slide film using a standard nonfiltered flash and lens

combination.

Photographing Injuries

Prior to photographing the injuries, the investigator should

identify the suspected child abuse victim by completing an

identification sheet and/or taking a full-face picture of the

child that also displays the child’s name. Separate rolls of

film should be used for each case to avoid losing or mixing

up evidence, which could result in dismissal of the case.

Although time-consuming, it is helpful to place an identifying

sign, including name or initials, date of birth, date and time

of photographs, case number, and the photographer’s name

or initials, in front of the victim’s injury for each picture. In

addition, many 35mm cameras contain databack attachments

that imprint the time, date, and an identifying code on each

film frame.
7

In addition, the investigator can use a medical photography

form as a tool for highlighting injury sites, description of

injuries, time and date of photographs, the victim’s identification

or case number, and the number of photographs taken and

by whom. The form is then included in the finished photo

envelope as relevant to the chain of evidence. A sample form

is included as figure 1.

Tips for Photographing a Suspected Victim of

Child Abuse

✹ Take two pictures of every view and angle, one for the file and

one for court.

✹ Photograph the injury with an anatomic landmark. The inclusion

of an elbow, knee, belly button, or other body part identifies the

location of the wound.

✹ Include two pictures of each wound or other injury—one that

identifies a landmark and one that provides a closeup (fills the

film frame) of the wound.

✹ Position the camera so that the film surface or plane is parallel

to or directly facing the injury.

✹ Vary the perspective of the picture by taking various shots from

different angles and distances. This is particularly important

since the flash may produce unpredictable reflections. Darker

complexions can cause flash reflections and loss of definition.

If unsure about correct exposures, take pictures at the camera’s

recommended exposure and one slightly lighter and one slightly

darker (bracketing). To do this, adjust the lens aperture by

one-half to one full f-stop on either side of the recommended

exposure. Bracketing will ensure proper color balance and

brightness when documenting victims with very light or very

dark skin tones.

✹ Place a measuring device such as an adhesive metric scale directly

above or below the injury to ensure accurate representation of

the size and depth of the injury. A standardized color bar may be

placed in the photographic plane for comparison with the color

of the injury. This ensures that if color is distorted in the film

developing process, adequate color comparisons can still be made.
8 Figure 1

Reproduced courtesy of the Children’s Hospital of Buffalo, New York.
9

Methods for Photographing Specific Injuries

Punctures, slashes, rope burns, or pressure injuries

When documenting these types of injuries, take photographs

straight on and at a slight angle. Photographing the injury

straight on provides an overall view of the surface and extent

of the injury, while shooting from a slight angle provides depth

and texture to a picture.

Bite marks

Forensic bite mark photography is a specialized field of

medical photography and is interpreted best by a forensic

dentist or pathologist. Bite marks can be recorded by following

the method described above for punctures, slashes, and so

forth, but the size, shape, color, depth of indentations, and

three-dimensional contours also need to be documented.

Multiple views from various perspectives are important in

delineating texture and shape. Parallel or direct views best

depict shape and size, while slanted or indirect views and

lighting highlight texture.

Bruises

Bruising goes through several stages of development—a

bruise discovered several hours after abuse will become more

pronounced as time goes on, and additional photographs will

be needed to document the injury. If a second or third series

of pictures is required, the investigator should reproduce the

angles and positions that were used to photograph the first

series. If a child shows evidence of having old and new bruises,

repeated abuse may be suspected. Both old and new bruises

should be photographed. Areas of swelling (edema) sometimes

exhibit a strong reflection that is caused by the flash bouncing

off the swollen/rounded injury site. This effect may obscure the

photograph. To help minimize the reflections, take photographs

from several different angles, then do a followup series when

the swelling has gone down.
10

Burns

In cases of burns or severe scalding, take pictures from all angles

before (especially before any creams or oils are applied) and

after treatment. Accidental burns usually exhibit splash marks

or indiscriminate patterns of injury. Intentional submersions

show distinct lines or well-defined areas of damaged skin

compared with healthy skin.

Facial injuries

If an injury is inside the mouth, use a plastic or wooden tongue

depressor to keep the mouth open and the injury visible. If

there is an eye injury, use a pocket flashlight or toy to distract

the child’s gaze in different directions to show the extent of the

damage to the eye area.

Amputation

In cases where abuse involves the amputation of a body part,

photograph the dismembered part alone and then in relation

to the body as a whole. Closeups should also be taken of

the skin’s torn edges, which may help verify the method of

amputation in court.

Neglect

When there is suspected child neglect, the child’s general

appearance should be photographed, including any signs such

as splinters in the soles of the feet, hair loss, extreme diaper

rash, wrinkled or wasted buttocks, prominent ribs, and/or

a swollen belly.

Sexual abuse

If sexual abuse is suspected, the child and his or her injuries

should be approached as follows:

✹ Photograph the child in the presence of a trusted relative or

guardian.

✹ Inform the child of what will be involved in taking the pictures.

✹ Remember to consider the child’s level of development when

speaking to him or her.
11

✹ Do not make quick moves toward the child, as these may be

frightening.

✹ Make eye contact with the child to make him or her feel more

comfortable.

✹ Keep a supply of toys or coloring books as a reward for being

helpful.

✹ Allow time for the child to become accustomed to the photographer

before being photographed. Do not surprise the child. Tell him

or her what parts of the body need to be photographed.

✹ Let the child undress himself or herself or have the parent or

guardian help.

✹ Photograph sexual organs, including an overall view and closeups

of the injury. This may require that the labia (vaginal lips) be

spread apart for closer photography or that the child kneel down

on all four limbs to allow the anus to be photographed.

✹ In general, photographing a sexual abuse injury is best done by

a medical specialist in the field of child abuse, with appropriate

equipment such as a colposcope.

Photodocumentation as Court

Evidence

Photographic evidence should include a form with the victim’s

name, the case number, and the date and time the photographs

were taken. The form should also contain a remarks section that

includes case notes. Outline drawings of the child’s body are

also helpful to show the specific areas that were photographed.

Photographs must be properly verified and relevant to the case

so that:

✹ The photographer or investigator can testify in court that the

pictures accurately portray the findings and can explain how

the photographs were taken.

✹ A health professional who examined the child (other than the

photographer) can verify in court that the photographs accurately

represent the findings.
12

Photography Tips

✹ Establish a protocol or checklist for photodocumentation.

✹ Decide in advance who will be photographing the victim.

✹ Shoot a test roll before using a new camera system.

✹ Compose the picture as the injured area would normally appear.

✹ Magnify the picture (create a closeup to fill the film frame)

as it is being taken, not during printing.

✹ Bracket (vary f-stop above, at, and below expected correct or

recommended exposure) if correct exposures are uncertain.

✹ Take many pictures from different angles and distances

(more is better than less).

✹ Review all pictures after they are developed.

✹ Label all the prints and slides after development.

✹ Keep photographs protected and techniques logged.

Contributing Authors

Lawrence R. Ricci, M.D.

Director

The Child Abuse Program

at the Spurwink Clinic

17 Bishop Street

Portland, ME 04103

207–879–6160

Brian S. Smistek

Director of Medical Media

Kaleida Health Children’s Hospital of Buffalo

219 Bryant Street

Buffalo, NY 14222–2006

716–878–7302/7254

716–878–7914 (fax)

E-mail: bsmistek@kaleidahealth.org

Supplemental Reading

Barsley RE, West MH, Fair JA. Forensic photography:

Ultraviolet imaging of wounds on skin. American Journal

of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 11:300–308, 1990.

?
13

Bernstein ML. The application of photography in forensic

dentistry. Dental Clinics of North America 27:151–170, 1983.

Cantor BJ. Is it evidence? Industrial Photography Magazine,

August 1990.

Evidence Photographers International Council (EPIC),

Journal of Evidence Photography, October 1975.

Ford RJ, Smistek BS. Photography of the maltreated child.

In Ellerstein NS (ed): Child Abuse and Neglect: A Medical Reference.

New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1981, pp. 315–325.

Hedgcoe J. The Book of Photography. New York: Alfred A.

Knopf, 1987.

Hubbard SB. Ultraviolet photography. Photo Electronic Imaging,

June:40–42, 1992.

Langford M. Michael Langford’s 35mm Handbook. New York:

Alfred A. Knopf, 1988.

Luntz LL, Luntz P. Handbook for Dental Identification: Techniques

in Forensic Dentistry. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1973.

Meadow R, Mitchels B. The ABC’s of child abuse. British

Medical Journal 229:248, 1989.

Ricci LR. Photodocumentation of the abused child. In Reece

RM (ed): Child Abuse: Medical Diagnosis and Management.

Malvern, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1994.

Ricci LR. Photographing the physically abused child:

Principles and practice. American Journal of Diseases of Children

145:275–281, 1991.

Sansome SJ. Police Photographs. Cincinnati: Anderson

Publishing, 1977.

Scott CC. Photographic Evidence. 2d ed. St. Paul, MN: West

Publishing, 1967.

Smistek B. Photography of the abused and neglected child.

In Ludwig S, Kornberg A (eds): Child Abuse: A Medical Reference.

New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1992.

Vetter JP. Biomedical Photography. Boston: Focal Press, 1992.
14

Organizations

American Professional Society on the

Abuse of Children (APSAC)

407 South Dearborn, Suite 1300

Chicago, IL 60605

312–554–0166

312–554–0919 (fax)

Internet: www.apsac.org

APSAC is the Nation’s only interdisciplinary society for professionals

working in the field of child abuse and neglect. APSAC’s annual colloquium

offers advanced interdisciplinary professional education with seminars

addressing all aspects of child maltreatment: prevention, assessment,

intervention, and treatment with victims, perpetrators, and families affected

by physical, sexual, and psychological abuse and neglect. These seminars

are designed specifically for advanced professionals in mental health, law,

medicine, law enforcement, child protective services, and allied fields.

Missing and Exploited Children’s Training Programs

Fox Valley Technical College

Criminal Justice Department

P.O. Box 2277

1825 North Bluemound Drive

Appleton, WI 54913–2277

800–648–4966

920–735–4757 (fax)

Internet: www.foxvalley.tec.wi.us/ojjdp

Participants are trained in child abuse and exploitation investigative

techniques, covering the following areas:

✹ Recognition of signs of abuse.

✹ Collection and preservation of evidence.

✹ Preparation of cases for prosecution.

✹ Techniques for interviewing victims and offenders.

✹ Liability issues.

Fox Valley also offers intensive special training for local child investigative

teams. Teams must include representatives from law enforcement,

prosecution, social services, and (optionally) the medical field. Participants

take part in hands-on team activity involving:

✹ Development of interagency processes and protocols for enhanced

enforcement, prevention, and intervention in child abuse cases.

✹ Case preparation and prosecution.

✹ Development of the team’s own interagency implementation plan for

improved investigation of child abuse.
15

National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse

American Prosecutors Research Institute (APRI)

99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 510

Alexandria, VA 22314

703–739–0321

703–549–6259 (fax)

The National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse is a nonprofit and

technical assistance affiliate of APRI. In addition to research and technical

assistance, the Center provides extensive training on the investigation and

prosecution of child abuse and child deaths. The national trainings include

timely information presented by a variety of professionals experienced in

the medical, legal, and investigative aspects of child abuse.

National Children’s Alliance

1319 F Street NW., Suite 1001

Washington, DC 20004–1106

800–239–9950 or

202–639–0597

202–639–0511 (fax)

Internet: www.nca-online.org

Regional Children’s Advocacy Centers (CAC’s):

✹ Midwest Regional Children’s Advocacy Center, St. Paul, MN,

888–422–2955, 651–220–6750, www.nca-online.org/mrcac.

✹ Northeast Regional Children’s Advocacy Center, Philadelphia,

PA, 215–387–9500, www.nca-online.org/nrcac.

✹ Southern Regional Children’s Advocacy Center, Rainbow City, AL,

256–413–3158, www.nca-online.org/srcac.

✹ Western Regional Children’s Advocacy Center, Pueblo, CO,

719–543–0380, www.nca-online.org/wrcac.

OJJDP funds the National Children’s Alliance and the four regional

CAC’s to help communities establish and strengthen CAC and MDT

programs. The Alliance does this by promoting national standards for

CAC’s and providing leadership and advocacy for these programs on a

national level. The Alliance also conducts national training events and

provides grants for CAC program development and support. The four

regional CAC’s provide information, onsite consultation, and intensive

training and technical assistance to help establish and strengthen CAC’s

and facilitate and support coordination among agencies responding to

child abuse. The Alliance publishes a number of manuals and handbooks

of use to MDT’s, including Handbook on Intake and Forensic Interviewing in

the CAC Setting, Guidelines for Hospital-Collaborative Forensic Investigations of

Sexually Abused Children, Organizational Development for Children’s Advocacy

Centers, and Best Practices.
16

Other Titles in This Series

Currently there are 12 other Portable Guides to Investigating

Child Abuse. To obtain a copy of any of the guides listed below

(in order of publication), contact the Office of Juvenile Justice

and Delinquency Prevention’s Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse

by telephone at 800–638–8736 or e-mail at puborder@ncjrs.org.

Recognizing When a Child’s Injury or Illness Is Caused by Abuse,

NCJ 160938

Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Child Sexual Abuse, NCJ 160940

Diagnostic Imaging of Child Abuse, NCJ 161235

Battered Child Syndrome: Investigating Physical Abuse and Homicide,

NCJ 161406

Interviewing Child Witnesses and Victims of Sexual Abuse,

NCJ 161623

Child Neglect and Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy, NCJ 161841

Criminal Investigation of Child Sexual Abuse, NCJ 162426

Burn Injuries in Child Abuse, NCJ 162424

Law Enforcement Response to Child Abuse, NCJ 162425

Understanding and Investigating Child Sexual Exploitation,

NCJ 162427

Forming a Multidisciplinary Team To Investigate Child Abuse,

NCJ 170020

Use of Computers in the Sexual Exploitation of Children, NCJ 170021
Additional Resources

American Bar Association

(ABA)

Center on Children and the

Law

Washington, DC

202–662–1720

202–662–1755 (fax)

American Humane Association

Englewood, Colorado

800–227–4645

303–792–9900

303–792–5333 (fax)

American Medical Association

(AMA)

Department of Mental Health

Chicago, Illinois

312–464–5066

312–464–5000

(AMA main number)

312–464–4184 (fax)

American Professional Society

on the Abuse of Children

(APSAC)

Chicago, Illinois

312–554–0166

312–554–0919 (fax)

C. Henry Kempe National

Center for the Prevention

and Treatment of Child

Abuse and Neglect

Denver, Colorado

303–864–5250

303–864–5179 (fax)

Federal Bureau of Investigation

(FBI)

National Center for the

Analysis of Violent Crime

Quantico, Virginia

703–632–4400

Fox Valley Technical College

Criminal Justice Department

Appleton, Wisconsin

800–648–4966

920–735–4757 (fax)

Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse

(JJC)

Rockville, Maryland

800–638–8736

301–519–5212 (fax)

National Association of Medical

Examiners

St. Louis, Missouri

314–577–8298

314–268–5124 (fax)

National Center for Missing

and Exploited Children

(NCMEC)

Alexandria, Virginia

703–235–3900

703–274–2222 (fax)

National Center for

Prosecution of Child Abuse

Alexandria, Virginia

703–739–0321

703–549–6259 (fax)

National Children’s Alliance

Washington, DC

800–239–9950

202–639–0597

202–639–0511 (fax)

National Clearinghouse on

Child Abuse and Neglect

Information

Washington, DC

800–FYI–3366

703–385–7565

703–385–3206 (fax)

National SIDS Resource

Center

Vienna, Virginia

703–821–8955, ext. 249

703–821–2098 (fax)

Prevent Child Abuse America

Chicago, Illinois

800–835–2671

312–663–3520

312–939–8962 (fax)
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice ProgramsOffice of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Washington, D.C. 20531Official BusinessPenalty for Private Use $300

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