Prevalence, Incidence, and

Consequences of Violence Against

Women: Findings From the National

Violence Against Women Survey

by Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes

November 1998

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

National Institute of Justice

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Partners in Research on 

Violence Against Women

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

National Institute of Justice

The findings from this second in a

series of reports issued jointly by

the National Institute of Justice and

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention paint a picture of the violence against women as seen daily by

emergency room, law enforcement,

and court professionals.

Accurate information of the kind

presented in this Research in Brief

and in the full report contributes to

our Nation’s efforts to stop violence

against women and alleviate the suffering of its victims, much of which

occurs in the privacy of homes rather

than in public.

This information will help the U.S.

Department of Justice direct and

evaluate efforts to work within the

legal system to protect Americans

and provide justice for those who

violate the rights of others. This

knowledge also will help the U.S.

Department of Health and Human

Services direct efforts toward preventing the physical injury and psychological abuse that results from

violence. Ultimately, the knowledge

gained from surveys like this one has

the power to call the Nation’s attention to how pervasive the problem is

and how many women face dangers

in our communities.

Jeremy Travis, Director

National Institute of Justice

Mark Rosenberg, Director

National Center for Injury

Prevention and Control, Centers

for Disease Control and Prevention

Violence against women first came to be

viewed as a serious social problem in the

early 1970s, in part because of the reemergence of the Women’s Movement.1

In unprecedented numbers, scholars

trained in such diverse disciplines as

philosophy, literature, law, and sociology

began to examine violence against women

in the context of a feminist ideology.2

 Despite the resulting outpouring of research

on violence against women, particularly

in the areas of rape and intimate partner

violence, many gaps remain in our understanding of violence against women.3

Until now, empirical data on the relationship between certain types of violence

against women, such as childhood

victimization and subsequent adult

victimization, have been limited. Reliable information on minority women’s

experiences with violence and on the

consequences of violence against women,

including rates of injury and use of

medical services, is also limited.4

To further an understanding of violence

against women, the National Institute of

Justice (NIJ) and the Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention (CDC) jointly

sponsored—through a grant to the Center

for Policy Research—a national telephone

survey on violence against women, which

was conducted from November 1995 to May

1996. To provide a context in which to place

women’s experiences, the National Violence

Against Women (NVAW) Survey sampled

both women and men. Thus the survey provides comparable data on women’s and men’s

experiences with violent victimization.

Respondents to the NVAW Survey were

queried about:

● Physical assault they experienced as

children by adult caretakers.

● Physical assault they experienced as

adults by any type of perpetrator.

● Forcible rape or stalking they experienced at any time in their life by any type

of perpetrator.

Respondents who disclosed victimization

were asked detailed questions about the

characteristics and consequences of their

victimization, including injuries sustained

and use of medical services (see “Survey

Screening Questions,” page 13 and

“Survey Methodology,” page 14).

Several features set the NVAW Survey

apart from other victimization surveys:

● State-of-the-art techniques protected

confidentiality and minimized the potential for retraumatizing victims of violence

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

OFF ICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS

BJA NI J OJJDP BJS OVC
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R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Issues and Findings

Discussed in this Brief: Results of a nationally representative telephone survey of

8,000 women and 8,000 men about their

experiences with rape, physical assault,

and stalking cosponsored by the National

Institute of Justice and the Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention and conducted by the Center for Policy Research.

Key issues: This study provides empirical

data on the prevalence and incidence of

rape, physical assault, and stalking; the

prevalence of male-to-female and femaleto-male intimate partner violence; the

prevalence of rape and physical assault

among women of different racial and ethnic backgrounds; the rate of injury among

rape and physical assault victims; and

injured victims’ use of medical services.

Key findings and policy implications:

Although the survey sampled both women

and men, this report focuses on women’s

experiences with violence. Analysis of survey data produced the following results:

● Using a definition of physical assault

that includes a range of behaviors, from

slapping and hitting to using a gun, the

survey found that physical assault is widespread among American women: 52 percent of surveyed women said they were

physically assaulted as a child by an adult

caretaker and/or as an adult by any type

of perpetrator; 1.9 percent of surveyed

women said they were physically assaulted

in the previous 12 months. Based on

these estimates, approximately 1.9 million

women are physically assaulted annually in

the United States. More research is needed

to understand the relationship between

physical assault experienced in childhood

and physical assault experienced in

adulthood.

● Using a definition of rape that includes

forced vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse,

the survey found that rape is a crime committed primarily against youth: 18 percent

of women surveyed said they experienced

a completed or attempted rape at some

time in their life and 0.3 percent said they

experienced a completed or attempted rape

in the previous 12 months. Of the women

who reported being raped at some time in

their lives, 22 percent were under 12 years

old and 32 percent were 12 to 17 years old

when they were first raped. Given these

findings, research and intervention strategies

should focus on rapes perpetrated against

children and adolescents.

● Among women of different racial and

ethnic backgrounds, the difference in the

prevalence of reported rape and physical assault is statistically significant: American Indian/Alaska Native women were most likely

to report rape and physical assault victimization, while Asian/Pacific Islander women

were least likely to report rape and physical

assault victimization. Hispanic women were

less likely to report rape victimization than

non-Hispanic women. More research is

needed to determine how much of the

difference can be explained by the

respondent’s willingness to report information to interviewers and how much by social,

demographic, and environmental factors.

● Women experience significantly more

partner violence than men do: 25 percent of

surveyed women, compared with 8 percent

of surveyed men, said they were raped

and/or physically assaulted by a current or

former spouse, cohabiting partner, or date

in their lifetime; 1.5 percent of surveyed

women and 0.9 percent of surveyed men

said they were raped and/or physically assaulted by such a perpetrator in the previous

12 months. According to survey estimates,

approximately 1.5 million women and

834,700 men are raped and/or physically

assaulted by an intimate partner annually

in the United States. Because women are

also more likely to be injured by intimate

partners, research aimed at understanding

and preventing partner violence against

women should be stressed.

● Violence against women is primarily partner violence: 76 percent of the women who

were raped and/or physically assaulted

since age 18 were assaulted by a current

or former husband, cohabiting partner,

or date, compared with 18 percent of the

men. It is therefore imperative that strategies for preventing violence against

women should focus on ways of protecting women from risks posed by current

and former intimates.

● Women are significantly more likely

than men to be injured during an

assault: 32 percent of the women

and 16 percent of the men who were

raped since age 18 were injured during

their most recent rape; 39 percent of

the women and 25 percent of the men

who were physically assaulted since age

18 were injured during their most recent

physical assault. About one in three

women who were injured during a rape

or physical assault required medical

care. To better meet the medical needs

of women who are victims of violence,

medical professionals should receive

comprehensive training on the physical

consequences of violence against

women and appropriate treatment

strategies.

● Using a definition of stalking that requires the victim to feel a high level of

fear, the survey found that stalking is more

prevalent than previously thought: 8 percent of surveyed women and 2 percent of

surveyed men said they were stalked at

some time in their life; 1 percent of surveyed women and 0.4 percent of surveyed

men said they were stalked in the previous

12 months. According to survey estimates,

approximately 1 million women and

371,000 men are stalked annually in the

United States. Given these findings, stalking should be considered a serious criminal

justice and public health concern.

Target audience: Criminal justice and

public health researchers and practitioners,

legislators, policymakers, and intervention

planners at all levels of government.
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R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

and jeopardizing the safety of respondents. In addition to lessening the

possibility that respondents would be

harmed by their participation in the

survey, these techniques increased

the quality of the information being

gathered.

● Information about both the prevalence (lifetime and annual) and

incidence of violence was gathered.

Thus victimization estimates from the

NVAW Survey can be compared with

victimization estimates from a wide

variety of other surveys.

● Behaviorally specific questions

screened respondents for rape, physical

assault, and stalking victimization.

These questions were designed to leave

little doubt in the respondents’ minds as

to the type of information being sought.

● Detailed information about the

characteristics and consequences of

victimization for each type of perpetrator identified by the respondents was

gathered. While this approach created

a very complicated data set, it also

created the opportunity to track victimizations by the same perpetrator

(e.g., the victim’s first ex-husband).

This Research in Brief summarizes

the survey’s findings on the prevalence

and incidence of rape, physical assault, and stalking; the rate of injury

among rape and physical assault victims; and injured victims’ use of medical services. Complete details about

men’s and women’s experiences with

stalking are contained in an earlier

report. This Research in Brief therefore

focuses primarily on rape and physical

assault. The full report detailing the

prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women will

be available through the CDC (see

“Other Publications in the Series”).

Rape: Prevalence and incidence

Using a definition of rape that includes

forced vaginal, oral, and anal sex, the

survey found that 1 of 6 U.S. women

Other Publications in the Series

To obtain other publications in the series

from the National Violence Against Women

Survey:

● Stalking in America: Findings From the

National Violence Against Women Survey,

Research in Brief, by Patricia Tjaden and

Nancy Thoennes, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Justice, National Institute of

Justice, April 1998 (NCJ 169592).

Visit NIJ’s Web site at http://

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij or contact the

National Criminal Justice Service at P.O.

Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000,

(800) 851–3420 or (301) 519–5500, or send

an e-mail message to askncjrs@ncjrs.org.

● Final Report on Prevalence, Incidence, and

Consequences of Violence Against Women

by Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes,

Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention, National Center for Injury

Prevention and Control, forthcoming 1998.

Learn about the availability of the Final

Report and other CDC family and

intimate violence prevention activities

by visiting the National Center for Injury

Prevention and Control’s Web site at

http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/dvp/fivpt.

Additional reports in the series are

forthcoming.

and 1 of 33 U.S. men has experienced

an attempted or completed rape as a

child and/or an adult; specifically,

18 percent of surveyed women and

3 percent of surveyed men said they

experienced a completed or attempted

rape at some time in their life (see exhibit 1). These findings are similar to

findings from the National Health and

Social Life Survey, which found that

Exhibit 1: Persons Raped or Physically Assaulted in Lifetime by Sex of Victim

Percentage Numbera

Women Men Women Men

Type of Assault (n=8,000) (n=8,000) (100,697,000) (92,748,000)

Total rapeb 17.6 3.0 17,722,672 2,782,440

 Completedb 14.8 2.1 14,903,156 1,947,708

 Attempted onlyb 2.8 0.9 2,819,516 834,732

Total physical assaultb 51.9 66.4 52,261,743 61,584,672

 Threw somethingb 14.0 22.4 14,097,580 20,775,552

 Pushed, grabbed, shovedb 30.6 43.5 30,813,282 40,345,380

 Pulled hair 19.0 17.9 19,132,430 16,601,892

 Slapped, hitb 43.0 53.7 43,299,710 49,805,676

 Kicked, bitb 8.9 15.2 8,962,033 14,097,696

 Choked, tried to drownb 7.7 3.9 7,753,669 3,617,172

 Hit with objectb 21.2 34.7 21,347,764 32,183,556

 Beat upc 14.1 15.5 14,198,277 14,375,940

 Threatened with gunb 6.2 13.1 6,243,214 12,149,988

 Threatened with knifeb 5.8 16.1 5,840,426 14,932,428

 Used gunb 2.6 5.1 2,618,122 4,730,148

 Used knifeb 3.5 9.6 3,524,395 8,903,808

Rape and/or physical assaultb 55.0 66.8 55,383,350 61,955,664

a. Based on estimates of women and men in the United States aged 18 years and older,

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, 1995.

b. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.

c. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .01.
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R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

22 percent of surveyed women and

2 percent of surveyed men had been

“forced to do something sexual” at

some time in their lifetime.5

The survey also found that 0.3 percent

of surveyed women and 0.1 percent of

surveyed men said they experienced

a completed or attempted rape in the

previous 12 months.6

 These estimates

equate to approximately 302,100

women and 92,700 men who are forcibly raped each year in the United

States (see exhibit 2).

Because some rape victims experienced more than one rape in the

12 months preceding the survey, the

incidence of rape (number of separate

victimizations) exceeded the prevalence of rape (number of rape victims).

Specifically, women who were raped in

the previous 12 months averaged 2.9

rapes, while men averaged 1.2 rapes.

According to survey estimates, approximately 876,100 rapes were perpetrated

against women and approximately

111,300 rapes were perpetrated against

men in the United States during the

12 months preceding the survey (see

exhibit 3).

The annual rape victimization estimates

generated by the NVAW Survey are

higher than comparable victimization

estimates generated by the Bureau of

Justice Statistics (BJS) National Crime

Victimization Survey (NCVS). The

NCVS estimates for 1994—the most

recent year for which estimates are

available—are 432,100 rapes and

sexual assaults of women age 12 and

older and 32,900 rapes and sexual assaults of men age 12 and older.7 However, direct comparisons between the

NVAW Survey and the NCVS are difficult to make. Estimates reported by the

two surveys refer to somewhat different

populations and sexual victimizations.

Moreover, the two surveys differ substantially with respect to other methodological issues.

Specifically, the NVAW Survey estimates include victimizations against

persons age 18 and older, while the

NCVS estimates include victimizations

against persons 12 years of age and

older. The NVAW Survey estimate for

forcible rape is being compared to an

NCVS estimate that includes rape and

other forms of sexual assault, such as

grabbing, fondling, and verbal threats

of a sexual nature.

In addition, the screening questions

used by the two surveys differ substantially. The NVAW Survey uses five

questions to screen respondents

for rape victimization, while the NCVS

uses only two questions.8

 Although

empirical data on this issue are limited, some researchers assume that

increasing the number of screening

questions increases disclosure rates.9

Furthermore, the NVAW Survey

screening questions are more explicit

than those used by the NCVS.10

Moreover, published NCVS estimates

count series victimizations—reports of

six or more crimes within a 6-month

period for which the respondent cannot recall details of each crime—as a

single victimization. Thus, published

NCVS estimates of the number of rape

and sexual assault victimizations are

lower than would be obtained by including all incidents reported to its survey interviewers. To produce NCVS

estimates for direct comparison with

the NVAW Survey estimates, each

crime in a series of victimizations

reported to the NCVS interviewers

would have to be counted separately.

Finally, the sampling errors associated

with the estimates from the NVAW

Exhibit 3: Number of Rapes and Physical Assaults Perpetrated in Previous

12 Months by Sex of Victim

Average Number

Number of of Victimizations Total Number

 Type of Violence Victims per Victima of Victimizations

Women

Rape 302,091 2.9 876,064

Physical assault 1,913,243 3.1 5,931,053

Men

Rape 92,748 1.2 111,298

Physical assault 3,153,432 2.5 7,883,580

a. The standard error of the mean for each estimate in this column is 1.431, 0.167, 0.539, 0.225,

respectively.

Exhibit 2: Persons Raped or Physically Assaulted in Previous 12 Months

by Sex of Victim

Percentage Numbera

Women Men Women Men

 Type of Violence (n=8,000) (n=8,000) (100,697,000) (92,748,000)

Rapeb 0.3 0.1 302,091 92,748

Physical assaultb 1.9 3.4 1,913,243 3,153,432

Rape and/or physical assaultb 2.1 3.5 2,114,637 3,246,180

a. Based on estimates of men and women in the United States aged 18 and older, U.S. Bureau of

the Census, Current Population Survey, 1995.

b. Differences between men and women are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.
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R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Survey and the NCVS would have to

be compared. This is important given

the relatively high margin of error

associated with NVAW Survey

estimates of the average number of rape

victimizations experienced by male

and female victims (see footnote in

exhibit 3). Comparisons of sampling

errors would help determine whether

the estimates are actually different or

whether apparent differences are not

statistically significant.

A study now under way and funded by

NIJ, BJS, and CDC will provide more

comprehensive information about the

differences between the two surveys,

including error ranges for the estimates. Using data from the two surveys, the study is calculating estimates

using the same counting rules and the

same age populations. The results of

this detailed comparison will be published in early 1999.

Physical assault: Prevalence

and incidence

The NVAW Survey used a modified

version of the Conflict Tactics Scale11

to query respondents about a variety

of physical assaults they may have

suffered. Responses revealed that

physical assault is widespread in

American society: 52 percent of

surveyed women and 66 percent of

surveyed men said they were physically assaulted as a child by an adult

caretaker and/or as an adult by any

type of perpetrator.

For both women and men, the most frequently reported physical assault was

slapping and hitting, followed by pushing, grabbing, shoving, and hitting with

an object. Relatively few respondents

reported that an adult caretaker or

other adult pulled their hair or threw

something at them that could hurt. Still

fewer reported that an adult caretaker

or other adult choked or almost

drowned them, kicked or bit them,

beat them up, threatened them with a

gun or knife, or used a gun or knife on

them (see exhibit 1).

The NVAW Survey also found that

1.9 percent of surveyed women and

3.4 percent of surveyed men said they

were physically assaulted in the previous 12 months. These estimates equate

to approximately 1.9 million women

and 3.2 million men who are physically assaulted annually in the United

States (see exhibit 2). Female victims

averaged 3.1 assaults and male victims

averaged 2.5 assaults per year, which

equate to approximately 5.9 million

physical assaults perpetrated against

women and 7.9 million physical assaults perpetrated against men in the

12 months preceding the survey (see

exhibit 3). These estimates probably

underestimate the number of physical

assaults perpetrated against women

and men annually because the NVAW

Survey categorized victimizations

involving both rape and physical assault only as rapes.

The NVAW Survey estimates of annual

physical assaults are greater than the

NCVS estimates. The NCVS estimate

for 1994 is 4.1 million aggravated and

simple assaults of women age 12 and

older and 5.7 million aggravated and

simple assaults of men age 12 and

older.12 Comparisons between the

NVAW Survey and NCVS estimates of

physical assault are confounded by the

same methodological differences discussed earlier and are being addressed

in ongoing research funded by NIJ,

BJS, and CDC that is comprehensively

reviewing the two surveys’ estimates

for physical violence.

The risk of violence varies

among minority women

The survey found that American

Indian/Alaska Native women were

significantly more likely to disclose

rape and physical assault victimization

than women of other racial/ethnic

backgrounds, while Asian/Pacific Islander women were significantly less

likely to report rape and physical assault victimization (see exhibit 4).

These findings must be viewed with

caution, however, given the relatively

small numbers of American Indian/

Alaska Native and Asian/Pacific Islander women included in the sample.

Because information on violence

against American Indian/Alaska

Native women is limited, it is difficult

to explain why they report more rape

and physical assault victimization.

A previous study found that NativeAmerican couples were significantly

more violent than their white counterparts.13 Another study found that the

overall homicide rates for Native

Americans were approximately two

Exhibit 4: Women Raped or Physically Assaulted in Lifetime by Race/

Ethnicity of Victim

 Women Raped or Physically Assaulted in Lifetime (%)

Asian/ American

African- Pacific Indian/ Mixed

Total White American Islander Alaska Native Race

(n=7,850) (n=6,452) (n=780) (n=133) (n=88) (n=397)

Rapea 18.2 17.7 18.8 6.8 34.1 24.4

Physical assaultb 51.8 51.3 52.1 49.6 61.4 57.7

Rape and/or

physical assaultb 55.0 54.5 55.1 51.9 64.8 61.2

a. Differences between racial/ethnic groups are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.

b. Differences between racial/ethnic groups are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .05.
6

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

times greater than U.S. national rates.14

Information from this study published

elsewhere shows that Native-American

women report significantly more

stalking victimization than do women

of other racial/ethnic backgrounds.15

Thus there is some evidence that

Native Americans are at significantly

greater risk of violence than other

Americans.

How much of the difference in rape

and physical assault prevalence

can be explained by differences in

willingness to report victimization to

interviewers and how much can be

explained by actual victimization experiences is unclear and requires further

study. Research is also needed to

ascertain how social, environmental,

and demographic factors intersect with

race and ethnicity to produce differences

in rape and physical assault prevalence.

Finally, research is needed to determine

whether victimization rates vary

significantly among women of diverse

American Indian tribes and Alaska

Native communities.

Because information is also lacking on

violence against Asian/Pacific Islander

women, it is unclear why they report

less rape and physical assault victimization. Information from focus groups

and nonrandom samples of AsianAmerican women suggests that

intimate partner violence is a major

concern among these women.16 However, there are no accurate estimates

of intimate partner violence among

Asian-American or Pacific Islander

women, and the differences between

Asian-American and Pacific Islander

women in rape and physical assault

prevalence also may be significant.

Such differences, however, cannot

be discerned from the NVAW Survey

because data on these two groups were

combined. Clearly, more research is

needed on violence against AsianAmerican and Pacific Islander women.

The survey found that Hispanic women

were less likely to report rape victimization than were non-Hispanic women

(see exhibit 5). Previous studies comparing violence prevalence among

Hispanic and non-Hispanic women

have produced contradictory conclusions;17 hence, findings from the

NVAW Survey neither confirm nor

contradict earlier findings.

Rape is primarily a crime

against youth

It has been previously reported that

rape in America is a “tragedy of youth”

because the majority of rapes occurs

against children and adolescents.18

Results from the survey support this

assertion: More than half (54 percent)

of the female rape victims identified

by the survey were under 18 years old

when they experienced their first rape

(see exhibit 6). Of the women disclosing rape, 22 percent were under 12

years old when they experienced their

first rape, while 32 percent were 12 to

17 years old.

Several authors have reported that

women who are sexually assaulted as

children and adolescents are at greater

risk of being sexually assaulted as

adults.19 Results from the NVAW

Survey provide further evidence of

the link between sexual assault as a

minor and subsequent sexual assault

as an adult: 18 percent of the women

who reported being raped before age

18 said they were also raped after the

age of 18, compared with 9 percent of

the women who did not report being

raped before the age of 18.

Women experience more

partner violence than men do

The NVAW survey found that women

are significantly more likely to be

assaulted by an intimate partner than

men are. Twenty-five percent of surveyed women, compared with 8 percent of surveyed men, said they were

raped and/or physically assaulted by

a current or former spouse, cohabiting

partner, or date at some time in their

life; 1.5 percent of all surveyed women

compared with 0.9 percent of all

surveyed men said they were raped

 25 Years

16.6%

<12 Years

21.6%

12–17 Years

32.4%

18–24 Years

29.4%

>

Exhibit 6: Women Victims’ Age at

Time of First Rapea

a. n=1,323 women victims.

Exhibit 5: Women Raped or Physically Assaulted in Lifetime by Hispanic/

Non-Hispanic Origin of Victim

Women Raped or Physically Assaulted in Lifetime (%)

Total Hispanica Non-Hispanic

(n=7,945) (n=628) (n=7,317)

Rapeb 18.1 14.6 18.4

Physical assault 51.9 53.2 51.8

Rape and/or physical assault 55.1 54.9 55.1

a. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

b. Differences between Hispanics and non-Hispanics are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .05.
7

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

and/or physically assaulted by such

a partner in the previous 12 months.

Based on U.S. Census estimates of

the number of women and men in

the country, these findings equate to

approximately 1.5 million women and

834,700 men who are raped and/or

physically assaulted by an intimate

partner annually in the United States

(see exhibit 7).

Results from the survey show that most

physical assaults perpetrated against

women by intimate partners consist of

pushing, grabbing, shoving, slapping,

and hitting. Fewer women reported that

an intimate partner threw something at

them that could hurt, pulled their hair,

kicked or bit them, hit them with an

object, or beat them up. Relatively

few reported that an intimate partner

threatened them with a knife or gun.

Only a negligible number reported that

an intimate partner actually used a

knife or gun on them (see exhibit 8).

It is important to note that differences

between women’s and men’s rates of

physical assault by an intimate partner

become greater as the seriousness of

the assault increases. For example,

women were two to three times more

likely than men to report that an intimate partner threw something that

could hurt or pushed, grabbed, or

shoved them. However, they were 7 to

14 times more likely to report that an

intimate partner beat them up, choked

or tried to drown them, threatened

them with a gun, or actually used a

gun on them (see exhibit 8).

The NVAW Survey finding that women

are significantly more likely than men

to be victimized by intimate partners

contradicts findings from some previous national surveys that found men

and women to be at nearly equal risk

of physical assault by an intimate partner.20 The finding, however, supports

data from the NCVS, which have consistently shown women to be at greater

risk of intimate partner violence.21

Exhibit 8: Percentage of Persons Physically Assaulted by an Intimate

Partner in Lifetime by Type of Assault and Sex of Victima

Women Men

 Type of Assault (n=8,000) (n=8,000)

Total physical assault by intimate partnerb 22.1 7.4

Threw somethingb 8.1 4.4

Pushed, grabbed, shovedb 18.1 5.4

Pulled hairb 9.1 2.3

Slapped, hitb 16.0 5.5

Kicked, bitb 5.5 2.6

Choked, tried to drownb 6.1 0.5

Hit with objectb 5.0 3.2

Beat upb 8.5 0.6

Threatened with gunb 3.5 0.4

Threatened with knifeb 2.8 1.6

Used gunb 0.7 0.1

Used knife 0.9 0.8

a. Intimate partner includes current or former spouses, opposite-sex cohabiting partners, same-sex

cohabiting partners, dates, and boyfriends/girlfriends.

b. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.

Exhibit 7: Persons Raped or Physically Assaulted by an Intimate Partner in

Lifetime and in Previous 12 Months by Sex of Victim

 In Lifetimea

Percentage Numberb

Women Men Women Men

 Type of Violence (n=8,000) (n=8,000) (100,697,000) (92,748,000)

Rapec 7.7 0.3 7,753,669 278,244

Physical assaultc 22.1 7.4 22,254,037 6,863,352

Rape and/or physical assaultc 24.8 7.6 24,972,856 7,048,848

In Previous 12 Monthsa

Percentage Numberb

Women Men Women Men

 Type of Violence (n=8,000) (n=8,000) (100,697,000) (92,748,000)

Rape 0.2 –e 201,394 –e

Physical assaultd 1.3 0.9 1,309,061 834,732

Rape and/or physical assaultd 1.5 0.9 1,510,455 834,732

a. Intimate partner includes current and former spouses, opposite-sex cohabiting partners, same-sex

cohabiting partners, dates, and boyfriends/girlfriends.

b. Based on estimates of men and women in the United States aged 18 years and older,

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, 1995.

c. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.

d. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .05.

e. The number of men rape victims was insufficient to reliably calculate prevalence estimates.
8

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Violence against women is

primarily partner violence. The

survey confirms previous reports that

U.S. women are primarily raped and/or

physically assaulted by intimate

partners:22 76 percent of the women

who were raped and/or physically

assaulted since the age of 18 were

assaulted by a current or former

husband, cohabiting partner, or date;

17 percent were victimized by an acquaintance, such as a friend, neighbor,

or coworker; 14 percent were victimized

by a stranger; and 9 percent were

victimized by a relative other than a

husband (see exhibit 9). By comparison,

the survey found that U.S. men are primarily raped and physically assaulted

by strangers and acquaintances, not

intimate partners.

Violence against women is

primarily male violence. The survey

also found that most violence perpetrated against adults is perpetrated by

males: 93 percent of the women and

86 percent of the men who were raped

and/or physically assaulted since the

age of 18 were assaulted by a male. In

comparison only 11 percent of these

women and 23 percent of these men

were assaulted by a female (see exhibit

10). Given these findings, adult violence prevention strategies should

focus primarily on the risks posed by

male perpetrators.

Rate of injury among rape

and physical assault victims

To generate information on violencerelated injuries, respondents disclosing rape and physical assault were

asked whether they were injured during

their most recent victimization. The

survey found that women who were

raped since age 18 were nearly twice

as likely as their male counterparts to

report an injury other than the rape

itself (32 and 16 percent, respectively)

(see exhibit 11). Similarly, women who

were physically assaulted since age

18 were significantly more likely than

Exhibit 10: Distribution of Adult Rape and Physical Assault Victims by

Sex of Perpetrator and Sex of Victim

Note: Total percentages by sex of victim exceed 100 because some victims had multiple perpetrators.

0

20

10.8

93.4

23.3

85.9

40

60

80

100

Women Victims (n=2,494)

Female Perpetrator Male Perpetrator

Men Victims (n=3,606)

Percentage of Victims

Exhibit 9: Distribution of Adult Rape and Physical Assault Victims by

Victim-Perpetrator Relationship and Sex of Victim

a. Intimate partner includes current and former spouses, same-sex cohabitating partners, opposite-sex

cohabitating partners, dates, and boyfriends/girlfriends.

b. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.

c. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .01.

Note: Total percentages by sex of victim exceed 100 because some victims had multiple perpetrators.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80 76

17.9

8.6 6.8

16.8

32.3

60

14.1

Women Victims (n=2,669)

Percentage of Victims

Men Victims (n=3,606)

Intimate 

Partnera, b

Acquaintanceb Relative Other 

Than Spousec

Strangerb
9

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

their male counterparts to report that

they were injured during their most

recent physical assault (39 and 25 percent, respectively). When only physical assaults by intimates are considered,

the difference between injury rates for

women and men is even greater (41 and

19 percent, respectively).

Most of the adult rape and physical

assault victims (both men and women)

who reported being injured sustained

relatively minor injuries, such as

scratches, bruises, and welts. Relatively few sustained more serious types

of injuries, such as broken bones, dislocated joints, concussions, lacerations,

or bullet wounds (see exhibit 12).

Victims’ use of medical services.

The survey found that 36 percent of

the women injured during their most

recent rape since age 18 and 30 percent of the women injured during their

most recent physical assault since

age 18 received some type of medical

treatment (e.g., ambulance/paramedic

services, treatment in a hospital emergency department, physical therapy)

(see exhibit 11). Some medically

treated victims received more than one

type of medical treatment (e.g., hospitalization as well as outpatient physical therapy). Others received one

type of medical treatment more than

once—for example, three nights in the

hospital or 10 physical therapy sessions. Hence, the annual number of

medical treatments provided to rape

and physical assault victims exceeds

the annual number of rapes and physical assaults that resulted in treatment.

Exhibit 13 provides estimates of the

average number of nights spent in the

hospital or the average number of visits made to specific medical providers

by rape and physical assault victims.

These estimates are based on responses

from victims who received the specific

type of medical care considered. For

example, the estimate of the average

number of nights spent in the hospital

by female rape victims (3.6) is based

a. Estimates are based on the most recent victimization since the age of 18.

b. The number of rape victims was insufficient to reliably calculate injury estimates.

Exhibit 12: Percentage of Injured Adult Rape and Physical Assault Victims Who

Sustained Specific Types of Injuries: Men and Women Combineda

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Rape victims (n=241)

Physical assault victims (n=1,463)

Scratch, bruise, welt

Laceration, knife wound

Broken bone, dislocated joint

Head, spinal cord injury

Sore muscle, sprain, strain

Internal injury

Chipped or broken tooth

Burnb

1.8

1.8

3.3

0.8

0.8 5.8

5.8

6.6

6.2

10.1

12.214.1

16.9

72.6

66.6

5.5

0.7

Knocked unconsciousb

Bullet woundb

Percentage of Victims

Exhibit 11: Distribution of Adult Rape and Physical Assault Victims by

Injury, Type of Medical Care Received, and Sex of Victima

Rape Physical Assault

 Victims (%) Victims (%)

Injury/Medical Care Women Men Women Men

Was victim injured? (n=734) (n=62) (n=1,862) (n=2,972)

 Yes 31.5c 16.1 39.0c 24.8

 No 68.5 83.9 61.0 75.2

Did injured victim receive

medical care?d (n=236) (n=722) (n=736)

 Yes 35.6 —b 30.2 37.1

 No 64.4 —b 69.8 62.9

Type of medical care receivede (n=84) (n=218) (n=306)

 Hospital 81.9 —b 76.1 85.7

 Physician 54.8 —b 52.8 42.1

 Dental 16.9 —b 9.6 10.6

 Ambulance/paramedic 19.0 —b 17.5 23.5

 Physical therapy 16.7 —b 9.2 12.8

Type of hospital care receivedf (n=68) (n=166) (n=234)

 Emergency room 50.0 —b 61.4 66.7

 Outpatient 36.8 —b 22.3 22.6 Overnight 13.2 —b 15.1 10.3

a. Estimates are based on the most recent victimization since the age of 18.

b. The number of men rape victims was insufficient to reliably calculate medical utilization estimates.

c. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.

d. Estimates are based on responses from victims who were injured.

e. Estimates are based on responses from victims who received medical care.

f. Estimates are based on responses from victims who received hospital care.

Note: Total percentages for type of medical and hospital care received exceed 100 because some

victims had multiple forms of medical/hospital care.
10

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

victims. Because these groups were

excluded from the NVAW Survey estimate, it is not surprising that it is lower

than the SIVV estimate of 1.4 million.

Stalking is a significant

social problem

Using a definition of stalking that

requires victims to feel a high level of

fear, the survey found that stalking is

much more prevalent than previously

thought: 8 percent of surveyed women

and 2 percent of surveyed men said

they were stalked at some time in their

life; 1 percent of surveyed women

and 0.4 percent of surveyed men said

they were stalked in the previous 12

months. Based on U.S. Census estimates of the number of women and men

in the country, these findings equate to

approximately 1 million women and

371,000 men who are stalked annually

in the United States (see exhibit 15).

If a less stringent definition of stalking

is used, one requiring victims to feel

only somewhat frightened or a little

frightened of their assailant’s behavior,

the lifetime stalking prevalence rate

increases from 8 to 12 percent for

women and from 2 to 4 percent for

men; the annual stalking prevalence

rate increases from 1 to 6 percent for

women and from 0.4 to 1.5 percent

for men. Based on these higher prevalence rates, approximately 12.1 million women and 3.7 million men are

stalked at some time in their life, and

an estimated 6 million women and

1.4 million men are stalked annually.

Stalking prevalence estimates generated by the NVAW Survey are higher

than previous nonscientific stalking

estimates. In 1992, when asked by a

reporter to estimate the extent of stalking in America, forensic psychiatrist

Park Dietz guessed that 5 percent of

U.S. women are stalked at some time

in their lifetime and 200,000 U.S.

women are stalked annually.24 The

NVAW Survey estimate that 8 percent

only on responses by female rape victims who were treated in a hospital on

an inpatient basis. It should be noted

that some of these average frequency

estimates have a relatively high margin of error (see footnotes c through e

in exhibit 13) and should be viewed

with caution.

Exhibit 14 presents estimates of the

number of female rapes and physical

assaults resulting in injuries annually,

as well as estimates of the number of

specific types of medical treatment to

these victims annually. It is important

to note that because women are primarily raped and physically assaulted by

intimate partners, the injury and medical utilization estimates for women

presented in exhibits 13 and 14 pertain

mostly to rapes and physical assaults

perpetrated by current and former husbands, cohabiting partners, dates, and

boyfriends. Because men are primarily

raped and physically assaulted by

male strangers and acquaintances, the

injury and medical utilization estimates

for men pertain primarily to violence

perpetrated by men other than intimate

partners.

According to estimates generated

by the NVAW Survey, hospital emergency department personnel treated

approximately 1.3 million adults for

injuries related to rapes and physical

assaults in the 12 months preceding

the survey (128,700 female rape victims, 546,900 female physical assault

victims, and 588,300 male physical

assault victims). This figure is somewhat lower than an estimate generated

from the Study of Injured Victims of

Violence (SIVV), a hospital recordextraction study conducted for the

Bureau of Justice Statistics by the U.S.

Consumer Product Safety Commission.

The SIVV found that during 1994,

hospital emergency department personnel treated an estimated 1.4 million

people for injuries from confirmed or

suspected interpersonal violence.23

Included in the SIVV estimate (but

excluded from the NVAW Survey estimate) are hospital emergency department treatments to victims of all ages

(including children and adolescents),

victims of suspected interpersonal violence, male rape victims, and male

and female sexual assault and robbery

Exhibit 13: Average Number of Visits/Overnights in Hospital for Rape

and Physical Assault Victims by Type of Medical Care and Sex of Victima

Rape Victimsb Physical Assault Victims

Type of Medical Care Womenc Womend Mene

Emergency room 3.2 1.7 1.4

Outpatient 2.2 5.0 2.8

Overnight in hospital 3.6 8.5 13.3

Physician visit 4.8 3.3 7.2

Dental visit 5.0 3.8 5.7

Ambulance/paramedic visit 1.2 1.1 1.0

Physical therapy visit 13.0 18.5 10.8

a. Estimates are based on the most recent victimization since the age of 18.

b. The number of men rape victims was insufficient to reliably calculate medical utilization estimates.

c. The standard error of the mean for each estimate in this column is 1.539, 0.433, 1.049, 0.889,

1.995, 0.145, and 4.273, respectively.

d. The standard error of the mean for each estimate in this column is 0.2, 2.011, 3.365, 0.454, 1.016,

0.07, and 7.61, respectively.

e. The standard error of the mean for each estimate in this column is 0.132, 0.789, 3.0, 1.252, 1.6,

0.023, and 2.475, respectively.

Note: Estimates are based on responses from victims who received the specific type of care considered.
11

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

of women have been stalked at some

time in their life is nearly two times

greater than Dietz’s earlier guess, and

the survey’s estimate that 1 million

women are stalked annually is five

times greater than Dietz’s earlier guess.

Given the high rate of stalking victimization uncovered by the NVAW Survey, it is imperative that stalking be

treated as a legitimate criminal justice

problem and public concern.

Policy implications

The NVAW Survey provides compelling data on the prevalence, incidence,

and physical consequences of violence

against women, as well as victims’

utilization of medical services. Information presented in this report can

help inform policy and intervention

directed at violence against women.

Based on findings from the survey,

the authors conclude the following:

1. Violence against women should

be treated as a significant social

problem. The survey data validate

opinions held by many professionals

about the pervasiveness of violence

against women. More than half the

surveyed women reported being physically assaulted as a child by an adult

caretaker and/or as an adult by another

adult, and nearly one-fifth reported

being raped at some time in their lives.

Further, 2 percent of the surveyed

women reported being raped, physically

assaulted, or both in the 12 months

preceding the survey. This equates to

an estimated 2.1 million U.S. women

who are raped and/or physically assaulted annually. Because some rape

and physical assault victims experience

multiple victimizations per year, an estimated 876,000 rapes and 5.9 million

physical assaults are perpetrated against

U.S. women annually (see exhibit 14).

Given the pervasiveness of rape and

physical assault among American women,

it is imperative that violence against

women be treated as a major criminal

justice and public health concern.

2. Rape should be viewed as a

crime committed primarily against

youth. The survey confirms previous

reports that most rape victims are children or adolescents. Eighteen percent

of surveyed women reported being the

victim of a completed or attempted rape

at some time in their lives. Of these,

more than half (54 percent) were raped

before the age of 18. The survey also

found that women who are raped

before the age of 18 are significantly

more likely to be raped as adults. Given

these findings, rape prevention strategies

Exhibit 14: Average Annual Injury and Care Utilization Estimates for

Adult Rape and Physical Assault Victims by Sex of Victim

Estimated Number of Victimizations per Year

Rape Victimsa Physical Assault Victims

Women Women Men

Victimization 876,064 5,931,053 7,883,580

Victimization with injury 275,960 2,313,111 1,970,895

Victimization with injury receiving

medical treatment 98,242 693,933 729,231

Victimization treated medically with:

 Hospital care 80,460 527,389 627,139

 Physician care 53,837 367,784 306,277

 Dental care 16,603 69,393 80,215

 Ambulance/paramedic care 18,666 124,908 175,015

 Physical therapy 16,406 62,454 94,800

Victimization treated in the hospital with:

 Emergency room care 40,230 321,707 420,183

 Outpatient care 29,609 116,026 144,242

 Inpatient care 10,621 79,108 62,714

Visit/Overnight

 Emergency room visit 128,736 546,902 588,256

 Outpatient visit 65,140 580,130 403,878

 Overnight in hospital 144,828 672,418 834,096

 Physician visit 258,418 1,213,687 2,205,194

 Dental visit 83,015 263,694 457,226

 Ambulance/paramedic visit 22,399 137,399 175,015

 Physical therapy visit 213,278 1,155,399 1,023,840

a. The number of men rape victims was insufficient to reliably calculate medical utilization estimates.

Exhibit 15: Persons Stalked in Lifetime and in Previous 12 Months by

Sex of Victim

Percentage Numbera

Women Men Women Men

(n=8,000) (n=8,000) (100,697,000) (92,748,000)

Stalked in lifetimeb 8.1 2.2 8,156,460 2,040,460

Stalked in previous 12 monthsb 1.0 0.4 1,006,970 370,990

a. Based on estimates of men and women in the United States aged 18 years and older,

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, 1995.

b. Differences between women and men are statistically significant: p-value ≤ .001.
12

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

should focus on rapes perpetrated

against minors, and rape research

should focus on the long-term effects

of rape occurring at an early age.

3. Studies are needed to determine why the prevalence of rape

and physical assault varies significantly among women of different

racial and ethnic backgrounds.

The survey found that American

Indian/Alaska Native women were

most likely to report rape and physical

assault victimization, while Asian/Pacific Islander women were least likely

to report rape and physical assault victimization. The survey also found that

Hispanic women were less likely to

report rape victimization than nonHispanic women.

It is unclear from the survey data

whether the differences in prevalence

rates among women of different

racial and ethnic groups are caused by

differences in reporting practices or

differences in actual victimization

experiences. It is also unclear how

social, environmental, and demographic

factors intersect with race and ethnicity

to produce differences in rape and

physical assault prevalence among

women of different racial and ethnic

backgrounds. Thus more research is

needed to establish the degree of variance in prevalence among women of

different racial and ethnic groups and

to determine how much of the variance

may be explained by differences in

willingness to disclose information and

how much by social, environmental,

and demographic factors. Research is

also needed to determine whether

differences exist in rape and physical

assault prevalence among women of

diverse Asian/Pacific Islander groups,

American Indian tribes, and Alaska

Native communities.

4. Women are at greater risk of

partner violence than men. The

survey found that women were significantly more likely than men to report

being raped and physically assaulted

by a current or former intimate partner,

whether the timeframe considered was

the person’s lifetime or the 12 months

preceding the survey. Moreover, women

who were raped or physically assaulted

by a current or former intimate partner

were significantly more likely to sustain injuries than men who were raped

or physically assaulted by a current or

former intimate partner. Given these

findings, intimate partner violence

should be considered first and foremost

a crime against women.

5. Violence against women is

predominantly partner violence.

Data from the survey confirm previous

reports that violence against women

is predominantly intimate partner

violence. Of the women who reported

being raped and/or physically assaulted

since the age of 18, three-quarters (76

percent) were victimized by a current

or former husband, cohabiting partner,

date, or boyfriend. Given these findings, violence-against-women intervention strategies should focus on the risks

posed to women by current and former

husbands, cohabiting partners, dates,

and boyfriends.

6. America’s medical community

should receive comprehensive

training about the medical needs

of female victims of crime. The

injury and medical utilization data

generated by the NVAW Survey provide compelling evidence of the physical and social costs associated with

violence against women.

The survey found that in about onethird of all rapes and physical assaults

perpetrated against women, the victim

sustains an injury. Further, in about

one-third of all such injury victimizations, the victim receives some type

of medical care (e.g., paramedic care,

emergency room treatment, dental

care, or physical therapy). Thus, of

the estimated 6.8 million rapes and

physical assaults perpetrated against

U.S. women annually, 2.6 million will

result in an injury to the victim and

792,200 will result in the victim

receiving some type of medical care.

Because many rape and physical

assault victims receive multiple forms

of care for the same injury victimization, medical personnel in the United

States treat literally millions of rape

and physical assault victimizations

annually.

Given the high number of injury victimizations perpetrated against women

annually and the extensiveness of

medical treatment to female victims of

violence, it is imperative that medical

professionals receive information about

the physical consequences of violence

against women and the medical needs

of female victims.

7. Stalking should be treated as a

significant social problem. Using

a definition of stalking that requires

victims to feel a high level of fear,

the survey found that stalking is more

widespread than previously thought.

Eight percent of women and 2 percent

of men reported being stalked at some

time in their lives, and 1 percent of

women and 0.4 percent of men reported being stalked in the 12 months

preceding the survey. Thus an estimated 1.4 million people are stalked

annually in the United States. Given

the high number of stalking victims,

it is important that stalking be treated

as a legitimate criminal justice and

public health concern.
13

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

ape was defined as an event that

occurred without the victim’s consent,

that involved the use or threat of force

to penetrate the victim’s vagina or anus

by penis, tongue, fingers, or object, or

the victim’s mouth by penis. The definition included both attempted and completed rape. The following questions

were used to screen respondents for

rape victimization:1

● [Female respondents only] Has a man

or boy ever made you have sex by using

force or threatening to harm you or

someone close to you? Just so there is

no mistake, by sex we mean putting a

penis in your vagina.

● Has anyone, male or female, ever

made you have oral sex by using force or

threat of force? Just so there is no mistake, by oral sex we mean that a man or

boy put his penis in your mouth or someone, male or female, penetrated your

vagina or anus with their mouth.

● Has anyone ever made you have anal

sex by using force or threat of harm?

Just so there is no mistake, by anal sex

we mean that a man or boy put his penis

in your anus.

● Has anyone, male or female, ever put

fingers or objects in your vagina or anus

against your will or by using force or

threats?

● Has anyone, male or female, ever

attempted to make you have vaginal,

oral, or anal sex against your will, but intercourse or penetration did not occur?

Physical assault was defined as behaviors that threaten, attempt, or actually

inflict physical harm. A modified version

of the Conflict Tactics Scale2

 was used to

screen respondents for physical assault

they experienced as a child at the hands

of an adult caretaker and physical assault

they experienced as an adult at the hands of

another adult:

● [Physical assault as a child] When you

were a child did any parent, step-parent, or

guardian ever . . .

● [Physical assault as an adult] Not counting

any incidents you have already mentioned,

after you became an adult did any other

adult, male or female, ever . . .

— Throw something at you that could

hurt?

— Push, grab, or shove you?

— Pull your hair?

— Slap or hit you?

— Kick or bite you?

— Choke or attempt to drown you?

— Hit you with some object?

— Beat you up?

— Threaten you with a gun?

— Threaten you with a knife or other

weapon?

— Use a gun on you?

— Use a knife or other weapon on you?

Stalking was defined as a course of conduct

directed at a specific person that involves

repeated visual or physical proximity; nonconsensual communication; verbal, written,

or implied threats; or a combination thereof

that would cause fear in a reasonable person

(with repeated meaning on two or more

occasions). The survey used the following

questions to screen for stalking

victimization:

● Not including bill collectors, telephone

solicitors, or other salespeople, has anyone,

male or female, ever . . .

— Followed or spied on you?

— Sent you unsolicited letters or

written correspondence?

— Made unsolicited phone calls to

you?

— Stood outside your home, school,

or workplace?

— Showed up at places you were

even though he or she had no

business being there?

— Left unwanted items for you to

find?

— Tried to communicate in other

ways against your will?

— Vandalized your property or

destroyed something you loved?

Respondents who answered yes to one

or more of these questions were asked

whether anyone had ever done any of

these things to them on more than one

occasion and whether they felt frightened or feared bodily harm as a result of

these behaviors. Only respondents who

reported being victimized on more than

one occasion and who were very frightened or feared bodily harm were

counted as stalking victims.

Notes

1. Rape screening questions were

adapted from those used in The

National Women’s Study, see Rape

in America: A Report to the Nation,

National Victim Center and the Crime

Victims Research and Treatment Center, 211 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 300,

Arlington, Virginia 22201, April 23,

1992, p.15.

2. Straus, Murray, “Measuring

Intrafamily Conflict and Violence: The

Conflict Tactics (CT) Scale,” Journal of

Marriage and the Family 41 (February

1979): 75–88.

Survey Screening Questions R
14

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

he National Violence Against

Women (NVAW) Survey was conducted

from November 1995 to May 1996 by

interviewers at Schulman, Ronca, and

Bucuvalas, Inc. (SRBI), under the direction

of John Boyle.1

 The authors of this report

designed the survey and conducted the

analysis.

The national sample was drawn by

random-digit dialing from households with

a telephone in all 50 States and the District

of Columbia. The sample was administered by U.S. Census region. Within each

region, a simple random sample of working residential “hundreds banks” of phone

numbers was drawn. (A hundreds bank is

the first eight digits of any 10-digit telephone number; e.g., 301–608–38xx.) A

randomly generated two-digit number

was appended to each randomly sampled

hundreds bank to produce the full 10-

digit, random-digit number. Separate

banks of numbers were generated for

male and female respondents. These

random-digit numbers were called by SRBI

interviewers from their central telephone

facility, where nonworking and nonresidential numbers were screened out. Once

a residential household was reached,

eligible adults (i.e., women and men 18

years of age and older) in each household

were identified. In households with more

than one eligible adult, the adult with the

most recent birthday was selected as the

designated respondent.

A total of 8,000 women and 8,005 men

18 years and older were interviewed

using a computer-assisted telephone

interviewing system. (Five completed

interviews with men were subsequently

eliminated from the sample during data

editing due to an excessive amount of

incongruous data.) Only female interviewers surveyed female respondents. For male

respondents, approximately half of the

interviews were conducted by female interviewers and half by male interviewers.

A Spanish-language translation was administered by bilingual interviewers for Spanishspeaking respondents.

To determine the representativeness of the

sample, select demographic characteristics of

the NVAW Survey sample were compared

with demographic characteristics of the general population as measured by the U.S.

Census Bureau’s 1995 Current Population

Survey of adult men and women. Sample

weighting was considered to correct for

possible biases introduced by the fact that

some households had multiple phone lines

and multiple eligibles, and for over- and

under-representation of selected subgroups. Although there were some instances of over- and under-representation,

the overall unweighted prevalence rates

for rape, physical assault, and stalking

were not significantly different from their

respective weighted rates. As a result,

sample weighting was not used in the

analysis of the NVAW Survey data.

T Survey Methodology

Exhibit 16: Estimated Standard Errors Multiplied by the z-Score (1.96) for

a 95-Percent Confidence Level by Sample or Subsample Size

Percentage of the Sample or Subsample Giving a Certain

Response or Displaying a Certain Characteristic for

Percentages Exactly or Approximately Equal to:

Size of Sample

or Subsample 10 or 90 20 or 80 30 or 70 40 or 60 50/50

16,000 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8

12,000 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9

8,000 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1

4,000 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.5

3,000 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.8

2,000 1.3 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2

1,500 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.5

1,300 1.6 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.7

1,200 1.7 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.8

1,100 1.8 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.0

1,000 1.9 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.1

900 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.2 3.3

800 2.1 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.5

700 2.2 3.0 3.4 3.6 3.7

600 2.4 3.2 3.7 3.9 4.0

500 2.6 3.5 4.0 4.3 4.4

400 2.9 3.9 4.5 4.8 4.9

300 3.4 4.5 5.2 5.6 5.7

200 4.2 5.6 6.4 6.8 6.9

150 4.8 6.4 7.4 7.9 8.0

100 5.9 7.9 9.0 9.7 9.8

75 6.8 9.1 10.4 11.2 11.4

50 8.4 11.2 12.8 13.7 14.0
15

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

A technical report describing the survey

methods in more detail and recording

sample characteristics and prevalence rates

using weighted and unweighted data is

available from the authors.2

Data were analyzed using SPSS Base 7.0

for Windows software. Measures of association (e.g., Lambda) were calculated

between nominal-level independent and

dependent variables, and the chi-square

statistic was used to test for statistically

significant differences between men and

women (p-value ≤ .05). Any estimates

based on five or fewer responses were

deemed unreliable and therefore were not

tested for statistically significant differences

between groups and not presented in the

tables. Because estimates presented in this

report generally exclude “don’t know,”

“refused,” and other invalid responses,

sample and subsample sizes (n’s) vary

from table to table.

The estimates from this survey, as from any

sample survey, are subject to random sampling error. Exhibit 16 presents the estimated

standard errors multiplied by the z-score

(1.96) for specified sample and subsample

sizes of 16,000 or less at different response

distributions of dichotomous variables (e.g.,

raped/not raped, injured/not injured). These

estimated standard errors can be used to determine the extent to which sample estimates

will be distributed around the population parameter (i.e., the true population distribution).

As exhibit 16 shows, larger sample and

subsample sizes produce smaller estimated

standard errors. Thus the estimated standard

error at the 95-percent confidence level for a

sample or subsample of 8,000 (the number of

women and men, respectively, on which lifetime and annual prevalence rates are

based) is 1.1 percentage points if the response distribution is a 50/50 split, while

the standard error at the 95-percent confidence level for a sample or subsample of

50 is 14 percentage points if the response

distribution is a 50/50 split.

Notes

1. John Boyle, Ph.D., is senior vice president

and director of the Government and Social

Research Division at SRBI. Dr. Boyle, who

specializes in public policy research in the

area of health and violence, also manages

the firm’s Washington, D.C., area office.

2. To obtain copies of the National Violence

Against Women Survey Methodology Report, call or write to the Center for Policy

Research, 1570 Emerson Street, Denver,

Colorado, 80218; 303–837–1555.

Notes

1. Kennedy, Leslie W., in Foreword to Dangerous Domains: Violence Against Women in

Canada by Holly Johnson, Scarborough,

Ontario: International Thomas Publishing, 1996.

2. Wilson, Carolyn F., Violence Against Women:

An Annotated Bibliography, Boston: G.K. Hall &

Co., 1981.

3. National Research Council, Understanding

Violence Against Women, Washington, D.C.:

National Academy Press, 1996: 40–44.

4. Ibid.

5. Michael, Robert T., John H. Gagnon, Edward

O. Lauman, and Gina Kolata, Sex in America:

A Definitive Survey, New York: Warner Books,

1994: 223.

6. The NVAW Survey was conducted from

November 1995 to May 1996 (see “Survey

Methodology,” page 14). Respondents reported

on events that spanned the 12 months prior to

their interview. For example, a person who was

interviewed in November 1995 reported on

events that occurred between November 1994

and November 1995; a person who was interviewed in May 1996 reported on events that

occurred between May 1995 and May 1996.

7. Craven, Diane, Sex Differences in Violent

Victimization, 1994, Special Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau

of Justice Statistics, September 1997, NCJ

164508.

8. The two rape/sexual assault screening questions used in the NCVS are as follows: (1) (Other

than any incidents already mentioned,) has anyone attacked or threatened you in any of these

ways: . . . (e) Any rape, attempted rape, or other

type of sexual attack? (2) (Other than any incidents already mentioned,) have you been forced

or coerced to engage in unwanted sexual activity

by (a) someone you didn’t know before, (b) a casual acquaintance, or, (c) someone you know well?

9. See, for example, Helton, A.M., “The Pregnant Battered Women,” Responses to Victimization of Women and Children 9. (1) 1986: 22–23;

Koss, Mary P., “Detecting the Scope of Rape: A

Review of Prevalence Research Methods,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 8 (2) (June 1993):

198–222.

10. See “Survey Screening Questions,” page 13.

11. Straus, Murray, “Measuring Intrafamily Conflict and Violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT)

Scale,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 41

(February 1979): 75–88.

12. Craven, Sex Differences in Violent

Victimization, 1994.

13. Bachman, Ronet, Death and Violence on the

Reservation: Homicide, Family Violence, and

Suicide in American Indian Populations,

Westport, CT.: Auburn House, 1992.

14. Wallace, L.J.D., A.D. Calhoun, K.E. Powell,

J. O’Neill, and S.P. James, Homicide and Suicide

Among Native Americans 1979–1992, Violence

Surveillance Summary Series, No. 2, Atlanta,

GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

National Center for Injury Prevention and

Control, 1996.

15. Tjaden, Patricia, and Nancy Thoennes,

Stalking in America: Findings From the

National Violence Against Women Survey,

Research in Brief, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Justice, National Institute of

Justice, April 1998, NCJ 169592.

16. Ho, C.K., “An Analysis of Domestic

Violence in Asian American Communities:

A Multicultural Approach to Counseling,” in

Diversity and Complexity in Feminist Therapy,

ed. L.S. Brown and M. Root, New York:

Harrington Park, 1996: 129–150; Huisman,

K.A., “Wife Battering in Asian American

Communities,” Violence Against Women 2

(1996): 260–283.

17. Sorenson, S.B., J.A. Stein, J.M. Siegel, J.M.

Golding, and M.A. Burnam, “The Prevalence of

Adult Sexual Assault: The Los Angeles Epidemiologic Catchment Area Project,” American
16

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Journal of Epidemiology 126: 154–164, 1987;

Sorenson, S.B., and C.A. Tells, “Self-Reports of

Spousal Violence in a Mexican American and a

Non-Hispanic White Population,” Violence and

Victims 6 (1991): 3–16.

18. See National Victim Center and the Crime

Victims Research and Treatment Center, Rape

in America: A Report to the Nation, 211 Wilson

Boulevard, Suite 300, Arlington, Virginia

22201, April 23, 1992.

19. See, for example, Browne, Angela, and

David Finkelhor, “Initial and Long-term

Effects: A Review of the Research,” in

Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, ed. David

Finkelhor, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications,

1986: 158; Miller, J., D. Moeller, A. Kaufman,

P. Divasto, P. Fitzsimmons, D. Pather, and

J. Christy, “Recidivism among Sexual Assault

Victims,” American Journal of Psychiatry 135

(1978): 1103–1104; and Russel, D.E.H., The

Secret Trauma: Incest in the Lives of Girls and

Women, New York: Basic Books, 1986.

20. See, for example, Morse, Barbara, “Beyond

the Conflict Tactics Scale: Assessing Gender

Differences in Partner Violence,” Violence and

Victims 10 (Winter 1995): 251–272; Straus,

Murray, and Richard Gelles, “Societal Change

and Change in Family Violence From 1975 to

1985 as Revealed by Two National Studies,”

Journal of Marriage and the Family 48

(August 1986): 465–479.

21. See, for example, Bachman, Ronet, Violence

Against Women: A National Crime Victimization

Survey Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ

145325; Bachman, Ronet, and Linda Saltzman,

Violence Against Women: Estimates From the

Redesigned Survey, Special Report, Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of

Justice Statistics, August 1995, NCJ 154348;

Gaquin, Diedre, “Spouse Abuse: Data From the

National Crime Survey,” Victimology 2 (1977–

1978): 634–643; and Klaus, Patsy, and Michael

Rand, Family Violence, Special Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau

of Justice Statistics, April 1984, NCJ 093449.

22. See, for example, Langan, Patrick A., and

Christopher A. Innes, Preventing Domestic Violence

Against Women, Special Report, Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1986, NCJ 102037; Timrots, Anita D., and

Michael R. Rand, Violent Crime by Strangers and

Nonstrangers, Special Report, Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice

Statistics, January 1987, NCJ 103702.

23. Rand, Michael, Violence-Related Injuries

Treated in Hospital Emergency Departments,

Special Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,

August 1997, NCJ 156921.

24. See Puente, Maria, “Legislators Tackling

the Terror of Stalking: But Some Experts Say

Measures Are Vague,” USA Today, July 21,

1992: A9.

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Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

Patricia Tjaden, Ph.D., and Nancy

Thoennes, Ph.D., are with the Denverbased Center for Policy Research.

This research was supported by grant

number 93–IJ–CX–0012, awarded to

the Center for Policy Research by the

National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and

sponsored jointly by NIJ and the

Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC).

The authors thank Lois Mock at NIJ

and Linda Saltzman at the CDC for

their advice and support in completing

this project. The authors also thank

anonymous reviewers and Steven

Leadbetter and Marcie-jo Kresnow,

mathematical statisticians at the

CDC, who provided helpful comments

on drafts of this report.

NCJ 172837

The National Institute of Justice is a component

of the Office of Justice Programs, which also

includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the

Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention,

and the Office for Victims of Crime.

Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the authors and do not

necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or the U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services.